Jie Aug2012

R.N.
26915/75 ISSN 0972-5628
Journal of
Indian
Education
Volume XXXVIII Number 2 August 2012
The Journal of Indian Education is a quarterly periodical published every year in
May, August, November and February by the National Council of Educational
Research and Training, New Delhi.
The purpose is to provide a forum for teachers, teacher-educators,
educational administrators and research workers; to encourage original and
critical thinking in education through presentation of novel ideas, critical
appraisals of contemporary educational problems and views and experiences
on improved educational practices. The contents include thought-provoking
articles by distinguished educationists, challenging discussions, analysis
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Raj Rani
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JOURNAL OF
INDIAN
EDUCATION
CONTENTS
Editors Note 3
Changing Times Demand Change MADHAV CHAVAN 5
Experiments in Teacher Education M. SEN GUPTA 20
Attitudes of Teachers towards Teaching RACHNA JAIN 26

Profession Trained through Formal
and Distance Mode
Effect of Professional Development R.K. PARUA 46

Programme on the Attitudes of Pre-service
Teachers towards Students with Special Needs
Educational Issues of Children of the TULIKA DEY AND 58

Tiwa Community of Assam: MANAB DEKA
A Statistical Interpretation
Village Education Committees in KRISHNA KANT TRIPATHI AND 67

Uttar Pradesh: Structure and Member Profile ANJALI BAJPAI
The Relationship between Students MBUTHAI NGUNJIRI AND 81

Motivation to Learn and Teachers Self-efficacy P.N. SINGH
in Mathematics among Secondary School
Students in Kenya
2
5E Model in Science Classroom ANIL KUMAR JAIN AND 89

a Shift towards Constructivism SHWETA BHARDWAJ
Teaching-learning in EVS through KAVITA SHARMA AND 102

Integrated Approach in Early Grades LEISANGTHEM BINITA DEVI
perceptions and Awareness of Teachers
Comparative Study of Environmental BILQUES SHAIR AND 113

Education in Adolescents and RUKHSANA AKHTER
Higher Education Students
Middle School Students Ideas about Energy SAURAV SHOME AND 121
and Its Flow through Organisms CHITRA NATARAJAN
EDITORS NOTE
At the time of independence our country inherited a system of education which

was struggling with the problems of equity, equality and quality. We have made
substantial progress and have created a large system of education over the years
to address these issues and challenges. However, quality is still a major challenge
and we are still not able to provide education of equitable quality to all children.
The present issue of JIE includes articles and research papers related to systemic
and curricular issues and reforms in the area of school education and teacher
education.
The issue begins with the written text of a memorial lecture delivered by
Madhav Chavan. He strongly feels that we cannot improve the educational system
simply by expanding it. Instead, we have to create a new system gradually, which
not only meets the demands of the present society, but has a futuristic vision as
well.
Articles contributed by M. Sen Gupta, Rachna Jain and R.K Parua reflect
the systemic issue of teacher education. The research-based paper of Tulika Dey
and Manab Deka analysed some of the educational issues of children of a tribal
community of Assam.
As recommended by National Policy on Education (NPE-86), community
participation is made an essential condition for effective management of
elementary education at grass root level. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and
Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 calls for community ownership of school
based intervention through effective decentralisation which has to be augmented
by active involvement of Village Education Committees (VEC) members, womens
group and members of Panchayati Raj institutions. Krishna Kant Tripathi and
Anjali Bajpais paper reveals that the participation of VEC members in primary
schools of some of the sampled villages of Uttar Pradesh is not satisfactory.
A large number of school children still have a sense of fear and failure regarding
Mathematics. Mathematics teachers have lack of confidence, preparation and
support for its effective transaction. Mbuthia Ngunjiri and P.N Singh in their
research study found that self efficacy of students in mathematics motivated
them to learn mathematics and mathematics teachers should make an attempt to
enhance the level of motivation of students, especially girls.
4
The National Curriculum Framework-2005 advocates that during the process

of learning, learners actively construct their own knowledge by connecting new
ideas to existing ideas. This process requires a shift in the existing environment of
our classrooms. Anil Kumar Jain and Shweta Bhardwaj in their paper elaborate the
use of 5E model in Science classroom which is based on constructivist approach.
Environmental education is an integral component of the entire educational
system right from the beginning of schooling. In primary classes environmental
concerns are addressed using integrated approach in teaching learning process.
Kavita Sharma and Leisangthem Binita Devi in their paper conclude that the
primary school teachers still lack awareness and skills about using integrated
approach in transacting curriculum of Environmental Studies, Language and
Mathematics. Bilques Shair and Rukhsana Akhtar compared the level of awareness
and use of environmental knowledge to solve environmental problems, among
adolescent and higher education learners.
The issue concludes with a study conducted by Saurav Shome and Chitra
Natarajan which involves developing a course on Energy and Environment for
middle school students using a variety of activities specifically designed to highlight
and resolve conceptual conflicts between students existing understandings.
Academic Editor
Changing Times Demand Change*
MADHAV CHAVAN**
Abstract
A country has to grapple with problems inherited from the past, issues that
it needs to address in the present and those that are important to shape the
future. In the developing world, as in India, the accumulated burden of the
past is a major hindrance in the shaping of the future. This burden is visible
in indicators such as poverty, illiteracy or lack of education, or malnutrition,
or lack of infrastructure. But the thoughts and systems that we inherit can be
an unseen burden that constantly creates bottlenecks. The phrase thinking
outside the box is used very often, but when it comes to actual implementation,
we are slaves to our past which pushes us back inside the box. The word
past used to refer to centuries at one time. Now, with rapidly changing
communication technologies, often five years seems to be a long time ago. In
India too, the pace of change has quickened perceptibly, whether we like it or
not. There was a time when the Indian mind was used to status quo. Today,
there is impatience for change of one kind or another, and in one direction
or another. How can we address challenges of education in this quick-paced
change? What kind of systems do we need to ensure that we are not trapped
in the burden of the past?
Shri Kapil Sibal, Honble Minister education, secondary education,

for Human Resource Development, vocational skilling, college education,
declared that inclusion, expansion research and knowledge development.
and excellence were going to be the Total number of children and people to
principles of his ministry direction in be covered in this is roughly 65 crore,
addressing the problems of education in or two-thirds of Indias population,
India. Broadly speaking, the tasks are including the 20 crore adult illiterates,
early childhood education, elementary about 12 crore children in the
* Written text of Zakir Hussain Third Memorial Lecture delivered on 28 January 2011 at RIE, Mysore
by Professor Madhav Chavan.
** CEO and President of Pratham Education Foundation
6 Journal of Indian Education August 2012
0-6 age category, 20 crore children initiatives that have taken a departure
in the elementary school age group, from the former ITI only approach.
about 6 crore in the 14-16 age group, We are learning in this field and these
and another 6 crore in the 16-20 age learnings should become applicable in
group. Out of these, at least half fall in other sectors too.
the category of under-privileged, who I share some stray thoughts here.
need active help. I recently met a young man who has
While the numbers are massive started helping farmers understand
and larger than most countries in best agricultural practices by watching
the world, let us understand that we videos of what other farmers in the
have also created an equally massive nearby area are doing, and discussing
system over the years to meet the the lessons. This work does not use
challenge. Aanganwadis in every textbooks, but it spreads knowledge.
habitation, primary school within one It does not use highly educated
km of every habitation, and an upper university professors. Expert farmers
primary school within two kms of most share their knowledge with others,
habitations. There are institutions giving rise to more experimentation
created to support all this work till and learning. Here there are no film
cluster level. But, we have a major institute graduates to make the videos.
problem in being able to impart quality A small video camera is used by local
learning at all levels. Also, there are youths who have a two-month on-the-
big access gaps in secondary education, job training. The videos are shown in
vocational education and tertiary villages on a small handheld projector,
education. which is the size of a cell phone. The
There too, we have structures such farmers are learning from one another.
as open schools, boards of examination, A new structure is evolving for learning
school departments, colleges, open because the formal structures have
universities, universities, and so on. failed or have not reached them.
So, is it a question of simply The project operated by young Rikin
expanding these services and Gandhi started as a pilot project in
improving them? Karnataka, and has spread to over 400
Let me suggest that, perhaps, all villages in eight states in a short span
these old structures will not serve of three years.
the needs of the future, and we need There are about five crore
to create something new. There is a young people in our country who
need to dismantle old structures and want to complete secondary school
create new mechanisms. Perhaps not certification, since without it they
immediately, but we must start looking cannot access higher levels of learning.
for solutions so that we do not say They cannot get secondary education
after five years that we must live with because there is no access to a school.
the structures we have. The relatively Why should they wait for a school to
open territory of vocational skilling be opened in the vicinity? Do they
has been opened up to completely new need to go to a day school? There is
Changing Times Demand Change 7
a National Open School and it can Or, do we want compulsorily free

certainly be promoted. However, most education. True, no child should be
young people who have been deprived deprived of schooling and discriminated
of secondary school certification would against if his parents cannot or do not
like to have what they consider a proper pay fees. But why should people not
certification that the market respects be encouraged to pay in cash or kind
at least to some extent. Perhaps, the even if not as a regular payment? Most
government should start a programme people in India are of the opinion that
to assist these large number of youth services given free lose their value and
who are deprived or are certain to be quality. This also includes the poor.
deprived for lack of secondary schools. In fact, even a token contribution is
Like what was done in Madhya Pradesh more empowering to the parent than
to start primary schools, why not let many other measures. Our surveys
these students identify a teacher who indicate that large number of parents
will be paid on a per student basis, who send their children to government
as the student clears assessments schools also send their children for
in stages of say, three months. private tuitions. Is this not an obvious
This mechanism of payment upon contradiction?
passing the course has already been There is a huge difference between
introduced in the vocational training something being given free and
sphere. Why wait to build schools and something being freely available. The
train teachers when we know that we government is giving free education
need a huge workforce and urgently? in schools. But, it is available in a
We know that there is a large number structured fashion within structures
of young people engaged in tutoring and not freely available. What about
children. Many of them can become learning that is freely available in
knowledge providers. I am deliberately the society outside the school? A
avoiding the noun teacher. Is this not person can choose what he wants and
possible? Or, is it just not acceptable to possibly according to his convenience.
the establishment including education It is not what is prescribed by the
experts? structures and may not be free of cost,
I am not saying that we do not but it could be more useful. We need
need proper schools. But, is a school to be aware that times are moving
needed to pass the secondary school from the era of education being given
certification examination? free to it becoming freely available
We have passed a law for free as the number of educated people in
and compulsory education that now the society is increasing, and modern
prevents government-run or aided technology is making practically free
schools from charging any kind of fees. access to knowledge possible.
Suppose, if parents feel that they should I want to suggest that the structures
contribute what they can to the school, of education we have created, or
would that be against the law? Do we transplanted, from other societies
want free and compulsory education? have become ineffective. On the
other hand, there is a new energy in train people in maintaining the public
India, and there is a great demand for properties in their villages? Why
education. People are finding their own not skill them in construction and
ways to learn and move forward. The handling machines rather than giving
government and those with resources them just unskilled manual work? We
should create and support more open extended a scheme that was created in
mechanisms for learning rather than Maharashtra during 1973-75, thanks
extending old structures, especially to an extended statewide famine and
beyond the elementary stage of a strong movement to demand work.
learning, so that the structures do not So much has changed since then, but
become a hindrance. The Knowledge many of the people who were young
Commission has already suggested then, and worked on famine relief
setting up libraries. But the idea has works breaking stones and digging
not found serious support. Why? ditches are still doing the same work
Creating good public libraries is one even in their old age in some parts of
important step in making knowledge the state.
freely available. I am aware that many will not agree
My organisation, Pratham, is with me. My intention is to challenge
working on adult literacy pilots at your imagination today. Einstein is
some NREGA projects. We recognised quoted as saying, We cannot solve
that although a large majority of the problems by using the same kind of
workers, especially women, at these thinking we used when we created
sites in Rajasthan are illiterate, there them. Of course, we can argue with
are also a large number of young men Einstein.
and women who are educated up
to high school or secondary school. Are You a Slave?
Some are even college students. So, There is a simple quotation from
we have made computer trainers out Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar that has
of the educated NREGA workers, who intrigued me for many years. The
teach computer to the secondary English translation of the Marathi
school educated workers, who, in quote goes something like this: Make
turn, teach five adult illiterates each in a slave aware of his slavery and he will
their village. We find that the literacy rise in rebellion. Simple enough?
acquisition rate is very good with over In my training programmes in the
40 per cent of women having learned nineties with a group of adult literacy
to read reasonably well in about three workers and some neoliterate women
months. Besides, everyone involved in Mumbai, I began asking the young
in the project is learning something activists a simple follow up question.
new. What if this learning time was Does a slave not know that he is a
compensated at the normal NREGA slave? I mean, he does know that
rates as a part of the programme? This someone owns him or he is bonded to,
is not allowed in the scheme. Why and not a man of free will. Does he not?
not use NREGA as an opportunity to The answer from the audience, as I am
sure from some of the readers would by our own existence and often do not
be, yes. The slave does know that he is see beyond it. We know through history
a slave and someone is his owner. how man changed his perception of the
Then there was another follow earth from flat to a sphere. Now we are
up question. Well, in that case, what asking ourselves questions about the
does Dr Ambedkar mean by make shape and size of the universe, and
him aware of his slavery. Should we will not take one fixed notion as yet.
sit down with him and tell him that Humanity, although not necessarily
he is a slave? But, he knows, he is large numbers of human beings, has
a slave. Does he not? At this point I learned that we need to rise above the
would start talking to the neoliterate day-to-day perceptions to understand
women about their day. They said they reality, so that we can act upon it.
woke up early to fetch water. Then Some call it thinking outside the box.
they got busy preparing to cook. The
children had to be readied for school. A Box Called School
Eventually, the husband woke up and We know it is neither easy nor common
he had to be given his tea and nashta. to think outside the box. The young
Your husband does not help you?, I ones can easily do so because they are
would ask. The answer came quickly, not burdened with experience, which is
How can he? He is a man, after all. another name for bias. As we get older
At this time, with a small pause, the and more experienced, we get more
class would burst out laughing and biased and our minds get blocked to
applauding. new possibilities. Also, it is important
The fact is that a slave does not to realise that there is not just one
know he is a slave. He has accepted box to think out of. A person may
a belief system based on what he think out of box in one context and
has experienced, heard and seen. A yet in another he may be comfortable
different life possible is not something with his existence inside another.
that occurs to the slave. Making the Our mind seems to be split into
slave aware of his slavery, I think, various boxes relating to our various
means making him see that life can experiences. Great thinkers, scientists,
be different. Every social reformer revolutionaries and reformers have
and political revolutionary essentially been guilty of being conservative in
showed us that a different life was one aspect of their life while breaking
possible, which the relevant society barriers in another. We may think
had not even thought of. outside one box and feel good, but we
Once you agree that a slave does may be still inside another box. So, in
not know he is a slave. I must ask, thinking about the nature of things or
are you a slave? If your answer is an in changing reality, it is important to
emphatic No!, I shall ask you to think consider various points of view, the
again. After all, a slave does not know evidence in support of each, and arrive
he is a slave. I think it is important for at working hypotheses that help us
us to acknowledge that we are bound to act. When studying nature, since
the basic reality remains the same, Such a school was once seen as
the study is relatively simpler, and a necessity and a need. Today, it is
allows building upon old hypotheses a habit and habits are difficult to
or theories, unless some new facts change. Once upon a time, when
come to light that demand abandoning there were no schools, what did the
of old theories in favour of new. This children do all day? While the school
has happened a few times over the last is a place where children are taught, it
half of the last millennium. But when also keeps children engaged away from
studying a society or natures interface home, and away from streets, in safety.
with a society, one has to be mindful It is a place where children socialise
of the changing social contexts, which in relatively large groups. They learn
create new facts quite frequently, and to negotiate with peers. It gives free
it is necessary to act on these facts time to parents, especially mothers. A
for which we may have to create new school is believed to help keep children
hypotheses. When this context is largely out of trouble, and disciplining
changing rapidly, as in todays India, it even regimenting them so that they
is even more important to be sensitive submit to the general norms of the
to changing realities. Relying on society while contributing to it.
existing models, theories and ideas can Clearly, the school has many
be ineffective, wasteful and sometimes benefits beyond its role of educating
even counterproductive. children. This helps in maintaining
An educationist in the United States, the habit, generation after generation.
now in his late eighties, observed some We are slaves to this model of
years ago in a conversation that our schools, and cannot think of another
world has changed so much over the that can take its place. In fact, we
recent centuries, but the basic model think of one school being better than
of what a school should be has not another, but we still need it to be a
undergone a change. This is a simple school. In the West, conscientious
yet fascinating observation. There objectors to the system of education
have been different ways of transferring have created home-schooling models.
knowledge from one generation to the In many countries such as Australia,
next over millennia, but the current where providing access to sparsely
model of a school where several populated hamlets or even individual
children are taught by one teacher in homes separated by long distances
a classroom, where they meet daily, is a problem, distance education
has not changed fundamentally since models are in place, where parents or
it came into being about three hundred neighbours play a central role. These
years ago. The scalable, replicable are seen as exceptions. But could they
mass nature of the school model, its hold the elements of future education
economics and the simple logistical facilities?
convenience it offers for knowledge The possibilities created by
transfer is still what allows it to information and communication
continue without change. technology are unique to this century
and millennium as never before in the standards of certification? Or, should

history of mankind. Policy-makers in we create processes of learning that
most countries, including India, have are more efficient? Should we stop
recognised this. The result is that testing? Or create testing that is less
everyone wants to put computers and stressful and yet more useful? Perhaps
other related equipment in schools. not every individual needs to study
But, there is no evidence that any of everything at school? Clearly, a child
the policy-makers or the business should be enabled early in his life to
interests, have stopped to think of access knowledge and learn anything
the true revolutionary potential of the as and when possible, and as and
new and still evolving technology, in when required. The idea of a learning
reforming the whole sector of education. society has been talked about for quite
There is enough happenings in the some time. Today, as never before, it
society that points at what is possible. is possible to create mechanisms for
But, there is no challenging the basic learning that go beyond childhood and
school model. If resources allow, we youth.
would like to put modern technology in There is no doubt that every child
an old model, and expect it to perform has a right to education. But, let us
better. The idea of student-centred ask ourselves if that means the child
teaching has been taking roots but the should be compelled to go to a place
central theme is that children learn called school for a certain number
in the classroom a curriculum and a of hours to learn what is prescribed
syllabus that is decided somewhere from only a specific person, or group
far away from the school. It is widely of persons the society recognises as
acknowledged outside the policy and in teachers? I believe open education,
academic debates that children learn a which is an alternative system today,
lot more outside the classroom these should and will become the norm of
days, than inside the classroom. In tomorrow.
fact there is so much they need to learn
today that a linear, graded, syllabus- Technology Revolution Leads to
controlled approach to teaching may Change in Structures
be a waste of time already. I cannot claim a great deal of knowledge
Notice that we have started talking of history or economics, but it seems
of reducing the burden of studies, to me that we need to understand the
which usually means reduce the pages period of the Industrial Revolution, in
of textbook to be learned and make order to guide ourselves as we undergo
examinations easy or simply abolish change similar in nature, but in a
them. The amount of knowledge completely different era.
available has increased a thousand The Industrial Revolution created
fold today. The need for higher tools that forced the individual and
level skills is more than ever today. the fragmented local processes into
Should we cut down the amount to be integrated socialised processes. The
studied early on? Should we dilute the composite factories broke down
the total process of manufacture of mirrored all other changes that

goods into pieces, and re-integrated were happening in the society. With
it under one roof for commodity systematisation came standardisation.
production. The scattered villages Variety and diversity lost out to uniform
where the artisans lived depleted education because the new model was
or disappeared in favour of larger clearly more suitable to educate the
and complex industrial centres. The masses to be able to participate in
railways, the composite factories, and the changing economic and social life.
the assembly lines are representatives The education system also carried the
of the Industrial Revolution in many mass-production stamp of the era.
ways. While it democratised certain Before the printing press, transfer
societies and revolutionised their of knowledge and ideas required
production, the political and economic transportation of people from one place
history of domination, exploitation to another, or at least a person to person
and colonisation continued. It contact. The press not only made
became stronger until a whole wave mass transfer of knowledge possible,
of freedom movements, social reform but it also limited the requirement of
movements and socialist revolutions knowledge seekers moving from one
started challenging domination at all place to another for the first time.
levels around the world. It is easy to It also made access to knowledge
criticise the failed revolutions, but possible for anyone who could afford
their historical role in pushing the and read books. Later, public libraries
cause of greater freedom for mankind were created in large numbers to open
just cannot be ignored. It is a historical doors of knowledge further. Knowledge
fact that mighty empires were defeated could now be available at a persons
around the world. doorstep, but availability of those who
Until the Industrial Revolution, can deliver knowledge effectively was
knowledge transfer was largely limiting. The new era created a need for
individualised, decentralised, local a professional teacher and the need for
and scattered just like the production teacher training. A specialist was born
process. Yet, knowledge of powerful for school education. Interestingly, for
economic tools beginning in ancient tertiary education, a similar need for
times with fire, animal husbandry, training how to teach was apparently
the plow, fibres, metals and alloys, never felt.
weapons, fuels and currency Until the technology to make paper
transferred from society to society and print affordably was created,
separated by thousands of miles. the true potential of printing was
Knowledge that disappeared in one not realised. New printing abilities
declining society suddenly appeared in made literacy and education on large
another after centuries and flourished. scale possible in Europe, and growing
The process of education too literacy helped printing more books.
became more organised into systems Libraries, learning societies and other
over a period of time. The changes forms supportive of learning arose
outside schools and universities. This, exploitative labour. The example of

in turn, along with widespread need Sunday schools shows that initially
for skilled and knowledgeable people, the need to educate the children of
led to transformation of Europe from the poor was felt by philanthropists,
illiterate to educated societies over but they continued working during
a century. the week. Later, as setting up of
The role played by supporting regular schools became possible, the
structures cannot be ignored in idea of banning child labour grew and
India where we seem to concentrate became universally acceptable. In fact,
on opening schools and appointing children working for wages gradually
teachers. It is said that it takes a became socially unacceptable. A whole
whole village to educate a child. But, new concept of the child and childhood
the school shuts out all the village took shape.
resources which can help. Teachers Creation and evolution of schools
and textbooks make education. Why happened along with the changes in
should we not systematically have the society but not without conscious
village artisans, farmers, poets, intervention of social and political
musicians come to school as guest thinkers all over Europe. The social
teachers for a payment? It will cause movements for education developed
less than a monthly salary of one the thinking about education that
teacher. shaped policies.
Children working alongside their We need to recognise that social
parents in farms had been going movements are necessary to improve
on for ages. But, some of the new education.
industries used this old tradition for In Indian history too we find that
inhuman exploitation of children. For every social reformer and political
a long period, this was also justified as thinker promoted widespread
apprenticeship. Zari sweatshop owners education. In fact, under Gandhijis
in India, and possibly other urban leadership, people dedicated to the
child labour users, routinely use the education of the masses started
term hunar sikhana and shagirdi to schools in whatever way they could
justify child labour. Many middle-class during freedom movement. Many of
homes feel good that they bring an these contributed to the development
underprivileged child from the village of education sector in a big way in
to look after their own children, or to post-independence India.
do odd jobs while they attend night However, as governments took
schools or nothing at all. Of course, charge of school education, it became
the children of upper and middle bureaucratised. This is true not only
classes are not subjected to this. The in India but almost in every country
European society too had dual norms including the developed ones. Central
for the poor and the rich. It took controls became dominant over the
almost a century to create a new social core of education that has to do
norm of keeping all children away from with the individual interaction of the
educator and the learner. Today, there that is underway, thanks to the new
are attempts being made to bring technology.
constructivist pedagogy in our schools.
But, if the model itself is that of mass The New Technology
production with central controls that Mass production in big manufacturing
undermine the autonomy of the school units and mass transport on rails or
and the teacher, how can we expect it to in steamships symbolise the Industrial
become sensitive to the creative aspects Revolution. I like to think that this
of education? On the other hand, given was largely the era of centralisation of
that there is a shortage of trained everything, and mechanisation and
teachers capable of being good and socialisation of human activities that
responsible educators, the tendency were largely individual or were at the
of not giving freedom and autonomy most conducted in small units until
seems justified. then. It was also an era of order and
It seems to me that there is organisation. The order helped, but it
recognition that decentralised was in direct conflict with individual
autonomous schools that allow creative freedom and spontaneity. Various
freedom to teachers are necessary for authoritarian ideologies and societies
good education. At the same time we arose which openly curbed individual
are slaves to the habit of centralisation. freedom and justified their actions
The justification of centralisation and as being good for the society. I think
controlling is that if the schools are this was also a product and reflection
not controlled, many things can go of the change in the economy. This
wrong. It is a justification that cannot era created democratic nations in
be ignored. place of kingdoms in Europe, but
The habit of concentration and the strength and the hunger for
centralisation was born in a period concentrated power and exploitation
when there were few educated continued. The tendency to enslave and
people. Education must necessarily dominate colonies grew worse in direct
need greater democratisation and conflict with the new nations internal
decentralisation of power. governance philosophies. By the end of
This is why reform is necessary. the nineteenth century, a revolt against
Simply expanding the system and then empires and colonial rules began to
attempting to improve it will not do. brew world over. As the empires fought
Vested interests are not always of the to share the colonies, the colonies saw
exploitative villains. Sometimes, these revolutions and freedom movements.
are interests of old ways of thinking In early twentieth century the Ford
justified by prevailing circumstances. assembly line was born in which the
As the American educationist I domination of the machine over man
referred to said, our basic model of was complete, but it was also a great
schools has not changed, and it is time landmark on how to improve productivity
that it undergoes change to reflect the of human endeavour so that many more
social and economic transformation people experience greater freedom.
It seems to me that the model of a The idea of using mechanical

school was perfected in keeping with devices to calculate is over 2,000
the mass approach and centralisation years old. Programming machines to
principles. It spread to the colonies compute or to perform pre-determined
too. It was effective for its purpose. tasks began in the nineteenth century.
Automobiles, aeroplanes, telegraph But, in the 1970s when personal
and telephones followed by radio computers made their appearance and
and television created a new world computers got linked with satellites for
altogether in the post-World War II communication, a total new era began
era. There are good technological to explode and it is still exploding.
reasons, I suppose, why automobiles We have seen a single channel black
and aeroplanes could not become and white television, being replaced by
commercially viable before the colour television. Now we have direct-
railways. But these developments also to-home devices for a price. Those who
represent greater individual freedom, control the satellites control the waves
which began to spread. New nations and the costs. Although you can have
were born out of the former colonies many channels for a price, the content
and began to find their feet. For the comes in a chronological order. You
first time, a major power called the can flip channels but the programming
socialist countries stood in opposition is decided by the channel owners
to the colonisers. Mans quest of supposedly based on what viewers like.
unlimited energy led us to weapons of The personal computer and now the
mass destruction that threatened the internet have broken the bottlenecks
destruction of humanity if used. This and linearity of access rules.
in a way was the expression of extreme The difference between the school
concentration of power and what it can and the library is that one provides
do. free but structured and controlled
The concentration of power came learning while the other provides free
directly in conflict with humanity and access to knowledge that is stored.
every individual in it. The computer, and its extension, the
The post-World War II era gave internet are nothing but an unlimited
birth to the era of satellites. Rocketry library. The possibilities of access to
had been growing for armies. It became knowledge are only limited by how
applicable in the commercial domain. much content is uploaded on the
Since we are meeting in Mysore, it is internet and the speed of your internet
appropriate to recall that Haider Ali connection. Efforts to set a price for the
and Tipu Sultan, both rulers of Mysore general content have never succeeded.
are credited with the development of A huge body of knowledge is available
solid fuel rocketry, which the British for free, and it is growing.
took to England after Tipus death in I do not want to go into a long
1799, and developed it further. It took discussion on the virtues of the
us another hundred and fifty years to internet, but it is interesting to note
set up our own rocketry programme. that while the desire to make a profit
out of knowledge is strong, there is The second and most recent

another growing tendency to pass on example is the Khan Academy, which
knowledge at no cost. We have already is directly related to what possibilities
seen two massively rich people, Bill are opened by the internet for learning.
Gates and Warren Buffet, declaring A young man called Salman Khan,
that all their wealth will be given away born in the US in 1977 of Bengali
to not-for-profit work to improve life on parents from Bangladesh and India,
earth. They are appealing to others like started teaching his cousin over the
them to do the same. New models have internet and soon made his lessons
come up led by Google, where content available on the internet, on You Tube,
is available for free but the revenue free of cost. Today, his Khan Academy,
to Google comes from advertising. In which is a freely available library of
many ways, your newspaper also does lessons in math, science and history,
the same thing. The token one rupee is accessed around the world free of
you pay is not where the profit comes cost. The website says over 13 million
from, it is the advertising. lessons have been delivered so far.
There are two major examples Now a project to translate the courses
of knowledge and content becoming in a variety of languages has been
available for free. One through undertaken. It is expected that the
cooperative efforts and one through Khan Academy will keep on growing.
individual efforts. Wikipedia is the There are some obvious limitations
cooperative effort example where to this access today, but let us not
someone uploads some content and a forget that when Rajiv Gandhi spoke
host of others add, edit and comment. of a computer revolution in mid-80s,
The readers are also warned that the many laughed at him. Let us not
content is not authenticated but it is forget that we thought cell phones
available if you want to edit it. There were expensive ten years ago and
were about 1.2 million contributors today more than 60 per cent Indian
to this free encyclopaedia worldwide households have them. The services
in September 2010. These are provided over cell phone now include
people who have written or edited short lessons, examinations and so on.
at least ten times since they joined The interesting thing is that this
the cooperative effort. Out of these half huge body of knowledge is available
are in English language. The Indian freely and free of cost. Anyone who
language contributors are in Hindi, has an understanding of basic reading
Tamil, Marathi, Bengali and are under and math can start anywhere and end
five hundred in a descending order. up wherever his quest takes him. It
Why can we not create our own is copyright to those who want to give
language Wikipedia? Or, should we it free of cost. That means no one can
finally decide that all knowledge will restrict this knowledge flow by using
be and should be available freely only it for profit or revenues. If you want
in English. This is an obstacle that we to give it to others, you must give it
can overcome. free.
Who would have thought that in children and youth. Teaching others
the middle of a world full of greed and what we know will become a common
scams this would become possible? social activity. This will provide the
But, I learnt from Karl Marx that key resource for teaching in future.
the world progresses in dialectical In some countries people are required
ways. Every process has internal to do a military duty, in ours it will
contradictions that lead to the end of be considered an important social
the old and the birth of the new and obligation to teach children. Some
although history seems to repeat itself, youth who are pursuing higher studies
the motion is not just circular, it is will be required to do this voluntary
helical as human society goes to higher work.
levels with every turn. I have seen a government school
Learning has come a full circle from in Bihar, where educated people of the
being individual, diverse, varied and village take turns to teach the children.
dispersed in small units for a few. It This is not as difficult as it sounds.
went to a mass and organised model in The school will be more like a library
keeping with the times. Now, in the era where in one area the tiny tots will
of personal freedom, is mass education play and learn to read, write, estimate,
not possible in individual, diverse, learn about shapes, and build little
creative and dispersed mode? things with their own hands. They will
Why do we need centrally have a teacher who cares and knows
structured syllabi? Why schools and their lives individually. By the time
colleges in their current form? This is they are eight, they will all learn to
not a rhetorical question. It is a serious read, understand and ask questions.
question. They will have plenty of books with
The question perhaps should be nice pictures all in their mother tongue
what sort of institutions of learning but they will also learn a bit of English.
do we need? It is time to redefine our There will be no standards, and it will
institutions of education, at least after all be one continuum and children will
a child has learned to read and write. leave this continuum after they have
The world is going to change. Let us learned basics of reading and writing.
not doubt that. The question is how we They will have audio-visual devices on
are going to change with it. which they can play whatever videos
they want but there will be a full time
Let us Imagine teacher and a local volunteer who will
I imagine that about 5-10 per cent help them make different choices and
educated and skilled people who show them what is available.
have occupations other than teaching There are multi-year, multi-grade,
will decide to set aside time to teach multi-level classes today in our schools.
children. Some will do it daily, others All we need is breaking away from
weekly; some will find a couple of the textbooks and grades, and focus
months a year and their employers on basic reading, writing, thinking,
will give them leave to teach speaking, working with hands, and
understanding of quantities, shapes so can village painters, or a kabaddi

and patterns. They will learn to use player or a wrestler. They will spot
the computer and the internet, with talent and recommend them to higher
adequate safety measures. skill trainers.
The cost of equipment required will In urban India today, there are
be less than the salary of a teacher many projects working where educated
within the next five years. But, it will young people give time to teach
be important to appoint only teachers children. As the level of education
who know how to do the job, and the rises, this trend will grow but
volunteers will help. it needs to be harnessed with viable
The children in the 8-12 age groups mechanisms. The society not the
will be mentored by a group of local government alone needs to accept
volunteer teachers who will show them this. There is an upsurge of interest in
how things work, and help them work arts, athletics and sports. The number
with their hands. They will come for of people skilled in these is growing.
a few hours to the schoola library For children above 12, there will
with multi-media access to junior be recognised master educators or
Khan Academylike content and the master skill trainers who will be
net under the guidance of a learning licensed to teach children in subjects.
manager. They will design projects and Lessons will be available in video and
execute them. They will read books, audio archives for children to see. The
either on the computers or in hard children will work on subjects or topics
copies and learn to discuss what they of their interest and go in depth in
have read. subjects or topics of their choice with
They will go to educated men and the help of these master educators who
women in their community to learn themselves will be well-versed in the
about poetry, math, science, history or subjects. They may have other jobs, but
whatever they choose, and supplement an accountant could certainly teach
their interaction with what they have history if he gets a master educator
in the library. Perhaps some will qualification to teach history.
prefer to spend time with the local Children will be able to appear
potter or the carpenter. Remember, for any examination any time of the
educated and skilled people will have year. Different organisations will offer
volunteered time to teach. They will examinations on different specialised
also be prepared to teach. subjects. For example, a Science
There will be sports, athletics and Society, or a Geography Society can
arts clubs which will be mandatory to conduct certificate examinations on
attend for children. They may choose any topics of science.
what they want to learn but teachers Online examinations with
of athletics, sports and arts including broadband facilities are already
fine arts and performing arts will be available. It is possible for a student
available on a per pupil payment. A to sit face to face with the examiner
village drummer can be a teacher and on camera and be interviewed. There
will be no monopoly of a single Board. work, submit their work plan, and apply
Schools will not be affiliated to any to appear for various examinations.
Boards. A village student will be able They will be appointed apprentices in
to appear for elite examinations if he an area connected with their study as
wishes to. Anyone above 14 will be able they learn.
to join a tertiary education programme. Professors will give time to meet
Background is no barrier. students in groups and individually to
I recently met a renowned French be paid for these consultations. Class
architect who was a carpenter. In the attendance will not be compulsory.
course of his work he was mentored When a Professor is lecturing, his
by an architect. Without going through lectures will be telecast live on the
a university, he is now an established internet and also made available in
architect who loves to design and make archives for students to access.
furniture with his own hands. I have let my imagination go. But,
Some years ago an auto-rickshaw obviously it has not gone wild enough
driver who had barely completed 4th because I am a product of my times
Standard joined a computer training trying to get outside my box.
centre of Pratham. Something clicked The economic aspects of this whole
inside him and he accelerated to idea cannot be worked out now. I am
complete his 10th Standard and B.A. just relying on the fact that more and
through open schooling. Today, he is a more knowledge is becoming freely
supervisor on a project of the municipal available free of cost. Of course, funds
corporation, and a distance education will be needed. But why let mundane
student of MSW. matters come in way of some healthy
Colleges will be improved dreaming? Once these processes are
socialisation, cultural and sports centres. set in motion, if they are useful, the
That is what they are today anyway society finds the resources. History
minus the sports. They will have plenty gives us enough evidence of this.
of taped lectures and demonstrations by It may take a century, it may
expert professors. Students who want to happen in decades. I believe it will
access tertiary education will plan their happen.
Experiments in Teacher
Education
M. SEN GUPTA*
Abstract
Experiments and innovations become worthwhile exercises when these are
properly documented so that lessons can be drawn to make the system
more effective and responsive to meet the emerging needs. With this in view,
an effort has been made in this article to enlist the experimental teacher
education programmes undertaken in India such that a long term and informed
viewpoint can be developed. This perspective will be useful in professionalising
and diversifying the teacher education programme to produce reflective
practitioners in the years to come. In the Knowledge Age, the system requires
efficient facilitators who can help create intellectually strong, creatively
inclined and quality-conscious workforce. The present day teacher training
system is the weakest link, mainly because of quantitative expansion and its
predominantly theoretical orientation, combined with insufficient duration for
value formation. The author has, therefore, presented some innovative ideas
worth experimenting based on his experience to make the system rigorous,
professional and responsive to the new demands of Knowledge society.
Introduction
The history of Indian education the aspirations of the people. Many
has never before witnessed such of these experiments done earlier
an overwhelming enthusiasm for have been forgotten because of lack
expansion, qualitative improvement of documentation. As a matter of
and readiness for experimentation fact, many worthwhile lessons can
and innovation to produce reflective be drawn from the past experiences,
teachers who can help shape the thereby consolidating the gains and
destiny of the country in accordance avoiding any pitfalls in future. These
with the constitutional goals and experiences need to be analysed on
* KIIT College of Education, KIIT Campus, Sohna Road, Near Bhondsi, Gurgaon- 122102.
Experiments in Teacher Education 21
several dimensions like the duration tissue culture, education and training
of teacher education programme, services and in many other emerging
general as well as specialised teacher areas. We require competent teachers
education models, pedagogy-based who can inculcate in students
or content cum pedagogy-based the necessary values, ethics and
courses and preparation of teachers personality traits. They should also
for academic as well as vocational be able to provide employable skills to
spectrum of studies. While evolution of students. Skill development and skill
teacher education programme for the upgradation as well as multi-skilling
Knowledge Age will require extensive perspectives are essential to keep a
inputs from technological and digital competitive edge in the global market.
world, the basic structures suitable in In todays perspective, general and
Indian context will have to be worked vocational education paradigms have
out keeping in view the experiences to come closer to develop a productive
gained from the experimentations done but enlightened and humane
so far. personality. Creation of a global
As explained in the Report of workforce which is trainable, flexible
National Knowledge Commission, there and quality conscious rests with the
is a dramatic change in the nature teachers. Future teacher education
of the world of work. Globalisation, programmes have to gear up to meet
privatisation and liberalisation have the emerging needs on the one hand
laid new foundations for products and and remain contextual, cost effective
processes of teacher education. In the and continuously transform based on
knowledge age manual and mechanical indigenous experiences, on the other.
jobs will give way to thinking and
knowledge jobs. Youngsters, therefore, Earlier Experimentations
have to be trained for new types of In independent India, experimentation
opportunities available especially in teacher education started as early
in the booming service sector. as in 1961 with the emergence of
These include jobs like medical NCERT at the national level as an apex
transcription, call centre jobs, jobs research and development organisation
related to cyber world viz. e-learning, in the areas of school education and
e-business, multimedia packaging, teacher education. In pursuance of the
computerised photography, video recommendations of the Secondary
conferencing, mobile technology; event Education Commission, the then
management, resorts, spa and parlour Ministry of Education, Government of
management, jobs in entertainment India in collaboration with the Ohio
industry, music industry, sports State University, USA, established
industry, health and fashion industry, four Regional Colleges of Education
food and nutrition industry, hospitality in four regions of the country. These
industry, telecommunication industry, colleges were envisaged as pace-
institutional housekeeping, interior setting teacher education institutions.
decoration, nursery growing, floriculture, Initially, the colleges were meant to
prepare teachers for the Multipurpose the B.Ed. (Vocational) programme of

Scheme recommended by the Mudaliar Ruhelkhund University, an integrated
Commission. The Regional Colleges teacher education programme in
started with a four-year integrated Regional Institute of Education, Mysore
teacher education programme and pre-service teacher education
leading to the degree of Bachelor of programmes in DIETs and SCERTs.
Technical Education (B.Tech.Ed.).
Later, however, three more highly Need for a Change
acclaimed four-year programmes Although four-year teacher education
followed in Regional colleges and programmes have demonstrated a
elsewhere namely B.Sc.B.Ed, a four- significant model over more than
year integrated programme to prepare four decades, these have not yet
Science teachers, B.A.B.Ed., a four- caught the imagination of education
year integrated programme to prepare managements, in general in India.
Social Science and Humanities The success achieved by the students
teachers and recently, a four-year of four-year courses and their
integrated programme of B.El.Ed versatility have amply proved that
(Bachelor of Elementary Education) teacher preparation requires early
has been started in some selected Delhi initiation, longer duration, tailor-made
University and Maharshi Dayanand curriculum, suitable environment, up-
University, Rohtak, colleges to prepare to-date human and material resources
elementary teachers for the system. along with a farsighted and enlightened
The erstwhile Regional Colleges (now management. Young students who
Regional Institutes) also experimented enter the four-year teacher education
with many other innovative teacher programme just after their higher
education programmes like the three- secondary or intermediate and
year teacher education programme gradually imbibe the qualities and
of Diploma in Industrial Arts and characteristics of a teacher through
Crafts and two-year M.Sc.Ed. content cum pedagogy training,
course in Physical and Biological ultimately get shaped into committed,
sciences for producing teachers for competent and conscientious teachers.
the Higher secondary classes. Other It is also an open secret that present day
experiments in innovative teacher teacher training system is the weakest
education programmes include one- link mainly because of quantitative
year specialisd B.Ed. programmes expansion and its predominantly
namely B.Ed. (Agriculture), B.Ed. theoretical orientation combined
(Home Science), B.Ed. (Languages), with insufficient duration. The worst
B.Ed. (Science), B.Ed. (Vocational), etc. affected is the secondary teacher
The products of these courses have education programme popularly
been well received by the mainstream known as B.Ed. programme. With
education system. Recently few more the mushrooming of B.Ed. colleges, it
experiments have been launched to is being treated as the hen that lays
suit the systemic needs, for example, golden eggs.
Fortunately, a significant innovation Further Ideas for Experimentations

in teacher education was suggested It is time that some innovative ideas
by the NCTE in its Teacher Education are considered and experiments are
Framework. They conceptualised an conducted to make the system more
enhanced duration B,Ed. Course of effective and efficient. For example,
two years. It suggested an enriched the ongoing B.Ed. one-year course
curriculum framework for teacher being popular among students and
education with a view to produce managements, that is evident from the
teachers who will have character, number of teacher education colleges
competence, confidence and in each State and pressure from
compassion. The Regional Institutes students for admission, the possible
of NCERT again took the lead and suggestion is that let it continue
introduced the innovation after making with certain systemic modifications.
due preparations. The two-year B.Ed. But, the degree awarded for one-year
programme is running successfully course may be renamed as B.Ed.
in these Institutes since 1997-1998. (Pass). Simultaneously, let there
Researches done by Sen Gupta, be another attractive option made
Kakaria and Chugtai (2002) and Yadav available to students, parents and the
(2010) on the status and efficacy of two- managements. This would be in the form
year B.Ed. programme have indicated of a two-year B.Ed. programme with
empirically the positive difference the an enriched curriculum as suggested
two-year programme has made in the by NCTE for which universities may
attitude and competence of students be persuaded to award the degree of
due to intensive training and extensive B.Ed. (Hons.). Hopefully, sooner than
school exposure. But the fact remains later the two-year Honours programme
that except NCERTs Regional Institutes will become popular with the degree-
no other institution or University in conscious psyche of students and
the country has replicated the well parents. Subsequently, B.Ed. (Pass)
thought out reform. The present one course can be tailored to the needs
year B.Ed. programme, though looks of secondary classes while the B.Ed.
quite robust on paper, turns out to be (Hons.) curriculum can be specifically
dismal at the field level because in effect tailored to senior secondary classes. In
the course turns out to be of eight- fact, the system today badly requires
nine months duration in which stress an advanced degree specially suited
is on pedagogical principles largely to senior secondary classes, in view
in a theoretical framework. Practice of the different specialisations opted
teaching in schools has degenerated by the students and also due to the
into a routine affair. Can such a written emergence of vocational and skill
examination-oriented course produce oriented subjects.
competent, committed and a reflective Another innovative idea worth
teacher is a question that needs to experimenting is the establishment
be debated upon. Further, attitude of separate universities of teacher
formation is a long drawn process. education both at the Centre and at the
State levels on the lines of technological slowly develop into a cadre of teachers
and agricultural universities. This step based in rural areas having specialised
would focus the need and importance of knowledge of rural adolescents.
teacher education within the university In the field of in-service teacher
system. This is also necessary to obviate education as well the situation is
the effect of academic orientation not very rosy. Driven by the need for
of the present university system in continuous training and retraining,
which teacher education becomes yet it has become almost customary to
another option rather than a rigorous organise orientation or refresher courses
professional training programme. for teachers and teacher educators
A specifically directed mandate of with a view to coaxing and cajoling
the said university will allow it to the kingpin for better performance.
address the total system of teacher An in-service training or orientation
education right from the pre-school to programme can have lasting impact
higher education level in a structured only if parallel and simultaneous
and graded manner by establishing inputs are provided into the school
much needed horizontal and vertical system like provision of desired
linkages. Also, teacher education infrastructural facilities, curriculum
courses of varied specialisations reform, efficient systemic management,
and durations can be developed and use of ICT and due recognition of
experimented upon to create a cadre of teachers status. Opportunities for
job-specific professional teachers. An professional growth and a helping
inbuilt mechanism of vertical mobility and innovative institutional ethos are
will ensure professional growth and other requirements for bringing out
onward specialisation both in content the best in a person as a teacher.
and pedagogy for teachers at different In other words the teacher has to be seen
levels. in a total perspective and dealt
Also initiatives need to be taken for accordingly.
developing a cadre of rural teachers.
Just as Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas Conclusion
have been created for nurturing rural We require a new generation of teachers
talents; on similar lines rural teacher nay managers or facilitators who can
education colleges need to be created create intellectually strong, creatively
and based in rural areas with content inclined and versatile workforce. As
cum methodology courses suiting to someone has rightly said You cannot
rural needs and specialisations. These manufacture great teachers but you can
colleges will attract rural talents to the always manufacture great facilitators.
teaching profession. These colleges can In the forthcoming knowledge age
be affiliated to the rural universities. a paradigm shift is required from
The trainees being from the rural areas the authoritarian teaching to joyful
will be well conversant with rural and active, participative, democratic
ethos, needs and limitations. They will learning opportunities. Also, there
not only stay in rural areas but also is a need to re-examine the teacher
education curriculum to humanise to prepare teachers who can befittingly

it to eliminate the inhuman activities face challenges posed by the forces
and incidents. This is more so because of modernisation, globalisation and
to get quick material comfort and consequent rising aspirations. Rich
money, educated youths are taking experimental experiences are available
the path of unsocial acts like cheating, in this country that should be looked
stealing and killing. Teacher education into carefully to evolve parallel or
thus is facing many challenges due alternative models of teacher education
to contemporary socio-economic and that can take care of the needs of the
political compulsions. If we want 21st century in which Indian manpower
to continue our march towards an has to take a leading role for creating
enlightened and humane society, many a peaceful, prosperous and progressive
more possibilities have to be explored society.
REFERENCES
NCERT. 2007. The Reflective Teacher, Guidelines. New Delhi.
SEN GUPTA, M. 2002. Vocational Teacher Education. University News. Vol. 40(31).
August 5-11. New Delhi.
200 . Teacher Training Any Impact University News, Vol. 45(10), arch 5-11.
New Delhi.
V.K. KAKARIA, and I.B. CHUGTAI. 2002. Two- ear .Ed. rogramme An Experiment
in uality Teacher Education. University News. Vol. 40(45). November 11-1 . New
Delhi.
YADAV, S.K. 2010. Innovations in Teacher Education. University News. Vol. 4 (40).
ctober 4-10. New Delhi.
Attitudes of Teachers towards Teaching
Profession Trained through Formal
and Distance Mode
RACHNA JAIN*
Abstract
This study was undertaken with the objective to compare the attitudes of
teachers towards teaching profession who have been trained through formal
and distance mode with respect to type of school and teaching experience.
A standardised attitude scale developed by Goyal (1984) is used profitably
for measuring attitude of teachers towards teaching. The scale consists of 22
items. Ten items are favourable, ten items are unfavourable and the remaining
two are neutral towards teaching. The scale was administered to 75 teachers
trained through distance mode teaching in secondary classes of Delhi schools
to collect the data. There was significant difference in the attitude towards
teaching profession, of government and private school teachers. The private
school teachers have more favourable attitude towards teaching profession as
compared to government school teachers. Though both the groups were trained
through distance mode, less experienced teachers have more favourable attitude
towards teaching profession as compared to more experienced teachers.
Teacher education has acquired With increased specialisation within

recognition as an integral part of the educational system, the need for
our education system. Need for it at differentiation in teacher education
all levels of education is no longer has surfaced, in order to cater to the
a matter of debate. During the past variety of professional needs of more
five decades, the role of teacher specific groups.
has continually evolved, making Teachers themselves also need
it necessary for incumbents to be to be a lifelong learner; to be able to
much more than mere pedagogues. articulate their teaching with the new
* Deputy Director, Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi-110067

Attitudes of Teachers towards Teaching Profession ... 27
paradigm of learning; be adaptive and because of the demographic problems

flexible in dealing with a new brand of a large number of people desiring
of students comprising different education, and shortage of trained
age groups of diverse ethnicity, and teachers after independence. Perraton
with a wide range of prior knowledge (1991), Kulundaiswamy (1993)
and background; and be conversant observed that distance education
with the new technologies which was neither a supplement nor a mere
are developing rapidly at an ever alternative to the conventional system,
increasing speed (Elliott and Morris, but a new stage in the evolution of
2001; Pang, 2001; Tsui and Cheng, education, which recognises the fact
1997). There are many activities that that in many situations it was easier
the teacher has to perform in the to transport knowledge to people,
classroom and outside the classroom, than transport people to the place of
in order to provide the required knowledge. Very few studies have been
learning experiences to the students. conducted in the area of comparison
The focus of the teacher should be of two systems, which has been a
on what we call the pedagogical, i.e., debatable topic with regard to the
the complexity of rational, personal, fundamental function of education and
moral, emotional aspects of teachers teaching training. A comparison of the
everyday acting with children or young two systems of education is essential
people they teach (Van Manen, 2002). for formulating future plans and taking
In teacher education, the systems decisions regarding the crucial aspects
of curriculum transaction have of teacher education programmes in
essentially been of two categories, viz., the country.
the formal (face to face) system and One of the objectives of teacher
distance system. The formal system of education programme is to develop a
education refers to the instructional positive attitude or favourable attitude
interactions in which teachers and towards teaching in prospective
learners transact a curriculum in a teachers.
face-to-face situation. The distance The Education Commission (1966)
system of education, as the term had also pointed out:
indicates, pertains to all kinds of Methods of teaching and
interactions between the teacher and evaluation in training institution are
the learners in which they are not in extremely important and the attitude of
direct contact with one another and the student teacher will be influenced
require a third channel or medium more by the methods used with them,
for contact. These include the print, than by what they are formally taught
audio, video or any other mode. about the methods they should use in
The formal system is the oldest schools.
and the most widely accepted mode The word attitude is defined within
of teacher preparation in India. the framework of social psychology as
The distance mode emerged as an a subjective or mental preparation for
alternative to the formal system mainly action. It defines outward and visible
postures, and human beliefs. Attitudes her environment. According to these

determine what each individual will definitions, attitude can be defined
see, hear, think and do. They are as a response which can be positive
rooted in experience and do not become or negative to any situation, event or
automatic routine conduct. Attitude object. Individuals attitudes towards
means the individuals prevailing their profession have an effect on their
tendency to respond favourably or performance (Hussain et al., 2011).
unfavourably to an object (person or This is the reason why attitude has been
group of people, institutions or events). identified as an important variable for
Attitudes can be positive (values) or the present study. Social psychologists
negative (prejudice). The concept of believe that attitude measurements
attitude is perhaps the most widely serve as a guide to the understanding
discussed topic in social psychology. and prediction of human behaviour
Social psychologists distinguish (Murphy and others, 1960). A good
and study three components of the teacher is expected to be committed to
responses: a) cognitive component, his work and have the ability to take the
which is knowledge about an attitude initiative (Sparks, 1978). A teacher is
object, whether accurate or not; expected not only to master the subject
b) affective component; feelings and various methods of teaching but
towards the object and c) conative also to show that she/he is capable of
or behavioural component, which is selecting the various study materials
the action taken towards the object. according to the teaching goals and
Baysal (1981) defines the attitude as varied group of pupils. She/he also
a cognitive, affective and behavioural possesses the potentials to create a
response which is organised on the learning environment for the students.
basis of experience and knowledge, Vermunt and Verschaffel (2000), Smith
to the individuals himself/herself, (1993) schematises this cause and
or any object or event around his/ effect relationship as follows:
Teachers Attitudes Students Attitude

towards Teaching Teaching and Academic
Profession Achievements
Attitude towards profession means and his/her efforts will be fruitful.

a persons feelings, behaviours and Richardson (1991) narrated that
commitment to the profession or job. education is a nation building activity.
If a teacher is committed and has The quality of education depends upon
positive attitude, then it is sure that ability and efficiency of teachers. Singh
his/her performance will be better and Sharma (1977) found significant
positive relationship between teaching (ii) To compare the attitudes towards

attitude and verbal interaction of teaching profession of government
teachers. Khatoon (1988) revealed that and private school teachers trained
there exists no correlation between through formal mode.
teachers classroom behaviour and (iii) To compare the attitudes towards
attitude towards teaching. Naik and teaching profession of government
Pathy (1997) concluded that female and private school teachers trained
science teachers had significantly through distance mode.
positive attitude towards their teaching
of science than male counterparts. (iv) To compare the attitudes towards
Shakuntala and Sabapathy (1999) teaching profession of government
found that there was a significant school teachers trained through
and positive correlation between formal and distance mode.
adjustment of secondary school (v) To compare the attitudes towards
teachers and their interest in and teaching profession of private
attitude towards teaching profession. school teachers trained through
Attitude of teachers have also been formal and distance mode.
determined to be influenced by gender (vi) To compare the attitudes of more
(Dodeen, et al., 2003). They found that and less experienced teachers
female teachers had more positive towards teaching profession
attitude towards teaching profession trained through formal mode.
as compared to male teachers.
(vii) To compare the attitudes of more
In order to understand the
and less experienced teachers
attitudes of teachers towards teaching
towards teaching profession trained
profession, need was felt to compare
through distance mode.
the teachers trained through both the
systems of teacher preparation (formal (viii) To compare the attitudes of less
and distance mode) while on job. Hence, experienced teachers towards
the investigators attempted to examine teaching profession trained through
and compare the attitudes towards formal and distance mode.
teaching profession of government and (ix) To compare the attitudes of more
private teachers; and their teaching experienced teachers towards
experience trained through formal and teaching profession trained through
distance mode. formal and distance mode.
Objectives of the Study Methodology
The study purports to meet the As per requirement of the problem and
following objectives: keeping the objectives of the study in
(i) To compare the attitudes of mind, survey method was employed to
teachers towards teaching collect the data.
profession trained through formal
and distance mode. Sample
In order to keep the study manageable,
two districts from nine districts of 75 teachers trained through distance

Delhi was selected on the assumption mode and 75 teachers trained through
that it would represent the population. formal mode were selected from these
Two districts, i.e., South and Central 20 schools by administering personal
Delhi were selected in the first stage of data sheet prepared by the investigator.
sampling. The schools in each district Due to administrative difficulties in
were selected from the list prepared by applying randomising procedures,
the Directorate of Education by using the method of purposive sampling
a table of random numbers. In this was selected. The sample drawn from
way, twenty schools (10 government the population of secondary teachers
and 10 private) from the two districts working in Delhi is given in Fig. 1, and
were selected for the second stage of the breakup details of the sample are
sampling. After that, 150 teachers, i.e. given in Table 1.
DELHI
DISTRICTS
SOUTH DISTRICT CENTRAL DISTRICT
SCHOOLS (20)
GOVERNMENT (10) PRIVATE (10)
TEACHERS
DISTANCE TRAINED (75) FORMAL TRAINED (75)
Figure 1 : Sample drawn from the Population of Secondary Teachers working in Delhi
Table 1
The Breakup Details of the Sample used for the Study
Formally Distance
trained trained
S.No Variables Total
teachers teachers
(75) (75)
Government 37 37 74
Type
1. Private 38 38 76
of School
Total 75 75 150
More Experienced Teachers* 40 32 72
Teaching
2. Less Experienced Teachers** 35 43 78
Experience
Total 75 75 150
* Teachers who are having more than 10 years teaching experience were considered as more
experienced teachers in the present study.
** Teachers who are having less than 10 years teaching experience were considered as less experienced
teachers in the present study.
Variables Involved profession. The scale consists of

Dependent variable: Attitude of 22 items. Ten items are favourable,
teachers trained through formal ten items are unfavourable and the
and distance mode remaining two are neutral towards
Independent variables: teaching. The mean attitude score of
1. Mode of training (Formal and a teacher is the average score value
Distance mode) of the statements endorsed by each
2. Type of Schools (Government teacher. The teacher with lower mean
and Private schools scores indicate a favourable attitude
3. Teaching Experience (more than and the higher mean scores indicate
10 years and less than 10 years) unfavourable attitude of a teacher
towards teaching profession.
Tools Used
Procedure of the Study
Personal data sheet : This was used
for gathering information specifying In the beginning of the study, teachers
whether teacher is trained through were categorised with respect to
formal or distance mode, and about the mode of training, type of school and
type of school and teaching experience teaching experience, on the basis of
of the teachers. information given in the personal data
Attitude Scale: A standardised sheet. Teacher Attitude Scale towards
Teacher Attitude Scale developed by teaching profession was individually
Goyal (1984) is used for measuring filled up by the teachers. They were
attitudes of teachers towards teaching assured that all the information
given by them will be kept strictly were clubbed together to work out the
confidential and used only for research results statistically.
purpose. While tabulating the data,
the scores of attitudes received for Results and Discussions
most unfavourable were negligible The obtained results, which are
and therefore attitude scores of statistically analysed, have been
unfavourable and most unfavourable presented in the following tables.
2. Comparison of Attitudes of Teachers towards Teaching Profession, who

have been Trained through Formal and Distance Mode
Table 2
x2 For Teachers Attitudes towards Teaching Profession
Trained through Formal and Distance Mode
Formally Distance
Value of
Category Trained Trained Total
Chi-square
Teachers Teachers
Most favourable 8 9 17
Favourable 43 37 80
Neutral 18 20 38
8.6*
Unfavourable/
6 9 15
Most Unfavourable
Total 75 75 150
* indicates significant at 0.05 level
Distance mode
Formal mode
50
45
43
40
35
37
No. of Teachers
30
25
20 20
18
15
10
89 9
5 6
0
Favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable/
favourable
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 2 : Attitudes of Teachers Towards Teaching Profession Trained

through Formal and Distance Mode
Table 2 exhibits that the value of one of the criteria for the selection of
chi-square for the attitudes of teachers the students is based on attitude test
trained through formal and distance and, therefore, this may be the reason
mode, teaching in secondary classes that formal trained teachers had better
was found to be significant at 0.05 level. attitudes towards teaching profession
Higher frequency scores of the formal as compared to teachers who did
trained teachers (as represented in the their training through distance mode.
frequency polygon in Fig.2) show that Bush (1959), Verma (1968), Singh
they have favourable attitudes towards R.S (1987) and NCERT (1971) results
teaching profession. The finding may also indicated that training had a
be due to the fact that in most of the favourable effect on the attitudes of
formal teachers training institutions, teachers towards their jobs.
3. Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers Trained through

Formal Mode
Table 3
x2 For Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers
towards Teaching Profession Trained through Formal Mode
Formal Trained Teachers

Value of
Category Government Total
Private School Chi-square
School
Favourable 16 27 43
Neutral 9 3 12
7.81*
Unfavourable/
5 5 10
Most Unfavourable
Total 37 38 75
Table 3 shows that the value of of better teaching facilities in the

chi-square (7.81) for the attitudes of private schools. On the other hand,
formal trained government and private government school teachers may have
school teachers towards teaching developed less favourable attitude due
profession was found to be significant
to several reasons, like lack of teaching
at 0.05 level. It can be inferred that
private school teachers had favourable facilities and also lack of leadership
attitudes towards teaching profession in authority. These frequency scores
as compared to their counterparts. have been presented in the form of a
This may be due to the availability frequency polygon in Fig.3.
Govt. School Teachers

Private School Teachers
30
27
25
20
No. of Teachers
15 16
10 9
7
5 5
3 3
0
Favourable
favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable/
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 3 : Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers Towards Teaching
Profession Trained Through Formal Mode
4. Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers Trained through

Distance Mode
Table 4
x2 for Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers
towards teaching profession Trained through Distance Mode
Distance Trained Teachers

Value of
Category Government
Private School Total Chi-square
School
Favourable 16 20 36
Neutral 11 3 14
7.86*
Unfavourable/
6 5 11
Most Unfavourable
Total 37 38 75
Table 4 shows that the value of chi- represented in the frequency polygon in
square for the attitudes of distance Fig.4) in case of private school teachers
trained government and private school show that they have favourable
teachers towards teaching profession attitudes towards teaching profession,
was found to be significant at 0.05 as compared to their counterparts.
level. Higher frequency scores (as This difference might be due to the
Govt. School Teachers

25
20 20
16
No. of Teachers
15
11
10 10
6
5 5
4
3
0
Favourable
favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable/
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 4 : Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers Towards Teaching

Profession Trained Through Distance Mode
fact that though both the groups were in-service programmes for innovative
trained through distance mode, the teaching. This may be perhaps one of
private school teachers have better the reasons for favourable attitude in
teaching facilities and have frequent case of private school teachers.
5. Attitudes of Government School Teachers Trained through Formal and

Distance Mode
Table 5
x2 for Attitudes of Government School Teachers towards
Teaching Profession Trained through Formal and Distance Mode
Government School Teachers

Value of
Category Distance
Formal Trained Total Chi-square
Trained
Favourable 16 16 32
Neutral 9 11 20
1.12 (NS)
Unfavourable/
5 6 11
Most Unfavourable
Total 37 37 74
NS - Not Significant
Table 5 reflects that the value representation of government school

of chi-square for the attitudes of teachers trained through formal and
government school teachers towards distance mode.
teaching profession trained through It may be reasonable to interpret
formal and distance mode was that, irrespective of their training
found to be insignificant. However, background teaching facilities in the
Fig. 5 reveals that the response school plays an important role in the
of teachers in all four groups attitudes of teachers towards teaching
indicate that there is almost equal profession.
Distance mode
Formal mode
18
16 16
14
12
No. of Teachers
11
10
9
8
7
6 6
5
4 4
2
0
Favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable/
favourable
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 5 : Attitudes of Government School Teachers towards Teaching Profession

6. Attitudes of Private School Teachers Trained through Formal and

Distance Mode
Table 6
x2 For Attitudes of Private School Teachers towards Teaching
Profession Trained through Formal and Distance Mode

Value of
Category Distance Total
Formal Trained Chi-square
Trained
4.82 (NS)
Favourable 27 20 47
Neutral 3 3 6
Unfavourable/
5 5 10
Most Unfavourable
Total 38 38 76
Table 6 shows that the value of almost equal representation at most

chi-square for the attitudes of private favourable/favourable level. This may
school teachers towards teaching be due to the fact that irrespective of
profession trained through formal their training background, teaching
and distance mode was found to facilities in school and their orientation
be insignificant. It can be further programme from time to time plays
revealed from the frequency polygon an important role in the attitudes of
in Fig. 6. that both the groups have teachers.
Distance mode
Formal mode
30
27
25
20 20
No. of Teachers
15
10 10
5 5
3 3
0
Favourable
favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable/
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 6 : Attitudes of Private School Teachers towards Teaching Profession

trained through Formal and Distance Mode
7. Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

Profession Trained through Formal Mode
Table 7
x2 for Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards
Teaching Profession Trained through Formal Mode
Formally Trained Teachers
Value of
Category More Less Total
Chi-square
Experienced Experienced
Favourable 20 22 42
Neutral 11 2 13
8.03*
Unfavourable/
6 4 10
Most Unfavourable
Total 40 35 75
Table 7 shows that the value of chi- at 0.05 level. It can be inferred that less
square for the attitudes of more and less experienced teachers trained through
experienced teachers trained through formal mode exhibited favourable
formal mode was found to be significant attitudes towards teaching profession.
More Experienced Teachers

Less Experienced Teachers
25
22
20 20
15
No. of Teachers
11
10
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
Favourable
favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable/
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 7 : Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

Profession Trained through Formal Mode
This may be due to the fact that Mahapatra (1987), Padmanabhaiah

now-a-days in most of the teachers (1986) and Prakasham (1986) came to the
training institutions, one of the criteria same conclusion in their studies. These
for the selection of the students is based mean scores have been presented in the
on the attitude test. Sukhwal (1977), form of a frequency polygon in Fig. 7.
8. Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

Profession Trained through Distance Mode
Table 8
x2 for Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards
Teaching Profession Trained through Distance Mode
Distance Trained Teachers

Value of
Category More Less Total
Chi-square
Experienced Experienced
Favourable 12 24 36
Neutral 9 4 13
8.6*
Unfavourable/
7 4 11
Most Unfavourable
Total 32 43 75
Table 8 shows that the value of may be because of the fact that they
chi-square (8.6) for the attitudes of are more adaptive and acceptable
more and less experienced teachers to the new ideas in teaching, and
towards teaching profession trained as a result may develop favourable
through distance mode was found to attitudes towards teaching profession.
be significant at 0.05 level. It can be In case of more experienced teachers,
revealed from the frequency polygon acceptability to learn new innovative
in fig. 8 that less experienced teachers teaching is less and gets involved
have more favourable attitudes as in negative thinking of certain need
compared to their counterparts. It dissatisfaction.
30
25 24
20
No. of Teachers
15
11 12
10 9
7
5 4 4 4
0
Favourable
favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable/
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 8 : Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

Profession Trained through Distance Mode
9. Attitudes of Less Experienced Teacher Trained through Formal and

Distance Mode
Table 9
x2 for Attitudes of Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

Value of
Category Formal Distance Total
Chi-square
Trained Trained
Favourable 22 24 46
Neutral 2 4 6
.83 (NS)
Unfavourable/
4 4 8
Most Unfavourable
Total 35 43 78
Table 9 shows that value of more favourable as compared to their

chi-square for the attitudes of less counterparts. It may be due to the fact
experienced teachers trained through that though distance trained teachers
formal and distance mode was found did not undertake their training
to be insignificant. practice through formal mode, they
It can be revealed from the frequency preferred teaching as their career and
polygon in Fig. 9 that frequencies hence opted for this profession.
of distance trained teachers were
Distance mode
Formal mode
30
25 24
22
20
No. of Teachers
15
10 11
7
5 4 4
2
0
Favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable/
favourable
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 9 : Attitudes of Less Experienced Teacher Trained through Formal and Distance Mode
10. Attitudes of More Experienced Teachers towards Teaching Profession

Table 10
x2 for Attitudes of More Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

Value of
Category Formally Distance Total
Chi-square
Trained Trained
Favourable 20 12 32
Neutral 11 9 20
1.56 (NS)
Unfavourable/
6 7 13
Most Unfavourable
Total 40 32 72
Table 10 shows that the value of number of teachers trained through

chi-square for the attitudes of more formal mode at favourable level. This
experienced teachers towards teaching may be because the teachers trained
profession trained through formal through formal mode had opted
and distance mode was found to be for teaching career with favourable
insignificant. It is revealed from the attitude towards the profession and
frequency polygon in Fig, 10 that the therefore, more experience in teaching
number of teachers trained through has not affected their attitudes towards
distance mode was less than the the profession.
Distance mode
Formal mode
25
20 20
No. of Teachers
15
12 11
10 9
7
6
5 4
3
0
Unfavourable/
Favourable
favourable
Neutral
Unfavourable
Most
Most
Figure 10 : Attitudes of Less Experienced Teachers Trained through Formal and Distance Mode
Conclusions: experienced teachers towards

their teaching profession trained
(i) There was significant difference in
through formal mode. Though both
the attitudes of teachers towards
the groups were trained through
teaching profession trained
formal mode, yet less experienced
through formal and distance
teachers have favourable attitudes
mode. Teachers trained through
towards teaching profession as
formal mode were found to have
compared to more experienced
more favourable attitudes towards
teachers.
teaching profession as compared
to the teachers trained through (vii) There was significant difference
distance mode. in the attitudes of more and less
experienced teachers towards
(ii) There was significant difference
teaching profession trained
in the attitudes towards teaching
through distance mode. Though
profession of government and
both the groups were trained
private school teachers trained
through distance mode, yet less
through formal mode. The private
experienced teachers have more
school teachers have more
favourable attitudes towards
favourable attitudes towards
to more experienced teachers.
to government school teachers.
(viii) There was no significant difference
(iii) There was significant difference
in the attitudes of less experienced
in the attitudes towards teaching
teachers towards teaching
profession of government and
profession trained through formal
private school teachers trained
and distance mode.
through distance mode. The
private school teachers have more (xi) There was no significant difference
favourable attitudes towards in the attitudes of more experienced
teaching profession as compared teachers towards teaching
to government school teachers. profession trained through formal
and distance mode.
(iv) There is no significant difference
in the attitudes towards teaching Educational Implications
profession of government school
teachers trained through formal Findings of the present study
and distance mode. reveal some important educational
implications for teacher-educators,
(v) There is no significant difference formal training institutions, distance
in the attitudes towards teaching training institutions, school authorities
of private school teachers trained and teachers.
through formal and distance The attitude of teachers towards
mode. teaching profession is very important
(vi) There was significant difference for the teachers performance and
in the attitudes of more and less their students. It emphasises an
important aspect, that attitude has school teachers. Steps should be

a major role to play in the manner a taken by the concerned authorities
teacher behaves in class. If a teacher to develop favourable attitude of
has a favourable attitude towards government school teachers towards
profession, she will also make teaching profession. The analysis of
better use of skills of teaching while the data further revealed that though
teaching in the classroom. The school both the groups were trained through
authorities should adopt uniform distance mode, yet less experienced
pattern in the process of recruitment of teachers had more favourable
teachers. At present, there is a random attitudes towards teaching profession
variation in admission procedures. as compared to more experienced
Also, to bridge the gulf between teachers. Frequent evaluation of how
training institutions and schools, much, or in what directions, attitudes
there should be extension service change throughout teaching career.
departments at the pre-primary, While selecting candidates for the
primary and secondary levels, in each training programmes, it should be
training establishment. The analysis ascertained through interviews and
of the data revealed that majority of use of aptitude tests, that they have
the private school teachers have more an inclination towards teaching, which
favourable attitude towards teaching can be worked upon and developed by
profession as compared to government giving them right inputs.
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Effect of Professional Development
Programme on the Attitudes of
Pre-service Teachers towards
Students with Special Needs
R.K. PARUA*
Abstract
For effective inclusion of students with special needs in general education
classrooms, the teacher educators community must overcome barriers toward
inclusion, including existing attitudes. The purpose of this study was to
determine the effects of professional development programme on the attitudes
of pre-service teachers toward students with special needs. The intervention
programme was conducted in six weeks for the pre-service teachers. The sample
consisted of 42 pre-service teachers studying bachelor degree programme of
special education. Results provided evidence that after receiving professional
development programme, pre-service teachers had positive attitudes towards
students with special needs. The overall findings suggest that this programme
had significant effect on changing the attitude of pre-service teachers towards
students with special needs with respect to all the four aspects, i.e. academic,
cognitive, emotional and social development of the students.
Introduction But the effective implementation of

The prime concern of any country this inclusive education has many
is the equal care and attention of its barriers even in government policy,
children, including students with practice and procedures. The United
special needs. Such ideas led to the Nations Educational, Scientific and
emergence of the concept of Inclusive Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has
Education for differently abled. highlighted inclusion as a dynamic
* Assistant Professor, MM College of Education (Kurukshetra University), Mullana, Ambala, Haryana-133203

Effect of Professional Development Programme on the... 47
approach of responding positively to pre-service teachers towards students

pupil diversity and seeing individual with special needs would require more
differences not as problems, but as than simple exposure and acceptance
opportunities for enriching learning in the general education classrooms.
(UNESCO, 2005). For the successful If students with special needs are to
implementation of inclusive education, be completely integrated and accepted
the actions of teachers, students and in the general education classroom,
all stakeholders must overcome the longterm changes in the attitudes
obstacles of existing attitudes and of educational professionals would
values; lack of understanding; lack of be required. So the present study
necessary skills; limited resources; and attempted to find out the effectiveness of
inappropriate resources (UNESCO, professional development programme
2005). on the attitude of pre-service teachers.
Pre-service teachers enter the The purpose of this study was to
classroom with their own personal determine the effects of professional
beliefs, attitudes towards inclusion and development programme on the
their new challenging responsibility to attitudes of pre-service teachers
teach all students, especially students towards students with special needs.
with special needs. New programmes This intervention programme includes
and policies laid down time to time six weeks of professional development
by apex bodies of higher education of programme like participation in
respective state and country expects seminars, workshops and lectures
that all students, including students and other different professional
with disabilities, be educated by development programmes.
highly qualified teachers with positive
attitudes towards students and learn Concept of Inclusive Education
free of cost in appropriate educational Inclusive education is a pedagogical
settings. model which is based on the basic
Pre-service teachers, have to meet curriculum of psycho-social support
the challenge of providing effective to the differently abled child. The
teaching to the students with special philosophy of inclusive education
needs in a supportive general education envisions the idea of providing
learning environment. They were more opportunities for students with
negative about the impact of children disabilities to study as equal partners
with special needs on other children with their classmates without
in the general education classroom disabilities (Forlin, 2008; Mitchell,
(Hastings and Oakford, 2003). But, 2008). It is found that students with
after experiencing teaching at inclusive disabilities improved their educational,
classroom, there is better acceptance social and emotional performance after
and understanding of inclusion of getting appropriate accommodations
students and attitude towards inclusion and proper support in the general
(Forlin et.al., 2009). Yellen et al. (2003) classroom (Parua, 2008). Inclusion is
added that changing the attitudes of the provision of services to students
with disabilities in their neighbourhood contexts. (Moodley, 2002). Thus a

schools with necessary support professional development programme
services and supplementary aids for was designed in the present study to
both children and teachers. It means, determine the attitudes of pre-service
meeting the needs of children with teachers towards students with special
disabilities for a free and quality public needs.
education, in the least restrictive and
most effective environment. Thus, an Attitudes of Pre-service Teachers
inclusive classroom is one in which The inclusion of learners with special
the continuing emphasis on valuing educational needs in general education
individual differences leads all pupils, is becoming more prevalent. As a result,
irrespective of social or cultural various special education researchers
background, disability or difficulty in have begun to examine the success
learning, to succeed in terms of the of inclusion, as well as the attitude
fulfillment of academic and social and beliefs of general educators
goals, and the development of positive towards the inclusion of learners with
attitudes to self and others (Alban disabilities in the general education
Metcalfe and AlbanMetcalfe, 2001). classroom. Sze (2009) carried a
Inclusion, thus understood, research on pre-service teachers
contributes to a better understanding of attitudes towards students with
education, its purpose and importance. disabilities. The study revealed that
It is most closely connected to the attitude of the general education
educational, cultural and social values. teacher is one of the most important
In the same sense, it contributes to the predictors of successful integration of
boosting of self-esteem, security and students with disabilities in general
self respects. Inclusive education is education classrooms. Mdikana et
the framework that aims at ensuring al. (2007) analysed the literature and
that all stakeholders can participate their study revealed that pre service
in a meaningful way in this common teachers had positive attitude towards
task, contribute in different ways, inclusive education. The results of
and be valued and respected as equal this investigation are significant in the
members of the community of the sense that the understanding of pre-
educational institution. As a catalyst for service educators attitudes is critical
change, inclusive education provides for the successful implementation of
not only for institutional improvement, inclusive education (Mowes, 2000).
but also for an increased awareness Dawn (2001) examined the attitudes
of human rights and a reduction in of teachers towards inclusion. Forty-
discrimination. Essentially, inclusive eight teachers who were enrolled on
education involves changes in attitudes, a Master's programme in Special and
behaviour and ways of working, and Inclusive Education were surveyed
has the potential to make an effective via a questionnaire at the beginning
starting point to address the right of and end of a ten-week introductory
learners in a range of cultures and module. The results indicated overall
attitudinal shift for four categories of after 12 weeks of student teaching

inclusion, to suggest more positive in secondary education classrooms.
attitudes at the end of the module, Results provided evidence that after
compared to the beginning. The completing an Included Experience,
implications for providers of pre and pre-service teachers had positive
in-service education and training attitudes and decreased concerns
courses for teachers are discussed. towards inclusion. The overall findings
Wilkins and Nietfeld (2004) suggest that the Included Experience
compared survey responses of teachers shows promise as a model that
from a reform-based programme pre-service teachers should follow to
focused on promoting inclusion-based support, teach and engage students
classrooms, namely Project WINS with exceptional learning needs in
(Winning Ideas Network for Schools), general education classrooms.
schools with teachers from non- Forlin et, al, (2009) concluded
Project WINS schools with regard to that the personal engagement and
their attitude about inclusion in the involvement in teaching students with
classroom. Surprisingly, the results disabilities will most likely lead to
of this study revealed no differences further acceptance and understanding
between the two groups of teachers of inclusion of students with disabilities
on most facets of inclusion. The one in general education classrooms and
significant difference found a greater improve attitudes toward inclusion.
preference for inclusion by non- Yellan et al, (2003) added that changing
Project WINS teachers with regard the attitudes of pre-service teachers
to classroom climate. The study towards students with special needs
also revealed a higher preference will require more than simple exposure
for inclusion of teachers with higher to the students in general education
self-reported expertise in special classrooms. If students with special
education regardless of what group the needs are to be completely integrated
teacher was surveyed from. Findings and accepted in the general education
from this study indicate the need for classroom, long-term changes in the
further research and improvements attitudes of educational professionals
in training methods for Project WINS would be required.
and similar programmes that attempt
to change teachers attitudes towards Method
inclusion as the first important step in Design
improving practice in inclusion-based Professional Development Programme
classrooms. is a six-week long designed intervention
Golmic and Hansen (2012) programme for pre-service teachers.
determined the effects of an Included Professional development programme
Experience, a special programme on the includes the following approaches:
attitudes, sentiments and concerns of (1) Teaching approach that consists
pre-service teachers towards students of identifying elements that affects
with exceptional learning needs learning in inclusive setting. (2)
Participation in seminars, workshops below, 26.19 per cent (n=11) falling

and lectures to clarify and address between the ages of 25-29, and 33.33
immediate concerns of students with per cent (n=14) being 30-35 years old.
special needs (3) Enhance teachers
competencies in a specific skill area Tools
by providing a process of observation, An Attitude scale is prepared and
reflection, and action. Each approach standardised by the investigator for the
is provided to the pre-service teachers collection of the data. The statement
in two weeks duration. of the scale is expressing definite
After reading and signing the favourableness or unfavourableness
required consent, 42 pre-service about students with special needs.
teachers agreed to participate. Students This scale has 40 items/statements
were informed that the Attitudes spread over in four factors. There
Scale would be used to determine is no right or wrong answers to the
their attitudes towards students statements. This scale is designed to
with disabilities. After the pre-service understand the differences in individual
teachers completed a pre-experience reactions to various situations. The
survey, the intervention programme scale is self administering. The four
was conducted. All the students factors in the test such as academic,
attended an introductory seminar cognitive, emotional and social
that provided the directions and development are mentioned in the
instructions to receive the intervention table below:
programme. Prior to the end of the The respondents are required to
professional development programme, record their response in five categories
students were administered the same i.e., strongly agree, agree, uncertain,
survey as a post-attitude measure. disagree and strongly disagree.
Internal consistency reliability
Sample coefficients in the current study as
The sample consisted of a total of 42 measured by Cronbachs coefficient
pre-service teachers from a training alpha for the pre-test were high for
college in Odisha including female the overall scale (r = 0.87) and for the
57.14 per cent (n=24) and male 42.85 attitude towards Academic Development
per cent (n=18) student teachers. The (r = 0.43), Cognitive Development
student teachers represented a wide (r = 0.85), Emotional Development
range of ages, with 40.47 per cent and Social Development (r = 0.85)
(n=17) reporting that they were 24 and item subsets on the pre-survey.
Distribution of Items in the Attitude Scale

Sr. No. Factor Item Serial Number Total
1 Academic development 1-10 10
2 Cognitive development 11-20 10
3 Emotional development 21-30 10
4 Social development 31-40 10
Table 1
Significance of Difference between Pre-Test and Post-Test Attitude
Scores of Pre-Service Teachers towards Students with Special Needs
Level of
Variables Group N Mean SD SED t-ratio
Significance
Attitude towards Pre-test 42 78.68 11.34
students with 2.15 7.60 .01
special needs Post-test 42 95.02 10.17
Table value of 82 df At .05 level =1.96
At .01 level= 2.58
It is revealed from Table 1 that the Furthermore, it shows that that

mean scores of pre-test and post test professional development programme
on the attitude scale of pre-service had significant effects on the attitudes
teachers towards students with special of pre-service teachers. Again, from
needs are 78.68 and 95.02 with SDs the Figure-1 shown below, the mean
11.34 and 10.17 respectively. The post-test score of pre-service teachers
t-ratio came out from the above two was more than the pre-test score. It
groups is 7.60, which is significant at indicates that teachers who received
.01 level of significance. That means professional development programme
there is significant difference between had more favorable attitude towards
pre-test and post-test scores of pre- students with special needs than
service teachers on their attitude the teachers who did not receive
towards students with special needs. intervention programme.
Figure 1
Table 2
Significance of Difference between Pre-Test and Post-Test Attitude Scores of Pre-
Service Teachers towards Academic Development of Students with Special Needs
Level of
Significance
Attitude towards Pre-test 42 22.16 6.82
students with 1.35 4.27 .01
special needs Post-test 42 27.93 5.61
At .01 level= 2.58
Table 2 shows that the mean pre-service teachers on their attitude

scores of pre-test and post-test of towards academic development
pre-service teachers attitude towards of students with special needs.
academic development of students Further, from Figure 2 we can find
with special needs are 22.16 and that the mean score of post-test was
27.93 with SDs 6.82 and 5.61 more than the pre-test of teachers.
respectively. The t-ratio came out It indicates that teachers included
from the above two groups is 4.27, in developmental programme had
which is significant at .01 level more favourable attitude towards
of significance. That means there students with special needs than the
is significant difference between teachers not included in professional
pre-test and post-test scores of development programme.
Figure 2
Table 3
Service teachers Towards Cognitive Development of Students with Special Needs
Level of
Significance
Cognitive Pre-test 42 16.99 6.14

1.34 3.41 .01
Development Post-test 42 21.03 5.87
At .01 level= 2.58
Table 3 revealed that the mean on their attitude towards Cognitive

scores of pre-test and post-test scores Development of students with special
of pre-service teachers on the attitude needs. Further, from Figure 3 we can
towards cognitive development of find that the mean score of post-test
students with special needs are 16.99 was more than the pre-test scores of
and 21.03 with SDs 6.14 and 5.87
pre-service teachers. It indicates that
respectively. The t-ratio came out from
the above two groups is 3.41, which is professional development programme
significant at .01 level of significance. had significant effect on the attitude of
That means there is significant pre-service teachers towards cognitive
difference between pre-test and post- development of students with special
test scores of pre-service teachers needs students.
Figure 3
Table 4
Service Teachers Towards Emotional Development of Students with Special Needs
Level of
Significance
Emotional Pre-test 90 16.45 6.02

1.18 3.02 .01
At .01 level= 2.58
Table 4 indicates that the mean of pre-service teachers on their attitude

scores of pre-test and post-test of pre- towards Emotional Development of
service teachers on their attitude to- students with special needs. Further,
wards emotional development of stu- from Figure 4 we can find that the mean
dents with special needs are 16.45 and score of post-test was more than the
20.02 with SDs 6.02 and 5.88 respec- pre-test mean score of pre-service
tively. The t-ratio came out from the teachers. It indicates that professional
above two groups is 3.02, which is sig- development programme had signifi-
nificant at .01 level of significance. That cant effect on the attitude of pre-service
means there is significant difference teachers towards emotional develop-
between pre-test and post-test scores ment of students with special needs.
Figure 4
Table 5
Significance of Difference between Pre-Test and Post-Test Attitude Scores of
Pre-Service Teachers towards Social Development of Students with Special Needs
Level of
Significance
Social Pre-test 42 23.08 6.02

1.29 2.30 .05
Value of 98 df At .05 level =1.96
At .01 level= 2.58
It is observed from Table 5 that the teachers on their attitudes towards

mean scores of the pre-test and post- social development of students with
test scores of pre-service teachers special needs. Further, from Figure 5
attitude towards social development we can find that the mean score of
of students with special needs 23.08 post-test was more than the pre-
and 26.05 with SDs 6.02 and 5.88 test score of pre-service teachers. It
respectively. The t-ratio came out indicates that teachers participating in
from the above two groups is 2.30, professional development programme
which is significant at .05 level of had more favourable attitude towards
significance. That means there is social development of students with
significant difference between pre-test special needs than the teachers not
and post-test scores of pre-service participating in the programme.
Figure 5
Discussion learning needs when pre-service

The purpose of this study was to teachers were required to adapt
determine the effects of a professional lessons, reflect on improving their own
development programme on the practices, and collaborate with general
attitude of pre-service teachers towards education and special education
students with special needs. Designing teachers about curriculum.
a structured professional development The findings of improvement in pre-
programme has encouraged pre- service teachers attitudes also suggest
service teachers to teach and support increased opportunities for pre-service
students with exceptional learning teachers to achieve and apply specific
needs in inclusive secondary education knowledge and skills which are very
classrooms. Results of the study helpful for the students with special
show that after participating in the needs.
professional development programme,
attitudes were even more positive among Future Studies
teachers. Specifically, results of pre-post The sample in this study includes
mean comparisons were statistically only secondary education pre-service
significant for all the developmental teachers who have received professional
factors including academic, cognitive, development programme. It would be
emotional and social. useful to examine the impact of the
Pre- and post-survey results provided included experience on the attitude of
encouraging evidence that pre-service teachers.
teachers had positive attitudes towards Research has suggested that the
students with special needs. These attitudes of secondary education
results are meaningful because they teachers are less positive that those of
show that pre-service teachers found elementary students (McHatton and
the experience of teaching students McCray, 2007). While our data showed
with special needs more comfortable positive attitudes from secondary
after their involvement in professional education students both pre and
development programme. The findings post participation in the professional
of this study are consistent with the development programme, it would
study by Henning and Mitchell (2002) be useful to compare attitudes of
that reported improved attitudes secondary and elementary pre-service
towards students with exceptional teachers.
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Educational Issues of Children
of the Tiwa Community of Assam
A Statistical Interpretation
TULIKA DEY*
MANAB DEKA**
Abstract
Tiwa community is one of the prominent tribes and a major ethnic group of
Assam. Independent India has been paying due attention to the problems of
the Scheduled Tribes and attempts are being made to deal effectively with
their problems. In spite of all kinds of steps taken by the government for
providing educational facilities, the Tiwa community is far below national
literacy average as far as education is concerned. Our objective is to study the
causes of the problems faced by the students of the Tiwa community in terms
of likings, facilities, enrollment and retention. More specifically, an attempt
has been made to identify causes of students disliking for going to school,
which in turn may be useful for reducing students drop-outs. The study was
undertaken in two districts of Assam namely Morigaon and Nagaon, where the
density of population of the Tiwas is the highest. Altogether, eight villages were
considered wherefrom 148 students were interviewed during data collection.
Some bivariate analyses were done for a few characteristics, whereas
multivariate analysis has been done using logistic regression analysis with
liking for going to school by the students as the dependent variable. The analysis
indicates that characteristics like gender, mid-day meal, cleanliness of school,
reward by teacher and students liking of the teachers have significant effect
on the liking of students for going to school, whereas, attributes like education
of parents, mode of transportation, play material and toilets in school do not
appear to have any significant effect.
* Assistant Professor, North East Regional Institute of Education (NCERT), Nongsder Village, Umiam:
793103, Ri Bhoi District, Meghalaya
** Assistant Professor, Department of Statistics, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati: 781 016, Assam
Educational Issues of Children of the Tiwa Community... 59
Introduction superstitious beliefs, lack of scientific

The Tiwas are one of the prominent knowledge, geographical separation,
Scheduled Tribes and a major ethnic etc. are the major problems of Tiwa
group of Assam. They have enlisted people.
themselves as a plain Scheduled It is evident that there is dearth
of research work and reports on the
Tribe but a section of them resides in
issues of Tiwa community and their
the hilly areas also.The Tiwas have a
problems regarding school education.
population of 1,37,388 in the State
Among those very few researchers,
of Assam (Census of 1991), which
Sarma Thakur (1985) gave a vivid
comprises both Hill Tiwas and the
account of the Tiwa community. He
plain Tiwas. The plain Tiwas although,
brought out the life and culture of the
in due course of time assimilated with
Tiwas living in both plains and hills of
the Assamese society, culture and
Assam. Bordoloi et al (1987) also tried
religions in their day-to-day life, a
to portray a picture of the Tiwas in
section of the Tiwas still follow the old
terms of socio-economic and education
traditions. They have their own dialect, status.
dress, festival and beliefs.
However, like most of the backward Objectives
classes of our country, Tiwa people are The Tiwa community suffers from low
also suffering from many problems. Socio Economic Status (SES). This
Independent India has been paying low SES of the villagers is affecting
due attention to the problems of the the educational upliftment of the
Scheduled Tribes and attempts are community. The education level of the
being made to deal effectively with parents is also very low to understand
those problems. Nevertheless, the Tiwa the benefits of being educated and
people are far away from receiving all therefore, their aspiration is very
the benefits given by the government. low. They are not even sure about
And at present, the Tiwas allege that what they want their children to do
all the allocated money is not properly in life or how far they should study.
utilised by the government and corrupt The children too do not have high
officials. So, no significant development aspiration due to lack of support
has been promoted by the government from the parents or exposure. While
and most of all there is a wide spread there was progress in improvement
problem faced by the educational of literacy the phenomenon of school
institutions. They do not have any dropouts has remained a blot in the
recognition about their need from the face of an otherwise good performance.
government. Thus, Tiwa people are Identification of factors influencing
backward educationally, socially and dropouts have not been widely
are politically exploited. There are also discussed in the north-eastern part of
other related problems which is a hurdle the country (Choudhury, 2006). With
in the way of educational development this backdrop, the objectives in the
among the Tiwas. Moreover, ignorance, present study are:
to put light on general education Bhurbandha development block of

scenario and the causes of the Morigaon district.
problems faced by the students of
the Tiwa community in terms of Data Set
facilities, enrolment and retention; In the present study, interview,
and observation and questionnaires have
to identify causes of students been used for collecting the required
liking/disliking for going to school, data. Interview technique has been
identification of which should help used widely in the study. As the
reduce school drop-outs. Tiwa villagers are either illiterate or
of low educational status, interview
Data Base and Methodology method was found to be the most
The Tiwa population is scattered in suitable method to gather information
17 districts of Assam, out of which about the problems of education. For
Morigaon district is densely populated conducting the study, two districts of
followed by Nagaon district. Nagaon Assam dominantly inhabited by the
district has a population of 20,38,570 Tiwa Community were considered, viz.
of which 1,01,209 is Scheduled Tribe Morigaon and Nagaon districts. The
population and Morigaon district has sample of the work has been taken
an overall population of 7,76,256, by random technique. Altogether, 148
of which the tribal population is students were selected for the study.
1,20,730. Therefore, these two districts Analysis
were considered for the study. Each of
these districts has a number of blocks The analysis of the results has been
divided into two parts keeping in
and for convenience two blocks from
view the objectives of the study. First
each district were considered, i.e.,
part is devoted to focus on general
four blocks in total. The blocks are
education scenario and the causes of
namely Nagaon district (Kopili block
the problems faced by the students
and Raha block); Morigaon district
of the Tiwa community in terms of
(Mayang block and Bhurbandha facilities, enrolment and retention.
development block). From each of The second part consists of identifying
these blocks again two villages were the causes of students liking/
selected. They are Khaplangkuchi and disliking for going to school. For this
Niz-Tarabari village from the Kapili purpose Logistic Regression technique
block; Garoimari and Marjung gaon is adopted. The variable of interest
from Raha block of Nagaon district is binary, whether the student likes
and Dabarghat and Kumarbari going to school or not. The endeavour
from Mayang block; Paschim merua is to analyse the odds of a student
gaon and Bar-Manipur village from likes going to school.
Part I: General educational scenario Toilet facility

and the causes of problem faced by No 117 79.1
the students Yes 31 20.9
Domestic animals
Table 1 No 6 4.1
Frequency distribution of Yes 142 95.9
Socio-demographic factors
Fre- A few variables were studied to
Variable % age identify the Socio-demographic factors.
quency
Gender It was seen that
Male 81 54.7 (i) Class of study: 69.6 per cent of
Female 67 45.3 the other members in the family
Class of study studied upto lower primary level,
LP 103 69.6 20.3 per cent up to middle school,
ME 30 20.3 8.8 per cent up to secondary level
Secondary 13 8.8
and rest 1.4 per cent up to higher
Higher Secondary 2 1.4
secondary level.
Education of Father
31 20.9
Illiterate (ii) Education of father: It was observed
90 60.8
Primary
16 10.8
that 20.9 per cent of the fathers
Secondary were illiterate, 60.8 per cent have
11 7.4
HS and above studied till the primary level, 10.8
Education of Mother per cent up to secondary level
Illiterate 74 50.0 and 7.4 per cent have studied till
Primary 58 39.2
higher secondary or above.
Secondary 15 10.1
HS and above 1 0.7 (iii) Education of mother: 50.0 per cent
Occupation of Father of the mothers were illiterate,
Agriculture 95 64.2 39.2 per cent have studied till the
Business 6 4.1 primary level, 10.1 per cent up to
Govt. service 11 7.4 secondary level and 0.7 per cent
Pvt. Service 5 3.4 have studied till higher secondary
Others 31 20.9
or above.
Occupation of Mother
Housewife 36 24.3 (iv) Occupation of father: It was
Agricultural labourer 97 65.5 observed that 64.2 per cent
Labourer 6 4.1 of the fathers occupation was
Govt. service 5 3.4 agriculture, 4.1 per cent were in
Others 4 2.7 business, 7.4 per cent were in
Type of House government service, 3.4 per cent
Kaccha 126 85.1 in private service and the rest 20.9
Pucca 22 14.9
per cent were engaged in sources
Drinking water facility of livelihood.
No 24 16.2
Yes 124 83.8 (v) Occupation of mother: It was
observed that 24.3 per cent of the
mothers were housewives, 65.5 per Providing note book

cent were agricultural labourers, No 146 98.6
4.1 per cent were engaged in other Yes 2 1.4
labour works, 3.4 per cent were in Providing pen/pencil
government service, and the rest No 146 98.6
2.7 per cent were engaged in other Yes 2 1.4
occupations. Knowledge of drop-outs
No response 12 8.1
(vi) Type of house: 85.1 per cent of the No 40 64.9
respondents lived in kaccha house Yes 96 27.0
whereas the rest 14.9 per cent Reasons of drop-outs
117 79.1
lived in pucca house. No idea
10 6.8
Financial problems
(vii) Drinking water facility: 16.2 per 21 14.2
Loss of interest in study
cent responded that they did
not have drinking water facility Systematic analyses of the facilities
whereas 83.8 per cent responded available in the schools were done by
that they did have drinking water administering an interview schedule
facility. among 148 students.
(viii) Toilet facility: 79.1 per cent of the (i) Black Board in school: 13.5 per
respondents replied that there was cent of the respondents (school
no toilet facility for them whereas students) said that they did
20.9 per cent had toilet facility. not have blackboard in school or
(ix) Domestic animals: A minimal of it was not usable. The rest 86.5
4.1 per cent responded that they per cent did have blackboards at
did not have any domestic animal, school.
but 95.9 per cent had domestic (ii) Play ground in school: 60.8 per
animals of their own. cent of the respondents said that
there was no play ground in their
Table 2
school whereas 39.2 per cent said
Frequency distribution of
facilities in the schools they had playgrounds.
(iii) Textbook: 21.6 per cent respondents
Fre- %
Variable
quency age
did not possess any textbook
while the rest 78.4 per cent had
Blackboard in school
No 20 13.5 textbooks with them.
Yes 128 86.5 (iv) Providing Note Book: 98.6 per cent
Play ground in school of the respondents replied that no
No 90 60.8 Note Books were provided by the
Yes 58 39.2 school but a very negligible section
Providing Textbook (1.4 per cent) replied that they
No 32 21.6 were provided Note Books by the
Yes 116 78.4
school.
(v) Providing Pen/Pencil: 98.6 per (iv) Mode of transport: The variable has
cent of the respondents said that been categorised as 1 for on foot
no Pen/Pencil was provided by the and 2 for others, which consists
school but 1.4 per cent replied that of those coming by cycle and by
they were provided Pen/Pencil by public transport.
the school. (v) Cleanliness of school. Intention is
(vi) Knowledge of drop-outs: 8.1 per to check if cleanliness of school
cent of the respondents did not motivates students to come to
have any knowledge of drop out school. It has been coded 0 for no
from their school while 64.9 per and 1 for yes.
cent did not have any knowledge (vi) Play materials in the school: We
of drop-outs and 27 per cent said wished to check if availability of
that they knew students who have play materials in the school has
dropped out. any effect on students for going to
(vii) Reasons of drop-outs: 79.1 per cent school. It has also been coded 0 for
of the students did not know the no and 1 for yes.
reasons of drop-outs. 6.8 per cent (vii) Mid day meal. It was included in
replied that financial problems the study to check if mid day meal
were the reason for drop-outs and induces students to school.
14.2 per cent said loss of interest
in studies is the reason for drop- (viii) Drinking water facility in school:
out. The variable has been coded 0 for
no and 1 for yes.
Part II: Identification of the causes (ix) Toilet in school. It is particularly
of students liking/disliking for important for girl students, which
going to school is one of the significant factors
Following explanatory variables are responsible for girls drop-outs as
considered for the logistic regression evident from earlier literature.
analysis: (x) Reward by the teachers: Aim is
(i) Gender of the respondents: The to check if reward by teachers in
variable has been categorised the school has any effect on the
as M representing male and F students.
representing female. (xi) Students liking of the teachers:
(ii) Education of father: Code 1 The variable has been coded 0 for
represents illiterate, 2 represents no and 1 for yes. It is included
primary education, code 3 is for in the study to know whether the
secondary education and 4 for HS variable has any effect on students.
and above. (xii) Comfortable with the language in
(iii) Education of mother: This variable the school: Our objective was to
has been coded similar to that of examine whether students are
father of the respondents. comfortable in the language used
as medium of instruction in the per cent (the cut off is taken at 0.79
class room. following the procedure outlined by
Crammer (1999)). The coefficient
Logistic Modelling estimates, their standard errors,
Result of logistic regression is placed p-values for testing their significance
in Table 3. The classification table and the change in odds corresponding
provided evidence on adequacy of the to unit increase in the dependent
model with correct prediction over 84 variable is given in Table 3.
Table 3
Results of Logistic Regression
Estimate of Std. Odds 95% C.I. for

Independent Variables p-value Odds Ratio
Coefficient Error Ratio
(B) Lower Upper
Gender
Male -2.530 .968 .019 .180 .112 .531
Female
Education of Father .625
Illiterate 1.553 1.796 .387 4.725 .140 159.768
Primary .919 1.601 .566 2.506 .109 57.785
Secondary HS and above 2.470 2.101 .240 11.817 .192 726.150
Education of Mother .793
Illiterate -22.234 40192.4 1.000 .000 .000 _
Primary -21.604 40192.4 1.000 .000 .000 _
Secondary HS and above -21.055 40192.4 1.000 .000 .000 _
Mid Day Meal
No -3.653 1.037 .000 .103 .113 .198
Yes
Cleanliness of school
No -2.071 .766 .007 .126 .028 .566
Yes
Play Material in school
No -.793 .811 .328 .452 .092 2.216
Yes
Students like teacher
No -3.326 1.329 .012 .036 .003 .486
Yes
Mode of transport
On foot -17.252 28420.6 1.000 .000 .000 _
Others
Toilet in School
No -.983 .957 .304 .374 .057 2.440
Yes
Drinking water in School

No 2.779 1.816 .126 16.104 .459 56.45
Yes
Reward by teacher
No -2.024 .830 .015 .132 .026 .672
Yes
Comfortable with the
language in school
-1.618 1.136 .048 .739 .058 2.002
No
Yes
Note: stands for reference category
Discussions the odds ratio of 0.126 indicates that

The p-values in Table 3, reveal that less clean schools could attract fewer
gender is a significant (p-value being students as far as liking to go to school
0.019) factor for respondents liking is concerned. Moreover, we wished
for going to school. The odds ratio to check whether students fondness
of the same table shows that males of the teachers have any effect on
are less interested (odds ratio being their students liking to go to school.
0.180) in going to school as compared A p-value of 0.012 shows significant
to their female counterparts. Another effect of the students fondness of the
important factor for students liking for teachers on their liking to go to school.
going to school is the provision of mid The corresponding odds ratio (0.036)
day meal. Mid day meal is provided suggests that students disliking of
to the students by the Government to the teachers have negative impact on
attract them to school. Mid day meal students liking for going to school.
scheme of Government has been quite Furthermore, reward by teachers
successful throughout the state. Our significantly (p-value being 0.015)
data also support the Government influences students liking for going
claim. The variable mid day meal is to school. Students not rewarded by
also a highly significant factor with teachers are less wiling to go to school
p-value of <.01. The odds ratio of as compared to those rewarded by
0.103 suggests that students are more teachers as evidenced by the odds ratio
interested in going to schools where of 0.132. Additionally, we considered
mid day meal is being provided. another variable called comfortable
It has been observed during data with the language in which classes are
collection that the surroundings of being taught. The p-value indicates
the schools of those villages were a significant effect of the variable on
very unhygienic and quite grubby. students liking for going to school. The
Students obviously want cleanliness of corresponding odds ratio suggests that
their schools, which is also supported those who have no problem with the
by our data set. The p-value 0.007 language in which classes are taught
suggests a highly significant case and are more willing to go to school.
Conclusions highly significant in increasing the

The analysis reveals that the Tiwas enrolment in school. The unhygienic
are an agro-based community. and filthy surroundings of the schools,
Their educational background as fondness of the teachers, reward by
well as economic condition is very teachers and comfortability with the
poor. Large section of the people medium of instruction significantly
was devoid of basic amenities of life. influence students liking for going to
Similarly, infrastructural facilities in school. It has also been felt that with
schools are also very poor. However, the Right to Education Act (RTE) and
financial problems in their family, Rashtriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan
and loss of interest in studies or non (RMSA) coming in a big way, immediate
comprehension of the syllabi, lack of attention to the infrastructural quality
connection of school knowledge with enhancement and teacher training with
life, etc. are the prominent reasons for new dimension of teaching as outlined
drop out. The mid day meal has been in RTE, should get immediate attention.
REFERENCES
BORDOLOI, B.N, G.C. SARMA THAKUR and M.C. SAIKIA. 1987. Tribes of Assam Part-I.
published by Tribal Research Institute. Assam.
CENSUS OF INDIA. 1991. Census of India, Registrar General of India. 1991.
CRAMMER, J.S. 1999. Predictive Performance of the Binary Logit Model in Unbalanced
Sample, The Statistician. 48. 85-94.
CHOUDHURY, A. 2006. Revisiting Dropouts Old Issues Fresh Perspectives, Economic
and Political Weekly. December 23, 2006.
NCERT. Indian Educational Survey Educational facilities and Environment (School
Education). NCERT Publication.
SARMA THAKUR, G.C. 1985. The Lalungs. published by Tribal Research Institute. Assam.
Village Education Committees in Uttar
Pradesh: Structure and Member Profile
KRISHNA KANT TRIPATHI*
ANJALI BAJPAI**
Abstract
Decentralised management of education through community participation
and community mobilisation is conceived to be essential for successful and
effective management of elementary education. Policy of decentralisation in
India at the grass-root level has institutionally metamorphosed in the formation
of Village Education Committees (VEC). Structure of VEC and profile of its
members give a glimpse of the nature and level of community participation.
Therefore, every state government including UP (Uttar Pradesh) has prescribed
the structure of VEC through GO/ordinance/statutes. This study presents the
structure of VEC and the profile of its members in UP In UP, at some places
VECs are formed against the norms. Low education of the members of VEC,
no timely reorganisation of VEC and absence of VEC members wards from
VEC managed school denotes passive or no participation of community in
educational management.
Management is an important component demand of democratic participation in

of all effectively running systems and public delivery system have enforced
this is true for education system also. the policy makers of the country
The components of education system to decentralize the management of
i.e., teachers, curriculum, methods, education. Although decentralisation
physical resources etc. become has been an inherent part of the
ineffective, if not managed properly. culture of our nation, the genesis of the
Increased demand of quality education system of decentralised management
from all walks of society, increasing of present time can be traced from
size of school education and focus on the 73rd and 74th Constitutional
* Research Scholar, Faculty of Education, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-10

** Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-10
Amendment 1992, National Policy participate in the VEC

on Education 1986 (as modified in activities. (Banerjee, A.,
1992) and the recommendations of Duflo, Glennerster and
CABE Committee on Decentralised Khemani, 2006)]
Management of Education (1993). This paper is based on a study
Owing to the aforesaid modifications conducted to see the observance
mentioned in the different national of stated regulations as well as to
policies, a three tier system of know the innovations, if any, in the
decentralised management of formation and organisation of the
education, parallel to the system of village education committees in Uttar
Panchayati Raj Institutions has been Pradesh. The questions which the
evolved throughout the country and study aimed to answer were:
responsibilities of Education for All have Are there only five members in the
been devolved to the bodies formed VECs or some volunteers, self-help
at district, block (intermediate) and groups, women groups are also
village levels. Different states of India included?
have legislated different structures for What is the demographic structure
Village Education Committees (VECs) of the VEC? (Here demographic
and assigned different roles. This structure refers to caste, sex,
paper delineates the structure of VECs tenure, age, profession, and
under the light of rules and regulations educational qualification of the
formed by the Government of Uttar members.)
Pradesh (2000, 2006). How many children are there in the
Government of Uttar Pradesh, families of the VEC members?
under Basic Education Ordinance Do all children/wards of the
1972 (as amended in 2000), has members of VECs study in the
prescribed the structure of the Village schools managed by VECs?
Education Committees in each Gram
Objectives of the Study
Panchayat of the State as follows:-
Chairperson - Gram Pradhan 1. To know the structure of the VECs,
(village head) formed under the Uttar Pradesh
Secretary - School Principal (service Basic Education Ordinance 1972
senior) (as amended in 2000) with reference
Members - Three parents nominated to the following demographic
by Asst. BSA. variables:
(Participation of one Caste and religion based
woman and one SC participation of members.
candidate is mandatory Gender based participation.
among guardian Tenure of the members.
members) (Gov. of U.P. Educational levels of the
2006). [Active Women members.
Self Help Groups Professions of the members.
should be invited to Age groups of the members.
Village Education Committees in Uttar Pradesh... 69
School types in which the Method

children/wards of the families In accordance with the objectives of
of the members of VEC study. the study, Survey method was used to
Justification of the above mentioned collect the relevant data.
variables included in the study:
Caste: Government of U.P. Tool
had regulated the membership Interview schedules (one for
of one person from SC/ST Chairpersons and Secretaries of VECs
caste among three guardian and one for Members of VECs) were
members of the VEC. used to get the information about the
Gender: Government of U.P VECs.
had mandated the participation
of one woman among three Structure of the Block
guardian members of the VEC. In this study 20 VECs of one Block of
Tenure of the members of District Ramabai Nagar (earlier Kanpur
VEC was included to know the Dehat) in Uttar Pradesh was studied.
experiences of the members Structure of the block was as following:
and reorganisation of VECs. Block 01 (Sandalpur)
Educational level of the Clusters 10
members became important Gram Panchayats (G P) 53
because they were the members VECs 53 (According to rule) (In study of
of such a committee which 20 GP 28 VEC were found)
was assigned administrative, Primary schools 109 (in 2009)
academic and financial Upper Primary schools 61 (in 2009)
management of school in their Population 3.5 lakh (approx.,
respective villages. Census 2001)
Profession of the members
was studied to know the Sampling
participation of the people of One block of district Ramabai Nagar
different professions. of Uttar Pradesh was selected to know
Age became a variable of the the structures of the VECs, hence
study to know the participation purposive sampling technique was
of the person of different age used. There were ten clusters in this
groups. block where Cluster Resource Centres
School type, in which the (Nyay Panchayat Sansadhan Kendra)
children/wards of the family were established and permanent
of the members were studying, officers known as NPRC Coordinators
was very important as it reflects (Nyay Panchayat Resource Centre
the interest of the people Coordinators/NPRCC) were appointed.
towards school and quality of The structure of a VEC could be affected
education in the schools of a by Cluster Resource Centres (CRCs)
Gram Panchayat (one village or and Block Resource Centre (BRC),
cluster of two to five villages). therefore beginning with the selection
of one block as the case, all 10 CRCs/ Panchayat, members of which should
NPRCs had been included and two be selected through an open forum
Gram Panchayats from each CRC were or meeting of the Gram Panchayat.
selected to study the structure of VECs But such type of member selection
therein. Thus, this study presents process was reported nowhere by the
the structure of the VECs in 20 Gram members of VECs. During this survey,
Panchayats of Block Sandalpur, variations were found against the
Ramabai Nagar, Uttar Pradesh. recommendation of One VEC one Gram
Sample size Panchayat. Table No.1 shows that
Twenty Gram Panchayats were there are variations from one VEC in
selected from all ten clusters of the one Gram Panchayat to four VECs in
block, i.e., two from each CRC. Within one Gram Panchayat. At some places it
those 20 Gram Panchayats there was only one VEC in a Gram Panchayat
were 28 VECs. As there should be of three to five villages and at some
one VEC in a Gram Panchayat, 20 other places there were as many VECs
VECs were selected in which service as the number of schools in one Gram
wise senior school principals were Panchayat. Two VECs were also found
secretaries, which were considered in one single village, one for each
as main VECs of Gram Panchayat by school in the village. Thus there was
principals, school teachers, Pradhans no uniformity in the organisation of
(village heads) and Block Resource the VECs in the Block. Block Resource
Centre (BRC) coordinator. In those Centre (BRC) coordinators and a few
20 VECs there were 20 presidents, 20 principals of the schools told that when
secretaries and 60 guardian members. it came to official representation of the
Data were collected from 20 presidents
VEC, they consider the VEC of that
and 20 secretaries. Only two members
village or school (if formed per school)
from each VEC were selected for
interviews. Thus sample size contained in which service-wise senior principal
80 respondents. of school would be the secretary.
Therefore in this research, VECs which
Results were recognised by the BRC as main
Structure were taken into account, thus only 20
As per the government order there VECs, one from each Gram Panchayats
should be one VEC in each Gram were selected.
Table 1
Numbers of VECs in a Gram Panchayat
No. of Gram No. of Consisting No. of
No. of Villages representing in VEC
Panchayats Villages VECs
1 4 1 Members from two villages.
2 3 1 0ne member from each village.
3 1 1 _____________
4 1 1 _____________
5 1 1 _____________
Main VEC representing two villages. One
6 3 2
village has separate VEC.
7 2 2 _______________
8 4 1 Members from two villages only.
9 2 1 All Members from one village only.
10 2 1 All members from one village only.

One village has no separate VEC and does
11 3 2 not have a representative member in VECs
of other village.
12 2 2 _______________
13 3 1 One member from each village.
14 3 4 Each school has separate VEC.

Members are same. Secretary different. No
15 1 2
representation of SC member.
18 1 1 One member was Aganwadi worker.

19 4 1 All members from one village.
20 5 1 Members from two villages.
In 6 out of 20 Gram Panchayats rule years and now principal of primary

of one VEC One Gram Panchayat was school) and got the name of members
not followed. In one gram panchayat during the tenure. Researcher found
neither the name of the VEC members only one member of VEC living in that
were written on the wall of the schools village and got the information about
(as required) nor the register was the VECs activities during tenure. In
maintained by the Secretary of the the small village, principal of primary
VEC. This Gram Panchayat consisted school had formed a separate VEC.
of three villages, two large villages and In the case of non availability of the
one small village, which had common VEC members in the schools (villages)
VEC before two years. After that, no VEC where senior principals were posted,
was formulated by the new secretary researcher had to contact one member
who joined the upper primary school. of VEC in that small village and
Researcher contacted the Secretary of obtain the data of VEC in that Gram
VEC of that time (secretary before two Panchayat.
Chairpersons of VECs village education, as in that

Chairperson or president of Village particular area, village streets
Education Committee is involuntarily were divided on the basis of
different sub-communities, i.e.,
selected because of the government
caste and religion.
regulation. Gram Pradhan (Village
Head) is presiding over the VEC in Caste-based report of chairman
each village. In this study, information and secretary is not of much
importance because they are selected
about 20 Village Heads were collected
involuntarily, so we come directly to the
through the direct interview schedule.
caste of guardian members. Besides
But it is astonishing to find that where
caste, religion of the members was
there are female village-heads, they
also recorded as there was a minority
do not perform the tasks of the village group in the area. Thus four types of
head due to the local culture and categories were made deliberately to
male dominance. Some facts about represent all types of sub-communities
presidents of the VECs are as follows: in the area, i.e., General, OBC, SC and
Out of 20 village heads nine were Muslim (minority). Scheduled Tribes
male (all farmers/related to agricultural and other religious communities were
works) and eleven were females (all not living in the block of the study.
housewives), in which one male and 19 out of 20 selected Gram
one female village heads were not living Panchayat people from SC
in their respective villages (both were communities had representatives in
living in cities, about 100 km away) all the VECs. In one Gram Panchayat
their duties were performed by their all the three members of VEC were
representatives in the villages. from general caste.
At one place, the sweeper of the
Caste and Religion school (one of the school staff) was
Study of castes of the members of the the member representative of SC
VECs was important because of two community in the VEC.
reasons: In two Gram Panchayats two SC
members were nominated.
(i) Policy mandates the membership
In one Gram Panchayat two
of one person from SC/ST
women, both from SC community
community among three guardian
were members of VEC.
members. In two Gram Panchayats one
(ii) To know the participation of member was representing both SC
different communities in the community as well as females.
Table 2
Caste and Religion based numbers of members interviewed
General OBC SC Minority (Muslims) Total

11 11 14 4 40
Gender: The regulation under which was the representative of female

VECs were formed had mandated the guardian member in the VEC.
participation of one female guardian In two Gram Panchayats female
member among the three guardian members of VECs were residing
members. It was found during the out of their villages.
survey that at least one woman was In another case VEC was not
nominated in each VEC of the block. formulated for last two years, so
It was also observed that in one no female member of VEC resided
Gram Panchayat two female members in those three villages (constituting
were nominated. Most of the female one Gram Panchayat).
members were unaware or less A female member of VEC said that
aware about the school activities in she had never visited school, so did
comparison to their male counterparts. not know whether she was member
Some variations in the type of the of VEC at present or not.
nomination/representation here which One female member of VEC
are as follows: explicitly said that she did not know
In one VEC, Aganwadi (ECCE) about the members who attended
worker (who was one among the the meetings of VEC held in the
school staff, as Aganwadi centre school premises, as her husband
was established in Primary school) used to represent her in meetings.
Table 3
Gender of the VEC members
President of VEC Secretary Members Interviewed

Male Female Male Female Male Female
09 11 17 3 26 14
20 20 40
Tenure of VEC members One Village Head was the

When the data was collected for this chairperson of the VEC for the
last 10 years and remaining 19
study, the Gram Panchayats were
village heads were working as
finishing their five-year tenure. In
chairpersons of VECs for the last
this area, VECs were formed with the
five years.
formation of the Gram Panchayats. Amongst 40 guardian members of
Most of the chairpersons and members the VEC, one member was holding
of the VEC were experienced, as they the post for the last 15 years, six
were members for the last five years. members were holding the post
Tenure of the secretaries depended in VECs for the last 10 years, two
on their seniority among the school were members for the last eight
principals of the Gram Panchayats. years and two were holding the
post for the last seven years. These the education for the whole Gram
facts show that at many places Panchayat (1-5 villages). In this study,
VECs were not reconstituted from education level was categorised into
time to time. four main categories i.e., Illiterate,
23 guardian members were holding educated upto elementary, secondary
the post of VECs for the last five and graduation and above. Here,
years. Remaining six were members educational qualification of president
of VEC from one to four years. of VEC and other two members
needs to be mentioned. Secretaries
Educational levels of VEC Personnel of VECs and Principals of schools
It was essential to know the are qualified, therefore their
educational level of the persons educational qualification need not be
who were planning and managing discussed.
Table 4
Educational levels of Chairpersons and Guardian members of VECs
Educational Upto Upto Upto
Levels of VEC Illiterate Elementary Secondary Graduation Total
personnel level level and Above
Chairpersons 3 5 6 6 20
Guardian
7 9 21 3 40
Members
Total 10 14 27 9 60
Table 4 indicates that : are not able to raise their issues,

Three out of 20 (15 per cent) unless they are properly oriented
chairpersons and 7 out of 40 (17.5 and trained for their duties
per cent) guardian members were (Varghese and Zaidi, 1999).
illiterate. Only six (30 per cent) chairpersons
Five (25 per cent) chairpersons and three (7.5 per cent) members
and nine (22.5 per cent) guardian were having educational
members were having education qualification up to graduation and
up to elementary level. In a similar above level.
study conducted in 1998-99 in Under U.P. government rules,
Haryana, all VEC members were Panchayat Head must be the chairman
reported to be formally educated of VEC thus they were selected
up to secondary level and above involuntarily. But in case of educational
(Menon, 1998). It is also true that level of guardian members, it is the
members of low educational level Assistant Basic Shiksha Adhikari
in such type of institutions do not (ABSA) who nominates and the
have their say in the meetings and secretary of VEC suggests the names
of the members. They have the right 3. Teacher

to select highly educated guardian Two members (5 per cent) were
members but they do not do it in most teachers, (one was in private school
of the cases. It cannot be said that the and one has retired as principal from a
area concerned does not have higher government primary school).
education facilities. It has graduates in
villages because this district has about 4. Self employed
20 Degree colleges including one which Six out of 40 members (15 per cent)
has completed four decades. Many in were self employed (i.e. shopkeeper,
these villages have attended and are taxi driver etc).
attending degree colleges in the nearby
districts i.e., Aurraiya (16 K.M. from 5. Housewife
the block centre) and Kanpur Nagar (at Five guardian members (12.5%) were
a distance about 80 K.M.). housewives. Nine chairpersons (all
Profession of the members males) were involved in agricultural
works and 11 chairpersons (all females)
Professions of members of VEC were were housewives.
divided into following categories:
Age of the Members of VECs
1. Agricultural works
In the block of the study a variation
20 members (50 per cent) out of 40 had been found regarding the age of
were engaged in agriculture. the members of VEC which ranges
2. Laborer from 25 years to 75 years. Overall
view of the block (Table 5) shows that
Seven members (17.5 per cent) were most of the members of the VECs were
labourers by professions middle aged.
Table 5
Age of the members of the VECs
Age group in years 25-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66-75

No. of members 14 (35%) 15(37.5%) 8(20%) 2(5%) 1(2.5%)
Children/wards in the families of was used. The term connotes members

the members of VEC and details of sons, daughters and children of
their education: their relatives (brother, sister etc.),
In this study, members of VECs were whose education is guarded by them
asked to report the details of children (members of VECs).
in their families between six and
Schooling of chairpersons
fourteen years of age and the children
children/wards
studying in Class I to Class VIII. As
joint families existed in the area of Out of 20 village heads (VHs) 19
study the term children in the family have children belonging to six to
fourteen (6-14) age group. Out of 19 Six VEC secretaries belonged to

VHs who have school-going children the SC caste. One had no ward in
only four were sending their wards to the family, four reported that their
Government school, one VH has sent wards were in government schools
his children in both type of schools and one had wards in both type of
and fourteen VHs were sending their schools. (Ages of the secretaries
wards to private schools. Among the who had children in their families
school going children from the families ranged between 42 and 61. Age
of village heads, some are commuting distribution shows that it is
a long distance for education, while the possible that secretaries might
government is providing school within have informed about the children
the range of one kilometre. Only the of their relatives not about their
wards of six VHs were studying in their own sons and daughters.)
own villages, three VHs wards were Three VEC secretaries were from
commuting 2-4 km daily and four VHs minority group (Muslim). Two had
wards were commuting 10-16 km daily. no wards in their families and one
While six VHs wards were studying 40- had nine wards of school going age
100 km away from their homes. Most in his family. All his wards were
of these children commuted in the attending private schools.
buses sent by private English medium
Guardian-members children
schools situated in the nearby towns.
Among 40 guardian members, two had
Schooling of children of VEC no children. Remaining 38 members
Secretaries and their school types: had children of 6-14 years age group
In this study, data related to the in their families:
schooling of children of secretaries of 1. Six members had one child of 6-14
VECs were collected from twenty Gram years age group in their families.
Panchayats. Five were sending their wards
Eight VEC secretaries belonged to Government school and
to general caste. Three had no One was sending his ward to
school going child in their families. private school.
Remaining five send their wards 2. Thirteen members were having two
to private schools. Most of those children in their family.
children were commuting 10 to 20 Nine members wards were in
km daily. government schools.
Three VEC Secretaries belonged to One member got his ward
OBC caste group. Among them one enrolled in private school at the
had no school going child in her distance of 3 km.
family. One had his wards studying Three members of VECs were
in private school. Another member sending their wards to both
reported sending his/her ward to type of schools (government
government school was of 59 years and private). Out of these three
old. members, two had one girl
and one boy in their families. One member, having six children,
Boys were going to private was sending them to both types of
schools and girls were going to schools. All three boys were in private
government schools. schools and girls were in both types of
3. Ten members of VECs had three schools.
children in their families: One VEC member had nine
children in his family, all three girls
Four members had their wards
were attending government school
in government schools.
and boys were attending both types of
Three had their wards in private
schools.
school.
Three members wards were Tenure of the members and school
going to both types of schools. type of children
Among these three members,
One person was a member of VEC
two were having one boy and
since last 15 years but all his wards
two girls. Boys of both members
were attending private school.
were attending private school. One person was guardian member
One was sending girls to of VEC since last ten years but his
government schools and other wards were not attending VEC-
was sending them to both types managed government schools.
of schools. One ward of these Three members were members of
members was commuting 15 VEC since last five years but all
km daily. their wards were attending private
Four members had four children schools.
of school-going age in their families. Remaining 35 members were
One was sending all his wards to sending their wards to government
government run school and three were schools or to both types of schools.
sending their wards to both types of Five members who were not sending
schools. Among the members who their wards to government schools
were using both types of schools for (VEC managed schools) were members
educating their children, two were of VECs against the government
having one girl child. One of the directions.
member's girl child was attending
private school and other was attending Caste and religion of the members
government school. School distance of and school types of their children
these four members wards were 0, 20, There were 11 general caste
50 and 2 km respectively. members, 6 out of these 11 got
Three members were having their wards enrolled in government
five school-going children in their schools, one in private school and
families. Two were sending all all of four in both types of schools. Among
them to government schools and one four members who sent their wards
was sending children to both types of to both types of schools, first had
schools. one boy in private school and one
girl in government school, second and one girl in private school;

member had one boy in private third members three boys were
school and two girls in government attending private schools and three
school, third member of VEC had girls were attending government
three boys in both types of schools schools and fourth member had six
and fourth member had four girls boys in both types of schools and
in both types of schools. three girls in government schools.
There were 11 VEC members Four members belonged to Muslim
belonging to OBC group. Seven community. Out of four only three
members had their wards in had school going children, first
government schools, one member members ward was in government
had her wards in private schools school, second members ward
and three members had their was in private school and third
wards in both types of schools. members wards (two boys) were in
Among three members who had both types of schools.
their wards in both type of schools, Thus the caste of the members does
first member had one boy in private not seem to affect the members of VECs
school and two girls in both types for their children. But the gender of the
of schools; second member had wards seems to be an affecting factor in
one boy in private school and one the choice of the schools of guardians,
girl in government school and third as many of the guardian members had
member had three boys in both chosen government schools for their
types of schools and one girl in girls and private schools for their boys.
private school. Overall five VEC guardian
Fourteen members belonged to members out of forty interviewed in
SC community. One member the block had no child attending the
had no children. Seven members government school managed by Village
had their children in government Education Committees. While under
schools. Two members had their the government rules and regulations
wards in private schools and four three guardian members of VEC must
members had their wards in both be the guardians of children studying
types of schools. The members who in the school. (U.P. 2000 as cited in
had their children in both types U.P.2006)
of schools, first had three boys in To conclude, it can be said that
both types of schools and one girl rules and regulations, under which
in government school; second had VECs were formed in Uttar Pradesh,
four boys in both types of schools were not observed strictly. There was
Table 7
School type of children of Guardian Members of VECs
Government Both types No child in
Private School Total
School of schools Family
21 5 12 2 40
no unanimity in the structures of from the families of president and

VECs. Ordinance says one VEC in secretaries and members of VECs were
one Gram Panchayat, but the VECs not attending the schools managed by
were formed in different ways, i.e., VECs which shows that the members
Gram Panchayat wise, village wise and of VECs were not interested in the
school-wise. Local needs were not taken good management of schools or believe
into account during the formation that these government schools are not
of VECs. Also, general meetings of providing proper educational facilities.
Gram Panchayat or meetings of all In four or five cases members of VECs
guardians of school children were not were sending their boys to private
conducted for the formation of VECs. schools and girls to government
Some members did not know that they schools. Only in one case a girl was
were still members of VEC (as also studying in private school and boys
found by Banerjee, Banerji, Duflo, were going to both types of schools.
Glennerster and Khemani, 2006 in a Children studying in lower classes were
study conducted in Jaunpur district, attending schools in their own villages
U.P.). Consequently local educational and children of upper classes were
needs were not fulfilled in the case of going to schools (private or government)
building construction, maintenance, in other villages which are thought to
and enrolment. VECs were not revived be better by their guardians. Affluent
annually or time to time. A few persons people of the block were sending all
were members of VECs whose children their wards (of all classed) to private
were not attending the school managed schools which were providing school
by VECs. No volunteer or member of buses. Therefore, we cannot hope
women self-help groups were included to seek the favour of whole village
beyond mandated five member community for better management of
structure. There was also variation in the government schools. The concept
the caste-based participation of the of decentralisation through community
members. In one VEC no candidate of participation still needs more efforts
SC community was included which was and voluntary involvement of the
against the norms. Most of the children people.
REFERENCES
BANERJEE, A. et al. 2006. Can information campaigns spark local participation and
improve outcomes? A study of primary education in Uttar Pradesh, India. (World
Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3967, July 2006). Accessed on 2-02-
2009. from http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/
IB/2006/07/12/00001640 6_20060712160926/Rendered/PDF/wps3967.pdf.
CABE [CENTRAL ADVISORY BOARD OF EDUCATION]. 1993. Report of the CABE committee on
Decentralised Management of Education. Department of Education, Ministry of
Human Resource Development, New Delhi.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 1992. The Constitution (Seventy Third Amendment) Act, 1992.
Accessed on 22 January, 2009. from http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/
amend73.htm
1992. The Constitution (Seventy ourth Amendment) Act, 1992. Accessed on 22
January, 2009 from http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7 .htm
1992. National Policy on Education 1986 (with modi cations underta en in 1992).
ew elhi: inistry of uman esource evelopment.
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E A rogramme ouncil. uc now.
200 . Sahyog: Gram Shiksha Samiti Hetu Nirdeshika. ttar rdesh E A rogram
ouncil. uc now.
MENON, PRAMILA. 1998. unctioning of illage Education ommittee: A Study of aryana
( esearch pro ect IE A 1998). E A, ew elhi.
VERGHESE, N.V. and S.M.I.A. ZAIDI. 1999. ocal odies and lanning for Education: a
Study of Aurangabad istrict. aharashtara ( esearch pro ect IE A 1999). E A,
ew elhi.
The Relationship between Students
Motivation to Learn and Teachers
Self-efficacy in Mathematics among
Secondary School Students in Kenya
MBUTHIA NGUNJIRI*
P. N. SINGH**
Abstract
This study focuses on the relationship between students' motivation to
learn and teachers' self-efficacy in mathematics. It was found that there is
a significant gender difference in motivation to learn mathematics, favouring
males. Students' motivation to learn did not differ significantly with respect to
locality. Teachers' self-efficacy in mathematics significantly contributed to the
prediction of motivation to learn mathematics. Mathematics teachers should
enhance students' motivation to learn especially for females. Teachers and
educators should place emphasis on awareness of sources and enhancement
strategies of teachers' sense of efficacy for students' success in mathematics.
In Kenya, greater emphasis is being to succeed in mathematics when

placed on industrial and technological compared to other subjects. Indeed,
development (KIE, 2002). As a result mathematics plays a fundamental
students are being encouraged to role in the life of human beings, and
take up science-related subjects. One life without mathematics is almost
subject that cuts across all sciences an impossibility (Cockcroft, 1982).
is mathematics. Mathematics is just Kenya relies, to a great extent, on
one among many subjects which are its human resource power to meet
included in the school curriculum, the challenges of the technological
yet there is great pressure for children developments, and a substantial
* Research Scholar, Faculty of Education, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.-220010

** Professor, Faculty of Education, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.-220010
core of mathematics is needed to motivation to learn (Brophy, 2004;

prepare students for their involvement Stipek, 1998). A motivated learner
in these challenges. Furthermore, strives to understand the subject
those students who understand matter, seeks challenges and persist
and can do mathematics will have on tasks even in the face of difficulties
significantly enhanced opportunities (Meece et al. 2006; Pajares and
and options for shaping their future Schunk, 2001). Furthermore, Bandura
(Bandura et al., 2001). In the move (1994) suggested that motivation can
towards scientific and technological manifest itself in various forms such
advancement, Kenya needs nothing as effort expended, persistence and
short of good performance in choice of activities.
mathematics at all levels of schooling. In Kenya, despite the poor
Unfortunately, the performance of performance in mathematics at the
students in mathematics at the end of end of secondary school education,
secondary education has not improved there is lack of information on the
in the past decade (KNEC Statistics, influence of teachers' self-efficacy in the
2009). Indeed, Middleton and Spanias learning of mathematics. Specifically,
(1999) indicated that children enjoy the influence of teachers' efficacy
mathematics in the primary grades, in motivation to learn mathematics
but this enjoyment tends to fall has received no attention. Skaalvik
drastically when children reach and Skaalvik (2010) defined teacher
secondary school. efficacy as teacher's beliefs in the
Several factors cause poor ability to plan, organise, and carry
performance in mathematics such as, out activities required to attain given
negative attitude towards the subject, educational goals. More specifically, it
lack of interest in the subject, use of is the confidence that a teacher holds
traditional methods of teaching and so about his/her individual and collective
on. According to Tella (2007), of all the responsibility to influence student
personal and psychological variables learning (Klassen et al., 2010). Bandura
that have attracted researchers, (1986, 1994, 1997) identified four
motivation seems to be gaining more sources that impact personal efficacy.
popularity and leading other variables. They are (i) mastery experiences,
Therefore, the issue of motivation of (ii) vicarious experiences, (iii) verbal
students and the impact on academic persuasions, and (iv) physiological/
performance is considered as an emotional states.
important aspect of effective learning. Teacher self-efficacy has been
Infact, psychologists believe that found to be one of the important
motivation is a necessary ingredient in variables influencing positive teaching
learning (Biehler and Snowman, 1997; behaviour and student outcomes. It
Brophy, 2004; Huitt, 2001; Ormrod, is strongly related to job satisfaction
2006; Stipek, 1998). It is believed that and students' achievement (Caprara
satisfactory school learning is unlikely et al., 2006) and affects the efforts
to take place in the absence of sufficient teachers invest in teaching, the goals
The Relationship between Students Motivation to... 83
they set, and their levels of aspiration (i) motivation to learn vary with
(Tschannen-Moran and Hoy, 2001). respect to gender and locality, and
Among other things, efficacious (ii) teachers' self-efficacy makes a
teachers plan more (Bembenutty, significant contribution to the
2007; Gibbs, 2002), persist longer with prediction of motivation to learn
students who struggle (Tschannen- mathematics among secondary
Moran and Hoy, 2001), are less critical school students in Kenya.
of students who make errors and work
longer with low ability students (Hoy Null Hypotheses
and Davis 2006). According to Bruce (All hypotheses are tested at 0.05 level
et al. (2010), generally it appears of significance).
that students learn more from high
H01 : There is no significant gender
efficacious teachers when compared
difference in motivation to learn
to what they learn from those teachers
mathematics among secondary
whose sense of efficacy is low.
school students.
In the present study, it is
hypothesised that students' motivation H02 : There is no significant difference
to learn is related to teachers' self- in motivation to learn between
efficacy in mathematics. The four rural and urban secondary
dimensions of motivation to learn, school students.
which are the focus of this study are: H03 : There is no significant
(i) attention, (ii) relevance, (iii) contribution of teachers' self-
confidence or expectancy for success efficacy to motivation to learn
and (iv) satisfaction (Brophy, 2004; mathematics among secondary
Driscoll, 2005; Keller, 1999, 2006). school students.
Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998)
suggested that the major influences Method
on efficacy beliefs about teaching are The descriptive survey method was
cognitive interpretations of the four used in the study.
sources of self-efficacy information as
described by Bandura (1986, 1994, Sample
1997). These sources of efficacy and The subjects for the study were drawn
other strategies for enhancing teacher from twenty four randomly selected
efficacy as suggested in this study can public secondary schools from Nakuru
be more effective if the relationship County Region of Kenya. Simple random
between students' motivation to sampling was used in the selection of
learn and teachers' self-efficacy is schools. The sample included students
established. In Kenya, such empirical from boys schools, girls schools and
evidence is lacking and hence the need mixed schools. In all, a total of 493
for this study. secondary Form Four students (256
The purpose of this study is to males and 237 females) were randomly
determine whether: selected from the sample classes.
Instrumentation reported to be valid, the instruments

In carrying out the study, the Students' were found to be adequate for testing
Motivation to Learn Mathematics (MTL) purposes. They were subsequently
scale (Keller, 2006), and Teacher's administered to the subjects at the
Self-Efficacy in mathematics (TSE) second term (May to July, 2011) of the
scale (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2010) academic session in Kenya.
were used. The MTL consisted of 34
Data Analysis
items. Twenty five items are positively
worded and nine items are negatively The t-test, Pearson's correlation
worded. The items were scored on a coefficient (r) and ANOVA were used for
five-point scale from strongly disagree data analysis.
(=1) to strongly agree (=5). Keller (2006)
Results
reported on alpha reliability of 0.95 for
the scale. The TSE scale consisted of 24 The results are presented in the
items. The scale has six-subscales. All following tables:
the items are presented in the form of The result of the t-test (Table 1)
positive statements, and the responses indicates that there is a significant
were scored on an 11-point scale difference between male and female
(Bandura, 2006) from 0 (the lowest) students in motivation to learn
to 10 (the highest). The cronbach's mathematics, favouring males (HO1 is
alpha coefficients for the subscales rejected).
were 0.83, 0.90, 0.83, 0.91, 0.77 and The result of the t-test (Table 2) indi-
0.81 respectively. On the basis of the cates that there is no significant difference
magnitude of the reliability coefficients between rural and urban students in
of the two scales, which were also motivation to learn mathematics (HO2).
Table 1
t-test of the mean scores of male and female students
in motivation to learn mathematics
S.No. Gender N Mean SD t-value p-value significance

1 Male 256 129.70 14.71
3.172 0.002 S*
2 Female 237 125.33 15.92
df = 491, Table-value of t = 1.96, S* = Significant at 0.05 level.
Table 2
t-test of the mean scores of rural and urban students
in motivation to learn mathematics
S.No. Locality N Mean SD t-value p-value significance

1 Urban 283 127.5618 15.41
-0.064 0.949 NS
2 Rural 210 127.6524 15.51
df = 491, Table-value of t = 1.96, NS = Not significant
Table 3
Simple regression of students' motivation to learn on teachers'
self-efficacy in mathematics of total sample (N = 493)
Dependent df p- Significance
r r2 Constant F
variable k N-k-1 value (F)
Motivation
1 0.187 0.035 106.363 1 491 17.70 0.000 S
to learn
Independent beta regression p- Significance
-
variable () coefficient value ()
Teacher
1 0.187 0.114 - 0.000 S
self-efficacy
S = Significant at 0.05 level., df = degrees of freedom
The results in Table 3 show that techniques (based on Keller's ARCS

F-value from ANOVA was significant model) that can be applied to classroom
at 0.05 level. Teachers' self-efficacy or similar settings in an effort to
explained 3.5 per cent of variance promote academic achievement. The
in motivation to learn mathematics. techniques are: begin the lesson by
The result of the F-ratio indicate that telling students what you want to
there is a significant contribution of accomplish, make students set short
teachers' self-efficacy to the prediction term goals, use spoken or written
of motivation to learn mathematics of praise, use test and grades judiciously,
total sample (HO3 is rejected). capitalise on the arousal of suspense,
discovery, curiosity, exploration,
Discussion control and fantasy, use familiar
From the analysis of data, it was found materials for examples, make students
that students' motivation to learn use what they have previously
mathematics was moderate. There was learned, use simulation and games,
a significant difference between male minimise unpleasant consequences of
and female students in motivation to student involvement and so on. These
learn, favouring males. This agrees techniques could be easily applied
with the finding of Tella (2007), who or integrated in the mathematics
indicated that motivation has an impact classroom. Therefore, teachers need
on academic achievement of secondary to conduct activities during class
school students in mathematics and time that would develop enthusiasm
that boys reported a significantly in mathematics, thus enhancing
higher (p < 0.05) motivation than students' motivation in learning
girls. Meece et al. (2006) argued that mathematics. Special attention must
when students are motivated, they also be given to female students so as to
persist longer on tasks, conquer more reduce the gap in motivation between
challenges, and achieve more in their male and female students. It was also
academic endeavours. observed that motivation to learn did
Driscoll (2005) and Keller (1999) not significantly vary with respect to
have provided the motivational locality, and this is remarkable.
The results also revealed that there teachers with a range of experiences in
is a positive significant correlation different social contexts, (ii) providing
between motivation to learn and teachers with strategies to deal with
teachers' self-efficacy in mathematics. student failure and help them analyse
This means that any increase in specific aspect of their teaching so that
teachers' efficacy in mathematics they can identify the sources of their
is associated with a corresponding sense of inefficacy, (iii) analyse the
increase in students' motivation to differences between teaching efficacy
learn mathematics. Furthermore, it and personal teaching efficacy in order
was found that teachers' self-efficacy to determine needs of various teachers,
made a significant contribution to the (iv) develop school programmes to
prediction of students' motivation to help new teachers deal with the role
learn mathematics. These findings transition from student teaching to
correspond with the claim that full-time classroom instruction, (v)
teachers' self-efficacy beliefs are providing teachers with accurate
significantly related to students' feedback regarding their performance,
achievement (Caprara et al. 2006; (vi) assessing the social norms and
incentive in the school organisation
Singh, 2010). The implication that
that may enhance or impede teachers'
arises is that mathematics teachers
organisational involvement, (vii)
should be aware of the sources of
evaluating administrative leadership
efficacy that influence teacher efficacy.
styles to determine how they may
Bruce et al. (2010) posits that the
affect teacher involvement in
four sources that influence teacher
decision making, (viii) encouraging
efficacy are: (i) mastery experiences
collegial approaches to personal and
(i.e., direct teaching experiences organisational problem solving, and
that are challenging but successful), (ix) providing teachers with skills and
vicarious experiences (i.e., watching opportunities to interact more effectively
peer teachers of similar ability teach with parents. These strategies can help
challenging ideas with success), (iii) teachers improve their efficacy beliefs
verbal persuasions (i.e., receiving about teaching, which appears to be
positive feedback from students, related to motivation and achievement
peer teachers and superiors, and in mathematics.
(iv) emotional states (i.e., feelings of
success and confidence). The resultant Conclusion
efficacy judgments influence the goals The findings of this study showed
teachers set for themselves, the effort that male students had a significantly
they invest in teaching to achieve these better motivation to learn mathematics
goals, and their persistence when facing than female students. Therefore,
difficulties. Furthermore, Dembo and mathematics teachers should put
Gibson (1985) suggested strategies for more effort to ensure that both boys
enhancing teachers' sense of efficacy. and girls are equally motivated.
These are: (i) providing preservice There was no significant difference
in motivation to learn mathematics school students. Therefore, it emerges

between rural and urban students that teachers' self-efficacy plays an
and this is remarkable. Teachers' important part in the development
self-efficacy significantly contributed of students' motivation to learn
to the prediction of motivation to mathematics among secondary school
learn mathematics among secondary students in Kenya.
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teaching of mathematics in schools. HMS , ondon.
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5E Model in Science Classroom
A Shift towards Constructivism
ANIL KUMAR JAIN*
SHWETA BHARDWAJ**
Abstract
Learning by doing is the essence of science and for science classroom,
constructivism seems promising learning philosophy. Constructivism is the
buzz word of learner-centred education, today we find textbooks structured
on the philosophy of constructivism. Unfortunately, the type of pedagogical
approach students facing in science classrooms is still old fashioned,
behaviouristic one. Science teacher is an important person in structuring and
guiding students understanding of living in the changing world. They play the
role of facilitator and help students to bridge between nature of science and
inquiry practices. They also need to learn new ways of pedagogical sciences to
promote scientific literacy based on inquiry-oriented classroom. For practising
constructivist methods in science classrooms, there is need to restructure
the curriculum of teacher education and to orient pre-service and in-service
teachers towards using these constructivist strategies in classroom. In our
country still prospective science teachers are practising their teaching based
on contemporary teaching models of Herbart, Bloom indirectly emphasising
behaviourism. These teachers use the oldest and the most traditional approach,
deductive reasoning that focuses on the content of the science organised from
general concepts to particular concepts, with less emphasis on the development
of skills. Teachers need to change their lesson plan format from behaviourist
to constructivist one. Several studies have shown that instructions based on
5E model has positive impact on academic achievement and attitude towards
learning among students. In the light of these, in the present paper, the
authors attempt to enlighten the 5E model based on constructivism and tries
to comprehend its usage in our science classrooms for better understanding of
scientific concepts.
* Reader in Education Department, Vidyabhawan GS Teachers College, Udaipur

** Assistant Professor, Government Degree College, Sambhal, Bhimnagar (U.P.)
Introduction to learn and they develop higher-order

Today school science curricula are thinking skills. The main objective of
commonly placed on a continuum from this instructional application is to
textbook-centred to teacher-centred improve student knowledge outcomes
and the textbook is the vehicle that through the creation of a more
drives the teaching. The present effective learning community which
science textbooks are restructured may more accurately reflect real-
on the guidelines of constructivism life employment settings. Student-
philosophy. Constructivist teaching based instructional models have
offers a bold departure from traditional been linked to greater learning gains
objectivist classroom strategies. The (Blumberg, 2008), greater student
goal is to make the learner play an active autonomy (Bruton, 2005), and greater
role in assimilating knowledge onto student opportunities for leadership
his/her existing mental framework. The (Gressick and Derry, 2008). The 5E
ability of students to apply their school- Model/5E Learning Cycle is an inquiry
learned knowledge to the real world is approach originating with the Science
valued over memorising bits and pieces Curriculum Improvement Study.
of knowledge that may seem unrelated Robert Karplus and his colleagues
to them. The constructivist approach based the learning cycle format
requires the teacher to relinquish his/ on Piagets cognitive development
her role as sole information-dispenser principles. Students learn through
and instead, to continually analyse their own involvement and actionthe
his/her curriculum planning and goal is to allow students apply previous
instructional methodologies. Clearly, knowledge, develop interests, and
the constructivist approach opens initiate and maintain a curiosity toward
new avenues for learning as well as the materials at hand (Trowbridge and
challenges for the teacher trying to Bybee, 1990).
implement it. The findings of several studies
Research in science education suggest that the Biological Science
indicates that an effective method Curriculum Study (BSCS) 5E
of teaching includes the use of Instructional Model is effective than
constructivist learning theory alternative teaching methods in
to promote student learning. helping students reach important
Constructivist theory allows students learning outcomes in science.
to construct their own knowledge For example, several comparative
about a concept by integrating their studies suggest that the BSCS 5E
prior knowledge views with new Instructional Model is more effective
information that is being presented. than alternative approaches at helping
Through this method of instruction, students master science subject
student learning is inquiry-based, as matter (for example, Akar, 2005;
students are more actively engaged in Coulson, 2002). Coulson (2002) also
doing science, they are more motivated explored how varying levels of fidelity
5E Model in Science Classroom: a Shift towards Constructivism 91
to the BSCS 5E model affected student published a study that compared

learning. Coulson found that students a class in which the traditional
whose teachers taught with medium (lecture) methodology was used with
or high levels of fidelity to the BSCS 5E Learning Cycle method. The exam
5E Instructional Model experienced grades were much higher for the class
learning gains that were nearly double that used constructivist methodology.
when compared to students whose In addition to the test scores, the
teachers did not use the model or used experimental group had a high energy
it with low levels of fidelity. However, level and gave positive feedback
some studies indicated that the BSCS on the course. It also enhances
5E Instructional Model had a positive teachers classroom behaviors.
effect on scientific reasoning (Boddy, Bevenino, Dengel and Adams (1999)
2003) and on interest and attitudes have explored 5E Learning Cycle
toward science (Akar, 2005; Boddy, approach and concluded that 5E
2003; Tinnin, 2001). One study Learning Cycle approach encourage
reported a decrease in understanding students to develop their own frames
of the nature of science among middle of thought and it is effective in the
school students who used field- classroom. Balci, and Tekkaya (2003)
test curriculum materials based on investigated the effects of the 5E
the BSCS 5E Instructional Model Learning Cycle, conceptual change
(Meichtry, 1991). Given the novel and texts, and traditional instructions on
unfinished nature of the field-test 8th grade students understanding
curriculum materials, these results of photosynthesis and respiration
should probably be considered in the in plants. The results showed
light of Coulsons (2002) findings about statistically significant difference
the impact of fidelity of use on learning between the experimental and control
gains, described previously. groups in the favour of experimental
Marek, Eubanks and Gallaher groups after treatment. However,
(1990) examined the relationship no statistically significant difference
that exits between high school between two experimental groups
science teachers understanding of (5E versus conceptual change text
the Piagetian developmental model instruction) was found. Castori, Davis;
of intelligence, its inherent teaching (2006) looked at the relationship
procedure the 5E Learning Cycle between the use of teaching strategies
and classroom teaching practices. consistent with the Constructivist
The teachers who exhibited a sound Learning Model (CLM) in secondary
understanding of the Piagetian model science classrooms and the attitudes
of intelligence and the learning cycle of students toward science and found
were able to successfully integrate a significant increase in positive
their students laboratory experiences students attitudes toward science.
with class discussions to construct Orgill and Thomas (2007) described
science concepts. Caprio (1994) the use of analogies for each of the
steps of the 5E model. They argued activities in this section captures

analogies motivate and help students the students attention, stimulates
visualise abstract concepts by their thinking, and helps them
comparing a familiar concept or the access prior knowledge. Exploration:
analog with a new concept referred Students are given time to think, plan,
to as the target. Cardak, Dikmenli investigate, and organise collected
and Saritas (2008) studied about the information. Explanation: Students
Effect of 5E instructional model in are now involved in an analysis of their
student success in primary school explorations. Their understanding
6th year circulatory system topic and is clarified and modified because
a significant difference between post of reflective activities. Elaboration:
test score of control and experimental This section gives students the
group has been found. Pirasa, Tirgil opportunity to expand and solidify
and Tekbiyik (2008) studied about the their understanding of the concept
effect of learning environment with and/or apply it to a real world
5E Model and Dynamic Geometry situation. Evaluation: Evaluation
Software Cabri on Learning Levels. It is occurs throughout the lesson. The
concluded that, activities developed for teacher should observe students
Cabri as to 5E model, affect students knowledge and skills along with their
learning positively and improve their application of new concepts and a
thinking abilities. change in thinking. Designed primarily
by science educators for secondary
What is 5E Model? science teaching, the 5E model has a
In 1997 (BSCS) Biological Science classic constructivist structure.
Curriculum Study (Colorado), a In 5E Model initial phase is
team whose Principal Investigator is designed to engage the learners prior
Roger Bybee, received a grant from knowledge and final phase, to evaluate
IBM to conduct a design study that the students understanding. 5E
would produce specifications for a Instructional Model, or the 5Es, consists
new science and health curriculum of the following phases: engagement,
for elementary schools. Among the exploration, explanation, elaboration,
innovations that resulted from this and evaluation. Each phase has a
design study was the BSCS 5E specific function and contributes to
Instructional Model for constructivism, the teachers coherent instruction
called the Five Es. The BSCS and to the learners formulation of a
model has five phases: engagement, better understanding of scientific and
exploration, explanation, elaboration, technological knowledge, attitudes,
and evaluation. Engagement: The and skills (see Figure 1).
Learners knowledge is accessed and engages

students in a new concept through the use of
short activities that promote curiosity and elicit
prior knowledge, holding connections between
ENGAGEMENT
past and present learning experiences, expose
prior conceptions, and organize students
thinking toward the learning outcomes of
current activities.
Students are provided with experiences having a

common base of activities within which current
concepts (i.e., misconceptions), processes, and
skills are identified and conceptual change is
ELABORATION facilitated. Learners may complete lab activities
that help them use prior knowledge to generate
new ideas, explore questions and possibilities,
and design and conduct a preliminary
investigation.
5E MODEL
Focus students attention on a particular aspect
of their engagement and exploration experiences
and provides opportunities to demonstrate
EXPLANATION their conceptual understanding, process
skills, or behaviours. Learners explain their
understanding of the concept. An explanation
from the teacher or the curriculum may guide
them toward a deeper understanding.
Teachers challenge and extend students

conceptual understanding and skills. Through
new experiences, the students develop deeper
EXPLORATION and broader understanding, more information,
and adequate skills. Students apply their
understanding of the concept by conducting
additional activities
The evaluation phase encourages students

to assess their understanding and abilities
EVALUATION and provides opportunities for teachers to
evaluate student progress towards achieving the
educational objectives.
Figure 1: Outline of BSCS 5E Model (Source: Bybee et, al. 2006)

The model use the work of Jean more accurate conception. In sum, the
Piaget (Piaget and Inhelder, 1969; students construction of knowledge
Piaget, 1975) and subsequent can be assisted by using sequences of
research consistent with the Piagetian lessons designed to challenge current
theory, specifically the focus of conceptions and provide time and
cognitive sciences and the work on opportunities for reconstruction to
misconceptions, the difference between occur.
novice and expert explanations In summary, the BSCS 5E
of phenomena, and naive versus Instructional Model, is grounded
canonical theories. in sound educational theory, has a
Briefly, the theory underlying growing base of research to support its
BSCS 5Es views learning as dynamic effectiveness, and has had a significant
and interactive. Individuals redefine, impact on science education. While
reorganise elaborate, and change encouraging, these conclusions
their initial concepts through indicate that it is important to conduct
interaction with their environment, research on the effectiveness of the
other individuals, or both. The learner model, including when and how it is
interprets objects and phenomena and used, and continue to refine the model
internalises the interpretation in terms based on direct research and related
of the current experience encountered. research on learning. To ensure that
To change and improve conceptions, it the materials have the greatest chance
is necessary to challenge the students of being implemented in the way they
current conceptions and showing were intended and to honour the
them to be incomplete or inadequate. integrity of the 5Es, BSCS developed
If a current conception is challenged, two charts that explicitly show the
there must be opportunity, in the form salient characteristics of each stage of
of time and experiences, to develop a the 5Es (see Tables 1 and 2).
Table 1
The BSCS 5E Instructional Model: What the Student Does
(Source: Bybee et al. 2006)
Stage of the The BSCS 5E Instructional Model: What the Student Does
Instructional
Model That Is Consistent with
That Is Inconsistent with This Model
This Model
Asks questions such as, Why did Asks for the right answer
this happen? What do I already Offers the right answer
Engagement know about this? What can I find Seeks one solution
out about this?
Shows interest in the topic
Thinks freely, within the limits of Lets others do the thinking and
the activity exploring (passive involvement)
Tests predictions and hypotheses Plays around indiscriminately
Forms new predictions and with no goal in mind
hypotheses Stops with one solution
Exploration
Tries alternatives and discusses
them with others
Suspends judgment
Records observations and ideas
Asks related questions
Explains possible solutions or Proposes explanations from thin
answers to others air with no relationship to previous
Listens critically to others experiences
explanations Brings up irrelevant experiences
Questions others explanations and examples
Listens to and tries to comprehend Accepts explanations without
explanations that the teacher justification
offers Does not attend to other plausible
Explanation
Refers to previous activities explanations
Uses recorded observations in
explanations
Assesses own understanding
Applies new labels, definitions, Plays around with no goal in mind
explanations, and skills in new Ignores previous information or
but similar situations evidence
Uses previous information to ask Draws conclusions from thin air
questions, propose solutions, In discussion, uses only those
make decisions, and design labels that the teacher provided
Elaboration experiments
Draws reasonable conclusions
from evidence
Records observations and
explanations
Checks for understanding among
peers
Answers open-ended questions by Draws conclusions, not using
using observations, evidence, and evidence or previously accepted
previously accepted explanations explanations
Demonstrates an understanding Offers only yes-or-no answers
Evaluation or knowledge of the concept or and memorised definitions or
skill explanations as answers
Evaluates his or her own progress Fails to express satisfactory
and knowledge explanations in his or her own
words
Table 2.
The BSCS 5E Instructional Model: What the Teacher Does
(Source: Bybee et al. 2006)
Stage of the The BSCS 5E Instructional Model: What the Teacher Does
Instructional
Model That Is Consistent with
That Is Inconsistent with This Model
This Model
Creates interest Explains concepts

Generates curiosity Provides definitions and answers
Raises questions States conclusions
Elicits responses that uncover Provides closure
Engagement
what the students know or think Lectures
about the concept or topic
Encourages the students to work Provides answers

together without direct instruction Tells or explains how to work
from the teacher through the problem
Observes and listens to the Provides closure
students as they interact Directly tells the students that
Asks probing questions to redirect they are wrong
the students investigations when Gives information or facts that
Exploration necessary solve the problem
Provides time for the students to Leads the students step by step to
puzzle through problems a solution
Acts as a consultant for students
Creates a need to know setting
Encourages the students to Accepts explanations that have no

explain concepts and definitions justification
in their own words Neglects to solicit the students
Asks for justification (evidence) explanations
and clarification from students Introduces unrelated concepts or
Formally clarifies definitions, skills
explanations, and new labels
when needed
Explanation Uses students previous
experiences as the basis for
explaining concepts
Assesses students growing
understanding
Expects the students to use Provides definitive answers

formal labels, definitions and Directly tells the students that
explanations provided previously they are wrong
Encourages the students to apply Lectures
or extend the concepts and skills Leads students step by step to a
in new situations solution
Elaboration
Reminds the students of alternate Explains
explanations
Refers the students to existing data
and evidence and asks, What do
you already know? Why do you
think ?
Observes the students as they Draws conclusions, not using

apply new concepts and skills evidence Tests vocabulary words,
Assesses students knowledge and terms, and isolated facts
skills Introduces new ideas or concepts
Looks for evidence that the Creates ambiguity
students have changed their Promotes open-ended discussion
thinking or behaviours unrelated words
Evaluation Allows students to assess their
own learning and group-process
skills
Asks open-ended questions such
as, Why do you think ? What
evidence do you have? What do
you know about x? How would
you explain x?
How to Prepare a Lesson based on Exploration

5E Model Describe what hands-on/minds-on
In order to use the model in science activities students will be doing.
classroom the teacher need to prepare List big idea conceptual questions
a lesson plan based on it. For this, the teacher will use to encourage
following things need to be kept in and/or focus students exploration.
mind for planning activities at each
phase. Explanation
Student explanations should
Engagement precede introduction of terms
Describe how the teacher will or explanations by the teacher.
capture students interest. What questions or techniques will
What kind of questions should the the teacher use to help students
students ask themselves after the connect their exploration to the
engagement? concept under examination?
List higher order thinking questions these conclusions indicate the need to
which teachers will use to solicit conduct research on the effectiveness
student explanations and help of the model, including when and
them to justify their explanations. how it is used, and continue to refine
the model based on direct research
Elaboration
and related research on learning.
Describe how students will The research base around the BSCS
develop a more sophisticated 5E Instructional Model should be
understanding of the concept. elaborated on through additional
What vocabulary will be introduced studies that compare its effect on
and how will it connect to students mastery of subject matter, scientific
observations? reasoning, and interest and attitudes
How is this knowledge applied in
with other modes of instruction. The five
our daily lives?
phases of the BSCS 5E Instructional
Evaluation Model are designed to facilitate the
process of conceptual change. The
How will students demonstrate
that they have achieved the lesson use of this model brings coherence to
objective? different teaching strategies, provides
This should be embedded connections among educational
throughout the lesson as well as at activities, and helps science teachers
the end of the lesson. make decisions about interactions
with students.
Conclusion There is need to introduce the
The BSCS 5E Instructional Model concept of this model and other
is grounded in sound educational constructivist strategies in teacher
theory, has a growing base of research education curriculum so that we can
to support its effectiveness, and has produce competent constructivist
had a significant impact on science teachers to meet the challenging
education. Although encouraging, demands of present day.
Example: (Classroom Process Plan Based on 5E Model)

Topic - Diffusion (Grade IX)
ENGAGE
In this phase the teacher will ask some thought-provoking questions in order to capture
students interest and to increase their level of curiosity towards the topic.
1. Placing three balls in triangular 3. How salt gets dissolved in water?

pattern the teacher will ask- What 4. What do we call a phenomenon
do you find in between these balls? where particles of two matters mix
2. Placing a chalk piece in the with each other?
spaces between balls the teacher 5. Among solid and liquid states
will ask where is this chalk piece which state has larger spaces
placed? among particles?
6. Among solid and liquid states temperature and rate of diffusion?

which has higher rate of diffusion? Do we have to search answers to
7. What is the relation between these questions?
EXPLORATION
In this phase students will perform some activities and try to find out the answers of
questions asked in the previous phase. Students will be divided into four groups and
each group has to go to a workstation which is preplanned. At each workstation students
will find a format of activity to be performed and its required materials. Students will
perform that activity and try to find out different scientific facts involved in the activity.
After working on a workstation each group will interchange their workstation.
Workstation I c. Now ask four students to put on

Materials Required caps tagged salt and ask them to
go inside the square.
Chalk, scale, few students, etc.
d. Observe carefully and note down
Format of Activity the conclusions.
a. Make three squares of one metre
square on the floor. Workstation III
b. Ask six students to stand in the Materials Required
first square holding their hands. Scentsticks, match box etc.
Make sure no student comes out of
the boundaries. Format of Activity
c. Similarly ask four students to a. Place scent stick in the corner of
stand inside the second square the classroom.
and two students inside the third b. Ask a student to smell its fragrance.
square. c. Now with a matchstick light it
d. Ask students of all squares to move up and ask students to smell its
in their square without crossing fragrance.
the boundaries. d. Observe carefully and pen down
e. Write down whatever you have the conclusions.
observed.
Workstation IV
Workstation II
Materials Required
Materials Required
Chalk, scale, four caps tagged salt, A glass of warm water, a glass of
eight caps tagged water, twelve cold water, crystals of potassium
students etc. permanganate.
Format of Activity Format of Activity

a. Make one square of 4 m2 on floor. a. Put a crystal of potassium
b. Ask eight students to stand inside permanganate in both glasses of
the square after wearing caps warm water and cold water. Do not
tagged water. disturb the glass.
b. Let the crystal settle on the bottom c. Observe carefully and pen down
of the glass. the conclusions.
EXPLANATION
In this phase, students, on the basis of observation, will try to explain different concepts
under consideration.
a. Each group will discuss their their experience with the scientific
results. concepts.
b. After this students will watch a c. After watching presentations
power point presentation based on students will again discuss about
diffusion so that they can relate their findings.
ELABORATION
In this phase students will have in depth knowledge about the concepts and use scientific
dictionary to explain.
In this phase students will be from a considerable distance while to

divided in to two groups. Each group inhale the smell of cold meal we have
will be given a pre-planned topic. The to go nearer. Why?
students will have to derive conclusions
on the topics after inter and intra- Topic 1
group discussions. How does the whole water in a glass
turns colourful when we drop a single
Topic 1 drop of colour in that?
You can inhale the smell of hot meal
EVALUATION
In this phase, the students will demonstrate that they have well acquired the objectives
of the lesson by answering the questions and the teacher will also make sure of the same.
1. Explain the process of diffusion topic in the classroom and present

with a live example? the conclusions.
2. Why the rate of diffusion increases How aquatic animals get oxygen in
with temperature? Discuss the water for respiration?
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Teaching-learning in EVS through
Integrated Approach in Early Grades
Perceptions and Awareness of Teachers
KAVITA SHARMA*
LEISANGTHEM BINITA DEVI**
Abstract
Environmental Studies (EVS) is aimed at developing the knowledge, attitude,
commitments and skills amongst all, especially the future generations, to
enable them work towards the solution of current problems and the prevention
of new ones. The National Policy on Education (NPE, 1986) and subsequent
Curriculum Frameworks brought out by the NCERT, highlighted the need for
including environmental concerns at all levels of schooling. According to NCF-
2005, at the primary level, EVS should be a separate curricular area in Classes
III-V. However in Classes I and II, the environmental skills and concerns need
to be addressed through Language and Mathematics. This paper highlights the
importance of integrated learning in EVS, and perceptions and awareness of
the teachers teaching Language and Mathematics in Classes I and II.
Prior to the year 2000, Environmental clear-cut distinction between natural

Studies at the entire primary stage and social environment. In Classes I
was taught in two distinct parts and II, it was not kept as a curricular
Science and Social Studies in Classes area and environmental concerns
III-V. Integrated approach for EVS were addressed through Language,
curriculum at the primary stage was Mathematics and Art of Healthy and
adopted by NCF-2000, wherein, it Productive Living.
recommended that in Classes III-V, NCF-2005, while supporting the
children would be introduced to the continuation and further strengthening
environment in its totality with no of the integrated approach for
* Assistant Professor, DEE, NCERT, New Delhi

** Project Consultant, NUEPA, New Delhi
Teaching-Learning in EVS through Integrated Approach... 103
Environmental Studies during the activities with their hands/bodies.

primary years, recommends it as a Inculcation of different skills among
separate subject for Classes III-V. the children helps create a sound base
Accordingly, the syllabi of EVS at these for the concept formation in different
levels bring insights from sciences, curricular areas at a later stage.
social studies and environmental Keeping in view their abilities, it is
education. In early grades, at Classes important to emphasise that Language
I and II it recommends that the and Mathematics for children in early
environmental issues and concerns grades should be transacted in a
will be transacted through the two joyful, value based and action-oriented
essential curricular areas Language manner so as to develop an attitude
and Mathematics. of the learners and sensitise them
towards various issues and concerns
Learning in Early Grades of environment.
The NCF-2005 states that during
the early childhood years the, childs Integrated Perspective of Curricular
interests and priorities must direct Areas
learning. It should be contextualised NCF-2005 states that at the pre-
by her/his experiences rather than primary stage, all learning occurs
being structured formally. An enabling through play rather than through
environment for children would be didactic communication. Thus, instead
that which is rich in stimulation and of rote learning, children need to learn
experiences, and allows children and understand mathematics in their
to explore, experiment and freely context. Mathematics learning should
express themselves. We know enable children to acquire knowledge
that learning is always holistic as and skills of learning that include
children do not construct knowledge literacy, numeracy, reasoning, logical
in a compartmentalised manner, thinking, problem solving, critical
but observe and understand their thinking. It should also enable them
surroundings in totality. At primary to access relevant information so as to
stage, children should be engaged in apply it meaningfully to help them solve
joyful exploration of the world around. day-to-day problems. Recognising the
To nurture the curiosity among them, fact that mathematics is all around
they should be engaged in exploratory us, the process of its teaching learning
and hands on activities. The children should therefore be contextual
between the ages of four and seven and relate to a childs immediate
begin to identify the characteristics environment and experiences
of different objects, make functional associated with it. Further, the skills
correlation between them and learn by identified for mathematics also overlap
understanding the context. They are with that of EVS, that, one wonders
curious by nature and love to explore how the two curricular areas are
and raise questions. They also love to different. It is essentially the concepts
play and work together, doing different of Mathematics and the concerns in
EVS related to natural, social, physical for teaching-learning of Language

and cultural environment that make and Mathematics are that of the EVS
these two curricular areas distinct by themselves. Therefore, in order to
from each other. promote learning, emphasis should
We also know that language is an be given on the following for taking
effective tool for communication, and care of the environmental component
listening, speaking, reading and writing through languages and mathematics.
are its important skills. Very few of us The teacher should:
also know that minute observation, Provide scaffolding to the child
classification, expression, discussion, for constructive interaction with
questioning, estimation, thinking, her/his environment to facilitate
memorisation, creativity and problem the processes of assimilation and
solving are also an important part of accommodation for the child to
language learning and are nurtured build a mental representation.
through it which are otherwise Provide greater opportunities to
considered to be the dominance explore the physical and social
of EVS. Moreover, the content of environment around children
language doesnt come from vacuum, through active learning and
but our surroundings form the base play-based experiences, which
for it. On a whole, one may conclude, will nurture their curiosity and
language includes all processes related encourage habits of questioning
to other disciplines in it. In day-to- and experimentation.
day life, language is a pre-requisite Develop of psychomotor skills by
to peep-in, inquire and understand keeping diversity in activities to
other subjects. It is an essential accommodate individual abilities
component for any discipline to exist. and skills of children.
Thus, development of knowledge and Emphasise pre-number concepts,
language is simultaneous and these such as patterns, colours, size
two are inseparable. and distance etc., to facilitate
Hence, there should be a development of skills of observation,
second thought that Language and comparison and interpretations in
Mathematics teaching-learning should the later years.
project environmental concerns. In addition to providing
A careful observation will reveal opportunities through group work
that Language and Mathematics and peer learning to children, they
are essential tools to explain the must be exposed to the rich sources
interaction and mutual relationship of knowledge, i.e. their elders and
between natural processes and human community as well.
activities. Language and Mathematics
have an important role to play in learning Rationale of the Paper
of EVS, Arts, Health and Physical Thus we can say that, sensitivity for the
Education and other disciplines. environment is an important concern of
Therefore, different activities designed the curriculum which can be nurtured
and promoted through integrated region were selected for administering

perspective of various subjects. this questionnaire. Each teacher
Different environmental concerns that was given sixty minutes to fill up
are true to all stages, from pre primary the questionnaire. There were eight
stage onwards include: items in the questionnaire, question
Relationships between natural, no.1, 2 and 4 dealt with some general
social, physical and cultural information, two questions (no.5 and
environment. 6) were to assess their awareness and
Conservation (preservation and three questions (no.3, 7 and 8) were
improvement) of natural resources, related to the perceptions of these
culture and heritage, and public teachers. Each teacher was asked to
property. design one learning situation each
Safety, security, health and hygiene for the four mathematical concepts
of self and others. - shapes, patterns, time and data
Equality and justice against handling reflecting integration with
issues of human dignity, gender EVS. Likewise, they were asked to
bias, disability, marginalisation, design one learning situation each for
rights and duties of different living the four learning modes-story/poem,
organisms. game/puzzle, drama and interview/
Nurturing creativity and aesthetic interaction for language enrichment,
sense. where skills and concerns of EVS will
Early grades are best to sensitise also be strengthened.
children towards these concerns and
teachers can use integrated approach Item-wise Analysis of the
for that. This makes them achieve the Questionnaire
desired objectives of the curricular The analysis and discussion of each
areas without enhancing their load. of the eight items in the questionnaire
Since, teachers are the key agents for related to the integration of EVS with
the success of any curriculum related Language and Mathematics is given
exercise, they should essentially be below. First two items were of general
clear about the transactional strategies information about the teachers.
to make Language and Mathematics
learning EVS oriented. Item No.1 inquired about the classes
Therefore, an attempt was made in which each teacher was teaching
to understand the awareness and The respondents were primary teachers
perceptions of teachers about the teaching in Classes I and II and some
teaching-learning of EVS through teachers were also teaching in Classes
Language and Mathematics in early III, IV and V.
grades.
A questionnaire was developed Item No.2 inquired which subject
which had eight items. Thirty-five they teach in the class.
primary teachers teaching classes in I These respondents were primary
and II in Kendriya Vidyalayas of Delhi teachers teaching Language and
Mathematics and most of them were situations on the concept Data

teaching EVS for Classes III-V. handling.
Subjects Taught No. of Teachers
Two of them mentioned that
children can name, count and
Language, Maths, EVS 14 differentiate different vegetables,
Language, Maths 9 fruits, birds and animals, and
Maths, EVS 2 classify them on the basis of the
Language, EVS 10
shapes and colour of vegetables
and fruits, and shape of the beaks,
Total 35 claws and habitat of birds and
Item No. 3 inquired if EVS could be animals. But they didnt mention
integrated with other subjects. If the the skills of Mathematics and EVS
answer is no, what are the reasons that can be strengthened through
and if the answer is yes, which are this activity.
those subject areas. It may be difficult for children of
In response to a closed ended (Yes/ Classes I and II, to classify animals/
No) question, twenty-six participants birds on the basis of their claws, beaks,
opined that EVS can be integrated habitat, etc. However, if presented
with Language and Mathematics. One pictorially, as puzzles or games, it
of the respondents said that it can could be brought to the cognitive level
be integrated with Social Studies and of children below eight years. Since the
Science. Another one expressed that it teachers did not design the activity, it
can be co-related with drawing. Six of was not clear that how they would have
them said that it can be integrated but introduced these to the young children.
they have not mentioned the subject Another teacher mentioned
areas. One teacher did not respond to that children could be asked
this item. about means of transport using
pictures and it would strengthen
Item No. 4 inquired whether they use observation (skill of Mathematics)
an integrated approach in teaching and discovery of facts (skill of EVS).
learning of EVS. Another respondent said that
Thirty-three respondents said that children could be made to count the
they used an integrated approach in number of boys and girls in each
teaching learning of EVS. Two teachers section of Class II in their school
did not respondent to this item. and it would enrich the ability of
computation (skill of mathematics)
In item No. 5, the teachers were and observation and discovery of
asked to design a learning situation facts (skills of EVS).
in the four mathematical concepts All these responses show that
(shapes, patterns, time and data these teachers think that environment-
handling), where skills of EVS would related themes/concepts such as birds,
be strengthened. animals, plants and means of transport
Four respondents designed learning etc. as EVS and do not seem to be
familiar with the issues, concerns and having lunch, going out to play,
skills of EVS. studying and having dinner, etc.
Three teachers designed learning One of them expressed that it will
situation on the concept - Patterns. enhance observation as the EVS
One of them stated that children skill and the other two teachers
could make patterns with small were of the view that through
leaves by pasting them on a sheet. this activity good habits can be
According to her, it will strengthen discussed.
the concept of arrangement and Two teachers responded that
identification of leaves and flowers. students can observe the sun
Another one said that children during morning, day time and
would learn through patterns evening for a day. Then on the next
on different things in the house, day, they will be shown a clock to
school and surroundings such as understand how the time changes.
glass, cup, bed sheet, table cloth, Although these activities do reflect
tiles, paintings and floor designs the integration of Maths and EVS, the
etc. to identify the sequence of the non familiarity of the teachers with the
patterns. issues, concerns and skills of EVS that
Although the activities reflect may be effectively addressed/ nurtured
integration, the teachers seemed to be through these activities is a problem.
oblivious about the skills and concerns For example, if the teachers asked
of EVS and they could not identify/ children to sequence the activities of
mention these. their daily routine or group them on the
Another teacher stated that they basis of the time intervals. Similarly, if
could make children co-relate they allowed children to observe the
various things in surroundings morning, evening and night sky, and
with EVS and Mathematics, for ask those children to draw or colour
example, wheel is just like a circle, followed by relevant discussion on
some stones are like squares, their experiences, observations and
rectangles and children could relating them with time, would have
make patterns with these. helped enrich the processes of Maths
It is not clear that the teacher intends and EVS, and the concerns of EVS.
to teach shapes or patterns. Further, However, using these activities to
she does not seem to be familiar with inculcate good habits among children
the skills of both the subject areas. shows the ambiguity of value education
Eight teachers designed learning as EVS in the minds of teachers.
situations on the concept- Time. Individual responses of the other
Three teachers said that they could three teachers are given below. None
start with childrens daily routine, of them could mention the skills of
i.e. different activities children do Maths and EVS integrated with these
at different intervals of a day, for activities.
example, going to bed, getting up Children can be shown the model
in the morning, going to school, of clock.
Asking children that at what time Two teachers said that children
they listen a cocks voice. could be made to count the number
Solving sums during the target of shapes such as circles, triangles,
time. rectangles in a given picture.
These activities do not seem to be One of them said that this would
appropriate and reveal ignorance of the strengthen the skills of EVS like
teachers even about the objectives of observation and identification.
the respective curricular areas. Another respondent stated that
Ten teachers designed the learning students would be shown different
shapes and then, they can be
situation in the concept Shapes.
taken to ground and made to stand
One of the teachers said that
in the shapes drawn as triangular,
children could identify shapes
rectangular, circular and square.
in a house and another said that
But she didnt mention the skills
through training it can be done.
that would be enriched through
Both were of the view that skills
this activity.
of computation in Maths, and
These two learning situations do
observation and identification in not reflect integration of Maths and
EVS, will be strengthened through EVS but may enhance the skills of
it. observation and identification.
The teachers talked about Five respondents wrote that
identification of shapes but shapes in Maths can be taught
strengthening of computation was not in integration with EVS through
clear. observation of leaves, fruits,
Two respondents said that different vegetables or solar system. But
items such as match-box, pencil none of them mentioned anything
box, ball, toys and other things about enrichment of skills or
which they saw in their environment concerns of EVS or the skills of
could be given to children to learn maths through these.
shapes. It may create confusion in childrens
Another teacher wrote that shapes minds as majority of vegetables, fruits,
could be introduced through road leaves and plants do not have any
signs. regular shapes. Further, all these
One of the teachers designed a teachers do not have much clarity
learning situation where students about concerns of EVS and skills of
can be taken to the playground and both EVS and maths.
would be asked to observe different In item No. 6 the teachers were
shapes over there. asked to design a learning situation
The responses show that these in language (Hindi or English) for
teachers wish to introduce shapes the learning modes such as story or
through surroundings but they too poem, game or puzzle, drama and
seem to be ignorant about the issues, interview/interaction for language
concerns and skills of the concerned enrichment where skills of EVS
subjects. would be strengthened.
Four respondents mentioned the skills only of EVS. Further, it can

that through dramatisation, skills of also be observed that in EVS, teachers
language such as speaking, listening think of transacting the content such
and that of EVS such as identification as parts of a tree, body parts and their
and observations, are enhanced. functions, but no emphasis is given
However, only one of them made an to the skills of language and EVS,
attempt to design a learning situation and to address the concerns of the
in which children can enact a drama environment.
based on the body parts and their One of them was of the view that
functions. She mentioned that they vocabulary enrichment is feasible
would be given dialogues related to through stories. She said that
various functions of body parts. outlines/pictures might be provided to
However, when encouraged, even children who could use them to extend
young children came up with dialogues their ideas to narrate stories. However,
by themselves and this also helped she expressed that integration could
nurture creativity among them. be effective only through moral-based
One of the teachers was of the view stories. One of the teachers explained
that children could say a few lines about that cleanliness of our body could be
themselves or interview someone. taught through the following poem,
She mentioned about enrichment of Brush, Brush your Teeth, Brush
skills of language such as speaking them every day,
and listening and skills in EVS like Father, Mother, Brother, Sister,
observation and group discussion. Brush them every day.
However, she did not design any She did not mention any skills
questions, which children can ask or of language and EVS that could be
children could say about themselves. enriched through this poem.
For poems as a learning mode, From this, it may be inferred that
none of the participants tried to according to these teachers EVS is
design any activity. However, four about value inculcation.
respondents agreed that poem One of the teachers mentioned
recitation helps enhance the skills of that cross word puzzles could be given
language (speaking and reading) and for words (new vocabulary) such
skills of EVS (identification, describing, as the names of animals and birds,
and group discussion) but it was not means of transport, etc. Another one
explained how it would lead to that. mentioned that puzzles such as maze
Only one teacher mentioned that while with clues, could help strengthen the
teaching a poem on Trees parts of a skills of language (such as reading,
tree could be taught. understanding) and skills of EVS (such
It must be noted that all of them as logical reasoning and analysis). Two
mentioned speaking and listening respondents expressed that different
as skills of language exclusively games could be used based on animals,
and others such as observation, birds, vegetables, water animals and
identification and group discussion as land animals. Crossword puzzles can
be used to find out the names of fruits, Item No. 8 tried to find out whether
animals, flowers, trees, helpers, means integration of EVS leads to the
of transport etc. difficulties/problems in Language
Majority of teachers who designed and Mathematics.
the puzzles/games thought of only Following two types of responses
paper pencil tasks and the activities appeared four times.
were also limited to creating awareness. Integration of EVS with Language
Also none of them knew anything leads to lack of expression.
about the skills and concerns of EVS Integration of EVS with
integrated with these activities except mathematics leads to lack of
the one who mentioned enrichment accuracy.
of observation and logical reasoning Some other category of responses
through the activity of maze. which had a frequency of one is
following:
Item No. 7 inquired whether
It leads to difficulties in speaking
integration of EVS helped in
skills and understanding of the
Language and Mathematics.
English language.
Five categories emerged out of fifteen It leads to lack of concentration
responses. and practice.
The most prominent one was that; It creates problems in different
It helps children to express subject areas.
effectively.(9) It leaves behind the concept.
The other was that it helps in Sometimes children go off the
vocabulary development.(3) track.
The other three categories which Another respondent said that
occurred only once are the following; it would lead to problems in
To enhance listening, speaking, understanding.
identification and understanding
skills. Findings
Children frame better sentences. Although 28 teachers were
In clarifying different concepts. teaching Maths at Classes I and
For integration of EVS with II and eighteen out of them were
Mathematics, following are the four also teaching EVS at the primary
major responses. level, yet only 3-10 teachers made
The one with the highest frequency an attempt to design the activities
(10) was that integration helps in under the given concepts of maths.
making the concept clear. Similarly, 32 teachers were
It helps children acquire problem teaching language (Hindi or
solving ability.(4) English or both) at Classes I and
It develops interest and II and 23 out of them were also
psychomotor skills.(1) teaching EVS at the primary level,
To develop skills of logical reasoning but only 5-7 teachers tried their
and analysis.(1) hand at creating learning situation
in languages having integration students going off the topic

with EVS. show that the teachers think
Majority of the teachers appeared about each curricular area in a
to be ignorant about the objectives compartmentalised manner.
of learning EVS, Mathematics and
Languages at the primary level as Conclusion
they considered only the concepts NCF-05 has recommended using
or themes under each curricular integrated approach towards teaching-
area, and were not aware about the learning across all curricular areas
rationale behind choosing those at at all stages. The teachers teaching
each level. early grades are quite optimistic
They were also not familiar with about the implementation and use
the skills of each curricular area. of integrated approach to teaching-
According to them, listening, learning. However, the awareness
speaking etc. were language skills. about it is almost lacking which is
Observation, identification, group apparent from the learning situations
discussion etc. were EVS skills and designed by them. Their views about
computation, problem solving etc. the problems faced due to integration
were mathematics skills. of the curricular areas also reflect that
Most of them considered birds, they need to be thoroughly oriented not
animals, plants and means of only towards the integrated approach
transport i.e. environment related but even for the aims and objectives of
themes/concepts as EVS and do each curricular area.
not seem to be familiar with the To achieve the desired objectives
issues, concerns and skills of EVS. of different curricular areas at the
At times some of them were not primary level, five guiding principles
aware about the concepts as well. are envisaged in NCF-05. The two most
Some of the teachers considered important ones are; to go beyond the
inculcation of values and good classroom and provide opportunities
habits as EVS. for experiential learning relating with
Majority of the designed activities the daily life of children. The teachers
were limited only to creating were either unaware or were unable to
awareness and did not have enough put those into practice. The foundation
scope for experiential learning. of learning is laid in the early grades,
These also had a limited scope to therefore, to propagate and implement
go beyond the classroom having the ethos of NCF-05 in right spirit, there
paper pencil tasks. is an urgent need to build the capacity
Their responses under item no.8 of teachers teaching these grades.
reflect their lack of understanding Relevant support material in addition
of the integrated approach to to textbooks that enables teachers
teaching-learning. The responses to design context-specific learning
such as it might lead to lack situations needs to be developed and
of accuracy, concentration and provided to the them.
REFERENCES
NCERT. 2008. Source Book on Assessment for Classes I-V Environmental Studies.
New Delhi.
2006. Syllabus for Classes at Elementary Level. New Delhi.
2005. National Curriculum Framework2005 (December, 2005). New Delhi.
2006. National Focus Group on Teaching of Science (2006). National Curriculum
Framework2005. Position Paper. New Delhi.
2009. Skills of EVS through Language and Mathematics in Early Grades.
New Delhi.
Comparative Study of Environmental
Education in Adolescents and
Higher Education Students
BILQUES SHAIR*
RUKHSANA AKHTAR**
Abstract
The present study is aimed at examining levels of environmental awareness
and implementation of environmental knowledge amongst cross section of
students in Jammu and Kashmir. The study is designed to compare the extent
of awareness amongst adolescent and higher education students. It was
found that overall awareness and implementation of environmental knowledge
in adolescents is far below the expectations. Students with higher education
were found to have largely satisfactory knowledge and skills for solving
environment problems.
Introduction be accepted as a prerequisite for

Environment is defined comprehensively sustainable development (Howell C.
to include all relationships between A., 1993) and programmes must be
humans and all that impact upon them, chalked out both through formal and
and all that they impact (Caldwell L. non-formal systems. It is at the level of
K., 1993). Environmental education basic education that the coverage is the
(EE) refers to organised efforts to broadest and the general orientations
teach about how natural environments and values have the highest impact
function and, particularly, how human (Edwards B., 1993).
beings can manage their behaviour and Education and awareness in this
ecosystems in order to live sustainably. regard is one of the most effective
Indeed environmental education must forces towards saving our besieged
* Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Womens College, Nawakadal.

** Research Scholar, Department of Education, University of Kashmir.
environment. The basis of a healthy (Agarwal, 2008). There have been

environment is good air, water and some comprehensive studies at
soil. These basic building blocks national level regarding comparative
of life are obviously essential for studies of general awareness about
life to continue and must be cared environmental issues in populations,
for, preserved and enhanced. No but special emphasis has been put on
programme can be a success without students in this regard in our state.
education as it is what makes people The present study was an attempt
aware of the need for any activity and in this regard to see impact of different
it can generate much needed support awareness campaigns amongst
for that activity. Hence, there should adolescents and higher education
be initiation of awareness programmes students, and to explore the attitudes
to understand the economic, political of the sample of students from higher
and ecological interdependence in the secondary school and degree colleges
form of exhibitions and fairs, seminars towards the environment.
and discussions, group projects,
field trips, games, debates, lectures, Methodology
elocution competitions, quiz, effective The study was based on a survey with
use of mass media, etc. (Schwaab Karl a sample size of 100 students with 50
E., 1982). students selected from higher secondary
One of the landmarks in the school, Nawakadal, and 50 BA/BSc/
history of environmental education B.Com students of Government
is the Stockholm Conference on Womens College, Nawakadal. A
Human Environment, organised comprehensive questionnaire was
by UNESCO in 1972. Thereafter, designed to achieve the objectives of
UNESCO launched the International the study using stratified Random
Environmental Education Programme Sampling Technique. Students were
(IEEP) in the year 1975. The activities instructed to answer the questionnaire
under IEEP in the first phase in a relaxed condition in the allotted
culminated in the organization of the time. The questionnaires were divided
first inter-governmental conference on into three parts.
Environmental Education at Tbilisi
(USSR) in 1977. This specified the Part A
nature and scope of environmental This covered questions related to
education and also laid down the awareness and consisted of 15
aims and objectives as well as the questions each having 5 options:
repertoire of strategies to be adopted Strongly agree (SA), Agree (A), Neutral
at the national and international levels (N), Disagree (D) and Strongly disagree
(Bhushan et al. 1990). (SD).
It is now a universally recognised
fact that the most effective approach Part B
to solve environmental problem Part B of the questionnaire covered
is environmental awareness questions related to state-level
Comparative Study of Environmental Education in... 115
knowledge. It consisted of 10 questions of non-biodegradable materials and

each having four options and the lastly, the role of students in solving
students were asked to choose the different environmental problems.
correct option.
Results and Discussion
Part C A. Response from students
It covered the implementation part A-1. Awareness of environmental issues
which consisted of seven questions to
Comparing the awareness of
which each student had to respond environmental issues among the
with options and suggestions. It was studied population with reference to
more of subjective nature. higher education students, 60 per cent
The questions covered issues such of the total population is completely
as deforestation, ecological imbalance, aware of the environment, 20.42 per
green house gases, acid rain, global cent of the population is partially aware
warming, ozone depletion, hazardous while rest of the studied population,
industrial waste, environmental i.e., 19.58 per cent are ignorant as
constituents, different pollutants, use shown in Fig.1 about the environment
of natural resources, Ecosystem, role or related issues. Comparing this with
of the state in enforcing laws regarding the data of secondary school students,
environment, forest cover, river only 27.12 per cent of the total
topography biodiversity conservation, population had complete awareness
endangered species, interaction regarding environmental issues as
between man and wild animals, problem shown in fig.1. Partial awareness was
77.95
73.96
60
42.28
30.6
27.12
26.04
20.42 19.58 22.05
Comp. Partial Ignorant Col. Students Sch. Students

Awarn... Aware
Col. Students Sch. Students Knowledge Ignorant
Figure 1 : Comparison of awareness in school Figure 2 : Comparison of knowledge in

education group and higher education secondary and college level students
shown by 30.60 per cent while as 42.28 A-3. Implementation of Knowledge in

per cent were completely ignorant. Conserving Environment
A-2. State-level Environmental Out of all the studied population,
knowledge among the higher education
masses 91.07 per cent implement
The results with reference to state-
their awareness and knowledge
level environmental knowledge showed
about environment in their day
alarming percentage of population,
i.e., 73.96 per cent, with no knowledge, to day life. Rest 8.9 per cent of the
as shown in Fig. 2 regarding the sample does not implement their
environment of Jammu and Kashmir awareness and knowledge in order
state. Only a mere 26.04 per cent of to save the environment as shown
the sample with higher education has in fig.3. Comparing these results
knowledge about the same. Similar with secondary school students,
types of results were shown by school only 32.79 per cent implement their
education students with 77.95 per cent awareness and knowledge in order
as shown in fig. having no knowledge to save environment, while 67.21 per
regarding the environment of Jammu cent were unable to implement the
and Kashmir State. Only a mere 22.05 same.
per cent of the sample with higher
education has knowledge about the B. Overall Interpretation of Data
same. B-1. Awareness about environmental
issues
Out of 100 students constituting our
sample, 63.56 per cent students are
91.07
completely aware, 30.81 per cent
students are partially aware, and
5.63 students are ignorant about the
67.21
environment.
B-2. State-level environmental

knowledge
37.79
Out of 100 students, only 24.05 per
cent students possess knowledge
about the environment of J&K.
8.9
B-3. Implementation of knowledge in
Col. Students Sch. Students conserving environment
Out of 100 students, 78.33 per cent
Implementation Non-Implementation
of the total sample implements their
Figure 3 : Comparison of implementation awareness and knowledge in order to
between college and school students save the environment.
These points also foreground key

6%
themes in environmental education
investigation in the current study and
31%
thus provide a living status of affairs in
the field of environmental education.
63%
Comparison between the responses
generated during the study
Part A of the Questionnaire
Complete Awarness Partial Awareness This part contains questions related
Ignorant to environmental degradation, air
pollution, deforestation, soil erosion,
Figure 4 : Overall awareness
acid rain, ozone depletion, ecology, etc.
More than half of the sample
strongly opposed the environment
degradation and meant to protect
22%
our environment. Very few students
either agree to this point or are
78% neutral in their answer. Most of the
students constituting our sample
strongly believe that deforestation
created ecological disequilibrium.
Very few percentage from our sample
Knowledge Ignorant are neutral and oppose this view.
Maximum population constituting
Figure 5 : Knowledge among all masses
our sample is of the view that CO2
in any concentration (more or less)
creates air pollution. But as far as
this point of view is concerned, they
should have disagreed to this point
33%
which has been done by less than 50
67% per cent of our sample.
Very few students from our sample
believe that deforestation decreases
chances of soil erosion. Most of the
students from the sample believe that
Implementation Non implementation deforestation increases the chances of
Figure 6 : Overall implementation soil erosion.
More than 70 per cent of the
population of our sample strongly
Discussion
opposes the point that acid rain can
The following points can be made by be useful to man. Very few students
evaluating responses of the subject. are ignorant of the fact that acid rain
is harmful to man as well as all living Chemical fertilisers do not always

beings and it cannot be made useful improve the quality of soil because
in any way. every time its concentration needs to
Almost cent percent students are be increased. But maximum number
aware and strongly believe in the fact of students have opposed to this view
that ozone layer is destroyed by CFCs. point as they believe that chemical
More than half of our sample agrees fertilisers always improve soil quality.
to the point that emission of smoke There should be a planned use of
directly or indirectly causes pollution natural resources on the earth and
of water. Very less number of students maximum numbers of students have
are ignorant about this fact and very agreed to this fact. Very few students
few disagree to this point of view. oppose this point.
Industrial wastes dumped into Most of the students believe in the
rivers cause serious threat to aquatic fact that the interaction between living
life. Maximum number of students organisms and their environment is
have agreed to this view. called ecosystem. Very few are there
Biotic and Abiotic are the two who are ignorant of this fact.
components of environment. This fact
has been agreed by at least 85 per cent Part-B of the Questionnaire
of the sample. One-fourth of the population has
Green plants do not form the third correctly answered the total length of
tropic level. But most of the students river Jhelum.
forming our sample disagree to this Only 15 per cent of our sample
point. Very less number of students has correctly answered the source
believe this fact. origin of the Chenab River and the
Out of 100 students, 3 students river of which Krishanganga is an
strongly agree on this question; 13 important tributary.
students agree on this question; 38 Just a few students replied to the
students are neutral in their answer; question about the mightiest river of
20 students disagree on this question; the state of J&K. One-fourth of our
and 26 students strongly disagree on sample has given the total length
this question. of Chenab river. One-sixth of the
Components of the environment population constituting our sample
never remain the same and this is has answered the question about the
what at least half of the population division of J&K in which black necked
comprising our sample has agreed. crane is found.
Half of the sample is either neutral or One-fourth of the sample correctly
opposes this view point. answered the name of Sweet Water
Polythene is not a biodegradable Lake of Kashmir. One-fourth of our
substance. Very few students believe sample gave the correct answer to the
that polythene is a biodegradable question on total forest cover of J&K.
substance but most of the students Half of the population correctly replied
agree that it is not so. to the name of the beautiful town of
Baramulla district which is called Port Certain plant and animal species
of Wullar. Forty per cent students have become extinct and many are on
from our sample correctly responded the brink of extinction. In order to save
to the question about the name of the and protect these species, most of the
Lake which the Kashmir valley was in students from our sample discourage
the ancient times. hunting and encourage aforestation.
Some students also suggest the saving
Part-C of the Questionnaire of natural habitat of wild animals. Few
The emission from industries cause students also encourage the protection
air, water and soil pollution which of forest areas by the government.
directly or indirectly affects the health The conflict between man and
of the people. But on the other hand, animal has increased to a great extent
industries are the most important since the last two decades. This is
factor for economic development of because wild animals are deprived of
the nation. To minimise the effects their dwelling places. In order to tackle
of industrial emissions, half of the this problem, most of the students from
students from our sample suggest our sample suggest that we should try
that industries should be planted to rebuild the dwelling places of these
away from residential areas to wild animals. Some students are also
minimise their direct effect on human of the opinion that more plants should
beings. The remaining half suggest be planted and deforestation should be
the use of biodegradable chemicals, discouraged.
proper environmental education, the Polythene has become a part and
installment of tall chimneys, more parcel of our daily life in spite of its
and more plantation of trees, and the ban. All kinds of eatables are packed in
recycling of waste products. polythene wrapers. Maximum number
It is not only the duty of Lakes and of students are of the opinion that we
Waterways Development Authority should use paper and jute bags in
(LAWDA) and other governmental place of polythene bags.
bodies to save and protect the water People concerned with the
bodies of Kashmir valley. It is rather the department of forestry are themselves
concern of every individual to develop involved in smuggling of timber. In
conscience in him/her to save the water the opinion of most of the students,
bodies in particular and environment in order to check this problem
in general. Individual citizens can do special investigation teams should be
a lot on his/her part to perform this appointed by the government. The views
duty. Half percentage of our sample of students about what they can do on
suggest the use of chemicals and their part to save their environment
weedicides in water bodies. Besides and teach the ignorant people about
they have recommended to educate the the hazards of environmental pollution
people properly. Rest of the students reveal that these people should be
suggest proper disposal of solid and educated properly through rallies and
liquid wastes. seminars. Besides, some students also
suggest planting of more and more environmental education as a process

trees and usage of biodegradable or and are not skilled enough for solving
renewable substances. environmental problems. This is
because their awareness about the
Conclusion environment is very poor and they
The main objectives of our study were do not have positive attitude towards
to examine the level of awareness, environment. Besides, their knowledge
knowledge and implementation among and implementation of it is also too
adolescents and higher education weak to tackle the environmental
students and to compare the two. As far problems.
as these objectives are concerned, we In comparison to this, the students
have reached to a conclusion that the at higher education level possess
overall awareness among adolescents some skill for solving environmental
is far below the expectations. Besides problems and consider environmental
they possess very little knowledge of the education as a process. They possess
environment and its implementation enough awareness and knowledge
is far below the satisfactory level. In about their environment and they
comparison to this, the students at implement this knowledge in order to
higher education level are aware of protect the environment. Also their
environment and related problems. attitude towards the environment and
Also the knowledge possessed by its related problems is positive, which
them is satisfactory. And as far as is of utmost importance in order to
the implementation is concerned, tackle the environmental issues. Their
maximum number of students from commitment, i.e., responsibility towards
higher education level implement their the environment, is very satisfactory in
knowledge and awareness in order to comparison to adolescents. In order to
do something on their part to save the enhance and modify their skill, proper
environment. environmental education should be
It can be concluded that the provided to them through different
adolescent students do not consider modes including media.
REFERENCES
AGARWAL, J.C. 2008. Education for Values, Environment and Human Rights. Shipra
Publication. Vikas Marg, Shakarpur, Delhi, India
BHUSHAN S, R. GOVINDA and A. MANGALAGIRI. 1990. Environmental education handbook for
educational planners. National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration,
New Delhi.
CALDWELL, L.K. 1993. Strategies in hemispheric cooperation for environmentally
sustainable development in La Education. Vol XXXVII (115).
EDWARDS, B. 1993. Linking the social and natural worlds: Environmental education in
the hemisphere in La Education. Vol XXXVII (115).
HOWELL, C.A. 1993. Trends in environmental education in the English-speaking
Caribbean in La Education. Vol XXXVII (115).
SCHWAAB, KARL E. 1982. Instructional methods: Their use and effectiveness in
environmental education in The Journal of Environmental Education. Vol 14 (2).
Middle School Students Ideas about
Energy and Its Flow through Organisms
SAURAV SHOME*
CHITRA NATARAJAN**
Abstract
The conceptual pre-requisites for teaching about the environment are embedded
in several existing school subjects. However, the teaching of subjects like
Science and Social Studies does not address all the linkages needed for
environmental education. Topics related to current environmental concerns
that are inadequately addressed in classrooms include energy, its flow
through organisms, especially in relation to human life. We developed a short
course on energy and environment, in which students of Class VIII engaged in
a large variety of activities designed to explore their understanding of energy
and its flow through life forms, with special emphasis on the link between
humans, energy and the environment. This paper reports some of our insights
gained through a variety of interactions with students and their implications
for teaching.
Introduction by researchers and thinkers from

Any solution to the environmental crisis across the globe: broad and long-term
will need environmental awareness and goals of EE (Hungerford and Peyton,
understanding to be deeply rooted in 1976; UNESCO, 1980); guidelines of
the education of all people at all levels EE (NGO Forum at the Earth Summit
(Tbilisi, 1977). In fact, Environmental 1992; Gigliotti, 1990); principles of
Education (EE) has been an important EE (CEE, 1999; Ballantyne et al.
issue at the global level for close to four 1996); and pedagogic strategies for
decades. Several aspects of EE have EE (Shome and Natarajan, 2007). The
already been studied and published role of the teacher in EE has been
* Research Scholar, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,
V. N. Purav Marg, Mankhurd, Mumbai, India, 400 088
** Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,
V. N. Purav Marg, Mankhurd, Mumbai, India, 400 088
recognised to be pivotal by all and has Objectives of the Study

been specifically researched by some The broad aim of the study was to develop
(Volk, 2003; Wilson, 1993; Kastenholz a course on Energy and Environment for
et al. 1994). Environmental study has middle school students, to explore their
been made a school subject in India by understanding of energy and its flow
a policy initiative following Supreme through life forms, with special emphasis
Court directive (NCERT, 1981). on the link between humans, environment
A model of EE, that has potential to and energy. Participants: A purposive
address the bio-geographical, linguistic and convenient sampling was used. Forty
and other socio-cultural diversities students (30 Boys, 10 Girls) of Class VIII
of the country, recommends a large (mean age 13 years) from three nearby
variety of pedagogic strategies aimed at English medium schools affiliated to the
immersing students in environmental CBSE system voluntarily participated in
thinking in the classroom and the course.
outside (Shome and Natarajan,
2007). The model also suggests that Framework of the Course
environmental aspects should also According to Carlsson (2002), an
be integrated with school subjects. understanding of photosynthesis,
The rich possibilities of integrating cycling of matter, the flow of energy
environmental ideas in Science in the and the connections between them
Indian context have been inadequately are prerequisites for developing an
explored. Energy and photosynthesis insight into ecology. We have adapted
are two of the topics in Science that a model proposed by him for the study
invite such integration. At the global of ecological understanding among
level, there have been research reports students after omitting ways of thinking
on students alternative conceptions about recycling.
on energy (Watts, 1983; Trumper,
1997), ecosystem (Grotzer and Baska, Course Structure
2003), photosynthesis, and respiration The course, which was conducted
(Barman et. al 2006). The current over eight days, was repeated in two
study probed Indian middle school sessions for the two batches of students
students understanding of the concept one each in the morning and evening.
of energy, photosynthesis and the link Students were given opportunities to
between humans and environment. articulate, defend and explain their
ideas within the social context of the
Methodology classroom (Solomon, 1991; Prain and
The study involved developing a Hand, 1996). Open-ended questions,
course for middle school students on creative writing, explanations and
energy and environment, selection classroom dialogue helped students
of participants, collection of data, refine their understanding (Glasson
and drawing preliminary inferences and Lalik, 1993 as in Prain and Hand
about students ideas based on semi- 1996). The sessions included lectures,
quantitative and qualitative analysis of experiments, surveys, audits, and
multiple kinds of data. other activities. Activities relevant for
Middle School Students Ideas about Energy and its... 123
the current paper are summarised 2004) suggests that it is an effective

below. tool in bringing social context into the
classrooms. We used role, play as a
Activity Sheets strategy to introduce students to democratic
Students responded to three activity informed decision making.
sheets, one each on environment,
energy, and photosynthesis. The Data Collection
questions in the sheets were based on Data was collected in the form of
a literature survey of related topics, our students responses to questionnaires,
experiences of teaching students and other writings, drawings and posters,
an analysis of the science textbooks up through audio-visual recordings
to Class VIII (NCERT). The questions of discussions and structured
were in a variety of formats: multiple presentations, as well as researchers
choice, true/false, and those requiring observations and notes.
either one word or open ended short
answers, or diagrams. Results and Discussion
The results are discussed here under
Lectures and Discussions two themes, energy and environment.
There were structured lectures and The environment theme focused on
several opportunities were provided concepts like photosynthesis, food
for discussions in the whole class (energy) dependence of organisms,
and in groups, which served to and the links students make between
explore students ideas, discuss humans, energy and the environment.
students responses to activity sheets, The energy theme involved the
prepare students for activities and qualitative study of students responses
enrich content knowledge. Drawing as they engaged in a variety of activities
(context map, posters): After being and expressed themselves in oral or
initiated, groups of students worked written forms. The specific activities
collaboratively drawing a context map within the two themes, and a brief
on Human and the Environment. discussion of students responses are
The groups also made posters on the given below, first for the environment
imagined energy scenario of Human theme followed by energy.
Civilization 500 Years from Now.
Environment
Writing (Science Fiction) Several activities were organised with
Individual students wrote on A world an aim to understand students ideas
without energy. The writing task was about energy flow through organisms.
followed by consolidated presentation by Students responses to Activity Sheets
each group. on (a) Photosynthesis and (b) Food
webs in the environment, and the
Role Play Context maps that groups of students
Research on role play in teaching- drew on Humans and Environment,
learning (Simonneaux, 2002; Proulx, are discussed below.
Photosynthesis, Food Webs and Energy and failed to see how changes in one
Flow population could affect the entire web.
Besides asking about the parts of More than two thirds of the students
plants involved in photosynthesis, thought that plants respired only at
the time when it occurred and its night.
inputs and outputs, the activity sheet Photosynthesis dominates textbook
on photosynthesis also aimed to see discussion on the physiological
whether students thought of it as a step processes in plants. Perhaps, this
in the energy flow through organisms. diverted the students from recognising
Most students were aware that other important physiological
photosynthesis takes place in all green processes like respiration and
parts of plants. Some students even transport. Though students had been
mentioned that plants that have leaves taught about photosynthesis and
with colours other than green possess food chains, they were not exposed
the green chlorophyll. However, close to photosynthesis as a process aiding
to half of the students thought that energy flow in nature. This is reflected
insectivorous and parasitic plants were in their drawings, where students
incapable of photosynthesis. Perhaps considered photosynthesis in terms
they drew analogy between such plants of the input and output materials and
and animals, and they mentioned this sunlight merely as a process of food
during discussions. One of the students preparation.
wrote, The plants needs carbon
Context Map on Humans and
dioxide and photosynthesis helps to
Environment
release energy only with oxygen. The
response suggests that students think Each group of three to four students
of photosynthesis as releasing energy. drew a context map (total 12 maps).
The drawings show that students do Most students were aware of the
not connect photosynthesis with the constituents of the environment and
flow of energy. human environment relationships.
Three fourth of the students knew Some mentioned the scarcity of fossil
that carbon dioxide and water were fuels and the energy crisis. However,
involved in photosynthesis and were the role of plants as energy stores was
essential for plant survival, but they not explicitly recognised.
were unaware of their specific roles in All the context maps had terms
the process. Most students incorrectly like biotic, abiotic, pollution, industry,
thought that the oxygen released in globalisation, deforestation, etc. While
photosynthesis came from the carbon most context maps had both pictorial
dioxide that it used up. presentations and verbal descriptions,
Most students knew about some had more of one and less of
food chains. However, they did not the other. Thanks to the emphasis in
appreciate the nature of dependencies classrooms and the media, over half
of the organisms in food webs. Most the context maps referred to negative
students focused on parts of a chain consequences of human interventions
in the environment: pollution, global static, physical, repulsive, frictional,

warming, globalisation, mining, freeze, ubiquitous, and genetic energy.
deforestation, etc. However, most Essays on A world without energy
students did not make connections written by groups of students, revealed
between these terms, either because that students considered a world
of their unfamiliarity with such maps, without energy as impossible. However,
or their limited understanding of the they largely referred to anthropocentric
complex issues. In fact, discussions aspects of energy.
revealed that students had not grasped
Humans and Energy Use
the meanings of the words they had
used. In response to a question in the activity
sheet, most students agreed that
Energy change of individual life styles can
Energy was addressed through several reduce energy demands. However,
activities. Of these students responses third of the students also felt that the
to Activity Sheet on energy, Essay on society which uses more energy is more
A world without energy, Poster on developed. While depicting the future
Human civilization; 500 years from energy scenario in a poster, students
emphasised energy production, but
now, and role play on energy options
ignored issues of distribution. Students
for a small village will be discussed
predominantly drew transportation,
here.
which too in private vehicles, not
Students Ideas about Energy recognising that public transportation
could be more environment friendly.
During a semi-structured discussion,
None of the posters referred to
students spontaneously used terms
reducing energy demand in daily
like power and force as synonyms of activities or use of biomass as an energy
energy, but they were unable to define source. The non-conventional energy
the term power. Some had the incorrect source shown was mostly solar energy.
idea that power was ability to perform They also predominantly depicted high
work.Students ascribed scientifically rise buildings, transportation, and
incorrect everyday meanings to force robotic systems, but no trees, forest
power, and energy. On the other hand, or animals other than humans. The
students were able to correctly define humans were never located in a village.
potential and kinetic energy, but were Students responses to questions,
unable to giveexamples or use them in writings and drawings on energy
contexts. suggest that students did not connect
Students were confused between energy flow in nature with human
forms of energy and sources of energy use.
energy. About 26 forms of energy
were mentioned by students. Besides Role-play Power Plant for Shaktipur
referring to sound, light, electrical In a given scenario, Shaktipur, a newly
energy, etc., students also used industrialising town needs electrical
incorrect, but interesting terms like energy. To arrive at a consensus on
the kind of power plant for Shaktipur, lectures, discussions, experiments,

the State Chief Minister has called a writing, drawing, presenting, drama
meeting of relevant ministers, scientists, on environment, energy and their
environmental groups, representatives relationship to everyday living. Some of
of world bodies and local educational the activities were specifically designed
institutions. Students had to conduct to highlight and resolve conceptual
the meeting, each student taking on conflicts between students existing
one of the roles, each of which was understandings.
characterised for them. They were In order to structure a similar
provided with reading materials on course in formal classroom settings,
energy sources, and their advantages it is necessary for teachers of different
and disadvantages. Students largely subjects Science, Languages, Art
chose between six energy sources for and Craft and Social Studies to
the power plant: solar, wind, biomass, collaboratively plan the content and
nuclear, hydroelectric and coal. In one sequence of activities to suit the level
of the sessions most participants chose (Class) content. They also need to arrive
solar energy with one other renewable at a consensus on the common course
structure, content as well as their
source for the power plant. Only three
environmental priorities. It is essential
chose a nuclear power plant, that
for teachers to structure activities
too along with a biomass plant. The
where students can recognise and
participants in the other session chose
resolve conflicts in their understanding
from only three options and largely
by discussing with their peers and
focused on nuclear energy.
teachers. Special attention needs to be
Educational Implications paid to respect the differential abilities
among students. Encouraging multiple
The first task for effective teaching- modes of expression will contribute
learning is diagnosis of students existing towards innovative thinking and co-
ideas. We have developed a course that operative creativity.
provides scope for bringing together Such courses offer rich possibilities
teachers with different academic for EE. They help diagnose students
backgrounds to achieve overlapping ideas and understanding in school
subject goals and at the same time subjects and integrate their knowledge
deepen environmental awareness. and skills from different school subjects
The course that was developed towards a deeper environmental
included a variety of activities understanding.
REFERENCES
BALLANTYNE, R.R. and J.M. PACKER. 1996. Teaching and Learning in Environmental
Education: Developing Environmental Conceptions. The Journal of Environmental
Education. 27(2). 25-32.
Barman, C.R., M. Stein, S. McNair and N.S. Barman. 2006. Students ideas about plants
and plant growth. American Biology Teacher. 68(2). 73 - 79.
CARLSSON, B. 2002. Ecological understanding 1: Ways of experiencing photosynthesis.

International Journal of Science Education. 24 (7). 681 - 699.
CEE. 1999. Towards a Green Future - A Trainers Manual on Education for Sustainable
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GIGLIOTTI, M. LARRY. 1990. Environmental Education: What Went Wrong? What Can be
done? The Journal of Environmental Education. 22(1). 9-12.
GROTZER, T.A. and B.B. BASCA. 2003. How does grasping the underlying causal structures
of ecosystems impact students understanding? Journal of Biological Education.
38 (1). 16 - 29.
HUNGERFORD, H. and R. PEYTON. 1976. Teaching environmental education. J. WestonWalsh,
Portland. ME.
KASTENHOLZ, HANS G. and ERDMANN, KARL- HEINZ. 1994. Education for Responsibility within
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NCERT. 1981. Environmental Education at School Level A Lead Paper. New Delhi.
PRAIN, V. and B. HAND. 1996. Writing for learning in the junior secondary science classroom:
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PROULX, G. 2004. Integrating scientific method and critical thinking in classroom debates
on environmental issues. The American Biology Teacher. 66(1). 26-33.
SHOME S. and C. NATARAJAN. 2007. Meaningful environmental education in schools A
proposal for equitable society. A Paper presented at the XXXI Indian Social Science
Congress held at Mumbai during 27-31 December 2007.
SIMONNEAUX, L. 2002. Analysis of classroom debating strategies in the field of biotechnology.
Journal of Biological Education. 37 (1). 9 - 12.
SOLOMON, J. 1987. Social influences on the construction of pupils understanding of
science. Studies in Science Education. 14. 63-82.
TRUMPER, R. 1997. A survey of conceptions of energy of Israeli pre-service high school
biology teachers. International Journal of Science Education. 19 (1). 31- 46.
UNESCO, Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education. Tbilisi (USSR) -
Final Report (1977). UNESCO. Paris.
Environmental education in Asia and the Pacific Report of a regional workshop.
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VOLK, TRUDI L. 2003. A conversation with four classroom teachers. The Journal of
Environmental Education. 35(1).
WATTS, D. MICHAEL. 1983. Some alternative views of energy. Physics Education. 18 (5).
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WILSON, RUTH A. 1993 . Educators for Earth: A Guide for Early Childhood Instruction. The
Journal of Environmental Education. 24(2). 15-21.
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Changing Times Demand Change MADHAV CHAVAN 5

Experiments in Teacher Education M. SEN GUPTA 20

Attitudes of Teachers towards Teaching RACHNA JAIN 26

Effect of Professional Development R.K. PARUA 46

Educational Issues of Children of the TULIKA DEY AND 58

Village Education Committees in KRISHNA KANT TRIPATHI AND 67

The Relationship between Students MBUTHAI NGUNJIRI AND 81

5E Model in Science Classroom ANIL KUMAR JAIN AND 89

Teaching-learning in EVS through KAVITA SHARMA AND 102

Comparative Study of Environmental BILQUES SHAIR AND 113

At the time of independence our country inherited a system of education which

The National Curriculum Framework-2005 advocates that during the process

Shri Kapil Sibal, Honble Minister education, secondary education,

a National Open School and it can Or, do we want compulsorily free

and millennium as never before in the standards of certification? Or, should

the total process of manufacture of mirrored all other changes that

outside schools and universities. This, exploitative labour. The example of

It seems to me that the model of a The idea of using mechanical

out of knowledge is strong, there is The second and most recent

understanding of quantities, shapes so can village painters, or a kabaddi

prepare teachers for the Multipurpose the B.Ed. (Vocational) programme of

Fortunately, a significant innovation Further Ideas for Experimentations

education curriculum to humanise to prepare teachers who can befittingly

Teacher education has acquired With increased specialisation within

* Deputy Director, Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi-110067

paradigm of learning; be adaptive and because of the demographic problems

postures, and human beliefs. Attitudes her environment. According to these

Teachers Attitudes Students Attitude

Attitude towards profession means and his/her efforts will be fruitful.

positive relationship between teaching (ii) To compare the attitudes towards

two districts from nine districts of 75 teachers trained through distance

SOUTH DISTRICT CENTRAL DISTRICT

GOVERNMENT (10) PRIVATE (10)

DISTANCE TRAINED (75) FORMAL TRAINED (75)

Variables Involved profession. The scale consists of

2. Comparison of Attitudes of Teachers towards Teaching Profession, who

Figure 2 : Attitudes of Teachers Towards Teaching Profession Trained

3. Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers Trained through

Formal Trained Teachers

Table 3 shows that the value of of better teaching facilities in the

Govt. School Teachers

4. Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers Trained through

Distance Trained Teachers

Govt. School Teachers

Figure 4 : Attitudes of Government and Private School Teachers Towards Teaching

5. Attitudes of Government School Teachers Trained through Formal and

Government School Teachers

Table 5 reflects that the value representation of government school

Figure 5 : Attitudes of Government School Teachers towards Teaching Profession

6. Attitudes of Private School Teachers Trained through Formal and

Private School Teachers

Table 6 shows that the value of almost equal representation at most

Figure 6 : Attitudes of Private School Teachers towards Teaching Profession

7. Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

More Experienced Teachers

Figure 7 : Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

This may be due to the fact that Mahapatra (1987), Padmanabhaiah

8. Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

Distance Trained Teachers

Figure 8 : Attitudes of More and Less Experienced Teachers towards Teaching

9. Attitudes of Less Experienced Teacher Trained through Formal and