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Terms AP English Language and Composition

These terms should be of use to you in answering the multiple-choice questions, analyzing prose passages, and composing
your essays.
Term Definition Example
allegory The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an
to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe
some allegories, for example, an author may intend the the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar
characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of
allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a Russia before WW I. The actions of the animals on
generalization about human existence. the farm are used to expose the greed and
corruption of the revolution. It also describes how
powerful people can change the ideology of a
society.
alliteration The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in she sells seashells
two or more neighboring words (as in she sells seashells).
Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice
section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The
repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical
sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

allusion A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandoras box
commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of crimes. This is an allusion to one of Greek
of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or Mythologys origin myth, Pandoras box.
mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may This place is like a Garden of Eden. This is a
simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion. biblical allusion to the garden of God in the
Book of Genesis.
ambiguity The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a
word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
analogy A similarity or comparison between two different things or the example:
relationship between them. An analogy can explain something Structure of an atom is like a solar system.
unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to Nucleus is the sun and electrons are the planets
something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more revolving around their sun.
vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.
Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins
Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a the race and the one who stops to catch a breath
simile or a metaphor. loses.

anaphora A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or MLK used anaphora in his famous I Have a
phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. Dream speech (1963).

My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is


my inspiration.
antecedent An earlier clause, phrase or word to which a pronoun, another But it is the grandeur of all truth which can
word or a noun refers back to. The AP language exam occupy a very high place in human interests that it
occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds;
long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent
from the 2001 AP test as an example principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing
follows: to be developed but never to be planted.
The antecedent of it (bolded) is...? [answer: all
truth]
antithesis The opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite. Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for
Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures a man but a giant step for mankind.
of the contrasted phrases or clauses, i.e. the structures of
phrases and clauses are similar in order to draw the attention of The use of contrasting ideas, a small step and a
the listeners or readers. giant step, in the sentence above emphasizes the
significance of one of the biggest landmarks of
human history.

Money is the root of all evils: poverty is the fruit


of all goodness.

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Term Definition Example
*Antimetabole is the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in When the going gets tough, the tough get going.
(AN-ti-m- transposed order (e.g., "I know what I like, and I like what I Ask not what your country can do for you; ask
TAB--lee) know"). It is similar to chiasmus although chiasmus does not use what you can do for your country. John F.
repetition of the same words or phrases. Kennedy

_______________________
* Difference Between Antimetabole and Chiasmus
There is much confusion about the difference between the literary devices of antimetabole and chiasmus. This is because there was a classical definition of
chiasmus in rhetoric that has since become more generalized and subsumed the category of antimetabole. Classically, chiasmus referred to a figure of speech
in which concepts were introduced in the first half of a sentence, then repeated in reverse order. Chiasmus, however, was not used for structures in which the
words themselves were repeated, but only the concepts. The definition of antimetabole states that words are repeated in reverse order.

Note that the concepts in chiasmus do not have to be synonymous, but instead related in meaning, even if in an opposite sense. The following sentence, Dark
was the night and the day dawned light, is an example of chiasmus because it repeats the concepts of a time of day and the quality of light. Note also that
antimetabole examples may use repeated words in different forms, such as in, Dark was the night; the remaining nights darker.

Term Definition Example


Anadiplosis is a form of repetition in which the last word of one What I want is freedom. Freedom to live. Only the
clause or sentence is repeated as the first word of the final word of a sentence of clause must be repeated
following clause or sentence. Note that this means that to qualify as anadiplosis
every example of antimetabole contains an example of
anadiplosis.

aphorism A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a The man who removes a mountain begins by
general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is carrying away small stones. [William Faulkner]
unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a Lifes Tragedy is that we get old too soon and wise
folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable too late. [Benjamin Franklin]
summation of the authors point.

apostrophe A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he
imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as writes, Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /
liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something England hath need of thee.
that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or
emotional intensity. Another example is Keats Ode to a Grecian Urn, in
which Keats addresses the urn itself:
Thou still unravished bride of quietness. Many
apostrophes imply a personification of the object
addressed.

atmosphere The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary


work, established partly by the setting and partly by the
authors choice of objects that are described. Even such
elements as a description of the weather can contribute
to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows
events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

Asyndeton a stylistic device used in literature and poetry to A. One type of asyndeton is used between words,
intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases phrases and a sentence.
and in the sentence, yet maintain the grammatical For example: Are all thy conquests, glories,
accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure?
meaning of the phrase and presents it in a concise form. (Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1 by William
Shakespeare)
Used to speed up the rhythm of the speech
B. Second type is used between sentences or clauses.
Asyndeton are applied often intentionally in order to give For example: Without looking, without making a
a unique emphasis to the text, thereby drawing the sound, without talking
attention of readers towards a particular idea the author (Oedipus at Colonus by Sophecles)
wants to convey.

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Term Definition Example
Balanced sentence Writers often balance similar words, phrases, and clauses Unbalanced: She doesnt like washing clothes or
to emphasize particular ideas and create pleasing rhythms housework.
(e.g., To err is human, to forgive divine). In a balanced
sentence, phrases or clauses parallel each other by virtue Balanced: She doesnt like washing clothes or doing
of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length. Think of housework.
a balanced sentence as a see-saw in which equal weights
are placed on each end. The problem with many
awkward-sounding sentences is that they are NOT Unbalanced: The British Museum is a wonderful
balanced. place to see ancient Egyptian art, you can explore
African artifacts, and find beautiful textiles from
around the world.

Balanced: The British Museum is a wonderful place


where you can find ancient Egyptian art, explore
African artifacts, and discover beautiful textiles from
around the world.

caricature a verbal description, the purpose of which is to Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat
exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a persons smile, and a general appearance of having a good
distinctive physical features or other characteristics. deal of train oil in his system. Mrs. Chadband is a
stern, severe-looking, silent woman. Mr. Chadband
moves softly and cumbrously, not unlike a bear who
has been taught to walk upright. He is very much
embarrassed about the arms, as if they were
inconvenient to him.

It is beautiful example of caricaturing through words.


The dominating impression that is made by words
like oily and fat sounds quite literal initially.
However, you realize shortly that the literal oiliness is
a representation of the character Chadband.
Chadband who has a fat smile and on the whole he
appears to be slightly unctuous, like a phony
preacher.

Chiasmus a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are For example, look at the following sentence:
balanced against each other by the reversal of their We ran away quickly; speedily, we fled.
structures in order to produce an artistic effect.
The parts in this sentence are (A) a verb meaning to
Chiasmus is a figure of speech that displays inverted escape (B) an adverb that is a synonym of rapidly.
parallelism. A simple chiasmus can be broken into parts In the first half of the sentence we see these two
labeled ABBA elements presented as AB, while in the second half of
the sentence the elements are repeated and inverted
effective in creating irony through the reversal of as BA.
accepted truths or familiar ideas
clause A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a
verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a
complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A
dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a
sentence and must be accompanied by an independent
clause. The point that you want to consider is the
question of what or why the author subordinates one
element should also become aware of making effective
use of subordination in your own writing.

colloquial/ The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not to bamboozle to deceive
colloquialism generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms
give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial go bananas go insane or be very angry
expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.
wanna want to

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Term Definition Example
conceit A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended The broken heart is a damaged china pot. In this
metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly example, the attempt to compare two noticeably
dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual unrelated objects makes the comparisons conceits.
cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being
made. My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun;
Coral is far more red than her lips' red;
If now be white, why then her breasts are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.

connotation The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the A dog connotes shamelessness or an ugly face.
implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve A dove implies peace or gentility.
ideas, emotions, or attitudes. Home suggests family, comfort and security.
Politician has a negative connotation of
wickedness and insincerity while statesperson
connotes sincerity.

denotation The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a
of any emotion, attitude, or color. utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might
be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)

diction Related to style, diction refers to the writers word choices, EXAMPLE:
especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I
effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an dont know why they died, they just died. Something
authors diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain)
wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we
and understand the ways in which diction can complement the
authors purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative got from the nursery wasnt the best. We complained
language, literary devices, etc., creates an authors style. about it. So weve got thirty kids there, each kid had
his or her own little tree to plant and weve got these
Keats in his Ode to the Grecian Urn uses formal diction to thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little
achieve a certain effect. He goes: brown sticks, it was depressing.
Heard melodies are sweet, but those
Unheard / Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft The use of the words died, dead, brown sticks
pipes, play on and depressing gives a gloomy tone to the passage.
________________
Notice the use of formal ye instead of informal you. The In literature, writers choose words to create and convey a
formality here is due to the respect the urn inspires in Keats. In typical mood, tone and atmosphere to their readers. A
the same poem he says: writers choice of words and his selection of graphic words
Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed not only affects the readers attitude but also conveys the
/ Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu. writers feelings toward the literary work.

It is more formal to use adieu than to say goodbye.


didactic From the Greek, didactic literally means teaching. Examples of didactic literature include Aesop's
Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or Fables. Novels written for women in the 18th and
instructing, 19th century were also often didactic, kind of like
especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles. fictionalized conduct manuals. Jane Austen's
Northanger Abbey, for example, is often thought of
as a didactic novel since it teaches readers how to act
like a good young ladyand read like one, too.

Epanalepsis - (eh- Figure of emphasis in which the same word or words both Example: "Nothing is worse than doing nothing."
puh-nuh-LEAP- begin(s) and end(s) a phrase, clause, or sentence;
siss): beginning and ending a phrase or clause with the same
word or words.

euphemism From the Greek for good speech, euphemisms are a It may be in the form of abbreviations e.g. B.O. (body
more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally odor)
unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be Sometimes, they are abstractions e.g. before I go
used to adhere to standards of social or political (before I die)
correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Using longer words or phrases can also mask
Saying earthly remains rather than corpse is an unpleasant words e.g. flatulence for farting,
example of euphemism. perspiration for sweat, mentally challenged for
stupid etc.

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Term Definition Example
extended A metaphor developed at great length, occurring
metaphor frequently in or throughout a work.

figurative Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal


language meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

figure of speech A device used to produce figurative language. Many


compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include
apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron,
paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and
understatement.

generic This term describes traditions for each genre. These For example, they differentiate an essay and
conventions conventions help to define each genre; journalistic writing or an autobiography and political
writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish
the unique features of a writers work from those
dictated by convention.

genre The major category into which a literary work fits. The On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the
basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. passages to be from the following genres:
However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays,
boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature
genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided writing.
into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction There may be fiction or poetry.
(essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be
divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama
can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce,
etc.
homily This term literally means sermon, but more informally, He is not only able to cast wicked men into hell, but he can
it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving most easily do it. Sometimes an earthly prince meets with a
moral or spiritual advice. great deal of difficulty to subdue a rebel that has found
means to fortify himselfSo tis easy for us to cut or singe a
slender thread that anything hangs by; thus easy is it for
God, when he pleases, to cast his enemies down to hell.
What are we, that we should think to stand before him, at
whose rebuke the earth trembles, and before whom the
rocks are thrown down. (Sinners in the Hands of an Angry
God by Jonathan Edwards, delivered at Enfield, Connecticut
on July 8, 1741)

This is a popular American sermon in which Edwards has


emphasized the idea of Great awakening. The underlying
idea is that God has given a chance to humanity to rectify
their sins, as will of God has kept them away from depths of
hell.
hyperbole A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or My grandmother is as old as the hills.
overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is
overshoot.) Your suitcase weighs a ton!
Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious
effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. She is as heavy as an elephant!
The opposite of hyperbole is understatement.

imagery The sensory details or figurative language used to For example, a rose may present visual imagery while
describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a also representing the color in a womans cheeks
physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An
senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. author may use complex imagery while
On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can simultaneously employing other figures of speech,
represent more than one thingOn the AP language exam, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term
pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to can apply to the total of all the images in a work.
the effect of this imagery. It was dark and dim in the forest. The words
dark and dim are visual images.

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
The children were screaming and shouting in the
fields. Screaming and shouting appeal to our
sense of hearing or auditory sense.
He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. whiff
and aroma evoke our sense of smell or olfactory
sense.
The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric. The
idea of soft in this example appeals to our sense
of touch or tactile sense.

invective an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the
using strong, abusive language. large character of Falstaff this sanguine coward, this
bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge
hill of flesh.)

Term Definition Example


inference/infer To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information It was after we started with Gatsby toward the house that
presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an the gardener saw Wilsons body a little way off in the grass,
inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, and the holocaust was complete.
most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If
The above extract is one of the examples of inference from
an inference is implausible, its unlikely to be the correct literature. After reading this line from The Great Gatsby
answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a reader who is smart enough to
is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to make a quick inference will simultaneously understand that
note the connotation negative or positive of the Gatsbys life has ended. The most significant part of this
choices. sentence is that the protagonist in the novel Mr. Gatsby has
been murdered. Nevertheless, the circumstances
surrounding his demise can be all the more interesting if
looked at closely. Among the factors that contributed to his
death, the most dominant one is his rebuttal to let go of the
past. Earlier the day Gatsby was killed, there was a part
where he stopped his servant from emptying the pool even
though the air was cold because he felt that summer was
not over yet. Looking at this particular part more profoundly
incites us to make an association between Gatsbys denial
of the end of summer and his denial of dissolution of his
relation with Daisy. So, we could say that if Gatsby had
made peace with the current circumstances and had moved
on, he might not have gotten himself killed.

Interrupted Sometime the basic SVO English word order becomes Consider these examples:
Sentence altered when an SVO sentence is interrupted by another
structure within the sentence. For example, when a 1. The teacher (S) read (V) the book (O).
relative clause occurs immediately after the subject of a 2. The teacher (S) read (V) the book (O) which (O)
sentence, the relative clause interrupts the SVO order of the student (S) found (V).
the main clause of the sentence. 3. The book (S) which (O) the student (S) found (V)
explains (V) English grammar (O).

The first sentence reflects simple SVO word order


Example: because it does not contain any additional structure
such as a relative clause. The second sentence
"Below the moon, the houses opposite her window contains a relative clause--which the student found--
blazed back in transparent shadow; and something--was which follows and describes the object, the book.
it a coin or a ring?--glittered half-way across the chalk- Although the relative clause exhibits an altered word
white street." order (OSV), the main clause still exhibits SVO word
(Elizabeth Bowen, "Mysterious Kor." The Demon Lover order because the relative clause FOLLOWS the main
and Other Stories, 1945) clause object.

In the third sentence, the relative clause follows and


describes the main clause subject, the book.
Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Therefore, it INTERRUPTS the SVO order of the main
clause. As a whole, the sentence reflects the order
SOSVVO, quite a deviation from the SVO order of a
simple sentence.
irony/ironic The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is In the Greek drama Oedipus Rex written by
really meant, or the difference between what appears to Sophocles,
be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create Upon the murderer I invoke this curse whether he
poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major is one man and all unknown,
types of irony used in language: Or one of many may he wear out his life in misery
(1) verbal irony when the words literally state the to miserable doom!
opposite of the writers (or speakers) meaning
(2) situational irony when events turn out the The above lines are an illustration of verbal and
Opposite of what was expected; when what the dramatic irony. It was predicted that a man guilty of
characters and readers think ought to happen is not killing his father and marrying his own mother has
what does happen brought curse on the city and its people. In the
(3) dramatic irony when facts or events are unknown above-mentioned lines, Oedipus curses the man who
to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known is the cause of curse on his city. He is ignorant of the
to the reader, audience, or other characters in the fact that he himself is that man and he is cursing
work. himself. The audience, on the other hand, knows the
situation.
Term Definition Example
litotes a form of understatement that involves making an Examples: Not a bad idea - means a good idea Not
(pronounced affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litotes is the many, It isnt very serious.
almost like little opposite of hyperbole
tee) Not bad looking means she/he looks good
loose A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a
sentence/non- clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical long, bumpy ride and multiple delays.
periodic sentence units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed
at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.
a complete sentence. A work containing many loose
sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or
conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose
style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic
sentence.

metaphor A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a
unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, threat; therefore, this implies that the coming times are
suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes going to be hard for him.)
writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and
meaningful. Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice
makes him feel happy)

Shall I Compare Thee to a summers Day,


(William Shakespeare)
Sonnet 18,also known as Shall I Compare Thee to
a Summers Day, is an extended metaphor between
the love of the speaker and the fairness of the
summer season. He writes that thy eternal
summer, here taken to mean the love of the
subject, shall not fade.

metonymy A term from the Greek meaning changed label or England decides to keep check on immigration.
(mtn m) substitute name, metonymy is a figure of speech in (England refers to the government.)
which the name of one object is substituted for that of
another closely associated with it. The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to
For example, a news release that claims the White written words and sword to military force.)
House declared rather than the President declared is
using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male The Oval Office was busy in work. (The Oval Office is a
and female sexes in As You Like It: doublet and hose metonymy as it stands for people at work in the office.)
ought to show itself courageous to petticoat. The
Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)
substituted term generally carries a more potent
emotional impact.
Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
mood The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in
Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is his novel Pickwick Papers:
similar to tone and atmosphere.
The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky,
glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on.

The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and


non-violent mood to the readers.

narrative The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of Animal Farm by George Orwell is a modern narrative
events. example that aim at extending a writers political
views. It is a form of narrative known as a political
satire. It uses animals on a farm to describe the
overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II
and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW
II. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to
expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution. It
also describes how powerful people can change the
ideology of a society.
Term Definition Example
onomatopoeia A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in The buzzing bee flew away.
the sounds of words. Simple examples include such The sack fell into the river with a splash.
words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If The books fell on the table with a loud thump.
you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, He looked at the roaring sky.
note The rustling leaves kept me awake
the effect.

oxymoron From the Greek for pointedly foolish, an oxymoron is a Open secret / Tragic comedy / Seriously funny
figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently Awfully pretty / Foolish wisdom / Original copies /
contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple Liquid gas
examples include jumbo shrimp and cruel kindness.
This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice Below is an extract from the play Romeo and Juliet,
questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in Act I, Scene I, written by William Shakespeare.
an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves
with the use of oxymoron. Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate!
O anything, of nothing first create!
O heavy lightness! Serious vanity!
Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms!
Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health!
Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is!
This love feel I, that feel no love in this.
Dost thou not laugh?

We notice a series of oxymoron being employed


when Romeo confronts the love of an inaccessible
woman. An intense emotional effect is produced to
highlight his mental conflict by the use of
contradictory pairs of words such as hating love,
heavy lightness, bright smoke, cold fire, and
sick health.

paradox A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or (Think of the beginning of Dickens Tale of Two Cities:
opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection It was the best of times, it was
contains some degree of truth or validity. the worst of times....)
-Your enemys friend is your enemy.
-What a pity that youth must be wasted on
the young. George Bernard Shaw
-Truth is honey which is bitter.

Term Definition Example


Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Term Definition Example
parallelism Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel Again, the opening of Dickens Tale of Two Cities is an
structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning example:
beside one another. It refers to the grammatical or
rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it
paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness,
but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of
such as a preposition or verbal phrase incredulity....

The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently


they act as an organizing force to attract the readers
attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply
provide a musical rhythm.

parody A work that closely imitates the style or content of Like the Simpsons version of Edgar Allan Poes The
another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or Raven
ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an authors expression
(propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and
words, etc.) understand the work being parodied in order to fully
Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the appreciate the nuances of the newer work.
original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their
imitation. own and dont require knowledge of the original.

pedantic An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general From The Big Bang Theory by Bill Prady and Chuck
tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish Lorre
(language that might be described as show-offy; using
big words for the sake of using big words). Bill Prady and Chuck Lorres sitcom contains a
pedantic character, Dr. Sheldon Lee Cooper, who is a
theoretical physicist. Dr. Sheldon Cooper is
idiosyncratic, obsessed, have extreme narcissism and
extensive general knowledge. Other characteristics in
his personality include inflated ego, prodigy, social
ineptitude and his inability to express emotions to
people, which show him as a typical pedantic person.

periodic sentence The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents (Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple
its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)
independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that
cannot stand alone.

The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and


structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than
the loose sentence.

personification A figure of speech in which the author presents or Look at my car. She is a beauty, isnt it so?
describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by The wind whispered through dry grass.
endowing them with human attributes or emotions. The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
Personification is used to make these abstractions,
animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader. Taken from Act I, Scene II of Romeo and Juliet,

When well-appareled April on the heel


Of limping winter treads.

There are two personification examples here. April


cannot put on a dress, and winter does not limp and
it does not have a heel on which a month can walk.
Shakespeare personifies the month of April and the
winter season by giving them two distinct human
qualities.

Term Definition Example


Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Term Definition Example
point of view In literature, the perspective from which a story is told.
There are two general divisions of point of view, and
many subdivisions within those.
(1) first person narrator tells the story with the first
person pronoun, I, and is a character in the story.
This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary
character, or an observing character.
(2) third person narrator relates the events with the
third person pronouns, he, she, and it. There are
two main subdivisions to be aware of:
a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator,
with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts
and actions of any or all characters
b. third person limited omniscient, in which the
narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only
one character, presenting only the actions of all
the remaining characters.
In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries
an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze
the authors point of view, the appropriate point for you
to address is the authors attitude.

prose One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction


and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer
determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet
determines the length of the line.

Qualifier a word or phrase, especially an adjective, used to Qualifiers of quantity: some, most, all, none,
attribute a quality to another word, especially a noun. A Qualifiers of time: occasionally, sometimes, now and
qualifier is a word or phrase that changed how absolute, again, usually, always, never, etc.
certain or generalized a statement is. Qualifiers of certainty: I guess, I think, I know, I am
absolutely certain, etc.
Qualifiers of possibility: Could, may, likely, possible,
probable, etc.
Qualifiers of necessity: Must, should, ought,
required, have to, etc.
Qualifiers of relative quality: best, worst, finest,
sharpest, heaviest, etc.
absolute qualifiers (all, none, always, never)
repetition The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last word in a line or
element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause.
clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern. Anaphora: Repetition of words at the start of clauses or
verses.
Antistasis: Repetition of word s or phrases in opposite
sense.
http://literarydevices.net/repetition/ Diacope: Repetition of words broken by some other
words.
Epanalepsis: Repetition of same words at the end and
start of a sentence.
Epimone: Repetition of a phrase (usually a question) to
stress a point.
Epiphora: Repetition of the same word at the end of
each clause.
Gradatio: A construction in poetry where the last word
of one clause becomes the first of the next and so on.
Negative-Positive Restatement: Repetition of an idea
first in negative terms and then in positive terms.
Polyptoton: Repetition of words of the same root with
different endings.
Symploce: It is a combination of anaphora and epiphora
in which repetition is both at the end and at the
beginning.

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Term Definition Example
rhetoric From the Greek for orator, this term describes the
principles governing the art of writing effectively,
eloquently, and persuasively.

rhetorical modes This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, (3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent,
and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four or visually present a person, place, event or action so
most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as that the reader can picture that being described.
modes of discourse) are as follows: Sometimes an author engages all five senses in
(1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous
to explain and analyze information by presenting an and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be
idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. straightforward and objective or highly
The AP language exam essay questions are frequently emotional an subjective.
expository topics. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or
(2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the narrate an event or series of events. This writing
validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.
sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that
thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a
type of argumentation having an additional aim of
urging some form of action.

sarcasm From the Greek meaning to tear flesh, sarcasm involves 7 types
bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule Self-Deprecating Sarcasm This category of sarcasm
someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but expresses an overstated sense of inferiority and
not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to worthlessness.
ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and Brooding Sarcasm In this criticism, the speaker
utters something polite. However, the tone of his
insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.
speech has a marked bitterness in it.
Deadpan Sarcasm It is expressed without emotion or
laughter making it difficult for the listener to judge
whether the speaker is joking or mocking.
Polite Sarcasm A speaker is said to have delivered a
polite sarcasm when his listeners only get to realize
that his kind remark was a sarcastic one after they had
given it some thought.
Obnoxious Sarcasm This kind of sarcasm makes
people feel like punching the speaker in the face. It is
not very funny and it gets under your skin.
Manic Sarcasm This type of sarcasm is delivered in
an unnatural happy mood that it makes the speaker
look like he has gone crazy.
Raging Sarcasm This kind of sarcasm relies mainly on
exaggeration and violent threats.

satire A work that targets human vices and follies or social Jonathan Swifts Gulliver Travels is one of the finest satirical
institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. works in English Literature. Swift relentlessly satirizes
Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform politics, religion, and Western Culture. Criticizing party
politics in England, Swift writes,
human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing
rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by
that for above seventy Moons past there have been
the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony,
two struggling Parties in this Empire, under the
wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and
Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan from the high
sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on
and low Heels on their shoes, by which they
the writers goal, but good satire, often humorous, is
distinguish themselves.
thought provoking and insightful about the human
condition. Some modern satirists include Joseph Heller
During Swifts times, two rival political parties, the Whigs
(Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cats Cradle, Player Piano). and the Tories, dominated the English political scene.
Similarly, The Kingdom of Lilliput is dominated by two
parties distinguished by the size of the heels of their boots.
By the trivial disputes between the two Lilliputian parties,
Swift satirizes the minor disputes of the two English parties
of his period.

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Term Definition Example
semantics The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of Juliet: O, be some other name!
words, their historical and psychological development, Whats in a name? that which we call a rose
their connotations, and their relation to one another. The By any other name would smell as sweet;
study of semantics includes the study of how meaning is So Romeo would, were he not Romeo calld
constructed, interpreted, clarified, obscured, illustrated,
simplified negotiated, contradicted and paraphrased. The above-mentioned quote, That which we call a
rosesweet is, in fact, conveying figurative
The purpose of semantic is to propose exact meanings of meaning. However, its surrounding text clarifies the
the words and phrases and remove confusion, which meanings. Juliet is using metaphoric language and
might lead the readers to believe a word has many arguing with Romeo that his family name is not
possible meanings. It makes a relationship between a important for her, because she only wants Romeo.
word and the sentence through their meanings. Besides,
semantic enables the readers to explore a sense of the
meaning, because if we remove or change the place of a
single word from the sentence, it will change the entire
meanings, or else the sentence will become anomalous.
Hence, the sense relation inside a sentence is very
important, as a single word does not carry any sense or
meaning.

Simile A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, In her novel To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf
showing similarities between two different things. Unlike compares the velocity of her thoughts about the two
a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of men with that of spoken words.
the words like or as. Therefore, it is a direct
comparison. . . . impressions poured in upon her of those two
men, and to follow her thought was like following a
voice which speaks too quickly to be taken down by
ones pencil . . .

She says both are difficult to follow and cannot be


copied in words by a pencil.

style The consideration of style has two purposes: 4 types:


(1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author Expository or Argumentative style
makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, Descriptive style
and other literary devices. Some authors styles are so Persuasive style
idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by Narrative style
the same author.
An excerpt from Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde
We can analyze and describe an authors personal
style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to The studio was filled with the rich odor of roses, and
the authors purpose. Styles can be called flowery, when the light summer wind stirred amidst the trees
explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, of the garden The sullen murmur of the bees
incisive, laconic, etc. shouldering their way through or circling with
monotonous insistence
(2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison
of an author to similar authors. By means of such This is a good example of descriptive writing style
classification and comparison, we can see how an since the author gives visualizations, feelings,
authors style reflects and helps to define a historical description of a location and details about bees that
period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian could be seen and heard.
period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic,
transcendental, or realist movement.

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
subject The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that (1) the predicate nominative a noun, group of
complement follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It,
the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and
predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate is located in the predicate of the sentence.
adjective). These are defined below: Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star.
movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames
the subject, Julia Roberts

(2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of


adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking
verb.
It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or
describes, the subject.

Example: Warren remained optimistic.


optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the
subject, Warren

Term Definition Example


subordinate clause Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West
and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), that is known for its geysers.
but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause
cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete underlined phrase = subordinate clause
thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate
clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause)
to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and
phrases usually begin these clauses. For example:
although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon
as, while, who, when, where, how and that.

syllogism From the Greek for reckoning together, a syllogism (or major premise: All men are mortal.
syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive minor premise: Socrates is a man.
system of formal logic that presents two premises (the conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
first one called major and the second called minor)
that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently A syllogisms conclusion is valid only if each of the
cited example proceeds as follows: two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present
the specific idea first (Socrates) and the general
second (all men).

symbol/symbolism Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for The dove is a symbol of peace.
something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete -- A red rose or red color stands for love or
such as an object, action, character, or scene that romance.
represents something more abstract. However, symbols Black is a symbol that represents evil or death.
and symbolism can be much more complex. One system A ladder may stand as a symbol for a connection
classifies symbols into three categories: between the heaven and the earth.
(1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from A broken mirror may symbolize separation
nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with
them (dawn
symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose We find symbolic value in Shakespeares famous
symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). monologue in his play As you Like It:
(2) conventional symbols are those that have been
invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols All the worlds a stage,
such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, And all the men and women merely players;
such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a they have their exits and their entrances;
skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice And one man in his time plays many parts,
for lawyers).

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
(3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional The above lines are symbolic of the fact that men
in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and women, in course of their life perform
and are more generally recognized. However, a different roles. A stage here symbolizes the
works symbols may be more complicated, as is the world and players is a symbol for human beings.
jungle in Heart of Darkness.

On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an


object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in
representing that abstraction.

synecdoche a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to Examples: To refer to a boat as a sail; to refer to a
represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to car as wheels; to refer to the violins, violas, etc. in
represent a part. an orchestra as the strings. **Different than
metonymy, in which one thing is represented by
another thing that is commonly physically associated
with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e.,
referring to a monarch as the crown or the
President as The White House.

synesthesia when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective Ex: The sight of red ants makes you itchy. In
experience of another. literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of
associating two or more different senses in the same
image. Red Hot Chili Peppers song title,Taste the
Pain, is an example.
Term Definition Example
syntax The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, Example #1
clauses, and sentences. That night I sat on Tyan-yus bed and waited for him
Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them to touch me. But he didnt. I was relieved. (The Joy
by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction Luck Club by Amy Tan)
refers to the individual words.
Example #2
Syntax affects the nature of a prose text as well. It They left me alone and I lay in bed and read the
enhances its meanings and contributes toward its tone. papers awhile, the news from the front, and the list
Quickness, decisiveness and speed are added to a text by of dead officers with their decorations and then
using short phrase, clauses and sentences. Whereas, in a reached down and brought up the bottle of Cinzano
text where the subject matter is serious that requires and held it straight up on my stomach, the cool glass
contemplation, long, convoluted sentence are used to against my stomach, and took little drinks making
slow down the pace of a prose text. rings on my stomach from holding the bottle there
between drinks, and watched it get dark outside over
In the multiple-choice section of the AP exam, expect to the roofs of the town.
be asked some questions about how an author (A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway)
manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to
analyze how syntax produces effects.
The two syntax examples above show a distinct use
of syntax. Amy Tan uses short sentences to
communicate in a powerful and concise manner.
Ernest Hemingway, on the other hand, uses long and
complex structures to emphasize the laziness of his
character.

theme The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers It is important not to confuse a theme of a literary
into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but work with its subject / topic.
in nonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially
in expository or argumentative writing. Subject is a topic which acts as a foundation for a
literary work while a theme is an opinion expressed
on the subject.

Topic / subject = war

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
the theme of a story may be writers personal
opinion expressed in a complete theme statement

theme statement = war is a curse for humanity.

Usually, it is up to the readers to explore a theme of


a literary work by analyzing characters, plot and
other literary devices.

thesis In expository writing, the thesis statement is the


sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses
the authors opinion, purpose, meaning, or position.
Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how
accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has
proven the thesis.

Term Definition Example


tone Similar to mood, tone describes the authors attitude Example #1
toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier Father: We are going on a vacation.
to determine in spoken language than in written Son: Thats great!!!
language. Considering how a work would sound if it were
read aloud can help in identifying an authors tone. Some The tone of sons response is very cheerful.
words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike,
sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, somber. Example #2
Father: We cant go on vacation this summer.
Son: Ok. Great! Thats what I expected.

The sons tone is sarcastic in the given response.

Example #3
Holden Caulfield in J.D Salingers Catching the Rye
unfolds his personality through the tone he adopts
throughout the novel. Let us have a look at some of
his remarks:

All morons hate it when you call them a moron.


If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a
damn if shes late? Nobody.
Goddamn money. It always ends up making you
blue as hell.
Catholics are always trying to find out if youre
Catholic.
Holdens tone is bitterly sarcastic as he criticizes the
nature of things in real life. His character may reveal
the attitude of the writer towards life as it is common
for writers to use their characters as their
mouthpieces.

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
understatement the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents Example: Jonathan Swifts A Tale of a Tub: Last week
something as less significant than it is. The effect can I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe
frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement how much it altered her person for the worse.
is the opposite of hyperbole.

wit In modern usage, intellectually amusing


language that surprises and delights. A witty
statement is humorous, while suggesting the
speakers verbal power in creating ingenious
and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse
language that makes a pointed statement.
Historically, wit originally meant basic
understanding. Its meaning evolved to include
speed of understanding, and finally, it grew to
mean quick perception including creative
fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an
answer that demanded the same quick
perception.

Term Definition Example


transition A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used Example #1
especially, although not exclusively, in expository and To show contrast between ideas: on the contrary,
argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift however, notwithstanding
from one idea to another. A few commonly used
transitional words or phrases are furthermore, Example #2
consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, To denote time: after, at last, before
likewise, similarly, on the contrary, etc. More
sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition. Example #3
To add to the previous point in the essay:
furthermore, besides, moreover

Example #4
To show similarity or comparison between ideas:
likewise, similarly, in like fashion

Example #5
To concede a point in the essay: although, at least, at
any rate

Example #6
To emphasize a point: indeed, above all, truly

Example #7
To bring attention to details: especially, specifically,
in particular

Example #8
To show consequence or a result: with the result
that, so that, consequently

Example #9
To illustrate a point or provide examples: for
instance, for example, to illustrate

Example #10

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
To make a suggestion in the essay: to this end, for
this purpose, with this in mind

Example #11
To sum up the points: finally, therefore,
consequently

SYNTAX OVERVIEW
What? The grammatical structure of sentences; the deliberate sentence structure the author chooses to make his or her
desired point.
Why? Examined to show how it contributes to and enhances meaning and effect.

Remember
Phrases = groups of related words w/o subject, predicate, or both
Clauses = groups of related words with subject and predicate

ELEMENTS OF SYNTAX
1. Sentence length
Staccato = one to two words, abrupt
Telegraphic = shorter than five words
Short = approx. 5-10 words
Medium = approx. 15-20 words
Long = 30 or more words
Consider: What variety of lengths is shown? How is it effective?
2. Number of sentences
3. Rhythm of sentences
4. Sentence beginnings variety or pattern
5. Voice active or passive?
6. Word order / arrangement of ideas are words set out in a special way for a purpose or effect?
Loose sentence (main point is at the beginning, front loaded)
Ex: We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences.
Periodic sentence (main point at the end, end loaded)
Ex: That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.
Parallel structure
Antithesis
Natural order (subject before main verb)
Ex: Oranges grow in California.
Inverted order (verb before subject)
Ex: In California grow oranges.
Interrupted sentence: subordinate clauses come in the middle, set off by dashes or commas
Ex: These had been her teachers, -- stern and wild ones, -- and they had made her strong.
7. Sentence types
Declarative = statements
Ex: The clock struck eight. She waited. Nobody came.
Interrogative = questions
Imperative = commands, requests
Ex: Write to the local TV station. Try to convince others to take your side.
Exclamatory
Simple sentences = 1 subject, 1 predicate
Ex: The price of gold rose. Stock prices may fall. Van Gogh painted The Starry Night.
Compound sentences = two or more independent clauses joined with coordinating conjunctions, transitional words/phrases,
semicolons, or colons
Ex: The saxophone does not belong to the brass family; in fact, it is a member of the woodwind family.
Ex: In the fall the war was always there, but we did not go to it any more. (Hemingway)
Complex sentences = one independent clause and one dependent clause
Ex: After the town was evacuated, the hurricane began.
Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms
Ex: Town officials, who were very concerned, watched the storm.
Compound-complex = two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause
Ex: When small foreign imports began dominating the US automobile industry, consumers were very responsive, but
American auto workers were dismayed.
Fragments and run-ons

Adapted from V. Stevenson, Patrick Henry High School, and Abrams Glossary of Literary Terms

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