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Contents
1. Minerals The Building Blocks of Rocks........................................................................3
1.1. Definition:............................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Classification or Grouping........................................................................................ 3
1.2.1. The Silicates...................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2. Non-Silicates:..................................................................................................... 5
1.3. Properties of Minerals:............................................................................................. 5
1.3.1. Crystal Form...................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2. Luster.............................................................................................................. 5
1.3.3. Color............................................................................................................... 6
1.3.4. Streak.............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.5. Hardness........................................................................................................... 6
1.3.6. Cleavage........................................................................................................... 7
1.3.7. Fracture............................................................................................................ 7
1.3.8. Specific Gravity.................................................................................................. 7
1.3.9. Other Properties of Minerals.................................................................................. 8
1.4. Identification of Minerals in the laboratory....................................................................8
2. Rocks................................................................................................................... 16
2.1. Definition........................................................................................................... 16
2.2. Rock Cycle......................................................................................................... 16
2.3. Types of Rocks.................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1. Igneous Rocks.................................................................................................. 17
2.3.2. Sedimentary Rocks............................................................................................ 19
2.3.3. Metamorphic Rocks........................................................................................... 20
2.4. Identification of Rocks in Laboratory.........................................................................21
3. References............................................................................................................. 42
1
Identification of Minerals and Rocks
1.1.Definition:
Minerals are defined by the Geologists as any naturally occurring inorganic solids that consist of
an orderly internal structure and definite chemical composition. Thus, for any earth material to
be considered as mineral, it must exhibit the following characteristics:-
i. It must be a solid
ii. It must be naturally occurring
iii. It must be inorganic
iv. It must possess an orderly internal structure, that is, its atoms must be arranged in a
definite pattern.
v. It must have a definite chemical composition that may vary within specified limits.
Only those substances that meet these criteria are considered minerals. Consequently, synthetic
diamonds are not minerals as these are man-made. Similarly, animal bones are not minerals as
these are organic in nature. Petroleum is considered as oil and gas not mineral. While ice is
considered as mineral as it satisfies all the above mentioned criteria. Further, gemstone opal is
classified as mineraloid, rather than a mineral, because it lacks an orderly internal structure.
There are nearly 4000 minerals in Earth. These minerals are composed of elements. At present
112 elements are known. Of these, only 92 are naturally occurring. Some minerals such as Gold
and Sulfur, are made entirely from one element. But most minerals are the combination of two or
more elements, joined to form chemically stable compounds.
1.2.Classification or Grouping
Nearly 4000 minerals have been named and about 40 to 50 new ones are being identified each year. It is
interesting to note that only eight elements make of the bulk of these minerals and represent over 98
percent (by weight) of the continental crust. Out of these eight elements Oxygen (O) and Silicon (Si)
constitute 46.6 percent and 27.7 percent respectively.
As the most common elements are Silicon and Oxygen, which combine to form the framework of most
common mineral group, the Silicates. Next most common mineral group is the Carbonates, of which
calcite is the most prominent member. Other common rock-forming minerals include gypsum and halite.
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
One of the simplest ways in which these tetrahedral join together to become neutral compounds is
through the addition of positively charged ion. In this way, a chemically stable structure is produced,
consisting of individual tetrahedral linked together by various positively charged ions. In addition,
tetrahedral may link with themselves in variety of configuration, the tetrahedral may be joined for form
single chains, double chains, or sheet structures. The joining of these configurations results from the
sharing of oxygen atom between silicon atoms in adjacent tetrahedral. In the isolated tetrahedron, there
are four oxygen ions for every silicon ion. In the single chain, the oxygen-to-silicon ratio is 3:1, and in
three-dimensional framework this ratio is 2:1. As more of the oxygen ions are shared the percentage of
silicon in the structure increases. Silicate minerals are therefore described as having high or low silicon
content based on their ratio of oxygen to silicon. Most silicate structures, including single chains, double
chains and sheets are not neutral chemical compounds. Thus, like the individual tetrahedral, they all are
neutralized by the inclusion of positively charged ions that bond them together into a variety of complex
crystalline configurations. These ions that most often link silicate structures are those of the elements ions
(Fe), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), aluminum (Al) and calcium (Ca). The common
silicate minerals are Olivine, Augite, Hornblende, Biotite, Muscovite, Orthoclase, Plagioclase and Quartz.
On the basis of chemical makeup, the silicate minerals are divided two major groups as given below in
the diagram:
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
1.2.2. Non-Silicates:
Non-silicate mineral groups are oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, native elements and carbonate.
Most common mineral group next to silicates is carbonate. The carbonate minerals are much
simpler structurally than the silicates. The two most common carbonate minerals are calcite and
dolomite.
1.3.Properties of Minerals:
Minerals occur in different colors, shapes and lusters. They vary in hardness and may even have
a distinctive taste. Following physical properties are used for the identification of minerals.
It is the external expression of the orderly internal arrangement of atoms. Forms of crystal can be
cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal etc. examples are, phyrite, commonly known as fools gold often
forms cubic crystals while quartz exhibits well-developed hexagonal (six-sided) crystals with
pyramidal-shaped ends.
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
1.3.2. Luster
Appearance or quality of light reflected from surface of mineral. Luster can be metallic or non-
metallic.
Metallic Luster: Materials which have metallic appearance, regardless of their color, are said to
have a metallic luster.
Non-metallic Luster: This is a type of luster in which appearance of minerals does not resemble
with that of metals. The non-metallic luster further has been classified into five different types:
i. Vitreous (glassy)
ii. Earthy (dull)
iii. Silky
iv. Pearly
v. Resinous
1.3.3. Color
Color of any mineral is visible light spectrum radiation reflected from it. Although color is an
obvious feature of a mineral, it is often unreliable as one mineral may possess more than one
color due to presence of impurities.
This property can be observed by simply looking at the mineral and noting its color like blue,
white, black etc.
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
1.3.4. Streak
It is the color of the mineral in its powdered form. Streak is obtained by rubbing the material
across a piece of unglazed porcelain termed as streak plate.
The color of the mineral may vary from sample to sample, the streak usually does not, and is
therefore the more reliable property. Streak can also be an aid in distinguishing minerals with
metallic lusters from those having non-metallic lusters. Metallic minerals generally have a dense,
dark streak, whereas minerals with non-metallic lusters do not.
1.3.5. Hardness
Geologist use a standard hardness scale, called the Mohs scale. It consists of 10 minerals
arranged in order from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest) as is shown in Table 1. Any mineral of
unknown hardness can be rubbed against these to determine its hardness. In the field, other
handy objects work too. For example, fingernail has a hardness of 2.5, a copper penny 3, and a
piece of glass 5.5.
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Hardness is one of the most important physical property of any mineral because it is determined
by a proper scale.
1.3.6. Cleavage
The property of minerals which cause them to break along planes of weakness in the crystal
structure is called as Cleavage.
When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is exhibited by number of
planes exhibited and the angles at which they meet.
Cleavage and crystal forms are different things. When a mineral exhibits cleavage, it will break
into pieces that have the same geometry as each other. The simplest type of cleavage is exhibited
by Micas. Because the micas have weak bonds in one direction, they cleave to form thin flat
sheets.
1.3.7. Fracture
Minerals that do not exhibit cleavage when broken such as quartz are said to fracture. Minerals
that dont have any weak plane generally fracture. It means that if a mineral fractures it is
considered to be stronger than that which forms cleavage planes.
It is ratio of the mass of a mineral to the mass of an equal volume of water at standard
temperature of 4oC.
It gives us information that how much a mineral is heavier than equal volume of water. For
example, if specific gravity of any mineral is 3, it means that mineral is 3 times heavier than
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
equal volume of water. Galena, which is an ore of lead, has a specific gravity of roughly 7.5,
whereas the specific gravity of 24-karat gold is approximately 20.
SAMPLE # 1:
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
SAMPLE # 2
SAMPLE # 3
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
SAMPLE # 4
SAMPLE # 5:
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
SAMPLE # 6:
SAMPLE # 7
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
SAMPLE # 8
SAMPLE# 9
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
SAMPLE# 10
SAMPLE # 11
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
SAMPLE # 12
SAMPLE # 13
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
SAMPLE # 14
SAMPLE # 15:
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
2. Rocks
2.1.Definition
Rocks are the aggregates of one or more minerals that are strongly bonded together and that occurs
naturally.
A few rocks are composed almost of entirely of one mineral. A common example is the sedimentary rock
limestone, which consists of impure masses of mineral calcite. While most rocks like the common rock
granite occurs as aggregates of several kinds of minerals. Granite consists of minerals quartz, hornblende
and feldspar.
Depending upon the conditions of formation, the rocks have been classified into three major categories.
These are as follows:
i. Igneous Rocks
ii. Sedimentary Rocks
iii. Metamorphic Rocks
2.2.Rock Cycle
The rock cycle shows that all the three types of rocks are linked to each other by processes.
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
2.3.Types of Rocks
The igneous rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of magma. The process of cooling
and solidification of magma is called crystallization. Crystallization can either occur beneath the
surface or following a volcanic eruption, at the surface. In either situation the resulting rocks are
called igneous rocks.
Intrusive or Plutonic:-
Magma that loses its mobility before reaching the surface eventually crystallizes at depth. Such
igneous rocks are called Intrusive or Plutonic.
Extrusive or volcanic:
Igneous rocks that form when molten rock solidifies at the surface are classified as extrusive or
volcanic.
Texture is an important property of the igneous rocks. Texture is defined as the overall
appearance of the rock based on the size, shape and arrangement of its interlocking crystals.
Texture is an important characteristic because it reveals a great deal about the environment in
which the rock formed. Three factors contribute to the texture of igneous rocks:
Igneous rocks that form at the surface or as small masses within the upper crust where
cooling is relatively rapid possess a very fined grained texture termed as Aphanitic. Fine
grained rocks are characterized as being light, intermediate or dark in color. Using this
system of grouping, light colored aphanitic rocks are those containing primarily light-colored
non-ferromagnesian silicate minerals.
When large masses of magma slowly solidifies far below the surface, they form igneous rocks
that exhibit a coarse grained texture described as phaneritic.
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
A large mass of magma located at depth may require tens to hundreds of thousands of years
to solidify. Because different minerals crystallize at different temperatures. It is possible for
some crystals to become quite large before others even begin to form. The resulting rock,
which has the large crystals embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals, is said to have a
porphyritic texture. The large crystals in such rocks are referred to as phenocrysts, while
matrix of smaller crystals is called ground mass. A rock with such texture is termed as
porphyry.
During some volcanic eruptions, molten rock is ejected into the atmosphere where it is quenched
quickly. Rapid cooling of this type may generate rocks having a glassy texture.
v) Pyroclastic Texture:
Some igneous rocks are formed from the consolidation of individual rock fragments that are
ejected during a volcanic eruption. Igneous rocks composed of these rock fragments are said to
have a pyroclastic texture.
Bowns reaction series shows the sequence in which the minerals crystallize from a magma
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Deposition of sediments that originates and is transported as solid particles derived from both mechanical
and chemical weathering. Deposits of this types are termed as detrital and the sedimentary rocks that they
form are called detrital sedimentary rocks. The type of rocks include conglomerate or breccia, sandstone,
shale or mudstone.
By chemical weathering, soluble material is produced, when these dissolved substances are precipitated
by either inorganic or organic processes, the material is known as chemical sediment and the rock formed
from it called chemical sedimentary rock. Examples of these type of rocks are Limestone, Dolostone,
Chert, Rock Salt, Rock Gypsum etc.
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
New Minerals: grow at the expense of less stable minerals in the new conditions of high
temperature and pressure. Most important changes are clay minerals, micas, feldspar and mafics.
Micas are the most significant minerals in metamorphic rock and only change to feldspar at the
highest grade of metamorphism.
Directional Pressure: within the solid state creates mineral orientation within the regionally
metamorphosed rocks. New minerals grow in the line of least resistance perpendicular to the
maximum pressure to cause foliation or banding within these rocks.
Planar Weaknesses: in the foliated metamorphic rocks are created by the parallel micas, causing
rock cleavage and schistosity (both independent of bedding)
Non-foliated: metamorphic rocks have stronger isotropic structure. These include hornfels,
formed by thermal metamorphism of clay without high pressure; also marble, gneiss with little or
no mica.
Grade: of metamorphism is the overall extent of change, notably in the sequence (within regional
metamorphism) from slate to schist to gneiss.
Limestone to marble, Sandstone to quartzite, basalt to greenstone, clay and rock mixture to
hornfels, slate, schist or gneiss depending on the type and grade of metamorphism.
Based upon the texture, these rocks have also been classified into two broad categories:
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
(Note:- The rock samples explained here are not according to the order as in the lab, as the order of
the sample in the lab is altered later.)
Sample # 1
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 2
Sample # 3
Sample # 4
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 5
Sample # 6
Sample # 7
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 8
Sample # 9
Sample # 10
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 11
Sample # 12
Sample # 13
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 14
Sample # 15
Sample # 16
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 17
Sample # 18
Sample # 19
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 20
Sample # 21
Sample # 22
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 23
Sample # 24
Sample # 25
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 26
Sample # 27
Sample # 28
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
10.Discontinuity None
Sample # 29
Sample # 30
Sample # 31
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 33
Sample # 34
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 36
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 37
Sample # 38
Sample # 39
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 40
Siltstone
1.Name of Rock
2.Type of Rock Sedimentary (Detrital)
3.Color Reddish Grey
4.Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm
5.Mineral Composition Clay Minerals, Feldsper
6.Strength Medium Strong
7.Weathering degree Fresh
8.Structure Massive
9.Characteristics/Texture Clastic
10.Discontinuity None
Sample # 41
Sample # 42
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
9.Characteristics/Texture Phaneritic
10.Discontinuity None
Sample # 43
Sample # 44
Sample # 45
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 46
Sample # 47
Sample # 48
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 49
Chert
1.Name of Rock
2.Type of Rock Sedimentary
3.Color White, Grey and yellow
4.Grain size Very fine
5.Mineral Composition Quartz
6.Strength Low
7.Weathering degree Moderately Weathered
8.Structure Massive
9.Characteristics/Texture Non-Clastic Texture
10.Discontinuity None
Sample # 51
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 52
Sample # 54
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 55
Sample # 57
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
Sample # 58
Sample # 60
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Identification of Minerals and Rocks
3. References
Lutgens F.K and Tarbuck E.J. (2000), Essentials of Geology, 7th Ed,. Prentice Hall
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