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9 ORGANIZING
PRODUCTION
Key Concepts ingness to buy its products and by the prices and
marketing efforts of other firms.
The Firm and Its Economic Problem Technology and Economic Efficiency
A firm is an institution that hires factors of production ♦ Technological efficiency — when a given output is
and uses these factors to produce and sell output. The produced using the least amount of inputs.
firm’s goal is to maximize its (economic) profit, which ♦ Economic efficiency — when output is produced
equals its revenue minus its (opportunity) costs. The at the lowest cost possible.
opportunity cost of any action is the highest-valued al-
If a business is economically efficient, it must be tech-
ternative foregone. A firm’s opportunity costs can be
nologically efficient, but technological efficiency does
separated into explicit costs (costs for which an actual
not necessarily imply economic efficiency.
money payment is made) and implicit costs (opportu-
nity costs not paid directly in money). Two common
implicit costs are: Information and Organization
♦ Cost of capital — The implicit rental rate of capi- ♦ Command system — organizes production within
tal, the opportunity cost the business incurs by us- a firm using a managerial hierarchy, so that com-
ing its capital rather than renting the capital to mands go from managers to workers.
another firm, is the sum of economic depreciation ♦ Incentive system — organizes production within a
plus foregone interest costs. Economic deprecia- firm using market-like mechanisms, so that incen-
tion is the change in its market value of capital over tives are set up to induce workers to maximize the
a given period. firm’s profit.
♦ Cost of owners’ resources — owners supply entrepre- The principal–agent problem is to set rules for com-
neurial ability to the business. Their compensation pensation so that agents (people employed by others)
is profit. The return an entrepreneur can expect to act in the best interests of the principals (the individu-
receive on the average is called normal profit. als who employ the agents). Giving managers partial
Economic profit = Total revenue – Opportunity cost. ownership of the company, using incentive pay, and
A business earning an economic profit is earning a using long-term contracts help overcome the principal-
profit that exceeds the normal profit. agent problem.
Three features limit a firm’s profit: Three forms of business organization are:
♦ Technology constraints — a technology is any ♦ Proprietorship — a single owner with unlimited
method of producing a good or service. Technology liability. Profits are taxed once.
limits how a firm can turn resources into output. ♦ Partnership — two or more owners with unlimited
♦ Information constraints — the future is always un- liability. Profits are taxed once.
certain and elements of the present are unknown. ♦ Corporation — a business owned by stockholders
♦ Marketing constraints — how much the firm can sell who have limited liability. Corporate profits can be
and at what price are limited by its customers’ will- taxed twice. First, the corporation pays taxes on its
profits. Second, if the corporation retains some
151
152 CHAPTER 9
profit and reinvests it, the price of the corporations Markets and Firms
stock can rise and shareholders pay taxes on capital
gains — the income received when a share of stock Firms coordinate economic activity when they perform
is sold for a higher price than was paid for it. the task more efficiently than markets. Firms can have
several advantages:
There are more proprietorships than any other type of
business, but corporations account for the lion’s share ♦ lower transactions costs — transactions costs are the
of total business revenue. costs of finding someone with whom to do busi-
ness.
♦ economies of scale — when the cost of producing
Markets and the Competitive Environment a unit of output falls as more output is produced.
Economists define four market types: ♦ economies of scope — when specialized resources
♦ perfect competition — a market with many firms can be used to produce a variety of products.
and buyers, each firm sells an identical product, and ♦ economies of team production — when individuals
there are no restrictions on entry of new firms. specialize in tasks that help support each other’s
♦ monopolistic competition — a market structure production.
with a large number of firms, and each firm makes a Firms can have lower transactions costs than using a
slightly different product. Making a slightly differ- market and economies of scale, scope, and team pro-
ent product is called product differentiation. duction can mean that production within a firm can be
♦ oligopoly — a market structure in which a small less expensive than using a market.
number of firms compete.
♦ monopoly — an industry that produces a good or
service for which no close substitute exists and in Helpful Hints
which there is one supplier that is protected by a
barrier preventing the entry of new firms. 1. NORMAL PROFIT AS A COST OF DOING BUSI-
Two measures of market concentration are used: NESS: The idea of a normal profit is important. A
♦ Four-firm concentration ratio — the percentage normal profit is the (implicit) cost of buying an
of the value of sales accounted for by the four larg- owner’s entrepreneurial ability — for instance, the
est firms in an industry. owner’s ability to make sound business decisions.
♦ Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI) — the Normal profit is part of the firm’s opportunity cost
square of the percentage market share of each firm of doing business, in the same way that paying
summed over the 50 largest firms in a market. workers’ wages or interest on debt are opportunity
costs to the firm. Think of costs as expenses that
A low value for the measure of concentration indicates
must be paid; if a company fails to meet its ex-
the presence of extensive competition.
penses, it will (eventually) close. For example, if a
Concentration ratios have limitations: business cannot pay its workers their wages or its
♦ They are calculated for the national market, but the debt holders the interest due to them, the firm will
relevant market for some goods is local and for oth- have to shut down. Similarly, if it cannot return at
ers is international in scope. least a normal profit to its owners to compensate
♦ They give no indication of the existence or absence them for their talents in running the business,
of entry barriers. An industry with a small number eventually the firm will close as the owners take up
of firms may be competitive due to potential entry. other endeavors.
♦ Often the relevant market does not correspond to 2. ECONOMIC PROFIT AND NORMAL PROFIT :
an industry as defined in the measures. Economic profit is revenue minus all opportunity
costs. Because a normal profit is already part of the
♦ Many firms operate in several industries.
firm’s opportunity costs, an economic profit signi-
In the United States, competitive markets account for
fies a profit over and above the normal profit; that
about 75 percent of the value of goods sold, monopoly
is, an economic profit is an above-normal profit.
accounts for about 5 percent, and oligopoly is near 18
percent.
ORGANIZING PRODUCTION 153
15. Which of the following constraints limits a firm’s Information and Organization
profit? 19. The method of organizing production that uses a
a. Technology constraints. managerial hierarchy is a(n)
b. Information constraints. a. command system.
c. Market constraints. b. incentive system.
d. All of the above limit a firm’s profit. c. principal-agent system.
d. None of the above.
Technology and Economic Efficiency
Use Table 9.1, which shows four methods of pro- 10. The possibility that an employee might not work
ducing photon torpedoes, for the next three ques- hard is an example of the
tions. a. problem of opportunity cost.
b. principle of scarcity.
TABLE 9.1
c. limited liability doctrine.
Multiple Choice Questions 6, 7, 8 d. principal-agent problem.
Quantities of Resources Used to
Produce One Photon Torpedo 11. Most firms are
Method Labor Capital
a. proprietorships.
b. partnerships.
1 5 10
c. corporations.
2 10 7 d. nonprofit.
3 15 5
4 20 5 12. A form of business that is simple to set up, whose
profits are taxed only once, and is run by a single
owner is a
16. Which is a technologically inefficient method of
a. proprietorship.
making a photon torpedo?
b. partnership.
a. Method 1 only c. corporation.
b. Method 2 only d. either a proprietorship or partnership, depending
c. Method 3 only on other information.
d. Method 4 only
13. A disadvantage of the corporate form of business
17. If labor costs $10 per unit and capital $20 per unit,
organization is its
which is an economically efficient method of mak-
ing a photon torpedo? a. limited liability for its owners.
b. unlimited liability for its owners.
a. Method 1 only
c. ability to be run by professional managers.
b. Method 2 only
d. tax liability because retained profits are taxed
c. Method 3 only
twice.
d. All four methods are economically efficient.
For the next two questions, suppose that Tracy and Pat
18. If labor costs $10 per unit and capital falls to $15
start a business. Because of bad decisions by Tracy, the
per unit, which is an economically efficient method
company goes bankrupt, owing a total of $50,000. Tracy
of making a photon torpedo?
is penniless, but Pat is a multimillionaire.
a. Method 1 only
14. If the company were organized as a partnership, Pat
b. Method 2 only
would be responsible for
c. Method 3 only
d. All four methods are economically efficient. a. $100,000 of debt.
b. $50,000 of debt.
c. $25,000 of debt.
d. $0 of debt.
ORGANIZING PRODUCTION 155
15. If the company were organized as a corporation, Pat 20. Taco Bell can use its equipment and staff to produce
would be responsible for and sell tacos, burritos, and drinks less expensively
a. $100,000 of debt. than would be the case if each had to be purchased
b. $50,000 of debt. separately in a market. This situation demonstrates
c. $25,000 of debt. a. economies of scale.
d. $0 of debt. b. economies of scope.
c. long-term contracts.
Markets and the Competitive Environment d. none of the above.
16. What type of industry structure has many firms,
each producing a slightly different good, with no Short Answer Problems
barriers to entry or exit? 1. Contrast how an accountant would measure the
a. Perfect competition following with the opportunity cost approach.
b. Monopolistic competition a. depreciation cost.
c. Oligopoly
b. the firm borrowing money to finance purchas-
d. Monopoly
ing its capital.
17. The four-firm concentration ratio measures the c. the firm using its own funds rather than bor-
share of the largest four firms in total industry rowing to purchase its capital.
a. profits. d. the value of the business owner’s inputs.
b. sales. 2. Frank decides to start a business manufacturing
c. cost. doll furniture. Frank has two sisters: Angela is an
d. capital. accountant and Edith is an economist. Each of the
sisters uses the following information to compute
TABLE 9.2
Frank’s costs and profit for the first year.
Market Shares 1) Revenue — Frank’s revenue for his first year was
$100,000.
Firm Market Share 2) Alternative job — Frank took no income from
Sally’s Subs 15% the firm. He has an offer to return to work full
Samantha’s Subs 5% time as a bricklayer for $30,000 per year.
Susan’s Subs 30% 3) Rent — Frank rented his machinery for $9,000 a
Sydna’s Subs 20% year.
Sheryl’s Subs 20%
4) Garage — Frank owns the garage in which he
works but could rent it out at $3,000 per year.
Shirley’s Subs 10%
5) Invested funds — to start the business, Frank
18. In Table 9.2 what is the four-firm concentration used $10,000 of his own money from a savings
ratio in the submarine sandwich industry? account that paid 10 percent per year interest.
a. 100 percent Frank also borrowed $30,000 at 10 percent per
b. 85 percent year.
c. 70 percent 6) Employee — Frank hired one employee at an
d. 30 percent annual salary of $20,000.
7) Materials — the cost of materials during the first
Markets and Firms year was $40,000.
19. Which of the following is NOT a reason for the 8) Services — Frank’s entrepreneurial services are
existence of firms? worth $20,000 to his business.
a. Lower transactions costs for firms a. Set up a table indicating how Angela and Edith
b. Principal-agent problem would compute Frank’s cost.
c. Economies of scope b. What is Frank’s profit (or loss) as computed by
d. Economies of team production Angela? By Edith?
156 CHAPTER 9
items 2 to 8, or $72,000, and the opportunity face a great deal of international competition. For
cost is the sum of the economic costs listed for instance, this situation closely resembles the case of
items 2 to 8, or $126,000. Hence Frank’s ac- certain types of computer memory chips with only
counting profit is $28,000 and his economic one American producer but many producers of the
profit actually is an economic loss of –$26,000. same chip abroad.
3. Restaurants are faced with a classic principal-agent When the scope of the market is regional, the con-
problem because servers might provide poor service centration ratio will overstate the degree of competi-
to the customers. Rather than attempt to have the tiveness. The concentration ratio includes
manager closely monitor each server, delegating the companies elsewhere in the nation that are not real
monitoring to customers is more efficient. If the competitors in the region. Newspapers provide the
server gives good service, the customer might tip the classic example: A paper published in Maine is
server 15 percent or more; if the server provides hardly a competitor for a newspaper published in
poor service, the customer will easily note this fact San Francisco.
and might tip less than 15 percent. Hence the server 7. As demonstrated by the example in the text, car
has the incentive to be a good agent and provide repair can be coordinated by the market or by a
prompt, good service, which is precisely what the firm. The institution (market or firm) that actually
principal — the restaurant’s owner — wants. coordinates in any given case is the one that is more
4. The principal-agent problem between owners and efficient. In cases where there are significant transac-
managers is more severe in corporations. For a pro- tions costs, economies of scale, or economies of
prietorship, the owner is usually the manager. Be- team production, firms are likely to be more effi-
cause the owner and manager are the same person, cient and they will dominate the coordination of
there is no principal-agent problem. In corpora- economic activity. But the efficiency of firms is lim-
tions, however, the owners are the stockholders. For ited, and there are many circumstances where mar-
instance, if you own 100 shares of Microsoft, you ket coordination of economic activity dominates
are one of many owners of Microsoft. But, most because it is more efficient. Essentially, if coordina-
stockholders do not manage the company. Hence tion by firms is more efficient, the number of firms
the managers and owners are different people. The increases because doing business with them is
owners must be concerned that the managers act to cheaper than relying on a market. Conversely, if co-
maximize the firm’s profit rather than pursuing ordination by the market is more efficient, firms
their own goals, such as shirking rather than work- will not be able to compete successfully because do-
ing diligently. ing business with them would be more expensive
5. A method is technologically efficient if increasing then relying on a market.
output without increasing inputs is not possible. A
method is economically efficient if the cost of pro- You’re the Teacher
ducing a given level of output is as low as possible.
Technological efficiency is independent of prices, 1. “The difference between a ‘normal profit’ and an
but economic efficiency depends on the prices of ‘economic profit’ is important. Every business
inputs. An economically efficient method of pro- owner supplies some inputs to the business. One of
duction is always technologically efficient, but a these inputs is entrepreneurial talent — the deci-
technologically efficient method is not necessarily sions, leadership, and possibly insight that the
economically efficient. owner provides. Normal profit is the payment for
6. Concentration ratios are calculated from a national these services. Because this payment (perhaps im-
geographic perspective. If the actual scope of the plicitly) is for services rendered, a normal profit is
market is not national, the concentration ratio will part of the firm’s opportunity costs. Essentially, you
likely misstate the degree of competitiveness in an should think of the normal profit as the standard —
industry. If the actual market is global, the concen- average — payment owed to an owner of a business.
tration ratio will understate the degree of competi- An economic profit equals the firm’s revenues mi-
tiveness. A firm might have a concentration ratio of nus its opportunity costs. Because opportunity costs
100 as the only producer in the nation, but might already include normal profit, an economic profit is
160 CHAPTER 9
a profit over-and-above a normal profit. Basically, ness is not economically efficient because decreasing
an economic profit is an above-average profit.” an input will reduce the firm’s costs. Hence, if a
2. “Technological efficiency merely reflects a firm’s firm is economically efficient, it must be techno-
inputs and resulting output. A situation is techno- logically efficient, too.
logically efficient when producing more output “But a firm can be technologically efficient and not
without using more inputs is impossible. The con- economically efficient if it uses the ‘wrong’ mix of
verse is that technological efficiency occurs when- inputs. For instance, the local McDonald’s could
ever decreasing the amount of an input used hire brain surgeons rather than students to cook its
decreases the amount of output produced. In other burgers. This move would be technologically effi-
words, the firm is not wasting resources. cient because someone is required to cook the bur-
“Economic efficiency occurs when the cost of pro- gers. But it would not be economically efficient
ducing a given amount of output is as low as possi- because the students would work for about $14,000
ble. Clearly, if a firm is wasting resources — so that a year, whereas the brain surgeons command at least
it is possible to reduce the amount of an input with- $500,000 a year.”
out decreasing the amount produced — the busi-
ORGANIZING PRODUCTION 161