Carrier

Concentrations

Presented by Chanam Lee

August 22nd
Carrier Concentration

Carrier Properties

State and Carrier Distributions

Equilibrium Carrier Concentration

Carrier Concentration for the Quantum Well

Devices
Carrier Properties
Carrier Movement in Free Space

Carrier Movement Within the Crystal

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Extrinsic n-Type Semiconductor

Extrinsic p-Type Semiconductor

Electronic Materials

Two-dimensional representation of an
Individual Si atom.
Elemental semiconductors
Valence III IV V
B C
Al Si P
Ga Ge As
Represents each valence electron
Semiconductors

When Si (or Ge & GaAs) atoms contact other

Si atoms, they form a tetrahederal

2D representation of lattice structure:

Electronic Materials

Two dimensions Three dimensions

Carrier Movement in Free Space

Newtons second law

dv
F = qE = m0
dt
Carrier Movement Within the Crystal
Electrons moving inside a semiconductor crystal will collide with
semiconductor atoms ==> behaves as a wave due to the quantum
mechanical effects
The electron wavelength is perturbed by the crystals periodic
potential
Carrier Movement Within the Crystal
m n* (electron effective mass) m *p (hole effective mass)

dv dv
F = qE = m * F = qE = m *
p
dt
n
dt
Material mn* / m0 m*p / m0
Si 1.18 0.81
Ge 0.55 0.36
GaAs 0.066 0.52

Density of States Effective Masses at 300 K

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Contains an insignificant
concentration of impurity atoms

Under the equilibrium conditions,

for every electron is created, a
hole is created also
n = p = ni

As temperature is increased, the

number of broken bonds (carriers)
increases

As the temperature is decreased,

electrons do not receive enough
energy to break a bond and
remain in the valence band.
Extrinsic n-Type Semiconductor
Donors (Group V): The 5th in a
five valence electrons is readily
freed to wander about the
lattice at room temperature

There is no room in the valence

band so the extra electron
becomes a carrier in the
conduction band

Does NOT increase the number

of hole concentration
Extrinsic p-Type Semiconductor
Acceptors (Group III) : three
valence electrons readily
accept an electron from a
nearby Si-Si bond

Completing its own bonding

creates a hole that can wander
about the lattice

Does NOT increase the number

of electron concentration
State and Carrier Distribution
How the allowed energy states are distributed in energy
How many allowable states were to be found at any given
energy in the conduction and valence bands?
Essential component in determining carrier distributions and
concentration

Density of States

Fermi Function

Dopant States
Density of States:
Number of
cm 3
States
/ eV

mn* 2mn* ( E Ec )
gc (E) = , E Ec
2 3

g c ( E )dE represents the number of

conduction band states/ cm 3 lying in
the energy range between E and E +
dE
m *p 2m *p ( Ev E )
gv (E) = , E Ev
2 3

g v ( E )dE represents the number of

3
valence band states / cm lying in the
energy range between E and E + dE

g c ( Ec ) = g v ( Ev ) = 0
Fermi Function (I)
How many of the states at the energy E will be filled
with an electron
1
f ( E) =
1 + e ( E EF ) / kT
f(E), under equilibrium conditions, the probability that an
available state at an energy E will be occupied by an
electron

1- f(E), under equilibrium conditions, the probability that

an available state at an energy E will NOT be occupied
by an electron
 Fermi Function (II)
If E = E F , f ( E F ) = 1 / 2

If E EF + 3k BT ,
f ( E ) exp[( EF E ) / k BT ]

If E E F 3k BT ,
f ( E ) 1 exp[( E EF ) / k BT ]

At T=0K (above), No occupation of states

above EF and complete occupation of
states below EF

At T>0K (below), occupation probability is

reduced with increasing energy f(E=EF) =
1/2 regardless of temperature.
At higher temperatures, higher energy states can be occupied, leaving
more lower energy states unoccupied (1-f(E))
Fermi Function (III)
Dopant States Density of Occupancy Carrier
States factors Distribution

n-type: more
electrons than
Holes

Intrinsic:
Equal number
of electrons
and holes

p-type: more
holes than
electrons
Equilibrium Carrier Concentration

Formulas for n and p

Degenerate vs. Non-degenerate Semiconductor
Alternative Expressions for n and p
ni and the np Product
Charge Neutrality Relationship
Carrier Concentration Calculations
Determination of EF
Formulas for n and p
Etop Ev
n= g c ( E ) f ( E ) dE p= gv (E)[1 f (E)]dE
Ec Ebottom

mn* 2mn* Etop ( E Ec )

n= dE
2 3 Ec 1+ e ( E E F ) / kT
2m kT* 3/ 2
2m*p kT
3/ 2

Nc = 2 n
2
, Nv = 2
E Ec E F Ec
h h2
Letting = and c =
kT kT
when E = Ec , =0

Let ETop 2
n Nc F1 / 2 ( c )
* * 3/ 2

m 2m ( kT ) E 1/ 2
n= n n
d 2
2 3 E0 1+ e ( c )
p Nv F1 / 2 ( v )

F1 / 2 ( c )
Degenerate vs. Non-degenerate
Semiconductor
1
If E F < E c 3k B T , f ( E ) = ( c )
e ( c )
1+ e

F1/ 2 ( c ) = e ( EF Ec ) / kT
2

n = N c e ( E F Ec ) / k B T , p = N v e ( E v E F ) / k B T

If E F > Ev + 3k BT , F1/ 2 ( v ) = e ( Ev EF ) / kT
2
Alternative Expressions for n and p
n0 = N c e ( E F Ec ) / k B T
p0 = N v e ( E v E F ) / k B T
When n=ni, EF = Ei, then

ni = N c e( Ei Ec ) / kBT = N v e( Ev Ei ) / k BT
( E c Ei ) / k B T ( Ei E v ) / k B T
N c = ni e , N v = ni e

( Ec Ei + EF Ec ) / kBT ( EF Ei ) / kBT
n0 = nie = ni e
p0 = ni e ( Ei Ev + Ev EF ) / k BT = ni e ( Ei EF ) / k BT
2
n0 p0 = ni
ni and the np Product

( Ei Ec ) / k BT ( E v Ei ) / k BT
ni = N c e = N ve

( Ec Ev ) / k B T E g / k BT
n = Nc Nve
2
i = Nc Nve

E g / 2 k BT
ni = N c N v e
Charge Neutrality Relationship

For uniformly doped semiconductor:

Charge must be balanced under equilibrium conditions otherwise
charge would flow

+
qp qn qN + qN = 0 A D

Thermally generated + assume ionization of

dopant addition all dopant sites
Carrier Concentration Calculations

( p N A ) + ( N D n) = 0
ni2
( N A ) + ( N D n) = 0
n
n 2 n( N D N A ) ni2 = 0

2 1/ 2 2 1/ 2
ND N A ND N A N A ND N A ND
n= + + ni2 ,p= + + ni2
2 2 2 2

2
np = n i
 +
Relationship for N and N D A
NA ND
N A = ( E A E F ) / kT
, N D+ = ( E F E D ) / kT
1+ g A 1+ gD

The degeneracy factors account for the possibility of electrons

with different spin, occupying the same energy level (no electron
with the same quantum numbers can occupy the same state)

Most semiconductor gD=2 to account for the spin degeneracy at

the donor sites

gA is 4 due to the above reason combined with the fact that

there are actually 2 valence bands in most semiconductors
Thus, 2 spins x 2 valance bands makes gA=4
Determination of EF (Intrinsic Material)

n = Nce( Ei Ec ) / kBT = Nve( Ev Ei ) / kBT = p

N c e ( Ei E c ) / k B T = N v e ( E v Ei ) / k B T

Ec + Ev k BT N
Ei = + ln v
2 2 Nc

3/ 2 1/ 2
2m kT * 3/ 2
2m kT *
Nv m *p
Nc = 2 n
, Nv = 2 p
=
h 2
h 2
Nc mn*

Ec + Ev 3k BT m*p
Ei = + ln *
2 4 mn
Determination of EF (Extrinsic Material)
( E F Ei ) / k B T ( Ei E F ) / k B T
n = ni e , p = ni e
n p
E F Ei = kT ln = kT ln
ni ni

or for ND >>NA and ND >>ni or for NA >>ND and NA >>ni

N NA
E F Ei = kT ln D E F Ei = kT ln
ni ni
Determination of EF (Extrinsic Material)

Fermi level positioning in Si at room temperature as a function of

the doping concentration. Solid EF lines were established using Eq.
(previous page)
Carrier Concentration for the
Quantum Well Devices

Density of States 3D vs. 2D

Carrier Concentration 2D

Charge Neutrality
Density of States 3D vs. 2D

3D
m 2mE
g (E) = Energy Dependent
2 3

2D m
g= Energy Independent
2 3
LZ
Carrier Concentration 2D
Etop
n= g c ( E ) f ( E ) dE
Ec

mn* kT
n= 2 3
Lz
[
ln 1 + e ( EFC Ei ) / kT ]
i

m*p kT
p=
2 3
Lz
[
ln 1 + e ( E FV Ei ) / kT
]
i
Charge Neutrality

Phh + Plh = N + N + N L
References
Robert F. Pierret, Semiconductor Fundamentals
(VOLUME I), Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
1988, chapter 2

Robert F. Pierret, Advanced Semiconductor

Fundamentals (VOLUME VI), Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, 1987, chapter 4

Ben G. Streetman and Sanjay Banerjee, Solid State

Electronic Devices, Prentice Hall, Inc., 2000, chapter 3

Peter S. Zory, JR., Quantum Well Lasers, Academic

Press, 1993, chapter 1, 7
Effective Mass of Holes - 3D

m*p 2m*p ( Ev E )
gv (E) =
2 3

*
mhh *
2mhh ( Ev E) mlh* 2mlh* ( Ev E)
= +
2 3
2 3

(m *p ) 3 / 2 = (mhh ) + (mlh* ) 3 / 2
* 3/ 2

m = (m )
*
p [ * 3/ 2
hh + (m )lh ]
* 3/ 2 2 / 3