Lessons in Water Treatment and Distribution

Lessons Index
Using Operation of Water Treatment Plants Volume I
Lesson 1: Introduction to Water Treatment

Lesson 2: Water Supplies
Lesson 3: Watersheds
Lesson 4: Coagulation and Flocculation
Lesson 5: Sedimentation
Lesson 6: Filtration
Lesson 7: Disinfection
Lesson 8: Corrosion Control
Lesson 9: Taste and Odor Control
Lesson 10: Water Tank Design
Lesson 11: Laboratory Procedures
Tips for Exam 1
Using Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I
Lesson 12: Overview of the Wastewater Treatment Process

Lesson 13: Racks, Screens, Comminutors and Grit Removal
Lesson 14: Sedimentation and Flotation
Lesson 15: Trickling Filters
Lesson 16: Rotating Biological Contactors
Lesson 17: Activated Sludge
Lesson 18: Stabilization Ponds
Lesson 19: Disinfection and Chlorination
Tips for Exam 2
http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/env110/ENV110Lessons.htm
Lesson 1:
Introduction to Water Treatment
Objective
In this lesson we will learn about the following concepts:
The hydrologic cycle and how it is like nature's way of treating water
An introduction to water treatment
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 1: Water Treatment Plant Operator, in your
textbook Operation of Water Treatment Plants Volume I.
Lecture
Hydrologic Cycle
Hello, I'm Rosa Cooke from Mountain Empire Community College. I would like to
introduce you to a subject called water and wastewater treatment. In water and
wastewater, there are many concepts to learn so I thought I would start out with the way
nature treats water - the hydrologic cycle.
The hydrologic cycle follows water as it evaporates from the earth's surface, forms
clouds, and then falls back to the earth's surface as rain. The diagram below shows an
overview of the process.
Since the cycle is continuous, there is no actual beginning or end, so you can begin
anywhere. However, there are five basic processes that make up the hydrologic
cycle: Condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and evapotranspiration.
Water vapor condenses to form clouds, which result in precipitation when the conditions
are suitable. Precipitation falls to the surface and infiltrates the soil or flows to the ocean
as runoff. Surface water evaporates, returning moisture to the atmosphere, while plants
return water to the atmosphere by transpiration.
Condensation is the process of water changing from a vapor to a liquid. Water vapor in
the air rises mostly by convection. This means that warm, humid air will rise, while
cooler air will flow downward. As the warmer air rises, the water vapor will lose energy,
causing its temperature to drop. The water vapor then has a change of state into liquid or
ice. You can see condensation in action whenever you take a cold soda from the
refrigerator and set it in a room. Notice how the outside of the soda can "sweats"? The
water doesn't come from inside the can, it comes from the water vapor in the air. As the
air cools around the can water droplets form.
Precipitation is water being released from clouds as rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
Precipitation begins after water vapor, which has condensed in the atmosphere, becomes
too heavy to remain in atmospheric air currents and falls. Under some circumstances
precipitation actually evaporates before it reaches the surface. More often, though,
precipitation reaches the Earth's surface, adding to the surface water in streams and lakes,
or infiltrating the soil to become groundwater.
A portion of the precipitation that reaches the Earth's surface seeps into the ground
through the process called infiltration. The amount of water that infiltrates the soil varies
with the degree of land slope, the amount and type of vegetation, soil type and rock type,
and whether the soil is already saturated by water. The more openings in the surface
(cracks, pores, joints) the more infiltration occurs. Water that doesn't infiltrate the soil
flows on the surface as runoff.
Precipitation that reaches the surface of the Earth but does not infiltrate the soil is
called runoff. Runoff can also come from melted snow and ice. When there is a lot of
precipitation, soils become saturated with water. Additional rainfall can no longer enter it.
Runoff will eventually drain into creeks, streams, and rivers, adding a large amount of
water to the flow. Surface water always travels towards the lowest point possible, usually
the oceans. Along the way some water evaporates, percolates into the ground, or is used
for agricultural, residential, or industrial purposes.
Evapotranspiration is water evaporating from the ground and transpiration by plants.

Evapotranspiration is also the way water vapor re-enters the atmosphere. Evaporation
occurs when radiant energy from the sun heats water causing the water molecules to
become so active that some of them rise into the atmosphere as vapor. Transpiration
occurs when plants take in water through the roots and release it through the leaves, a
process that can clean water by removing contaminants and pollution.
As you can see, many processes are at work to give you the water you need. And these
processes are always at work. Just because Antarctica is frozen doesn't mean that
evaporation is not taking place (ice can turn directly to water vapor by a process called
sublimation). And because the Sahara Desert is so dry doesn't mean that precipitation is
not happening (it evaporates before it makes it to the ground).
Introduction to Water Treatment
Now that you know how nature treats water, let's see how it's done in the water plant
before we consume it in a glass of water.
Water treatment in a typical water treatment plant is shown in the picture below. Based on
the characteristics of the raw water and on other factors, this treatment process may vary
considerably from place to place.
As water is pumped from the source (a well, spring, river, or lake) it is screened to
remove debris. Then, at the water plant, various characteristics of the raw water are
tested.
The water may be prechlorinated to kill microorganisms, control odors and taste, and aid
in coagulation and setttling. The water may also be aerated, which removes carbon
dioxide (CO2) and raises pH, oxidizes iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn), removes hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), and removes organic contaminants. Potassium permanganate (KmnO4) may
be added to the water in the collection tray of the aerator in order to remove iron and
manganese from the water. Ozone may be added to the water to treat iron and manganese,
remove algae, neutralize hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and aid in flocculation. Many of these
are dependent upon the plant and the amount of water being distributed daily.
In most cases, the water then enters a flash mix chamber. Here, various chemicals are
added and are mixed into the water. Coagulants cause fine particles to clump together
into larger particles. Alkali are added to adjust the pH as well as to oxidize iron and
manganese. Hexametaphosphate may be added to prevent corrosion of pipes.
After flowing out of the flash mix chamber, the water goes through a chamber which
causes coagulation and flocculation to occur. Here, the fine particles of contaminants
gather together into large clumps calledfloc. When the water flows into the sedimentation
basin, some of the floc settles out of the water and is removed. Next, the water is passed
through filters which remove particles too small to settle out in the sedimentation basin.
Finally, chlorine is added to the water. The water may also be fluoridated to reduce tooth
decay in the consumers. The water is left in the clear well for a period of time to allow
the chlorine to kill bacteria in the water and to oxidize hydrogen sulfide. The water is
now treated and ready to be distributed.
That was a quick overview of the water treatment process and what happens to water as it
goes through the plant step by step. We will get into greater detail in later lessons so that
you will understand each step of the process, why it is done and how to make sure each
step is being done efficiently.
Review
Nature treats water in its own way through the hydrologic cycle, though we still need to
treat the water before we drink it due to all the pollution and bacteria in the environment.
The hydrologic cycle provides the supply of water for us to use for consumption,
continuously cycling through over and over. The five basic processes that make up the
hydrologic cycle are condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and
evapotranspiration.
In the water treatment plant the water comes in from the source, is aerated and the
addition of chemicals to aid in coagulation and flocculation occurs in the flash mix
chamber, it is then allowed to go through coagulation and flocculation, and settle out in
the sedimentation basin. The water will pass through a filtration system after the
sedimentation basin, removing partilces that were too small to settle out. Chlorine is
added as the final step and then the water is stored until it is distributed to the consumer.
Assignments
Work the following crossword puzzle that comes from definitions in your textbook. You
may either print the puzzle out, complete it and mail or fax back to the instructor or you
may send an email with the correct answers numbered accordingly.
Quiz
Answer the questions in the Pre-Quiz and the Lesson 1 quiz. When you have gotten all
the answers correct, print the page and either mail or fax it to the instructor. You may
also take the quiz online and submit your grade directly into the database for grading
purposes.
Lesson 2:
Water Supplies
Objective
In this lesson we will learn the following:
What types of water supplies are available for consumption.

Different types of surface water supplies
Groundwater supplies
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 2: Water Sources and Treatment, in your
textbook Operation of Water Treatment Plants Volume I.
Lecture
Introduction
The total amount of water in the world is almost constant. It is estimated to be 370,000
quadrillion gallons, 97% of which is the water in the oceans, which is salty and unfit for
human consumption without an expensive treatment. The remaining 3% is known as
fresh water, but 2% of that is the glacier ice trapped at the North and South Poles. Only
1% is available for drinking water.
Pure water is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid. The depth and light give it a blue
or bluish-green tint. Tastes and odors in water are due to dissolved gases, such as sulfur
dioxide and chlorine, and minerals. Water exists in nature simultaneously as a solid (ice),
liquid (water) and a gas (vapor). Its density is 1 g/mL or cubic centimeter. It freezes at
0C and boils at 100C. When frozen, water expands by one ninth of its original volume.
Water Supplies
There are two main water supplies: surface and ground.
Surface Water Supply
Surface water supply is the water from the lakes, reservoirs, rivers and streams. These
water bodies are formed of water from direct rain, runoffs, and springs. A runoff is the
part of rain water that does not infiltrate the ground or evaporate. It flows by gravity into
thew water body from the surrounding land. This drainage area is known as
the watershed, which we will learn more about in the next lesson. One inch of runoff
rain/acre is equal to 27,000 gallons. Watershed characterists affect the water quality,
therefore protection of these watersheds is very important.
Surface waters can be classified into lentic (calm waters) and lotic (the running waters).
Lentic Water Supplies
Lentic waters are the natural lakes and impoundments or reservoirs. Natural lakes of good
quality water are very good sources of water. Impoundments are useful, as they eliminate
seasonal flow fluctuations and store water for adequate water supply, even under high
consumer demand periods, such as drought in summer. Impounding also helps in the
pretreatment of water by reducing turbidity by sedimentation and reducing coliform
bacteria and waterborne pathogens through exposure to sunlight. Algal growth and other
planktons, drifters formed of free-floating algae, protozoans and rotifers, can cause taste
and odor problems.
Normally, a natural lake goes through an aging process called eutrophication. It starts
with a beautiful young lake and ends as a fertile piece of land. This process in nature is
very slow; it takes thousands of years for a lake to disappear. Humans have accelerated
this process by adding nutrients and by discharging sewage, fertilizers, and detergents
into lakes. There are three stages of a lake: oligotrohpic, mesotrophic, and eutrophic.
Oligotrophic lakes are young, deep, and clear, with few nutrients. They have a few types
of organisms with low populations. An exaple of this type of lake is Lake Superior.
Mesotrophic lakes are middle aged due to nutrients and sediments being continuously
added. There is a great variety of organism species, with low populatins at first. As time
increases the populatins increase. At an advanced mesotrophic stage a lake may have
undesirable odors and colors in certain parts. Turbidity and bacterial densities increase.
An example of this type of lake is Lake Ontario.
Eutrophic lakes, due to further addition of nutrients, have large algal blooms and
become shallower, with fish types changing from sensitive to more pollution-tolerant
ones. Over a period of time, a lake becomes a swamp and finally a piece of land. Lake
Erie is progressing toward this stage.
Factors affecting lentic water quality include several factors, such as temperature,
sunlight, turbidity, dissolved gases and nutrients.
Temperature and stratification. Water has a maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4C. Above
and below this temperature water is lighter. Temperature changes in water
cause stratification, or layering, of water in lakes and reservoirs. During the summer, the
top water becomes warmer than the bottom and forms two layers, with the top one
warmer and lighter and the bottom one cooler and heavier. During the fall as the
temperature drops and the top water reaches 4C, it sinks to the bottom and the bottom
water moves to the top. This is known as fall turnover. This condition stirs the bottom
mud and releases the anaerobic decomposition products such as sulfur dioxide and other
odor-causing chemicals that cause severe tase and odor problems. In the winter too much
snow cover for longer time periods can cause oxygen depletion by reducing light
penetration, thus the lower rate of photosynthesis. This condition is can cause winter fish
kill. In spring, as the ice melts, and the temperature at the surface reaches 4C water sinks
once again to the bottom and results in the spring turnover, which, like fall turnover, can
cause taste and odor problems.
Light. Light, the source of energy for photosynthesis, is important. The rate of
photosynthesis depends on the light intensity and light hours per day. The amount of
biomass and oxygen production corresponds to the rate of photosynthesis. The amount of
dissolved oxygen (DO) in the lakes is maximum at 2 p.m. and minimum at 2 a.m.
Turbidity. Turbidity affects the rate of the penetration of sunlight, and thus,
photosynthesis. The more turbidity, the less sunlight can penetrate, which lowers the rate
of photosynthesis and consequently less DO.
Dissolved gases. These are mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2). Carbon
dioxide is produced during respiration and is used in photosynthesis; oxygen is produced
during photosynthesis and is needed for respiration. DO is consumed by the
microorganisms for the aerobic decomposition of biodegradable organic matter. This
oxygen demand of the water is known as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The more
the BOD, the less DO in the water. The more the DO, the better the quality of water. The
minimum amount of DO to maintain normal aquatic life, such as fish, is 5 mg/L.
Lotic Water Supplies
Rivers, streams and springs are lotic water supplies.
Factors affecting lotic water supplies are much smaller than those affecting lakes and
reservoirs. The only factors affecting running water is current and nutrients.
Current. It is the velocity or rate of flow of water. The faster the current, the better it is.
Current mixes the oxygen from the atmosphere and keeps the bottom of the stream clean
by wasing away the settlable solids. There is more DO and less natural organic matter
that would otherwise decompose in the bottom. Thus, due to the current, streams and
rivers seldom go anaerobic.
Nutrients. Main sources of nutrients are drainage from the watershed. Heavy rains and
drought conditions can also cause serious problems, such as high turbidity and more
nutrients.
Surface water supply is the most contaminated supply, mainly due to discharge of
sewage, used water, which is the source of waterborne pathogens, runoffs from farmland,
which are the source of Cryptosporidium, pesticides, and fertlizers; and industrial
discharges, which are the source of a variety of contaminants. Surface water, therefore,
needs the maximum treatment for potability (satisfactory for drinking).
Groundwater Supplies
Underground water is supposed to be the purest form of natural water. Sometimes, it is so

pure that it does not need any further treatment for drinking purposes. It is the least
contaminated and has very low turbidity due to natural filtration of the rain water. It can
be contaminated by underground streams in areas with limestone deposits, septic tanks
discharge, and underground deep well leaks. Therefore, it may need disinfection. It needs
only mineral removal treatment when compared to surface water supplies. It contains
more dissolved minerals such as calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese and sulfur
compounds than the surface supply. There are two sources of groundwater: springs and
wells.
If you dig a hole down through the earth, the soil initially has pockets of air between the
soil particles. But as you dig deeper, soon water would fill in all of the gaps in the soil.
The location where all of the holes first become filled with water is called the water
table. This is the upper limit of the zone of saturation, also known as an aquifer, which is
the part of the earth containing the groundwater.
The bottom of the zone of saturation is marked by an impermeable layer of rocks, clay or
other material. Water cannot soak through this layer, so it instead slowly flows downhill.
Springs
Whenever an aquifer or an underground channel reaches the ground surface such as a

valley or a side of a cliff, water starts flowing naturally. This natural flow is known as
a spring. A spring may form a lake, a creek, or even a river. The quantity and velocity of
a spring flow depend on the aquifer size and the position of the spring relative to the
highest level of the water table. Regions with limestone deposits have large springs as the
water flows in underground channels, formed by the erosion of limestone. The quality of
the water depends on the nature of the soil through which the water flows. For example, a
mineral spring has dissolved minerals, a sulfur spring has dissolved sulfur.
Wells
Public groundwater supply is usually well water because springs are rare. A well is a
device to draw the water from the aquifer. Deeper wells (more than 100 feet) have less
turbidity, more dissolved minerals, and less bacterial count than shallow wells. Shallow
wells have less natural filtration of water due to less depth of the soil.
Small rural communities (less than 25,000 populations) generally use the groundwater
from wells. About 35% of the American population uses groundwater supply.
Review
There are two main water suppllies used for consumption: surface water and
groundwater. Surface waters include calm waters, such as lakes and reservoirs, and
running water, such as a river or stream. Factors affecting calm water quality include
several factors, such as temperature, sunlight, turbidity, dissolved gases and nutrients.
Factors affecting running water supplies are much smaller than those affecting lakes and
reservoirs. The only factors affecting running water is current and nutrients.
Underground water is supposed to be the purest form of natural water. Sometimes, it is so

pure that it does not need any further treatment for drinking purposes. It is the least
contaminated and has very low turbidity due to natural filtration of the rain water. The
two main supplies of groundwater are springs and wells. Whenever an aquifer or an
underground channel reaches the ground surface such as a valley or a side of a cliff, water
starts flowing naturally. This natural flow is known as a spring. A well is a device to
draw the water from the aquifer. Deeper wells (more than 100 feet) have less turbidity,
more dissolved minerals, and less bacterial count than shallow wells.
Assignment
Complete Assignment 2 on Water Supplies. You may do the Assignment online to get
credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
Quiz
Answer the questions in the Lesson 2 quiz . When you have gotten all the answers
correct, print the page and either mail or fax it to the instructor. You may also take the
quiz online and submit your grade directly into the database for grading purposes.
Lesson 3:
Watersheds
Objective
In this lesson we will answer the following questions:
What is a watershed?
Why are watersheds important to water/wastewater treatment plant operators?
How is contamination in water affected by the distance from the contamination
source?
How do we find the boundaries of a watershed on a topographical map?
What problems in a watershed should a plant operator be aware of?
Reading Assignment
There is no set reading assignment for this lesson. However, you should use your
textbook to clarify your understanding of watersheds.
Lecture
The Importance of Watersheds
What is a Watershed?
By definition, a watershed is an area where all rainfall collects into a common location.
The common location could be a stream, a pond, a river, etc.
Smaller watersheds flow into increasingly larger watersheds. For example, Mountain
Empire Community College contains three small watersheds. All three watersheds
eventually flow into the Powell River, so they are all part of the Powell River watershed,
also known as the Powell River basin. The water in the Powell River ends up in the Gulf
of Mexico, so Mountain Empire Community College is also in the Gulf of Mexico's
watershed.
The headwaters of a river are made up of first order streams. The watershed of a first
order stream cannot be broken down into smaller watersheds because water feeding first
order streams flows directly into the streams. The water may originate as runoff from
rainfall or as groundwater welling up from below the earth's surface.
Each watershed has its own unique characteristics. Size, permeability of the soil,
vegetation type, soil type, slope, microorganisms, pH, DO (Dissolved Oxygen), and
temperature all affect the water in a watershed. As you will see, each watershed also
presents its own problems for the water treatment technician.
Potable Water Treatment
There are many possible sources of contamination in a watershed. Septic tanks, airports,
automobiles, industrial facilities, mining operations, and agricultural lands all contribute
to the contamination. In addition, various other sources and processes contaminate the
water supply.
We are not as concerned about the microbial contamination of the water supply in potable
water treatment as we are about other types of contamination. Bacteria are killed or
removed during the water treatment process as we flocculate, filter, and disinfect the
water. But knowing the amount and type of contamination in the treatment plant's
watershed can influence how much chemical treatment (usually alum and lime) is
necessary to produce floc from the water.
Every watershed has different characteristics - different colloids, different pH, and so
forth. The only thing that is common in water treatment with respect to a watershed is
that every watershed is unique. So the reason we are interested in the front end of a
watershed is to determine how best to treat the water.
Waste Water Treatment
Why are we interested in the sewage treatment end of a watershed? Communities must
release treated sewage into streams and rivers. In addition to meeting standards set by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), waste water treatment facilities must also
consider where the released water is going.
There are often endangered species, such as mussels, and other organisms of concern in
the streams below waste water treatment facilities. We have to be sensitive to life
downstream as we release treated sewage water into our watershed. The wastewater
treatment facility strives to maintain the health of the downstream ecosystem.
Our watershed also becomes the watershed of another water treatment facility somewhere
downstream. That facility will be concerned about what we're putting into their
watershed for treatment purposes just as we're concerned about the waste water treatment
facilities upstream. So watershed is an important concept within both water treatment
and sewage treatment.
Boundaries
Watershed Boundaries and Contamination
How do we know the boundaries of the watershed? Edges of a watershed are usually
found in the highest areas around. There, water falling as rain on one side of the
mountain or hill runs down into one watershed while water falling on the other side of the
mountain or hill runs down into another watershed.
As I mentioned previously, there are three watersheds on the property at Mountain

Empire Community College in Big Stone Gap, Virginia. All three watersheds eventually
empty into the Powell River. If there is contamination in one watershed and none in the
other two, contamination still reaches the Powell River.
But the contamination in the Powell River will be more dilute than it was in the source
stream. The further we go from the source of contamination, the less concentrated the
contamination will become until it is an insignificant component of the water running
into the Gulf of Mexico.
The total amount of contamination in the water is about the same when it reaches the
Gulf of Mexico as it was when it left the source stream. But there is so much water in the
Gulf of Mexico that the contamination becomes very diluted. You can see the same effect
if you put a few drops of red dye in a small cup of water. The water is quite red. But if
you pour the cup of water and dye into a gallon container of water and mix it up, the
water only shows a faint hint of red color.
Another example of the effect of distance and greater volume on dispersing

contamination is a sneeze. When you sneeze, germ and water particles are initially very
concentrated just outside your nose. But as they are blown further from your face, they
disperse into the surrounding air and become much less concentrated. There is so much
air around you for the germ and water particles to disperse in, that the contamination
becomes insignificant.
We're interested in defining an area's watershed so that we can find potential sources of
contamination to our facilities. We also need to be sensitive to downstream life when
releasing pollutants into the water. As we consider sources of contamination in the
watershed, we have to keep in mind the effect of distance on the concentration of the
contaminant in the water.
Defining Watershed Boundaries on a Topographical Map

Let's define watershed on a topographical map (also known as a topo map). First, you
need to know how to read the map.
The scale is usually found at the bottom of a paper map, but on the website mentioned
later, the scale is found at the top of the map. A typical scale is 1:24,000 meaning that
every inch on the map is equivalent to 24,000 inches on the ground. An arrow at the
bottom of the map points to magnetic north.
A topographical map shows differences in elevation by a series of contour lines. You can
think of a contour line as a trail for a lazy hiker who never wants to climb up or down.
Instead, he just walks around the side of a hill at the same elevation.
On topo maps, contour lines usually show a difference in elevation of forty feet. So, the
lazy hiker on one contour line is forty feet higher or lower in elevation than the lazy hiker
on the neighboring contour line.
Hilltops are easy to find on topographic maps because they are shown as closed circles.
The lazy hiker can walk around and around the top of the hill on the same elevation. In
contrast, streams are usually shown as Vs with the point of the V being the upstream
end.
When examining a topo map, you will need to orient yourself by finding known objects.
Look for peaks (which are often labelled by name), buildings (shown as small squares),
churches, graveyards, etc. Labelled roads can also help you get your bearings.
Once you are oriented, find the point you are interested in. Continuing with the sample
map shown above, I have highlighted Creek X. Now you can begin to define the area's
watershed boundaries.
Starting at the creek, go uphill in every direction (except directly downstream) until you
reach the highest points. Sometimes the highest point above the creek may be a peak,
shown as a closed circle. Other times, the highest point is a ridge, shown as an elongated
U- shape. In any case, on the other side of these highest points, a new watershed begins.
Connect the highest points around the creek with a line and you have drawn in the
watershed boundary. This line also marks the headwaters of the watershed.
Your Watershed
Try finding the boundaries of the watershed in which you live or work. If you do not
already have a topo map of your area, go to http://www.topozone.com/ and type in the
nearest city and state in the "Place Name Search" area.
If you are working from a map on topozone.com, you may want to change the scale so
that you can see the entire watershed region once you find the topo map of your area.
Starting at the scale of 1:200,000 or 1:100,000 will let you orient yourself and define the
watershed boundaries if you are considering a large watershed. Then change the scale to
1:25,000 so that you can see regions in the watershed which might affect the water
quality. Which areas do you think are sources of contamination? Which areas do you
think release clean water into your stream, river, or lake?
Watershed Monitoring
Aquatic life in our lakes and rivers is a good indicator of how successful our efforts are at
keeping the water clean. Many organisms are unable to survive in contaminated water.
We can also monitor the cleanliness of water directly by testing the concentrations of
various pollutants in the water. The Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) is the
agency that monitors watersheds. They analyze data at stations set up in different
areas.
Responding to Contamination in Your Watershed
As a plant operator, you need to have an understanding of what potential sources of

contamination are contained within your watershed. Without this knowledge, you won't
be able to respond adequately to problems as they arise.
The watershed that feeds Greenville, Tennessee, goes through an industrial area that had
an acid spill. A hose carrying sulfuric acid burst and emptied the contents of the tank car
into the river. The water operator that was on duty noticed that the pH of the water
coming into the plant was dropping.
The first thing the operator did was to shut the plant down. He was able to guess that the
acid came from a spill in the industrial area even though no one at the company there had
noticed the problem. So the operator called the other water treatment plants downstream
of the spill area to let them know about the contamination.
You never know when a tank car will overturn and spill a contaminant into your
watershed. Usually the amount of time that you will have to respond to such a situation
is not what you would like it to be. What's a reasonable amount of time to be able to
respond to a problem? Time enough to prevent irreversible damage or expensive
correction. The people who are responsible for water treatment facilities want an
operator who is on his toes to catch problems as they come down the stream, an operator
who will take appropriate action or shut the plant down, if necessary. This prevents
cleanup cost and problems with treated water.
Knowing your watershed can also help you prevent problems before they occur. What
would do if you found many diseased or dead animals in your watershed? You wouldn't
want dead animals in the water that you were treating for consumption. Without knowing
the boundaries of your watershed, you would unable to stay on top of these problems.
Other Watershed Problems

You may wonder, What's the likelihood of anything in the watershed ever creating a
problem anyway? Don't we floc, filter, and chlorinate the input water, thus eliminating
almost any problems in the output water?
Despite all of that filtration, certain organisms are able to pass through a filter.
Cryptosporidium is one example. Cryptosporidium is a parasite often found in the
intestines of livestock. The parasite contaminates water when the feces from the animal
interact with a water source. In a healthy population, human infection results in acute
diarrhea, which lasts for 2-3 weeks. But the parasite can be life threatening for people
who suffer from suppressed immune systems such as AIDS patients, children, and the
elderly.
Cryptosporidium
Since filtration and chlorine are ineffective in treating water contaminated with
Cryptosporidium, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires that all public
water supply systems serving more than 100,000 connections must monitor for
Cryptosporidium. Although we are unlikely to have Cryptosporidium in our watershed,
some of the larger cities with larger watersheds might. Plant operators have to test the
water flowing into their plants to determine which contaminants might be a problem.
When monitoring a watershed, we take into account the accessibility of the area. People
can enter the watershed at Appalachia along only one road, so sources of contamination
there are relatively easy to monitor. In contrast, the Big Stone Gap watershed is
accessible by two roads and fishing is allowed in the reservoir by permit only. So
monitoring the Big Stone Gap watershed is a little bit more complicated. The more
public access a watershed has, the more potential there is for hazard.
One last concern of watershed maintenance is diversion of the water for other uses. As
water gets diverted from a watershed, there is less water for contamination to be diluted
in. There is also less water available to be used by the communities downstream.
Review
Watershed is a very important concept for water and wastewater technicians. The
watershed in which a plant is located determines the purity of the water flowing into a
plant. Plant workers must also be aware of the downstream ecology and human
communities which are influenced by the water they release.
The technician needs to know the watershed's boundaries in order to determine potential
sources of contamination. He should also know how contamination flows through a
watershed, influencing all downstream watersheds but becoming more dilute as the
distance from the contamination source grows.
The technician who understands his watershed will be able to respond to problems
quickly and efficiently. He will know when to shut the plant down, when to warn other
treatment plants, and when to merely adjust the operation of his plant.
Assignment
Send the following assignment to the instructor:
1. View the following topo map section and print it out.
2. Mark the boundary of the watershed directly on the map. (There is one definite
watershed, but find the other one on the map for 5 bonus points)
3. Mark the body of water into which the water from your watershed flows - a
reservoir, river, creek, pond, etc.
Quiz
correct, print the page and either mail or fax it to the instructor.
Lesson 4:
Coagulation and Flocculation
Objective
How do coagulation and flocculation fit into the water treatment process?
Which chemical principles influence coagulation and flocculation?
Which chemicals are used in coagulation?
What factors influence coagulation and flocculation?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 4: Coagulation and Flocculation, in your
textbook Operation of Water Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Overview of the Process
Location in the Treatment Plant
After the source water has been screened and has passed through the optional steps of
pre-chlorination and aeration, it is ready for coagulation and flocculation.
In theory and at the chemical level, coagulation and flocculation is a three step process,
consisting of flash mixing, coagulation, and flocculation. However, in practice in the
treatment plant, there are only two steps in the coagulation/flocculation process - the
water first flows into the flash mix chamber, and then enters the flocculation basin.
In this lesson, we will primarily be concerned with the theory behind

coagulation/flocculation. In later lessons, we will consider the practice in more detail.
Purpose
The primary purpose of the coagulation/flocculation process is the removal of turbidity

from the water. Turbidity is a cloudy appearance of water caused by small particles
suspended therein. Water with little or no turbidity will be clear.
Turbidity is not only an aesthetic problem in water. Water with a high turbidity can be
very difficult or impossible to properly disinfect. As a result, the maximum allowable
level of turbidity in water is 0.5 NTU, while the recommended level is about 0.1 NTU.
(NTU, or TU, stands for nephelometric turbidity units, a measurement of the turbidity of
water.)
In addition to removing turbidity from the water, coagulation and flocculation is

beneficial in other ways. The process removes many bacteria which are suspended in the
water and can be used to remove color from the water.
Turbidity and color are much more common in surface water than in groundwater. As
surface water flows over the ground to streams, through streams, and then through rivers,
the water picks up a large quantity of particles. As a result, while aeration is more
commonly required for groundwater, treatment involving coagulation and flocculation is
typical of surface water.
Three Steps
As I mentioned above, the chemistry of coagulation/flocculation consists of three
processes - flash mix, coagulation, and flocculation. Each of these processes is briefly
explained below.
In the flash mixer, coagulant chemicals are added to the water and the water is mixed
quickly and violently. The purpose of this step is to evenly distribute the chemicals
through the water. Flash mixing typically lasts a minute or less. If the water is mixed for
less than thirty seconds, then the chemicals will not be properly mixed into the water.
However, if the water is mixed for more than sixty seconds, then the mixer blades will
shear the newly forming floc back into small particles.
After flash mixing, coagulation occurs. During coagulation, the coagulant chemicals
neutralize the electrical charges of the fine particles in the water, allowing the particles to
come closer together and form large clumps. You may already be familiar with the
process of coagulation from cooking. You can see coagulation occurring when preparing
gelatin (jello) or when cooking an egg white.
The final step is flocculation. During flocculation, a process of gentle mixing brings the
fine particles formed by coagulation into contact with each other. Flocculation typically
lasts for about thirty to forty-five minutes. The flocculation basin often has a number of
compartments with decreasing mixing speeds as the water advances through the basin.
This compartmentalized chamber allows increasingly large floc to form without being
broken apart by the mixing blades.
Floc
The end product of a well-regulated coagulation/flocculation process is water in which

the majority of the turbidity has been collected into floc, clumps of bacteria and
particulate impurities that have come together and formed a cluster. The floc will then
settle out in the sedimentation basin, with remaining floc being removed in the filter.
The best floc size is 0.1 to 3 mm. Larger floc does not settle as well and is more subject
to breakup in the flocculation basin. Smaller floc also may not settle.
Chemistry
Introduction
Why do we need such a complex process to remove particles from water? Some particles
would settle out of the water on their own, given enough time. But other particles would
resist settling for days or months due to small particle size and to electrical charges
between the particles.
We will consider the chemical processes which prevent and aid settling below. But first,
we will list the three types of objects which can be found in water.
Particles in Water
There are three types of objects which can be found in water. In order from smallest to
largest, these objects are chemicals in solution, colloidal solids, and suspended solids.
Coagulation/flocculation will remove colloidal and suspended solids from water.
Chemicals in solution have been completely dissolved in the water. They are electrically
charged and can interact with the water, so they are completely stable and will never
settle out of the water. Chemicals in solution are not visible, either using the naked eye
or using a microscope, and are less than 1 Mu in size. (A Mu, or millimicron, is equal to
0.000000039 inches.) An example of a chemical in solution is sugar in water.
Colloidal solids, also known as nonsettleable solids, do not dissolve in water although
they are electrically charged. Still, the particles are so small that they will not settle out
of the water even after several years and they cannot be removed by filtration alone.
Colloidal solids range between 1 and 500 Mu in size and can be seen only with a high-
powered microscope. Examples include bacteria, fine clays, and silts. Colloidal solids
often cause colored water, such as the "tea color" of swamp water.
Finally, suspended, or settleable, solids will settle out of water over time, though this
may be so slow that it is impractical to merely allow the particles to settle out in a water
treatment plant. The particles are more than 1,000 Mu in size and can be seen with a
microscope or, sometimes, with the naked eye. Examples of suspended solids include
sand and heavy silts.
Electrical Charges
The chemistry of coagulation and flocculation is primarily based on

electricity. Electricity is the behavior of negative and positively charged particles due to
their attraction and repulsion. Like charges (two negatively charged particles or two
positively charged particles) repel each other while opposite charges (a positively charged
particle and a negatively charged particle) attract.
Negatively charged particles repel each other due to electricity.
Most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge, so they tend to repel each
other. As a result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or colloidal in the water, as shown
above.
The purpose of most coagulant chemicals is to neutralize the negative charges on the
turbidity particles to prevent those particles from repelling each other. The amount of
coagulant which should be added to the water will depend on the zeta potential, a
measurement of the magnitude of electrical charge surrounding the colloidal particles.
You can think of the zeta potential as the amount of repulsive force which keeps the
particles in the water. If the zeta potential is large, then more coagulants will be needed.
Coagulants tend to be positively charged. Due to their positive charge, they are attracted
to the negative particles in the water, as shown below.
Positively charged coagulants attract to negatively

charged particles due to electricity.
The combination of positive and negative charge results in a neutral, or lack, of charge.
As a result, the particles no longer repel each other.
The next force which will affect the particles is known as van der Waal's forces. Van der
Waal's forces refer to the tendency of particles in nature to attract each other weakly if
they have no charge.
Neutrally charged particles attract due to van der Waal's forces.
Once the particles in water are not repelling each other, van der Waal's forces make the
particles drift toward each other and join together into a group. When enough particles
have joined together, they become floc and will settle out of the water.
Particles and coagulants join
together into floc.
Coagulant Chemicals
Types of Coagulants
Coagulant chemicals come in two main types - primary coagulants and coagulant
aids. Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water
which causes the particles to clump together. Coagulant aids add density to slow-
settling flocs and add toughness to the flocs so that they will not break up during the
mixing and settling processes.
Primary coagulants are always used in the coagulation/flocculation process. Coagulant

aids, in contrast, are not always required and are generally used to reduce flocculation
time.
Chemically, coagulant chemicals are either metallic salts (such as alum) or

polymers. Polymers are man-made organic compounds made up of a long chain of
smaller molecules. Polymers can be eithercationic (positively
charged), anionic (negatively charged), or nonionic (neutrally charged.) The table below
shows many of the common coagulant chemicals and lists whether they are used as
primary coagulants or as coagulant aids.
Different sources of water need different coagulants, but the most commonly used are
alum and ferric sulfate.
Chemical Name Chemical Formula Primary Coagulant Coagulant Aid
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3 14 H2O X
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4 7 H2O X
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 9 H2O X
Ferric chloride FeCl3 6 H2O X
Cationic polymer Various X X
Calcium hydroxide (Lime) Ca(OH)2 X* X
Calcium oxide (Quicklime) CaO X* X
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 X* X
Bentonite Clay X
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 X
Sodium silicate Na2SiO3 X
Anionic polymer Various X
Nonionic polymer Various X
*Used as a primary coagulant only in water softening processes.
Alum
There are a variety of primary coagulants which can be used in a water treatment plant.
One of the earliest, and still the most extensively used, is aluminum sulfate, also known
as alum. Alum can be bought in liquid form with a concentration of 8.3%, or in dry form
with a concentration of 17%. When alum is added to water, it reacts with the water and
results in positively charged ions.
Coagulant Aids
Nearly all coagulant aids are very expensive, so care must be taken to use the proper
amount of these chemicals. In many cases, coagulant aids are not required during the
normal operation of the treatment plant, but are used during emergency treatment of
water which has not been adequately treated in the flocculation and sedimentation basin.
A couple of coagulant aids will be considered below.
Lime is a coagulant aid used to increase the alkalinity of the water. The increase in
alkalinity results in an increase in ions (electrically charged particles) in the water, some
of which are positively charged. These positively charged particles attract the colloidal
particles in the water, forming floc.
Bentonite is a type of clay used as a weighting agent in water high in color and low in
turbidity and mineral content. This type of water usually would not form floc large
enough to settle out of the water. The bentonite joins with the small floc, making the floc
heavier and thus making it settle more quickly.
Factors Influencing Coagulation
Introduction
In a well-run water treatment plant, adjustments are often necessary in order to maximize
the coagulation/flocculation process. These adjustments are a reaction to changes in the
raw water entering the plant. Coagulation will be affected by changes in the water's pH,
alkalinity, temperature, time, velocity and zeta potential.
The effectiveness of a coagulant is generally pH dependent. Water with a color will

coagulate better at low pH (4.4-6) with alum.
Alkalinity is needed to provide anions, such as (OH) for forming insoluble compounds to
precipitate them out. It could be naturally present in the water or needed to be added as
hydroxides, carbonates, or bicarbonates. Generally 1 part alum uses 0.5 parts alkalinity
for proper coagulation.
The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction, and the more effective is the
coagulation. Winter temperature will slow down the reaction rate, which can be helped by
an extended detention time. Mostly, it is naturally provided due to lower water demand in
winter.
Time is an important factor as well. Proper mixing and detention times are very
important to coagulation.
The higher velocity causes the shearing or breaking of floc particles, and lower velocity
will let them settle in the flocculation basins. Velocity around 1 ft/sec in the flocculation
basins should be maintained.
Zeta potential is the charge at the boundary of the colloidal turbidity particle and the
surrounding water. The higher the charge the more is the repulsion between the turbidity
particles, less the coagulation, and vice versa. Higher zeta potential requires the higher
coagulant dose. An effective coagulation is aimed at reducing zeta potential charge to
almost 0.
Coagulant
The proper type and concentration of coagulant are essential to the coagulation process.
The coagulant choice will depend on the conditions at the plant. The concentration of
coagulant also depends on the water conditions, and a jar test can be used to determine
the correct concentration to use at any given time.
Coagulants are usually fed into the water using a gravimetric feeder or a metering pump.
Agravimetric feeder feeds dry chemicals into the water by weight. A metering
pump feeds a wet solution (a liquid) into the water by pumping a volume of solution with
each stroke or rotation.
Improper coagulation related to coagulant may result from:
Using old chemicals

Using the wrong coagulant
Using the wrong concentration of coagulant. This may result from setting the
wrong feed rate on the gravimetric feeder or metering pump or from a
malfunction of the equipment.
Common Coagulation and Flocculation Problems
Review
Coagulation/flocculation is a process used to remove turbidity, color, and some bacteria

from water. In the flash mix chamber, chemicals are added to the water and mixed
violently for less than a minute. These coagulants consist of primary coagulants and/or
coagulant aids. Then, in the flocculation basin, the water is gently stirred for 30 to 45
minutes to give the chemicals time to act and to promote floc formation. The floc then
settles out in the sedimentation basin.
Coagulation removes colloids and suspended solids from the water. These particles have
a negative charge, so the positively charged coagulant chemicals neutralize them during
coagulation. Then, during flocculation, the particles are drawn together by van der Waal's
forces, forming floc. The coagulation/flocculation process is affected by pH, salts,
alkalinity, turbidity, temperature, mixing, and coagulant chemicals.
References
Alabama Department of Environmental Management. 1989. Water Works Operator

Manual.
Belmont Water Treatment Association. 1997. Coagulation.
Nearly all of the section "Factors Influencing Coagulation" is drawn directly from this
site.
Kerri, K.D. 2002. Water Treatment Plant Operation. California State University:
Sacramento.
Assignments
Read about detention times on page 110 of your text and answer the following
question: (25 points)
1. A water treatment plant treats a flow of 1.7 MGD. The flocculation basin is 6 feet
deep, 17 feet wide and 40 feet long. Calculate the detention time in minutes.
Read about chemical feeder settings on page 117 of your text and answer the
following question: (25 points)
2. The optimum liquid alum dose from the jar tests is 10 mg/L. Determine the
setting on the liquid alum chemical feeder in gallons per day when the flow is 2.8
MGD. The liquid alum delivered to the plant contains 4.83 pounds of alum per
gallon of liquid solution.
3. Complete Assignment 4 on Coagulation and Flocculation. You may do the

Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.(50
points)
Labs
Read the following jar test lab procedure. You may have test questions come from this
lab.
Quiz
Lesson 5:
Sedimentation
Photo Credit: Virginia Department of Health
Objective
How does sedimentation fit into the water treatment process?

What zones are present in a sedimentation basin?
How is sedimentation sludge disposed of?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 5: Sedimentation, in your textbook Operation
of Water Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Introduction
Purpose
Sedimentation is a treatment process in which the velocity of the water is lowered below
the suspension velocity and the suspended particles settle out of the water due to gravity.
The process is also known assettling or clarification.
Most water treatment plants include sedimentation in their treatment processes.

However, sedimentation may not be necessary in low turbidity water of less than 10
NTU. In this case, coagulation and flocculation are used to produce pinpoint (very
small) floc which is removed from the water in the filters.
Location in the Treatment Process
The most common form of sedimentation follows coagulation and flocculation and
precedes filtration. This type of sedimentation requires chemical addition (in the
coagulation/flocculation step) and removes the resulting floc from the water.
Sedimentation at this stage in the treatment process should remove 90% of the suspended
particles from the water, including bacteria. The purpose of sedimentation here is to
decrease the concentration of suspended particles in the water, reducing the load on the
filters.
Sedimentation can also occur as part of the pretreatment process, where it is known
aspresedimentation. Presedimentation can also be called plain sedimentation because
the process depends merely on gravity and includes no coagulation and flocculation.
Without coagulation/flocculation, plain sedimentation can remove only coarse suspended
matter (such as grit) which will settle rapidly out of the water without the addition of
chemicals. This type of sedimentation typically takes place in a reservoir, grit basin,
debris dam, or sand trap at the beginning of the treatment process.
While sedimentation following coagulation/flocculation is meant to remove most of the

suspended particles in the water before the water reaches the filters, presedimentation
removes most of the sediment in the water during the pretreatment stage. So
presedimentation will reduce the load on the coagulation/flocculation basin and on the
sedimentation chamber, as well as reducing the volume of coagulant chemicals required
to treat the water. In addition, presedimentation basins are useful because raw water
entering the plant from a reservoir is usually more uniform in quality than water entering
the plant without such a holding basin.
The rest of this lesson will be concerned with sedimentation following coagulation and
flocculation. We will consider types of sedimentation basins and parts of a typical
sedimentation basin, as well as the disposal of sludge. Then, in the next lesson, we will
learn to design a sedimentation basin and will consider some problems which may affect
sedimentation basins.
Types of Basins
Three common types of sedimentation basins are shown below:

Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing water
to flow horizontally through a long tank. This type of
basin is usually found in large-scale water treatment
plants. Rectangular basins have a variety of advantages -
predictability, cost-effectiveness, and low maintenance. In
addition, rectangular basins are the least likely to short-
circuit, especially if the length is at least twice the width.
A disadvantage of rectangular basins is the large amount
of land area required.
Double-deck rectangular basins are essentially two
rectangular sedimentation basins stacked one atop the
other. This type of basin conserves land area, but has
higher operation and maintenance costs than a one-level
rectangular basin.
Square or circular sedimentation basins with horizontal

flow are often known as clarifiers. This type of basin is
likely to have short-circuiting problems.
A fourth type of sedimentation basin is more complex. Solids-contact clarifiers, also

known as upflow solids-contact clarifiers or upflow sludge-blanket clarifiers combine
coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation within a single basin. Solids-contact
clarifiers are often found in packaged plants and in cold climates where sedimentation
must occur indoors. This type of clarifier is also often used in softening operations.
Zones
Introduction
All sedimentation basins have four zones - the inlet zone, the settling zone, the sludge
zone, and the outlet zone. Each zone should provide a smooth transition between the
zone before and the zone after. In addition, each zone has its own unique purpose.
Zones can be seen most easily in a rectangular sedimentation basin, such as the one
shown below:
In a clarifier, water typically enters the basin from the center rather than from one end
and flows out to outlets located around the edges of the basin. But the four zones can still
be found within the clarifier:
Inlet Zone
The two primary purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are to distribute the
water and to control the water's velocity as it enters the basin. In addition, inlet devices
act to prevent turbulence of the water.
The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be evenly distributed across the width
of the basin to prevent short-circuiting. Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance
in which water bypasses the normal flow path through the basin and reaches the outlet in
less than the normal detention time. We will discuss short-circuiting in the next lesson.
In addition to preventing short-circuiting, inlets control the velocity of the incoming

flow. If the water velocity is greater than 0.5 ft/sec, then floc in the water will break up
due to agitation of the water. Breakup of floc in the sedimentation basin will make
settling much less efficient.
Two types of inlets are shown below. The stilling wall, also known as a perforated
baffle wall, spans the entire basin from top to bottom and from side to side. Water leaves
the inlet and enters the settling zone of the sedimentation basin by flowing through the
holes evenly spaced across the stilling wall.
From: Water Works Operator's Manual
The second type of inlet allows water to enter the basin by first flowing through the holes
evenly spaced across the bottom of the channel and then by flowing under the baffle in
front of the channel. The combination of channel and baffle serves to evenly distribute
the incoming water.
Settling Zone
After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where water velocity
is greatly reduced. This is where the bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make
up the largest volume of the sedimentation basin. For optimal performance, the settling
zone requires a slow, even flow of water.
The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open water. But in some cases, tube
settlers and lamella plates, such as those shown below, are included in the settling zone.
Tube settlers and lamella plates -
Water flows up through slanted tubes or along slanted plates.
Floc settles out in the tubes or plates and drifts back down into the
lower portions of the sedimentation basin. Clarified water passes
through the tubes or between the plates and then flows out of the basin.
Tube settlers and lamella plates increase the settling efficiency and speed in
sedimentation basins. Each tube or plate functions as a miniature sedimentation basin,
greatly increasing the settling area. Tube settlers and lamella plates are very useful in
plants where site area is limited, in packaged plants, or to increase the capacity of shallow
basins.
Outlet Zone
The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin - both the
amount of water leaving the basin and the location in the basin from which the
outflowing water is drawn. Like the inlet zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent
short-circuiting of water in the basin. In addition, a good outlet will ensure that only
well-settled water leaves the basin and enters the filter. The outlet can also be used to
control the water level in the basin.
Outlets are designed to ensure that the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin has
the minimum amount of floc suspended in it. The best quality water is usually found at
the very top of the sedimentation basin, so outlets are usually designed to skim this water
off the sedimentation basin.
A typical outlet zone begins with a baffle in front of the effluent. This baffle prevents
floating material from escaping the sedimentation basin and clogging the filters. After
the baffle comes the effluent structure, which usually consists of a launder, weirs, and
effluent piping. A typical effluent structure is shown below:
The primary component of the effluent structure is the effluent launder, a trough which
collects the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin and directs it to the effluent
piping. The sides of a launder typically have weirs attached. Weirs are walls preventing
water from flowing uncontrolled into the launder. The weirs serve to skim the water
evenly off the tank.
A weir usually has notches, holes, or slits along its length. These holes allow water to
flow into the weir. The most common type of hole is the V-shaped notch shown on the
picture above which allows only the top inch or so of water to flow out of the
sedimentation basin. Conversely, the weir may have slits cut vertically along its length,
an arrangement which allows for more variation of operational water level in the
sedimentation basin.
Water flows over or through the holes in the weirs and into the launder. Then the launder
channels the water to the outlet, or effluent, pipe. This pipe carries water away from the
sedimentation basin and to the next step in the treatment process.
The effluent structure may be located at the end of a rectangular sedimentation basin or
around the edges of a circular clarifier. Alternatively, the effluent may consist of finger
weirs, an arrangement of launders which extend out into the settling basin as shown
below.
Sludge Zone
The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where the sludge
collects temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent resuspension of
sludge.
A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be easily removed from the tank.
The tank bottom should slope toward the drains to further facilitate sludge removal.
In some plants, sludge removal is achieved continuously using automated equipment. In

other plants, sludge must be removed manually. If removed manually, the basin should
be cleaned at least twice per year, or more often if excessive sludge buildup occurs. It is
best to clean the sedimentation basin when water demand is low, usually in April and
October. Many plants have at least two sedimentation basins so that water can continue
to be treated while one basin is being cleaned, maintained, and inspected.
If sludge is not removed from the sedimentation basin often enough,

the effective (useable) volume of the tank will decrease, reducing the efficiency of
sedimentation. In addition, the sludge built up on the bottom of the tank may
become septic, meaning that it has begun to decay anaerobically. Septic sludge may
result in taste and odor problems or may float to the top of the water and become scum.
Sludge may also become resuspended in the water and be carried over to the filters.
Sludge Disposal
Sludge Composition
The sludge which is found in the bottom of a sedimentation tank is primarily composed
of water. The solids in the sludge are mainly excess coagulant, such as alum. Alum
sludge has a solids concentration of only about 1% when automatically removed from the
basin, or about 2% if manually removed. (The greater solids concentration of manually
removed sludge is due to a small amount of gravity thickening.)
Many options exist for disposal of sedimentation sludge. Here we will discuss disposal
in streams, sanitary sewers, lagoons, and landfills.
Disposal in Streams and Sewers
In the past, sludge and backwash water was typically released into streams and other
bodies of water. However, this practice is becoming much less common and is now well
regulated. Backwash water and sludge can only be released into streams if a discharge
permit has been granted by the NPDES. The NPDES further requires extensive daily
monitoring of the water quality when the sludge is being discharged.
Alternatively, sludge may be piped directly to the sanitary sewer. However, this disposal
option also has its disadvantages. Sludge can cause sewer blockages. In addition, fees
charged by the wastewater treatment plant can be expensive. Releasing sludge into the
sewage lines in large batches makes treatment of the wastewater problematic, so sludge is
typically released slowly over a long time period, which requires a large holding tank at
the water treatment plant.
Thickening Sludge
Most of the other alternatives require transporting sludge away from the treatment plant.
Sludge is typically dried before it is trucked away since the greater volume of wet sludge
makes it much more expensive to transport. This drying process is known
as dewatering or thickening. Alum sludge is difficult to thicken, but a variety of devices
have been developed to thicken the sludge, some of which are explained below.
In many cases, the sludge is treated by the addition of polymers to aid in the dewatering
process. Alternatively, the sludge can be heated or frozen and thawed to increase the
solids concentration. Treating the sludge to aid in thickening is known
as conditioning the sludge.
Once the sludge has been conditioned, it may be thickened in a lagoon, drying bed, or
one of several other devices.
Lagoons, which are small-volume storage ponds,

are the simplest device used to thicken sludge.
These lagoons are filled with sludge and the
solids are allowed to settled due to gravity to the
bottom of the lagoon while the clear water is
pumped off the top.
After a few months, gravity and evaporation will have reduced the sludge to a 30-50%
solid state. The sludge can then be covered with soil and left on site, or may be trucked to
a landfill off-site.
Drying beds are often used to thicken

sludge destined for a landfill more
quickly than the sludge would be
thickened in a lagoon.
A drying bed is similar in design to a sand filter, with a layer of sand underlain by a layer
of gravel. The sludge is applied to the top of the sand and the water percolates down
through the sand and gravel and is drained away. When the sludge is sufficiently dry, it is
carefully removed from the top of the sand and is trucked to a landfill. When sludge is
preconditioned with chemicals, dewatering in a drying bed may take only a few days or
weeks.
Other processes used to thicken sludge include filter presses, belt filter presses,
centrifuges, and vacuum filters. These processes result in sludge with a solids content
ranging from 30 to 50%.
Review
Sedimentation is a process used to remove suspended particles from water using gravity.
Sedimentation may take place in a presedimentation device such as a reservoir, grit basin,
debris dam, or sand trap; or sedimentation may follow coagulation/flocculation and take
place in a rectangular sedimentation basin, a double-deck rectangular basin, a clarifier, or
a solids-contact clarifier.
Sedimentation basins typically have four zones - the inlet zone which controls the
distribution and velocity of inflowing water, the settling zone in which the bulk of settling
takes place, the outlet zone which controls the outflowing water, and the sludge zone in
which the sludge collects. Sludge may be disposed of a in sewer or stream or may be
conditioned and then thickened in a lagoon, drying bed, filter press, belt filter press,
centrifuge, or vacuum filter before being transported to a landfill.
References

Manual.
Sacramento.
Ragsdale and Associates. Version III. New Mexico Water Systems Operator
Certification Study Guide. NMED Surface Water Quality Bureau. Santa Fe.
Assignments
Complete Assignment 5 on Sedimentation. You may do the Assignment online to get

Quiz
Filtration
Objective
How does filtration fit into the water treatment process?

How does filtration clean water?
What types of filters are used for water treatment?
How are filters cleaned?
What media are used in filters?
What factors affect filter efficiency?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 6: Filtration, in your textbook Operation of
Water Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Introduction to Filtration
Purpose
The purpose of filtration is to remove suspended particles from water by passing the
water through a medium such as sand. As the water passes through the filter, floc and
impurities get stuck in the sand and the clean water goes through. The filtered water
collects in the clearwell, where it is disinfected and then sent to the customers.
Filtration is usually the final step in the solids removal process which began with
coagulation and advanced through flocculation and sedimentation. In the filter, up to
99.5% of the suspended solids in the water can be removed, including minerals, floc, and
microorganisms.
Requirements
Filtration is now required for most water treatment systems. Filters must reduce turbidity
to less than 0.5 NTU in 95% of each month's measurements and the finished water
turbidity must never exceed 5 NTU in any sample.
As you will recall, turbidity alone does not have health implications. So, why the strict
regulations? Although turbidity is not harmful on its own, turbid water is difficult to
disinfect for a variety of reasons. Microorganisms growing on the suspended particles
may be hard to kill using disinfection while the particles themselves may chemically
react with chlorine, making it difficult to maintain a chlorine residual in the distribution
system. Turbidity can also cause deposits in the distribution system that create tastes,
odors, and bacterial growths.
However, turbid drinking water has other troublesome implications as well. Sand
filtration removes some cyst-forming microorganisms, such as Giardia which cannot be
killed by traditional chlorination. Cystsare resistant covers which protect the
microorganism while it goes into an inactive state.
Regulations require that at least 99.9% of Giardia cysts and 99.99% of viruses be
removed from drinking water. Since it is difficult to test directly for these
microorganisms, turbidity in water can be used as an indicator for their presence. By
requiring a low turbidity in the finished water, treatment plants are ensuring that few or
no Giardia are present in finished drinking water.
In a few locations, surface waters are used for domestic purposes without filtration. In
these situations, the water is obtained from a watershed which includes only undeveloped
areas. The watershed is patrolled and carefully managed to prevent contamination.
In the typical treatment process, filtration follows sedimentation (if present) and precedes
disinfection. Depending on the presence of flocculation and sedimentation, treatment
processes are divided into three groups - conventional filtration, direct filtration, and in-
line filtration.
The most common method of filtration is conventional filtration, where filtration

follows coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation. This type of filtration results in
flexible and reliable performance, especially when treating variable or very turbid source
water.
Some treatment plants operate without some or all of the sediment removal processes
which precede filtration. If filtration follows coagulation and flocculation, without
sedimentation, it is known as direct filtration. This method can be used when raw water
has low turbidity.
Another type of filtration, known as in-line filtration, involves operating the filters
without flocculation or sedimentation. A coagulant chemical is added to the water just
before filtration and coagulation occurs in the filter. In-line filtration is often used with
pressure filters, but is not as efficient with variable turbidity and bacteria levels as
conventional filtration is.
Polymer Aids
Although filtration does not require the addition of any chemicals, polymer aids may
sometimes be added to the influent water. These chemicals improve the quality of the
effluent water by helping the floc get caught in the filter.
Polymer aids come in two main types. Moderate molecular weight cationic polymers
(DADMA) are added ahead of flocculation to strengthen the floc while relatively high
molecular weight nonionic polymers (polyacrylamides) are added just before filtration to
aid in floc removal.
Polymer aids can be troublesome in some respects. The powdered form of the polymer is
very slippery, so spills should be cleaned up quickly. In addition, extended use of
polymer aids may gum up the filters. As a result, polymer aids are often used like
coagulant aids - in extreme situations to improve the water quality for a short time.
Mechanisms of Filtration
Introduction
How are particles removed from water using filtration? Four mechanisms have been
found to be part of the filtration process - straining, adsorption, biological action, and
absorption. Each mechanism will be explained below.
Straining
passing the water through a filter in which the pores are smaller than the particles to be
removed. This is the most intuitive mechanism of filtration, and one which you probably
use in your daily life. Straining occurs when you remove spaghetti from water by
pouring the water and spaghetti into a strainer.
The picture below shows an example of straining in a filter. As you can see, the floc
cannot fit through the gaps between the sand particles, so the floc are captured. The
water is able to flow through the sand, leaving the floc particles behind.
In the past, straining has been assumed to be very important in the filtration process.
However, in many cases, the pores between sand particles in the filter are much larger
than the particles captured by the filter. It has been suggested that small particles become
wedged between sand grains as filtration occurs, making the pore spaces smaller and
allowing the filter to strain out yet smaller particles. However, a clean filter will produce
clean water before any of this pore size-reduction has occurred. Therefore, it is now
believed that straining is not an important part of most filtration processes.
Adsorption
The second, and in many cases the most important mechanism of filtration, is
adsorption. Adsorption is the gathering of gas, liquid, or dissolved solids onto the
surface of another material, as shown below:
Coagulation takes advantage of the mechanism of adsorption when small floc particles
are pulled together by van der Waal's forces. In filtration, adsorption involves particles
becoming attracted to and "sticking" to the sand particles. Adsorption can remove even
very small particles from water.
Biological Action
The third mechanism of filtration is biological action, which involves any sort of
breakdown of the particles in water by biological processes. This may involve
decomposition of organic particles by algae, plankton, diatoms, and bacteria or it may
involve microorganisms eating each other. Although biological action is an important
part of filtration in slow sand filters, in most other filters the water passes through the
filter too quickly for much biological action to occur.
Absorption
The final mechanism of filtration is absorption, the soaking up of one substance into the
body of another substance. Absorption should be a very familiar concept - sponges
absorb water, as do towels.
In a filter, absorption involves liquids being soaked up into the sand grains, as shown
below:
After the initial wetting of the sand, absorption is not very important in the filtration
process.
Types of Filters
Introduction
Filters can be categorized in a variety of ways. The table below shows the characteristics
of four types of filters which can be used in water treatment.
Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Pressure Filter Diatomaceous

Filter earth filter
(Diatomite filter)
Filtration 0.015-0.15 2-3 2-3 1-2
rate
(GPM/ft2)
Pros Reliable. Relatively small Lower Small size.
Minimum and compact. installation and Efficiency. Ease of
operation and operation costs operation.
maintenance in small Relatively low cost.
requirements. filtration plants. Produces high
Usually does not clarity water.
require chemical Usually does not
pretreatment. require chemical
pretreatment.
Cons Large land area Requires Less reliable Sludge disposal
required. Need to chemical than gravity problems. High
manually clean pretreatment. filters. Filter head loss. Potential
filters. Doesn't remove bed cannot be decreased
pathogens as observed during reliability. High
well as slow operation. maintenance and
sand filters. repair costs.
Filter Media Sand. Sand. Or sand Sand. Or sand Diatomaceous earth.
and anthracite and anthracite
coal. Or sand coal. Or sand
and anthracite and anthracite
coal and garnet. coal and garnet.
Gravity or Gravity. Gravity. Pressure. Pressure, gravity, or
Pressure? vacuum.
Filtration Biological action, Primarily Primarily Primarily straining.
Mechanism straining, and adsorption. Also adsorption. Also
adsorption. some straining. some straining.
Cleaning Manually Backwashing. Backwashing. Backwashing.
Method removing the top
2 inches of sand.
Common Small Most commonly Iron and Beverage and food
Applications groundwater used type of manganese industries and
systems. filter for surface removal in small swimming pools.
water treatment. groundwater Smaller systems.
systems.
We will discuss two types of filters below - the slow sand filter and the rapid sand filter.
The pressure sand filter is essentially a rapid sand filter placed inside a pressurized
chamber while the diatomaceous earth filter is not commonly used in treatment of
drinking water.
History
The history of water treatment dates back to approximately the thirteenth century B.C. in
Egypt. However, modern filtration began much later. John Gibb's slow sand filter, built
in 1804 in Scotland, was the first filter used for treating potable water in large quantities.
Slow sand filters spread rapidly, with the first one in the United States built in Richmond,
VA, in 1832. A set of slow sand filters adapted from English designs was built in 1870 in
Poughkeepsie, NY, and is still in operation.
A few decades after the first slow sand filters were built in the U.S., the first rapid sand
filters were installed. The advent of rapid sand filtration is linked to the discovery of
coagulation. By adding certain chemicals (coagulants) to turbid water, the material in the
water could be made to clump together and quickly settle out. Using coagulation, clear
water for filtration could be produced from turbid, polluted streams.
By the end of the nineteenth century, there were ten times as many rapid sand filters in
service as the slow sand type. Currently, slow sand filtration is only considered
economical in unusual cases.
The diatomaceous earth filter was developed by the U.S. Army during WWII. They
needed a filter that was easily transportable, lightweight, and able to produce pure
drinking water. The diatomaceous earth filter is used in smaller systems, but is not
commonly part of water treatment plants.
Slow Sand Filter
The slow sand filter is the oldest type of large-scale filter. In the slow sand filter, water
passes first through about 36 inches of sand, then through a layer of gravel, before
entering the underdrain. The sand removes particles from the water through adsorption
and straining.
Unlike other filters, slow sand filters also remove a great deal of turbidity from water
using biological action. A layer of dirt, debris, and microorganisms builds up on the top
of the sand. This layer is known as schmutzdecke, which is German for "dirty skin."
The schmutzdecke breaks down organic particles in the water biologically, and is also
very effective in straining out even very small inorganic particles from water.
Maintenance of a slow sand filter consists of raking the sand periodically and cleaning
the filter by removing the top two inches of sand from the filter surface. After a few
cleanings, new sand must be added to replace the removed sand.
Cleaning the filter removes the schmutzdecke layer, without which the filter does not
produce potable water. After a cleaning the filter must be operated for two weeks, with
the filtered water sent to waste, to allow the schmutzdecke layer to rebuild. As a result, a
treatment plant must have two slow sand filters for continuous operation.
Slow sand filters are very reliable filters which do not usually require
coagulation/flocculation before filtration. However, water passes through the slow sand
filter very slowly, and the rate is slowed yet further by the schmutzdecke layer. As a
result, large land areas must be devoted to filters when slow sand filters are part of a
treatment plant. Only a few slow sand filters are operating in the United States although
this type of filter is more widely used in Europe.
Number of slow sand filters operating in each state as of 1991. (Sims)
Rapid Sand Filter
The rapid sand filter differs from the slow sand filter in a variety of ways, the most
important of which are the much greater filtration rate and the ability to clean
automatically using backwashing. The mechanism of particle removal also differs in the
two types of filters - rapid sand filters do not use biological filtration and depend
primarily on adsorption and some straining.
Since rapid sand filters are the primary filtration type used in water treatment in the
United States, we will discuss this filter in more detail.
A diagram of a typical rapid sand filter is shown above. The filter is contained within
a filter box, usually made of concrete. Inside the filter box are layers of filter
media (sand, anthracite, etc.) and gravel. Below the gravel, a network of pipes makes up
the underdrain which collects the filtered water and evenly distributes the backwash
water. Backwash troughs help distribute the influent water and are also used in
backwashing (which will be discussed in a later section.)
In addition to the parts mentioned above, most rapid sand filters contain a controller,
or filter control system, which regulates flow rates of water through the filter. Other
parts, such as valves, a loss of head gauge, surface washers, and a backwash pump, are
used while cleaning the filter.
Operation of a rapid sand filter during filtration is similar to operation of a slow sand
filter. The influent flows down through the sand and support gravel and is captured by
the underdrain. However, the influent water in a rapid sand filter is already relatively
clear due to coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation, so rapid sand filters operate
much more quickly than slow sand filters.
The rest of this lesson will be concerned primarily with rapid sand filters, though many of
the factors discussed can carry over to other filter types.
Filter Cleaning
When to Backwash
Rapid sand filters, pressure filters, and diatomaceous earth filters can all be backwashed.
Duringbackwashing, the flow of water through the filter is reversed, cleaning out trapped
particles.
Three factors can be used to assess when a filter needs backwashing. Some plants use the
length of thefilter run, arbitrarily scheduling backwashing after 72 hours or some other
length of filter operation. Other plants monitor turbidity of the effluent water and head
loss within the filter to determine when the filter is clogged enough to need cleaning.
Head loss is a loss of pressure (also known as head) by water flowing through the filter.
When water flows through a clogged filter, friction causes the water to lose energy, so
that the water leaving the filter is under less pressure than the water entering the filter.
Head loss is displayed on a head loss gauge. Once the head loss within the filter has
reached between six and ten hours, a filter should be backwashed.
The Process of Backwashing
In order to backwash a filter, the influent valve is closed and a waste line is opened. A
backwash pump or tower forces treated water from the system back up through the filter
bed. The dirty backwash water is collected by the wash troughs and can be recycled to
the beginning of the plant or can be allowed to settle in a tank, pond, or basin.
Backwashing should begin slowly. If begun too quickly, backwash water can damage the
underdrain system, gravel bed, and media due to the speed of the water. Beginning
backwashing too quickly will also force air bound in the filter out, further damaging the
filter.
After a slow start, the backwash rate should be accelerated to reach around 10 to 25
gpm/ft.2 The backwash water must have enough velocity and volume to agitate the sand
and carry away the foreign matter which has collected there.
Backwashing normally takes about 10 minutes, though the time varies depending on the
length of the filter run and the quantity of material to be removed. Filters should be
backwashed until the backwash water is clean.
Surface Washing
At the same time as backwashing is occurring, the surface of the filter should be
additionally scoured using surface washers. Surface washers spray water over the sand
at the top of the filter breaking down mudballs.
Filter Media
Introduction
The filter media is the part of the filter which actually removes the particles from the
water being treated. Filter media is most commonly sand, though other types of media
can be used, usually in combination with sand. The gravel at the bottom of the filter is
not part of the filter media, merely providing a support between the underdrains and the
media and allowing an even flow of water during filtering and backwashing.
The sand used in rapid sand filters is coarser (larger) than the sand used in slow sand
filters. This larger sand has larger pores which do not fill as quickly with particles out of
the water. Coarse sand also costs less and is more readily available than the finer sand
used in slow sand filtration.
Dual and Multi-Media Filters
In many cases, multiple types of media are layered within the filter. Typically, the layers
(starting at the bottom of the filter and advancing upward) are sand and anthracite coal, or
garnet, sand, and anthracite coal. The picture below shows a cross-section through a dual
media filter.
Photo Credit: Christie Shinault
The media in a dual or multi-media filter are arranged so that the water moves through
media with progressively smaller pores. The largest particles are strained out by the
anthracite. Then the sand and garnet trap the rest of the particulate matter though a
combination of adhesion and straining. Since the particles in the water are filtered out at
various depths in a dual or multi-media filter, the filter does not clog as quickly as if all of
the particles were all caught by the top layer.
The largest particles are removed by the coal, the medium particles by the sand,
and the smallest particles by the garnet.
The media in a dual or multi-media filter must have varying density as well as varying
pore size so that they will sort back into the correct layering arrangement after
backwashing. Anthracite coal is a very light (low density) coal which will settle slowly,
ending up as the top layer of the filter. Garnet is a very dense sand which will settle
quickly to the bottom of the filter.
Filter Efficiency
Monitoring
The filter efficiency can be measured in a variety of ways. Effluent turbidity, which
should be monitored continuously, gives an indication of the efficacy of the filtration
process. Particle counters can be used to count the number of particles in the effluent
which are within the size range of Giardia andCryptosporidium to determine how
efficiently the filter has removed these microorganisms.
The length of the run time between backwashing can also be used as a measure of filter
efficiency. Filter run time depends largely on the clarity of the water passing through the
filter since clearer water will contain less material to be filtered out and clog the filter.
This clarity, in turn, usually reflects the operator's skill and knowledge at maximizing the
efficiency of coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation. Physical features of the plant
can also have considerable influence on the run time.
The operator should test the influent and effluent turbidity, the effluent color, and head
loss. These factors, as well as the filter run time, should be recorded.
Factors Influencing Efficiency
The efficiency of a filter is influenced by a variety of factors. To a large extent, the

efficiency is determined by the characteristics of the water being treated and by the
efficiency of previous stages in the treatment process.
The chemical characteristics of the water being treated can influence both the preceding
coagulation/flocculation and the filtration process. In addition, the characteristics of the
particles in the water are especially important to the filtration process. Size, shape, and
chemical characteristics of the particles will all influence filtration. For example, floc
which is too large will clog the filter rapidly, requiring frequent backwashing, or can
break up and pass through the filter, decreasing water quality.
The types and degree of previous treatment processes greatly influence filtration as well.
Conventional, direct, and in-line filtration will all have different levels of efficiency.
Finally, the type of filter used and the operation of the filter will influence filter
efficiency. The next section will discuss problems caused by improper operation of the
filter.
Filter Problems
Photo Credit: Know Your Filters
Mudballs are approximately round conglomerations of filter material, ranging in size

from pea-sized to two inches or more in diameter. The picture above shows a very large
mudball. Mudballs form on the surface of filters when adhesive materials cause particles
out of the water and media grains to stick together. If the filter is not properly
backwashed and surface washed, mudballs will continue accumulating material and will
grow larger, eventually sinking down into the filter media. Mudballs in the media result
in shortened filter runs and in loss of filter capacity, since water will not pass through the
mudballs and must flow around them.
Another problem associated with filters is breakthroughs, cracking of the filter media
and/or separation of the media from the filter wall. Breakthroughs are caused by running
the filter at an excessive filtration rate or by extending filter runs too long between
backwashing. Breakthroughs can result in untreated water flowing through the filter,
which in turn results in a sudden high turbidity in the effluent water. The untreated water
may contain microorganisms such as Giardia and is thus not safe to drink.
Air binding is the release of dissolved gases from the water into the filter or underdrain.
Air binding may result from low pressure in the filter (negative head) or from filtering
very cold, supersaturated water. The air in the filter and underdrain prevents water from
passing through the filter, which in turn results in abnormally high head loss even when
the filter has recently been backwashed. During backwash, the air in the filter can
damage the filter media.
Filtration Math
Introduction
In this lesson, we will design a rapid sand filter and a clear well chamber. Once again,
these calculations are similar to those used for flash mix, flocculation, and sedimentation
basins.
For the rapid sand filter, the most important dimension is the surface area. Filters must
be designed so that the water flowing through is spread out over enough surface area that
the filtration rate is within the recommended range.
The clear well is a reservoir for storage of filter effluent water. In this lesson, we will
design a clear well with sufficient volume to backwash the rapid sand filter we design.
However, clear wells have other purposes, most important of which is to allow sufficient
contact time for chlorination. We will discuss chlorination in the next lesson.
Specifications
A water treatment plant will typically have several filters. Each filter in our calculations
will be assumed to have the following specifications.

Square tank

Basin depth: 10 ft

Media depth: 2-3 ft

Surface area: <2,100 ft2

Filtration rate: 2-10 gal/min-ft2

Flow through filter: 350-3,500 gpm

Backwash frequency: every 24 hours

Backwash period: 5-10 minutes

Backwash water: 1-5% of filtered water

Backwash rate: 8-20 gal/min-ft2

Filter rise rate: 12-36 in/min

Bed expansion: 50%

Backwash trough 3 ft above media

Backwash water piped to raw water intake
As you can see, backwashing is a very important part of filter calculations. We will
briefly identify some of the backwash characteristics below.
The backwash frequency is the same as filter run time. Either term can be used to
signify the number of hours between backwashing.
The backwash period is the length of time which backwashing lasts.
The backwash water is the water used to backwash the filter. For the filters we're
considering, backwash water should be 1-5% of the water filtered during the filter run.
The backwash rate is the rate at which water is forced backwards through the filter
during backwashing. This rate is homologous to the filtration rate, only with water
moving in the other direction through the filter. The backwash rate is typically much
greater than the filtration rate.
The filter rise rate is the speed at which water rises up through the filter during
backwashing. This is another way of measuring the backwash rate.
During backwashing, the water pushes the media up until it is suspended in the water.
The height to which the media rises during backwashing is known as the bed expansion.
For example, if the filter media is 2 feet deep, it may rise up to 3 feet deep during
backwashing. This is a 50% bed expansion:
Bed expansion = 50%
Most of these backwash specifications merely describe the type of filter we will be
considering and are not used in calculations. However, two factors - the filter rise rate
and the backwash period - will be used when calculating the volume of the clear well
chamber.
Overview of Calculations
1. Calculate the approximate number of filters required.
2. Calculate the flow through one filter.
3. Calculate the surface area of one filter.
4. Calculate the length of the tank.
5. Calculate the clearwell volume.
1. Number of Filters
The treatment plant's flow should be divided into at least three filters. You can estimate
the number of filters required using the following formula:
Where:
Q = Flow, MGD
So, for a plant with a flow of 1.5 MGD, then the approximate number of filters would be:
2. Flow
Next, the flow through one filter is calculated just as it was for one tank of the
sedimentation basin:
Qc = Q / n
Qc = (1.5 MGD) / 3
Qc = 0.5 MGD
So the flow through each of our three filters will be 0.5 MGD.
3. Surface Area
The required filter surface area is calculated using the formula below:
A = Qc / F.R.
Where:
A = filter surface area, ft2

Qc = flow into one filter, gpm
F.R. = filtration rate, gal/min-ft2
We will use a filtration rate of 4 gal/min-ft.2 We will also have to convert from gpm to
MGD. The calculations for our example are shown below:
A = 500,000 gal/day (1 day / 1440 minutes) / 4 gal/min-ft2
A = 87 ft2
4. Tank Length
Since the filter tank is a square, the length of the tank can be calculated with the
following simple formula:
Where:
L = Length, ft
A = Surface area, ft2
In the case of our example, the length of one tank is calculated as follows:
This is the final calculation required for the design of the filter.
5. Clearwell Volume
The volume of the clearwell must be sufficient to provide backwash water for each filter.
First we calculate the total filter area:
Total filter area = A (Number of filters)
For our example, the total filter area is:
Total filter area = 87 ft2 3
Total filter area = 261 ft2
Then we calculate the volume of the clearwell as follows:
V = (Backwash period) (Total filter area) (Filter rise rate)
We will assume a 5 minute backwash period and filter rise rate of 30 in/min. So, for our
example, the volume of the clearwell would be calculated as follows:
V = (5 min) (261 ft2) (30 in/min) (1 ft / 12 in)
V = 3,263 ft3
You will notice that we translated from inches to feet.
Conclusions
For our plant, we need three filters, each with a surface area of 87 ft2 and a length of 9.3
ft. In order to accommodate backwashing all three filters at once, the clearwell volume
should be 3,263 ft.3
Review
Filtration removes suspended particles from water by passing the water through a
medium. Particles are removed through straining, adsorption, biological processes, and
absorption.
Four types of filters are used in water treatment - slow sand, rapid sand, pressure, and
diatomaceous. Rapid sand filters are the most widely used in treating surface water.
Rapid sand filters are cleaned by backwashing and surface washing. Filter media may be
sand, or layers involving anthracite coal, sand, and garnet.
Filter efficiency is typically monitored using effluent turbidity, particle counters, and
filter run time. Problems associated with filters include mudballs, breakthroughs, and air
binding.
References

Manual.
American Water Works Association. Brief History of Filtration.
Sacramento.
Rust, Mary, and Katie MacArthur. 1996. Slow Sand Filtration. Virginia Tech,
Blacksburg.
Schmitt, Dottie, and Christie Shinault. 1996. Rapid Sand Filtration. Virginia Tech,
Blacksburg.
Sims, Ronald C., and Lloyd A. Slezak. 1991. "Slow Sand Filtration: Present Practice in
the United States." Slow Sand Filtration. American Society of Civil Engineers: New
York.
Assignments
Part 1 of your Assignment: Answer the following questions. Show all of your work and
circle the answer for each math problem below. If there is insufficient information to find
the answer, write "Insufficient information". When you are done, either email, mail or fax
the assignment to your instructor. (Each question is worth 10 points)
1. During filtration, the filter bed is 30 inches deep. During backwashing, the filter
bed is 50 inches deep. What is the percent of bed expansion?
2. Given a flow of 5 MGD, approximate the number of filters which should be used.
3. The flow into one filter is 0.75 MGD. The filtration rate is 4 gal/min-ft2. Calculate
the filter's surface area.
4. The flow is 4 MGD, divided into the recommended number of filters. The
filtration rate is 4 gal/min-ft2. What is the length of one filter tank?
5. A plant has 4 filters, each with an area of 75 ft2. Assume a 5 minute backwash
period and filter rise rate of 30 in/min. What should the volume of the clearwell
be to allow backwashing of all four filters at once?
Part 2 of your Assignment: Complete Assignment 6 on Filtration. You may do the

Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor. (50 points)
Quiz
Disinfection
Objective
What disinfection requirements must be met in treating drinking water?

How does chlorination fit into the water treatment process?
How does chlorination work chemically?
What factors influence the efficiency of chlorination?
What equipment is used for chlorination?
What other methods can be used to disinfect water?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 7: Disinfection, in your textbook Operation of
Water Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Introduction
What is Disinfection?
Before water treatment became common, waterborne diseases could spread quickly
through a population, killing or harming hundreds of people. The table below shows
some common, water-transmitted diseases as well as the organisms (pathogens) which
cause each disease. More information on water-borne pathogens can be found in ENV
108.
Pathogen Disease Caused

Bacteria:
Anthrax anthrax
Escherichia coli E. coli infection
Myobacterium tuberculosis
tuberculosis
Salmonella salmonellosis,
paratyphoid
Vibrio cholerae cholera
Viruses:
Hepatitis Virus Hepatitis A
Polio Virus polio
Parasites:
Cryptosporidium cryptosporidiosis
Giardia lamblia giardiasis
The primary goal of water treatment is to ensure that the water is safe to drink and does
not contain any disease-causing microorganisms. The best way to ensure pathogen-free
drinking water is to make sure that the pathogens never enter the water in the first place.
However, this may be a difficult matter in a surface water supply which is fed by a large
watershed. Most treatments plants choose to remove or kill pathogens in water rather
than to ensure that the entire watershed is free of pathogens.
Pathogens can be removed from water through physical or chemical processes. You may
remember that some previously discussed treatment processes, notably sedimentation and
filtration, can remove a large percentage of bacteria and other microorganisms from the
water by physical means. Storage can also kill a portion of the disease-causing bacteria
in water.
This lesson will be concerned with disinfection, which is the process of selectively
destroying or inactivating pathogenic organisms in water, usually by chemical means.
Disinfection is different fromsterilization, which is the complete destruction of all
organisms found in water and which is usually expensive and unnecessary. Disinfection
is a required part of the water treatment process while sterilization is not.
Testing and Requirements
The goal of disinfection is to remove or inactivate all disease-causing organisms in

water. However, testing for each type of pathogen individually would be costly and
inefficient. Instead, operators focus on three indicators of pathogen removal efficiency.
The first two have been discussed in previous lessons -Giardia and viruses. The third
test, total coliform, is the most frequently used indicator of disinfection efficiency.
Coliform bacteria are often found in the guts of warm-blooded animals such as humans,
but can also be found in plants, soil, water, or air. It is relatively simple to test for the
number of coliform bacteria found in water, and their presence indicates that other
pathogenic bacteria are also likely to be present. If disinfection removes all of the
coliforms from the water, then the operator can safely assume that the other disease-
causing microorganisms have also been removed.
You will remember that the standards for the removal of Giardia and viruses are 99.9%
and 99.99%, respectively. After disinfection, standards for total coliform require that
water should have 0 coliforms per hundred millimeters of water sampled. If less than 40
samples of water are tested per month, then no more than one sample can test positive for
coliform bacteria. If forty or more samples are taken more month, then no more than 5%
of the samples can be positive.
Chlorination
Purpose
Chlorination is the application of chlorine to water to accomplish some definite purpose.

In this lesson, we will be concerned with the application of chlorine for the purpose of
disinfection, but you should be aware that chlorination can also be used for taste and odor
control, iron and manganese removal, and to remove some gases such as ammonia and
hydrogen sulfide.
Chlorination is currently the most frequently used form of disinfection in the water
treatment field. However, other disinfection processes have been developed. These
alternatives will be discussed at the end of this lesson.
Prechlorination and Postchlorination
Like several other water treatment processes, chlorination can be used as a pretreatment
process (prechlorination) or as part of the primary treatment of water
(postchlorination). Treatment usually involves either postchlorination only or a
combination of prechlorination and postchlorination.
Prechlorination is the act of adding chlorine to the raw water. The residual chlorine is
useful in several stages of the treatment process - aiding in coagulation, controlling algae
problems in basins, reducing odor problems, and controlling mudball formation. In
addition, the chlorine has a much longer contact time when added at the beginning of the
treatment process, so prechlorination increases safety in disinfecting heavily
contaminated water.
Postchlorination is the application of chlorine after water has been treated but before the
water reaches the distribution system. At this stage, chlorination is meant to kill
pathogens and to provide a chlorine residual in the distribution system. Postchlorination
is nearly always part of the treatment process, either used in combination with
prechlorination or used as the sole disinfection process.
Until the middle of the 1970s, water treatment plants typically used both prechlorination
and postchlorination. However, the longer contact time provided by prechlorination
allows the chlorine to react with the organics in the water and produce carcinogenic
substances known as trihalomethanes. As a result of concerns over trihalomethanes,
prechlorination has become much less common in the United States. Currently,
prechlorination is only used in plants where trihalomethane formation is not a problem.
During prechlorination, chlorine is usually added to raw water after screening and before
flash mixing. Postchlorination, in contrast, is often the last stage in the treatment
process. After flowing through the filter, water is chlorinated and then pumped to the
clearwell to allow a sufficient contact time for the chlorine to act. From the clearwell, the
water may be pumped into a large, outdoor storage tank such as the one shown below.
Finally, the water is released to the customer.
Photo Credit: Virginia Department of Health
Chlorination Chemistry
Introduction
When chlorine is added to water, a variety of chemical processes take place. The
chlorine reacts with compounds in the water and with the water itself. Some of the
results of these reactions (known as thechlorine residual) are able to kill microorganisms
in the water. In the following sections, we will show the chemical reactions which occur
when chlorine is added to water.
Chlorine Demand
When chlorine enters water, it immediately begins to react with compounds found in the
water. The chlorine will react with organic compounds and form trihalomethanes. It will
also react with reducing agents such as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous ions, manganous ions,
and nitrite ions.
Let's consider one example, in which chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulfide in water. Two
different reactions can occur:
Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Oxygen Ion Elemental Sulfur + Water +

Chloride Ions
H2S + Cl2 + O2- S + H2O + 2Cl-
Hydrogen Sulfide + Chlorine + Water Sulfuric Acid + Hydrochloric Acid
H2S + 4Cl2 + 4 H2O H2SO4 + 8 HCl
I have written each reaction using both the chemical formula and the English name of
each compound. In the first reaction, hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine and oxygen to
create elemental sulfur, water, and chloride ions. The elemental sulfur precipitates out of
the water and can cause odor problems. In the second reaction, hydrogen sulfide
reactions with chlorine and water to create sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.
Each of these reactions uses up the chlorine in the water, producing chloride ions or
hydrochloric acid which have no disinfecting properties. The total amount of chlorine
which is used up in reactions with compounds in the water is known as the chlorine
demand. A sufficient quantity of chlorine must be added to the water so that, after the
chlorine demand is met, there is still some chlorine left to kill microorganisms in the
water.
Reactions of Chlorine Gas With Water
At the same time that chlorine is being used up by compounds in the water, some of the
chlorine reacts with the water itself. The reaction depends on what type of chlorine is
added to the water as well as on the the pH of the water itself.
Chlorine may be added as to water in the form of chlorine gas, hypochlorite, or chlorine
dioxide. All types of chlorine will kill bacteria and some viruses, but only chlorine
dioxide will effectively killCryptosporidium, Giardia, protozoans, and some viruses. We
will first consider chlorine gas, which is the most pure form of chlorine, consisting of two
chlorine atoms bound together.
Chlorine gas is compressed into a liquid and stored in metal cylinders. The gas is
difficult to handle since it is toxic, heavy, corrosive, and an irritant. At high
concentrations, chlorine gas can even be fatal.
When chlorine gas enters the water, the following reaction occurs:
Chlorine + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Hydrochloric Acid
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
The chlorine reacts with water and breaks down into hypochlorous acid and
hydrochloric acid. Hypochlorous acid may further break down, depending on pH:
Hypochlorous Acid Hydrogen Ion + Hypochlorite Ion
HOCl H+ + OCl-
Note the double-sided arrows which mean that the reaction is reversible. Hypochlorous
acid may break down into a hydrogen ion and a hypochlorite ion, or a hydrogen ion and a
hypochlorite ion may join together to form hypochlorous acid.
The concentration of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions in chlorinated water will
depend on the water's pH. A higher pH facilitates the formation of more hypochlorite
ions and results in less hypochlorous acid in the water. This is an important reaction to
understand because hypochlorous acid is the most effective form of free chlorine
residual, meaning that it is chlorine available to kill microorganisms in the water.
Hypochlorite ions are much less efficient disinfectants. So disinfection is more efficient
at a low pH (with large quantities of hypochlorous acid in the water) than at a high pH
(with large quantities of hypochlorite ions in the water.)
Hypochlorites
Instead of using chlorine gas, some plants apply chlorine to water as a hypochlorite, also
known as ableach. Hypochlorites are less pure than chlorine gas, which means that they
are also less dangerous. However, they have the major disadvantage that they decompose
in strength over time while in storage. Temperature, light, and physical energy can all
break down hypochlorites before they are able to react with pathogens in water.
There are three types of hypochlorites - sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, and
commercial bleach:
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) comes in a liquid form which contains up to 12%

chlorine.
Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2), also known as HTH, is a solid which is mixed
with water to form a hypochlorite solution. Calcium hypochlorite is 65-70%
concentrated.
Commercial bleach is the bleach which you buy in a grocery store. The
concentration ofcommercial bleach varies depending on the brand - Chlorox
bleach is 5% chlorine while some other brands are 3.5% concentrated.
Hypochlorites and bleaches work in the same general manner as chlorine gas. They react
with water and form the disinfectant hypochlorous acid. The reactions of sodium
hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite with water are shown below:
Calcium hypochlorite + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Calcium Hydroxide
Ca(OCl)2 + 2 H2O 2 HOCl + Ca(OH)2
Sodium hypochlorite + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Sodium Hydroxide
NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOH
In general, disinfection using chlorine gas and hypochlorites occurs in the same manner.
The differences lie in how the chlorine is fed into the water and on handling and storage
of the chlorine compounds. In addition, the amount of each type of chlorine added to
water will vary since each compound has a different concentration of chlorine.
Chloramines
Some plants use chloramines rather than hypochlorous acid to disinfect the water. To
produce chloramines, first chlorine gas or hypochlorite is added to the water to produce
hypochlorous acid. Then ammonia is added to the water to react with the hypochlorous
acid and produce a chloramine.
Three types of chloramines can be formed in water - monochloramine, dichloramine, and

trichloramine. Monochloramine is formed from the reaction of hypochlorous acid with
ammonia:
Ammonia + Hypochlorous Acid Monochloramine + Water
NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl + H2O

Monochloramine may then react with more hypochlorous acid to form a dichloramine:
Monochloramine + Hypochlorous Acid Dichloramine + Water
NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 + H2O
Finally, the dichloramine may react with hypochlorous acid to form a trichloramine:
Dichloramine + Hypochlorous Acid Trichloramine + Water
NHCl2 + HOCl NCl3 + H2O
The number of these reactions which will take place in any given situation depends on
the pH of the water. In most cases, both monochloramines and dichloramines are
formed. Monochloramines and dichloramines can both be used as a disinfecting agent,
called a combined chlorine residual because the chlorine is combined with nitrogen.
This is in contrast to the free chlorine residual of hypochlorous acid which is used in
other types of chlorination.
Chloramines are weaker than chlorine, but are more stable, so they are often used as the
disinfectant in the distribution lines of water treatment systems. Despite their stability,
chloramines can be broken down by bacteria, heat, and light. Chloramines are effective
at killing bacteria and will also kill some protozoans, but they are very ineffective at
killing viruses.
Breakpoint Chlorination
The graph below shows what happens when chlorine (either chlorine gas or a
hypochlorite) is added to water. First (between points 1 and 2), the water reacts with
reducing compounds in the water, such as hydrogen sulfide. These compounds use up the
chlorine, producing no chlorine residual.
Next, between points 2 and 3, the chlorine reacts with organics and ammonia naturally
found in the water. Some combined chlorine residual is formed - chloramines. Note that
if chloramines were to be used as the disinfecting agent, more ammonia would be added
to the water to react with the chlorine. The process would be stopped at point 3. Using
chloramine as the disinfecting agent results in little trihalomethane production but causes
taste and odor problems since chloramines typically give a "swimming pool" odor to
water.
In contrast, if hypochlorous acid is to be used as the chlorine residual, then

chlorine will be added past point 3. Between points 3 and 4, the chlorine will break down
most of the chloramines in the water, actually lowering the chlorine residual.
Finally, the water reaches the breakpoint, shown at point 4. The breakpoint is the point
at which the chlorine demand has been totally satisfied - the chlorine has reacted with all
reducing agents, organics, and ammonia in the water. When more chlorine is added past
the breakpoint, the chlorine reacts with water and forms hypochlorous acid in direct
proportion to the amount of chlorine added. This process, known as breakpoint
chlorination, is the most common form of chlorination, in which enough chlorine is
added to the water to bring it past the breakpoint and to create some free chlorine
residual.
Chlorine Dioxide
There is one other form of chlorine which can be used for disinfection - chlorine dioxide.
We have not discussed chlorine dioxide previously because it disinfects using neither
hypochlorous acid nor chloramines and is not part of the breakpoint chlorination process.
Chlorine dioxide, ClO2, is a very effective form of chlorination since it will kill
protozoans, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and viruses that other systems may not kill. In
addition, chlorine dioxide oxidizes all metals and organic matter, converting the organic
matter to carbon dioxide and water. Chlorine dioxide can be used to remove sulfide
compounds and phenolic tastes and odors. When chlorine dioxide is used,
trihalomethanes are not formed and the chlorination process is unaffected by ammonia.
Finally, chlorine dioxide is effective at a higher pH than other forms of chlorination.
So why isn't chlorine dioxide used in all systems? Chlorine dioxide must be generated on
site, which is a very costly process requiring a great deal of technical expertise. Unlike
chlorine gas, chlorine dioxide is highly combustible and care must be taken when
handling the chlorine dioxide.
Efficiency
Residual and Dosage
A variety of factors can influence disinfection efficiency when using breakpoint

chlorination or chloramines. One of the most important of these is the concentration of
chlorine residual in the water.
The chlorine residual in the clearwell should be at least 0.5 mg/L. This residual,
consisting of hypochlorous acid and/or chloramines, must kill microorganisms already
present in the water and must also kill any pathogens which may enter the distribution
system through cross-connections or leakage. In order to ensure that the water is free of
microorganisms when it reaches the customer, the chlorine residual should be about 0.2
mg/L at the extreme ends of the distribution system. This residual in the distribution
system will also act to control microorganisms in the distribution system which produce
slimes, tastes, or odors.
Determining the correct dosage of chlorine to add to water will depend on the quantity
and type of substances in the water creating a chlorine demand. The chlorine dose is
calculated as follows:
Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual
So, if the required chlorine residual is 0.5 mg/L and the chlorine demand is known to be 2
mg/L, then 2.5 mg/L of chlorine will have to be added to treat the water.
The chlorine demand will typically vary over time as the characteristics of the water
change. By testing the chlorine residual, the operator can determine whether a sufficient
dose of chlorine is being added to treat the water. In a large system, chlorine must be
sampled every two hours at the plant and at various points in the distribution system.
It is also important to understand the breakpoint curve when changing chlorine dosages.
If the water smells strongly of chlorine, it may not mean that too much chlorine is being
added. More likely, chloramines are being produced, and more chlorine needs to be
added to pass the breakpoint.
Contact Time
Contact time is just as important as the chlorine residual in determining the efficiency of
chlorination. Contact time is the amount of time which the chlorine has to react with the
microorganisms in the water, which will equal the time between the moment when
chlorine is added to the water and the moment when that water is used by the customer.
The longer the contact time, the more efficient the disinfection process is. When using
chlorine for disinfection a minimum contact time of 30 minutes is required for adequate
disinfection.
The CT value is used as a measurement of the degree of pathogen inactivation due to

chlorination. The CT value is calculated as follows:
CT = (Chlorine residual, mg/L) (Contact time, minutes)
The CT is the Concentration multiplied by the Time. As the formula suggests, a reduced
chlorine residual can still provide adequate kill of microorganisms if a long contact time
is provided. Conversely, a smaller chlorine residual can be used as long as the chlorine
has a longer contact time to kill the pathogens.
Other Influencing Factors
Within the disinfection process, efficiency is influenced by the chlorine residual, the type
of chemical used for chlorination, the contact time, the initial mixing of chlorine into the
water, and the location of chlorination within the treatment process. The most efficient
process will have a high chlorine residual, a long contact time, and thorough mixing.
Characteristics of the water will also affect efficiency of chlorination. As you will recall,
at a high pH, the hypochlorous acid becomes dissociated into the ineffective hypochlorite
ion. So lower pH values result in more efficient disinfection.
Temperature influences chlorination just as it does any other chemical reaction. Warmer
water can be treated more efficiently since the reactions occur more quickly. At a lower
water temperature, longer contact times or higher concentrations of chemicals must be
used to ensure adequate disinfection.
Turbidity of the water influences disinfection primarily through influencing the chlorine
demand. Turbid water tends to contain particles which react with chlorine, reducing the
concentration of chlorine residual which is formed. Since the turbidity of the water
depends to a large extent on upstream processes (coagulation, flocculation,
sedimentation, and filtration), changes in these upstream processes will influence the
efficiency of chlorination. Turbidity is also influenced by the source water - groundwater
turbidity tends to change slowly or not at all while the chlorine demand of surface water
can change continuously, especially during storms and the snow melt season.
Finally, and most intuitively, the number and type of microorganisms in the water will
influence chlorination efficiency. Since cyst-forming microorganisms and viruses are
very difficult to kill using chlorination, the disinfection process will be less efficient if
these pathogens are found in the water.
Chlorination Equipment
Hypochlorinators
The simplest method of continuous chlorination of systems less than 75 gpm is by the use
of a hypochlorinator. Hypochlorinators are motor driven pumps which are used to
added hypochlorite solutions to water. The pump pulls the hypochlorite solution out of a
holding chamber and pumps it into the water to be treated. Where the pipe from the
pump joins the pipe carrying the raw water, the Venturi effect creates a small vacuum and
pulls the chlorine solution into the water.
It is often necessary to increase or decrease the amount of chlorine added to the water as
conditions change. Hypochlorinators allow you to adjust the amount of chlorine fed into
the water in three ways. You can adjust the stroke length or machine speed by varying the
pulley size. Both of these adjustments change the hypochlorinator feed rate - the speed at
which the machine puts chlorine into the water. You can also adjust the amount of
chlorine added by changing the strength of the hypochlorite solution.
Chlorinators and Cylinders
While hypochlorinators are usually used to perform continuous chlorination in smaller

systems, chlorinators are more economical when the supply source is greater than 75 gpm
and may sometimes be used in smaller systems as well. Anticipated pumping periods and
chlorine demand (based on the chlorine residual test) determine whether a
hypochlorinator or chlorinator should be used in each situation.
Chlorinators are devices which introduce chlorine gas to water using liquid chlorine
supplied in steel cylinders. The following sections will explain how the proper quantity
of chlorine is delivered from the cylinder to the source water. But first we need to
understand how the liquid chlorine is stored.
Chlorine cylinders
Liquid chlorine can be stored in 100 or 150 pound cylinders, ton containers, or 55 to 90
ton rail cars. In each case, the chlorine has been condensed into a liquid form, but
expands back into a gas as it leaves the cylinder. Whenever a substance changes state
from a liquid to a gaseous form, heat is required. The heat which is absorbed by the
chlorine as it changes state in the cylinder comes from the surrounding air.
If chlorine is drawn off from a cylinder too quickly, the temperature of the air
surrounding the tank will drop and will cause frosting and lower gas flow. To prevent
frosting, the draw off rate should be no greater than 350 pounds of gas/day for a 100-150
pound cylinder. If greater feed rate are required, several tanks can be connected using
a manifold, which is a pipe joining the cylinders together so that chlorine gas is drawn
from several cylinders at once.
The only accurate way to determine the feed rate of chlorine from a cylinder is to weigh
the cylinder over time. By subtracting the tare weight (the weight of an empty cylinder),
the operator can determine how much chlorine gas remains in the cylinder so that empty
cylinders can be replaced in a timely manner. If the cylinders are weighed over time, the
feed rate of chlorine can be determined to ensure that the proper concentration of chlorine
is being added to the water.
Whenever dealing with gaseous chlorine, safety is an important issue. Ammonia should
be kept handy for checking for leaks and storage buildings should be well ventilated. If
the operator must walk through an area with chlorine in the air, he or she should use a
breathing apparatus. If no breathing apparatus is available, the operator should keep his
head high since chlorine is 2.5 times as heavy as air and will tend to sink to the ground.
Vacuum Chlorinators
The most typical kind of chlorinator, a vacuum chlorinator, is shown below:

In a vacuum chlorinator, chlorine gas is pulled from the cylinder into the source water
by a vacuum. The vacuum is created by water flowing through the injector and creating a
negative head. This negative head forces open the pressure regulating valve on the
cylinder and allows chlorine gas to flow out of the cylinder and into the chlorinator.
Once the gas has entered the chlorinator, the chlorine feed rate is measured using an
indicator known as a rotameter. Just beyond the rotameter, the chlorine gas flows past a
regulating device (a V-notch plug or a valve) which is used to adjust the chlorine feed
rate.
Then the chlorine gas is pulled into the injector, also known as an ejector. The injector
consists of a pipe filled with flowing water. The flowing water pulls chlorine into the
water, both chlorinating the source water and creating a vacuum in the chlorine line
which pulls more chlorine gas out of the cylinder. This type of chlorinator is also known
as a solution feeder since the chlorine gas is dissolved into a small amount of source
water, which is then piped into the main line of water to be chlorinated.
Chlorinators can be controlled manually (using the regulator) or with a controller. The
most common type of controller is the flow proportional controller which automatically
feeds chlorine based on the flow rate of the water.
Vacuum chlorinators are very safe since any break in the line with disrupt the vacuum
and close the pressure regulating valve. As a result, chlorine leaks are very uncommon.
Direct Feed Chlorinators
In a few cases, direct feed chlorinators are used instead of vacuum chlorinators. In a
direct feed chlorinator, the chlorine gas is under pressure and is pumped directly into the
main flow of water. There, the chlorine is evenly dispersed into the water using
a diffuser, like the one shown below.
Since the chlorine is under pressure, a pressurized water supply is not needed for use with
a direct feed chlorinator. However, the pressurized chlorine is prone to leakage, so safety
issues limit direct feed chlorinators to small installations or for use as emergency
equipment.
Other Disinfection Methods
Types of Disinfection
Up until this point, we have been concerned only with disinfection using chlorine.
However, a variety of other methods can be used to disinfect water. The table below
summarizes eight disinfection processes.
Disinfection Disinfection Process Uses

Method Advantages
Disadvantages
Chlorine chemical reaction with pathogens widespread use to disinfect
a small dose kills bacteria rapidly; residual water; also used in color,
can be maintained taste, and odor removal,
in some cases, chlorination can cause the improving coagulation, and
formation of trihalomethanes killing algae.
Iodine chemical reaction with pathogens emergency treatment of water
good disinfectanthigh cost; harmful to supplies; disinfecting small,
pregnant women non-permanent water supplies
Bromine chemical reaction with pathogens very limited use, primarily for
treating swimming pool water
handling difficulties; residuals hard to
obtain; supply is limited
Bases chemical reaction with pathogens sterilize water pipes
(sodium
hydroxide and bitter taste in the water; handling
lime) difficulties
Ozone chemical reaction with pathogens disinfection; treating iron and
good disinfectant; better virucide than manganese, helping
chlorine; oxidizes iron, manganese, sulfide, flocculation, removing algae,
and organics; removes color, odor, and oxidizing organics, removing
taste color, treating tastes and
high cost; lack of residual; storage odors
difficulties; maintenance requirements;
safety problems; unpredictable
disinfection; no track record
Ultraviolet UV light causes biological changes which small or local systems and
kill the pathogenslack of dangerous by- industrial applications
productslack of measurable residual; cost
of operation; turbidity interferes with
disinfection
Ultrasonic sound waves destroy pathogens by
vibration
very expensive
Heat boiling water for about five minutes will Individuals may boil their
destroy essentially all water for household quantities
microorganismssimple, requires little of water when quality of
equipment water is questionable
very energy intensive; expensive
In the past, water treatment plants have principally relied on the use of chlorine for
disinfection. The prevalent use of chlorine has come about because chlorine is an
excellent disinfecting chemical and, until recently, has been available at a reasonable cost.
However, chlorine has several disadvantages. Chlorine is becoming more expensive and
has been shown to be toxic to fish and other biota. In addition, chlorine can combine
with organic substances in water to produce trihalomethanes, which are suspected of
causing cancer.
As a result, future water treatment may see an increased use of ozone or ultraviolet (UV)
light. Both types of treatment are effective disinfecting agents and leave no toxic
residual. We will consider ozone and UV disinfection briefly below.
Ozone
Oxygen in the air (O2) is composed of two oxygen atoms. Under certain conditions, three
oxygen atoms can be bound together instead, forming ozone (O3).
Ozone has many advantages as a disinfectant. It kills all pathogenic organisms by a
direct effect on their DNA. Disinfection with ozone occurs 30,000 times faster than with
chlorine, so a prolonged contact time is unnecessary. And there is no harmful residual
left in the system.
The disadvantages of an ozone disinfection system include a corrosive nature, a high cost
for the initial set-up, and a high electricity consumption.
UV Light
Ultraviolet, or UV, light is light outside the range usually detectable by the human eye.
It can be used to deactivate protozoans so that they can't reproduce and to significantly
reduce the concentration of bacteria in water.
The picture below shows a UV disinfection setup:

The primary disadvantage of UV light is a high operating cost. In addition, anything
which blocks UV light from reaching the water will result in a lack of treatment, so water
must be free of turbidity before being treated with UV light.
Choosing a Disinfection Method
Of the many disinfection methods, five have been used extensively in water treatment.
The table below lists some of the factors which may influence the choice of treatment
method in a new plant.
Chlorine Chlorine Chloramine Ozone Ultraviolet

(Gas or Dioxide
Hypochlorite)
Produces yes no yes sometimes no
trihalomethanes?
Produces other yes yes yes yes sometimes
troublesome
byproducts?
Impacted by lime yes no yes no yes
softening?
Impacted by somewhat somewhat somewhat somewhat yes
turbidity?
Meets Giardia no yes no yes no
removal standards?
Meets no no no yes no
Cryptosporidium
removal standards?
Meets virus removal yes yes no yes yes
standards?
Operator skill level low high low/medium high medium
Applicable to large yes yes yes yes no
utilities?
Applicable to small yes yes yes yes yes
utilities?
You may note that many of the disinfection methods do not meet standards
for Giardia,Cryptosporidium, and virus removal. This does not mean that these
disinfection methods cannot be used. When used in conjunction with filtration, all of the
disinfection methods can be used to meet removal standards.
Review
Drinking water is disinfected to kill or inactivate waterborne pathogens. The most

common form of disinfection is chlorination, although ozone and UV light are also used
in some plants. Chlorine may be added to the water as chlorine gas or hypochlorite (both
of which produce the disinfectant hypochlorous acid), as chlorine dioxide, or ammonia
may be added with chlorine to form disinfectant chloramines.
Chlorination may occur as a pretreatment process or as the final step in the treatment
process. A sufficient quantity of chlorine must be used to both kill microorganisms
already existing in the water and to maintain a chlorine residual throughout the
distribution system. Chlorination efficiency depends on chlorine residual, contact time,
type of chemical used, mixing effectiveness, location in the treatment process, and on
characteristics of the water being treated.
Breakpoint chlorination is a common form of disinfection in which chlorine is added to

water until the chlorine demand has been satisfied and some free chlorine residual has
been formed. The chlorine demand involves the reaction of chlorine with compounds in
water, reducing the amount of chlorine available to kill microorganisms. Once all of
these reactions have occurred, any additional chlorine added to the water will produce
hypochlorous acid, a free chlorine residual.
Disinfection equipment depends on the type of disinfectant used. Hypochlorite is added

to water using a hypochlorinator. Gaseous chlorine is added to water using a chlorinator.
Disinfection equipment used for chlorine dioxide, ozone, and UV light is more complex
and requires a higher level of operator skill.
New Formulas Used
To calculate chlorine dose during breakpoint chlorination:
Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual
To calculate CT value:
CT = (Chlorine residual, mg/L) (Contact time, minutes)
References

Manual.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidants

Guidance Manual.
Sacramento.
Certification Study Guide. NMED Surface Water Quality Bureau: Santa Fe.
Assignments
Part 1 of your Assignment: Answer the following questions. Show all of your work and
circle the answer for each math problem below. If there is insufficient information to find
the answer, write "Insufficient information". When you are done, either email, mail or fax
the assignment to your instructor. (Each question is worth 25 points)
1. A chlorinator is set to feed 15 pounds of chlorine in 24 hours to a flow of 0.75

MGD. Find the chlorine dose in mg/L.
2. Find the chlorine demand in mg/L for the water being treated in #1 with a chlorine
dose of 2.4 mg/L. The chlorine residual after 30 minutes of contact time is 0.8
mg/L.
Part 2 of your Assignment: Complete Assignment 7 on Disinfection. You may do the

Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor. (50 points)
Quiz
Corrosion Control
Corrosion
Objective
What problems are associated with corrosive and scale-forming water?

How does the electrochemical reaction of corrosion work?
What are the types of corrosion?
What factors influence the stability of water?
How does stabilization fit into the water treatment process?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 8: Corrosion Control, in your
Lecture
Corrosion
What is Stabilization?
Stable water is water which neither tends to be corrosive nor scale-forming. Corrosive,
also known asaggressive or unstable, water will tend to corrode (rust) metal in the pipes
or tanks it passes through. Scale-forming water will tend to deposit calcium carbonate
scale on the surfaces of these pipes or tanks.
Corrosive and scale-forming waters are at the opposite ends of a spectrum. A variety of
water characteristics (which we will discuss in a later section) combine to influence
water's location along this spectrum. The goal of the treatment plant operator is to find
the point along the stability spectrum at which the water is stable and will neither corrode
pipes or form scale.
Scaling Problems
Unstable water causes problems mainly in the distribution system, though it can also
harm the treatment plant equipment and fixtures in the customers' homes. Scaling is
problematic because it forms on the insides of pipes and reduces the area available to
carry water. In addition, scaling can form on equipment and on hot water heaters and
cause other problems.
Despite these problems caused by scaling, we should be aware that a small amount of
scale is beneficial because it coats the insides of pipes and retards corrosion. Typically,
the water treatment plant operator will strive to produce water which is slightly scale-
forming.
Corrosion Problems
Corrosive water, in contrast, is never beneficial. Corrosion, like that shown in the
pictures above, can cause economic, health, and aesthetic problems.
Economic problems result from damage to pipes, storage tanks, valves, and meters.
Damage to pipes is the most prevalent, consisting of leaks and reduced carrying capacity.
These pipe corrosion problems often result from tuberculation, which is the production
of mounds of rust on the inside of the pipe, as shown in the picture below.
These mounds reduce the space in the pipe available to carry water, just as scaling does.
In addition, tubercles are usually associated with pits in the pipe wall, which may go all
the way through the pipe and cause leaks.
Corrosion in the distribution system can also cause health hazards. When pipes are
corroded, some of the metal from the pipes enters the drinking water and is consumed by
the customer. If the pipes contain lead or copper - and brass pipes, for example, are made
up of about 7-11% lead and a much higher percentage of copper - then the metals in the
water are hazardous to the customer's health. Lead causes a variety of problems in
children and increases blood pressure in adults while copper causes stomach and
intestinal problems and Wilson's Disease. As a result of these health hazards, the EPA
passed a Lead and Copper Rule in 1991 which limits the amount of lead and copper that
can be found in drinking water.
Finally, corrosion can cause aesthetic problems. When metal pipes corrode, the rust can
break free and be carried to the customer in the water. This phenomenon, known as red
water, can stain laundry and plumbing fixtures. In addition, corrosion in the distribution
system can result in taste problems.
Corrosion Chemistry
Corrosion Cell
We have already discussed scaling, so we will be primarily concerned with corrosion in

the rest of this lesson. Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction involving the movement
of electrons. Let's first consider a more familiar electrochemical reaction - that which
occurs when electricity comes out of a battery.
In a battery, electrons build up in the negative end, also known as the anode. The
positive end, known as the cathode, is attractive to electrons due to its positive charge. If
the two ends of the battery are connected with a conductive object, such as a metal wire
through which electrons can flow, the electrons will flow from the anode to the cathode
as an electric current. The battery and the wire make up what is known as an electrolytic
cell, which is a device which causes an electric current to flow.
Corrosion in a metal object, such as a pipe, acts in the same manner. A negative area of
metal (the anode) is connected to a positive area (the cathode) by the pipe wall itself. As
a result, electrons can flow from the anode to the cathode.
In addition to the anode, the cathode, and the connecting conductive material, the
electrochemical reaction requires one more element - the electrolyte. The electrolyte is a
conducting solution, which in the case of a pipe is the water within the pipe with its
dissolved salts. (In a battery, the electrolyte is found within the battery - the "battery
acid".) The electrolyte accepts the electrons from the cathode, making the cathode
maintain a positive charge which draws more electrons to it.
So, in summary, any electrochemical reaction requires four elements, all of which must
be in contact - the anode, the cathode, the conductive material, and the electrolyte. In the
battery, the anode and cathode are the two ends of the battery, the conductive material is a
wire or other object touching both ends, and the electrolyte is found inside the battery. In
the case of corrosion of a pipe, the anode, cathode, and conductive material are all found
in the pipe wall while the electrolyte is the water within the pipe. If any of these four
elements, which make up the corrosion cell, are absent or are not touching each other,
then corrosion cannot occur.
Anode Reactions
In the last section, we discussed the electrical side of the electrochemical reaction
occurring during corrosion. In order for the flow of electrons to occur, however,
chemical reactions must also be happening. In this lesson, we will consider the chemical
reactions which occur in an iron pipe as it corrodes. Other types of pipes will have
different, but homologous, chemical reactions driving their corrosion.
The main force behind corrosion is the tendency of iron to break down into its natural
state. The iron found in pipe is elemental iron (Fe0) which is unstable and tends
to oxidize, to join with oxygen or other elements. In nature, this oxidation produces an
iron ore such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), iron pyrite (FeS2), or siderite
(FeCO3). In corrosion, the result of this oxidation is rust, Fe(OH)2 or Fe(OH)3.
Oxidation of the elemental iron occurs at the anode. First, the elemental iron breaks
down as shown below. In this reaction, elemental iron leaves the pipe, so pits form in the
pipe's surface at the anode.
Elemental Iron Ferrous iron + Electrons
Fe0 Fe2+ + 2e-
The reaction produces ferrous iron and two electrons. The electrons are then able to flow
through the pipe wall to the cathode. Meanwhile, the ferrous iron reacts with the water
(the electrolyte) in the pipe to produce rust and hydrogen ions.
Ferrous iron + Water Ferrous hydroxide + Hydrogen ions
Fe2+ + 2H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2H+
The rust builds up a coating over the anode's surface. Ferrous hydroxide may then react
with more water to produce another form of rust called ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3).
These layers of rust are what creates the tubercles we mentioned earlier.
Tubercles can become problematic because they decrease the carrying capacity of the
pipe and can be dislodged during high water flows, resulting in red water complaints.
But in the corrosion process, the tubercle actually slows the rate of corrosion by cutting
the anode off from the electrolyte. When the tubercle becomes dislodged and the anode
comes in contact with water again, the corrosion rate increases.
Cathode Reactions
The electrons from the breakdown of elemental iron flow through the pipe wall to the
cathode. There, they leave the metal and enter the water by reacting with hydrogen ions
and forming hydrogen gas:
Hydrogen ions + Electrons Hydrogen gas
2H+ + 2e- H2
Hydrogen gas will coat the cathode and separate it from the water in a process
called polarization. Just as the buildup of a tubercle breaks the connection between the
anode and the electrolyte and slows the corrosion process, polarization breaks the
connection between the cathode and the electrolyte and slows corrosion.
Dissolved oxygen in the water is able to react with the hydrogen gas surrounding the
cathode:
Hydrogen gas + Oxygen Water
2H2 + O2 2H2O
This reaction is called depolarization. Depolarization removes the hydrogen gas

surrounding the cathode and speeds up the corrosion process. So, you can see why water
high in dissolved oxygen is more corrosive.
The Electrochemical Reaction
By combining the electrical and chemical reactions discussed above, we can see what is
really happening during corrosion of a pipe.
Types of Corrosion
Internal vs. External Corrosion
Corrosion can occur on the outside of a pipe (due to corrosive soil) or on the inside of a
pipe (due to corrosive water.) We will be most concerned with internal corrosion,
although external corrosion is a similar process and can also cause problems in the
distribution system.
Either outside or inside a pipe, corrosion can have one of several causes. Each cause
somehow sets up an anode and a cathode so that corrosion can occur. The creation of the
corrosion cell can be through electrolysis, oxygen concentration cells, or through
galvanic action.
Electrolysis
In electrolysis, a D.C. electric current enters a metal pipe and causes flow of electrons
through the pipe and to the ground. The pipe, fueled by the electric current, becomes the
anode while the soil becomes the cathode. The outside of the pipe corrodes, with the
metal from the pipe plating out in the surrounding soil.
Electrolysis can occur when D.C. electric currents are grounded onto pipes. Nearby
electric transit systems can also cause electrolysis.
Oxygen Concentration Cell
More commonly, the water and its constituents may set up a corrosion cell within the
pipe. These corrosion cells, known as oxygen concentration cells, result from varying
oxygen concentration in the water. The portion of the pipe touching water with a low
oxygen concentration becomes the anode while the part of the pipe in contact with a high
oxygen concentration becomes the cathode.
Oxygen concentration cells are probably the primary cause of corrosion in the
distribution system. They may occur at dead ends in the distribution system where water
is stagnant and loses its dissolved oxygen. Alternatively, oxygen concentration cells may
begin in annular spaces, which are ring-shaped spaces between two pipes or between a
pipe and a pipe lining. In every case, oxygen becomes depleted in these regions since
they are cut off from the normal flow of water, so a difference in oxygen concentration is
set up between the dead end or annular space and the main flow of water.
Oxygen concentration cells can also be caused by bits of dirt or bacteria. Both of these
can become attached to the pipe walls, shielding the metal from dissolved oxygen in the
water and setting up an anode.
Galvanic Corrosion
Metals themselves can also set up corrosion cells. When a pipe consists of only one type
of metal, impurities in the pipe wall can develop into anodes and cathodes. Alternatively,
when two dissimilar metals come into contact, galvanic corrosion will occur. Galvanic
corrosion is often set up in the distribution system in meter installations and at service
connections and couplings.
The galvanic series, shown below, arranges metals according to their tendency to
corrode. This series can be used to determine whether galvanic corrosion is likely to
occur and how strong the corrosion reaction will be.
As you can see on the series, some metals (such as gold and silver) are very inactive and
unlikely to corrode. Many of these metals have been traditionally used as jewelry
because of their low tendency to corrode even when in the presence of salts (in sweat)
and oils found on the human body. Although these inactive metals would make non-
corrosive pipes, they are usually too expensive to use in the distribution system.
At the other end of the galvanic series are metals which are very active and have a high
tendency to corrode. These metals can be used as sacrificial anodes, which we will
discuss later. They should not be used for distribution system pipes.
Most of the metals used in piping - iron, steel, and copper - are found in the middle of the
galvanic series. These metals have some tendency to corrode, with those higher on the
galvanic series (such as iron and steel) tending more toward corrosion.
The distance on the galvanic series between two metals will also influence the likelihood
of galvanic corrosion when the two metals are placed in conjunction with each other. For
example, if aluminum is brought in contact with a steel pipe, the likelihood of corrosion
is low since aluminum and steel are close together on the galvanic series. However, if a
stainless steel fitting is used on an iron pipe, the likelihood of corrosion is much higher.
When galvanic corrosion occurs, the more active metals always become the anodes. This
means that they are corroded, and in extreme cases can begin to leak. The less active
metal becomes the cathode and is not damaged.
Characteristics Influencing Corrosion
Introduction
Corrosion in the distribution system is a very complex situation which is influenced by

many water characteristics, by the metals used, and by any stray electrical current. We
will briefly describe the influence of each characteristic in the following sections. You
may want to refer back to the explanation of the chemistry behind corrosion in order to
understand some of these factors better.
Primary Water Characteristics
The chemical characteristics of the water flowing through a pipe will influence whether
the water is stable and will also affect the extent of any corrosive reaction. Primary
factors include alkalinity, hardness, and pH, but oxidizing agents, carbon dioxide, and
dissolved solids can also influence corrosion and will be discussed in the next section.
Alkalinity, hardness, and pH interact to determine whether the water will produce scale or
corrosion or will be stable. The table below summarizes characteristics of corrosive
water and of scale-forming water.
Corrosive Water Scale-forming Water

low pH high pH
soft or with primarily hard with primarily
noncarbonate hardness carbonate hardness
low alkalinity high alkalinity
In general, corrosion is the result of water with a low pH. Acidic waters have lots of
H+ ions in the water to react with the electrons at the cathode, so corrosion is enhanced.
In contrast, water with a higher pH (basic water) lowers the solubility of calcium
carbonate so that the calcium carbonate is more likely to precipitate out as scale.
Scaling, as mentioned in the last lesson, tends to be the result of water with a high
hardness. Hard water typically contains a lot of calcium compounds which can
precipitate out as calcium carbonate. However, if the hardness in the water is primarily
noncarbonate, the chlorate and sulfate ions will tend to keep the calcium in solution and
will prevent scale formation.
Alkalinity is a measure of how easily the pH of the water can be changed, so it can be
considered to be a mitigating influence with regards to pH. Water with a high alkalinity
is more likely to be scale-forming even at a relatively low pH. In contrast, low alkalinity
waters lack the buffering capacity to deal with acids, so they can easily become acidic
and corrosive.
The graph above is known as the Baylis Curve. It shows the relationship between pH,
alkalinity, and water stability. Water above the lines is scale-forming while water below
the lines is corrosive. Stable water is found in the white area between the lines.
Secondary Water Characteristics
Other chemicals and compounds found in water also influence the corrosion process.
The most common of these are oxygen, carbon dioxide, and dissolved solids.
Oxygen, as you will remember, reacts with hydrogen gas at the cathode, causing
depolarization and speeding up the corrosion. As a result, water with a high D.O.
(dissolved oxygen) will tend to be corrosive. Other oxidizing agents can perform the
same function, although they are less common. Nitrates and chlorine are two other
oxidizing agents found in water.
Carbon dioxide in water also tends to cause corrosion. The carbon dioxide gas can
combine with water to form carbonic acid, which lowers the pH of the water. As
mentioned in the last section, a low pH promotes corrosion.
Dissolved solids are typically present in water as ions. These ions increase the electrical
conductivity of the water, making the electrolyte more effective. Thus, they will increase
the rate of corrosion.
Physical Water Characteristics
In addition to the chemical properties of water, physical characteristics will influence

corrosion. The most important of these physical characteristics are temperature and
velocity of flow.
Temperature speeds up the rate of corrosion just as it does most other reactions.
However, the effect of temperature on corrosion can be more complex. A high water
temperature reduces the solubility of calcium carbonate in water, which promotes scale
formation and slows corrosion. Temperature also alters the form of corrosion. Pits and
tubercles tend to form in cold water while hot water promotes uniform corrosion.
Uniform corrosion spreading across the entire surface of a pipe is far less problematic
than tuberculation, so high temperatures can actually seem to slow the corrosive process.
The influence of flow velocity on corrosion is also rather complex. Moderate flow rates
are the most beneficial since they promote the formation of scale without breaking loose
tubercles. At low flow velocities, corrosion is increased and tends to be in the form of
tuberculation due to the prevalence of oxygen concentration cell corrosion. At very high
flow velocities, abrasion of the water against the pipe tends to wear the pipe away in a
very different form of corrosion. High flow velocities also remove protective scale and
tubercles and increase the contact of the pipe with oxygen, all of which will increase the
rate of corrosion.
Bacteria
Bacteria can both cause and accelerate the rate of corrosion. In general, bacterial
colonies on pipe walls accelerate corrosion below them due to oxygen cell concentration,
causing increased pitting and tuberculation. Like humans, some bacteria produce carbon
dioxide, which can combine with water to become carbonic acid and accelerate
corrosion. The bacterial colonies also block the deposition of calcium carbonate scale on
the pipe walls.
A colony of iron bacteria.
There are two main types of corrosion-related bacteria, each of which causes its own set
of additional corrosion problems. Iron bacteria use the ferrous iron created at the anode,
converting it into rust which they deposit in the slime around their cells. Since they use
up the ferrous iron, this increases the rate of corrosion. Their slime can also come loose
during high flow velocities, causing red water complaints and a bad smell.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria use up sulfate in the water to produce hydrogen sulfide.

Hydrogen sulfide is an acid which can react with metals, causing corrosion. In addition,
the sulfides produce a distinctive rotten egg smell.
Other Factors
Factors other than water characteristics and bacteria can also influence corrosion.
Characteristics of the metal pipe and electrical currents are common causes of corrosion.
We have already discussed many corrosion-related characteristics of metal in the section

on galvanic corrosion. To summarize, metals higher on the galvanic series tend to be
more corrosive while metals further apart on the series are more likely to cause galvanic
corrosion. In galvanic corrosion, the size of the cathode in relation to the anode has a
large influence on corrosion as well. Larger cathodes tend to promote corrosion by
speeding the electrical current's flow. When a system has very small anodes and large
cathodes, corrosion is so rapid at the anodes that pinholes tend to form all the way
through the metal.
Stray electrical current can cause electrolytic corrosion. Electrolysis usually causes
problems on the outsides of pipes.
Testing
Corrosion Indicators
Every treatment plant should have a corrosion control plan for its distribution system.
This system may be as simple as long-term monitoring of the water to determine if water
is corrosive, or it can include a complex array of chemicals or equipment. Here, we will
consider methods used to monitor the stability of water.
The most common indicators of corrosion in the distribution system are red water
complaints and leaks. If the incidence of these problems increases in a certain area of the
distribution system, then some sort of corrosion control may need to be undertaken. Red
water is usually caused by tuberculation and iron bacteria while leaks are caused by the
pitting below tubercles. However, the operator should be aware of other possible causes
of these problems. High iron concentrations in the source water can cause red water
problems while leaks can be caused by corrosive soil acting on the outside of the pipes as
well as by corrosive water acting on the inside of the pipes.
During routine maintenance of the distribution system, the operator should watch out for
signs of corrosion and scale. When pipes are removed and replaced, the old pipes should
be visually examined for signs of tubercles, pitting, or uniform corrosion, and for
excessive scaling.
Long-Term Testing
More active forms of corrosion monitoring include coupons and tests for flow, dissolved
oxygen, and heavy metals. These tests will determine whether the treated water is
corrosive over a span of a few months (in the case of coupons), weeks (for flow tests), or
immediately.
Coupons, like the one shown above, are small pieces of the same type of metal used in
the distribution system piping. These coupons are inserted into pipes at various locations
in the distribution system and are left in place for about three months to give adequate
time for corrosion to occur. By weighing the coupon before and after the test period, the
amount of metal lost from the coupon due to corrosion can be determined. This is a
simple method of corrosion monitoring which is widely used in many distribution
systems.
Flow monitoring can also be used to detect corrosion. A new piece of pipe is placed in
service and the flow of water through the pipe is measured over time. If the flow
becomes lower after a few weeks, then either tubercles or scale have formed on the inside
of the pipe, decreasing the area available to carry water.
Short-Term Testing
Dissolved oxygen and toxic heavy metals in the distribution system can be used as
indicators of corrosion over a much shorter time frame. There are also a range of tests
done at the water treatment plant to determine whether water is stable.
Dissolved oxygen is tested at various points in the distribution system at the same time.
If the dissolved oxygen concentration becomes lower further from the treatment plant,
then the oxygen is probably being used up by corrosion. However, the operator should be
aware of the possibility that D.O. is being used to oxidize organic matter.
Toxic heavy metals, such as copper and lead, are tested at the consumer's tap. High
concentrations of these metals in the water indicate corrosion in the distribution system,
although in a few cases the metals may have originated in the source water.
Finally, water can be tested directly to determine whether it is stable. Both the Langelier
Index and theMarble Test are laboratory tests which can determine the degree of
calcium carbonate saturation in the water at the treatment plant. Water which is just
saturated with calcium carbonate or which is slightly supersaturated with calcium
carbonate is considered stable and safe to release into the distribution system.
Treatment
Chemical Treatment
Treatment of corrosive water can be either chemical or physical. In this section, we will
discuss chemical methods of corrosion control. These chemical are either meant to
stabilize the water, to form a protective film on the pipe surface, or to kill problematic
bacteria.
Stabilizing the water is often the simplest form of corrosion control. When stabilizing
corrosive water, the operator usually adds alkalinity in the form of lime, soda ash, or
caustic soda. The goal is to saturate or slightly supersaturate the water with calcium
carbonate so that it is stable or slightly scale-forming. When these chemicals are used to
stabilize water, they should be fed after filtration to prevent cementing of the filter sand
and may be fed before, during, or after chlorination.
Corrosion inhibitors are used to form thin protective films on pipe walls, which will
prevent corrosion. The chemicals used for this purpose are more expensive than lime, but
also prevent scale which can be a problem when feeding stabilizing chemicals into the
water. Sodium silicate is sometimes used by individual customers as an inhibitor but is
not widely used by utilities. Glassy phosphates such as sodium hexametaphosphate or
tetrasodium pyrophosphate are more widely used, but can increase corrosion rates. Both
types of inhibitors require continual application into the water, so dead ends in the
distribution system must be flushed at intervals to ensure that fresh water containing the
inhibitors reaches these areas as well. A large amount of the inhibitor chemicals ends up
forming the film on the pipe walls, but some ends up in the drinking water, though this is
not a problem since all inhibitor chemicals are considered safe.
If bacteria are a major component of the corrosion problem, then proper disinfection may
be part or all of the answer. Maintaining an adequate chlorine residual in the distribution
system will kill the bacteria and prevent corrosion.
Physical Protection
Physical protection against corrosion may be very simple or very complex. On the
simple end of the spectrum, corrosion can be prevented by breaking the corrosion cell
circuit in some manner. Metal pipes can be replaced with nonmetals which are non-
conductive and will not corrode. Alternatively, pipes may be lined with portland cement
or bituminous or asphaltic compounds to prevent the water from reaching the metal,
serving the same purpose.
If galvanic corrosion is a problem, then the two metals can be separated by dielectric
couplings. Dielectric couplings are plastic, ceramic, or other non-conductive sections
used between the two different types of metal. Since electrons cannot flow through the
dielectric coupling, it breaks the circuit and prevents corrosion.
Cathodic protection using a sacrificial anode.
At the more expensive and complicated end of the protection spectrum is cathodic
protection, which is the introduction of a different electrical circuit into the pipe. Some
cathodic protection systems operate as shown in the picture above, by introducing a
sacrificial anode into the pipe. A sacrificial anode is a piece of very active metal
(usually zinc or magnesium) which is more galvanically active than any other metal in
the system. The sacrificial anode will be the only metal corroded, and even previously
active anodes on the pipe wall will become cathodes and will thus be protected. Since
the sacrificial anodes slowly corrode away, they must be replaced at intervals, which is
the only form of maintenance required on the protection system.
Alternatively, some cathodic protection systems involve the introduction of an external

direct current source, known as a rectifier. The rectifier creates a very strong anode
since it is constantly producing electrons (an electric current.) This turns the rest of the
pipe into a cathode, which prevents any corrosion in the pipe. To complete the circuit,
the pipe must be connected back to the rectifier.
Direct current cathodic protection systems have been developed which are fully
automatic and will compensate for any changes without operator control. However, they
also tend to be very expensive to install.
Review
Stable water is neither scale-forming nor corrosive, both of which characteristics create
problems in the distribution system. Scale forms when calcium carbonate precipitates out
of hard water. Corrosion occurs when an anode, cathode, conductive connection, and
electrolyte create a corrosive cell. In the corrosive cell, the metal of the pipe is oxidized
in a series of reactions, producing rust
Corrosion inside a pipe can be caused by electrolysis, oxygen concentration cells, or

galvanic corrosion. Many factors can influence the corrosion, including pH, hardness,
alkalinity, oxidizing agents, carbon dioxide, dissolved solids, temperature, velocity of
flow, bacteria, metal characteristics, and stray electric currents.
Corrosion testing includes monitoring red water complaints and leaks; inspecting old
pipes; using coupons; testing flow, dissolved oxygen, and heavy metals; and using the
Langelier Index and Marble Test. Chemical treatment involves addition of chemicals to
stabilize the water, use of inhibitors to form a protective film on pipes, or addition of
disinfectants. Physical protection either breaks the corrosive cell or consists of cathodic
protection.
References

Manual.
Sacramento.
Certification Study Guide. NMED Surface Water Quality Bureau: Santa Fe.
Assignments
Complete Assignment 8 on Corrosion Control. You may do the Assignment online to get
Quiz
Objective

How does taste and odor control fit into the water treatment process?
How does trihalomethane control fit into the water treatment process?
What methods can be used to control taste, odor, and trihalomethanes?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 9: Taste and Odor Control, in your
Lecture
Taste and Odor Control Programs
Introduction
Taste and odor in drinking water are two of the most widespread causes of customer
complaints. Although there are no associated health effects, the extensive public relations
difficulties resulting from taste and odor make it important to treat these problems.
Treatment involves the implementation of a taste and odor control program, which should
be found at every treatment plant. Under some circumstances, this program may be as
simple as routinely monitoring for taste and odor problems and performing preventive
maintenance on the system. In other cases, treatment is more complex and can involve
special equipment to treat the taste and odor problems.
We will first consider prevention and testing, which are at the core of the taste and odor
control program. Later in this lesson, we will introduce various techniques which can be
used for active treatment of taste and odor problems. In any case, an understanding of the
causes of taste and odors in water will make treatment more effective.
Causes of Taste and Odor
Taste and odor can enter water in a variety of manners. Surface water sources can
become contaminated through algal blooms or through industrial wastes or domestic
sewage introducing taste- and odor-causing chemicals into the water. Groundwater
supplies can be afflicted with dissolved minerals, such as iron and manganese, which
enter the water when it passes through rocks underground. Tastes and odors can also
enter either type of water in the raw water transmission system and in the treatment plant
due to algal growths, accumulated debris and sludge, or disinfection byproducts. The
distribution system can have many of the same causes of taste and odor mentioned above,
with the addition of problems resulting from cross-connections and low flow zones.
The table below lists some of the chemicals which cause the most common taste and odor
problems in water.
Chemical cause Taste/odor Origin

Geosmin earthy or grassy odors Produced by actinomycetes, blue-green
algae, and green algae.
2-Methylisoborneol musty odor Produced by actinomycetes and blue-green
(MIB) algae.
2t, 4c, 7c-decatrienal fishy odor Produced by blue-green algae.
Chlorine bleach, chlorinous, or Addition of chlorine as a disinfectant.
medicinal taste and
odor
Chloramines swimming pool, bleach, Addition of chlorine and ammonia as a
or geranium odor disinfectant.
Aldehydes fruity odor Ozonation of water for disinfection.
Phenols and pharmaceutical or Phenols usually originate in industrial
Chlorophenols medicinal taste waste. Chlorophenols are formed when
phenols react with disinfecting chlorine.
Iron rusty or metallic taste Minerals in the ground.
Manganese rusty or metallic taste Minerals in the ground.
Hydrogen sulfide rotten egg odor Produced by anaerobic microorganisms in
surface water or by sulfates in the ground.
Methane gas garlic taste Decomposition of organic matter.
Prevention
Algal bloom
The best way to treat taste and odor problems is prevention. Algal blooms in reservoirs
can be prevented by using copper sulfate while algae growing on walls of the treatment
plant basins can be removed through shock treatment with chlorine. Since hydrogen
sulfide is produced during anaerobic conditions, preventing these conditions in the
reservoir, the distribution system, and in sludge in the sedimentation basin will prevent
hydrogen sulfide formation. In the distribution system, periodic flushing and maintaining
an adequate chlorine residual will keep the pipes clean and odor free.
Testing
An integral part of any taste and odor control program is testing the water for taste and
odor problems. The two methods used for these tests - the Threshold Odor Test and the
Flavor Profile Analysis - are far more subjective than the methods used to test other water
characteristics since both the Threshold Odor Test and the Flavor Profile Analysis depend
on human perception of the taste and odor in the water. However, despite the difficulty of
performing the tests objectively, they still provide valuable information which can help
the operator determine what is causing the taste or odor problem, how concentrated the
problematic chemical is, and how the problem should be treated.
The Threshold Odor Test is used to determine the amount of odor found in water.
During the procedure, the water being tested is diluted with odor-free water and is
smelled. The dilutions continue until no odor can be discerned. The last dilution at
which odor is detected determines the Threshold Odor Number (TON), which is a
measure of the amount of odor in the water. If several people independently perform the
Threshold Odor Test, the averaged TON can be relatively accurate.
Flavor Profile Analysis
While the Threshold Odor Test is used to determine the concentration of odor-causing
problems in water, the Flavor Profile Analysis can be used to determine which tastes and
odors are present in water. This test uses a panel of trained judges who taste the water
and list which tastes they can detect. Since the tastes present are described carefully, the
Flavor Profile Analysis can be helpful in determining which chemicals are at the root of
the problem.
These tests can be performed to find the source of a particular problem or as part of
routine monitoring. To find the source of a problem, the water should be tested at various
locations, from the source water to the customer's tap. In contrast, routine monitoring can
be less intensive but requires good record-keeping. Past records can help the operator
predict seasonal variations in taste and odor problems so that he can prevent problems
before they reach the customer. Records of past treatment methods can make it much
easier to determine which treatment methods will be effective during current outbreaks.
Trihalomethanes
While not a taste and odor problem, we will discuss trihalomethanes in this lesson
because they can sometimes be treated with the same methods used for taste and odor
control. As you will remember, trihalomethanes are by-products of chlorination and
include several chemicals such as chloroform, bromodichloromethane,
dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. Since these substances are suspected to cause
cancer in humans, their concentrations in drinking water are carefully controlled.
Trihalomethanes are formed when organic compounds in the water come in contact with
chlorine. The organic matter is primarily humic substances, the organic part of the soil
which results from the decay of plant matter. Humic substances are more likely to be
found in surface water than in groundwater since they can enter water from algae, leaves,
bark, wood, or soil.
Treatment methods include prevention of trihalomethane formation, removal of

trihalomethanes from treated water, or removal of trihalomethane precursors (humic
substances) before chlorine is added to the water. The first treatment method - prevention
- involves using a disinfectant other than chlorine to treat water. If the equipment for
other types of treatment are not already available at the treatment plant, then using an
alternative disinfectant is usually the most economical option for trihalomethane control.
The methods used to remove trihalomethanes or trihalomethane precursors will be

discussed in the rest of this lesson since the same methods can be used for taste and odor
control. If treatment involves removing only trihalomethanes themselves, it should be
realized that more trihalomethanes can form when the chlorine residual reacts with
organics in the distribution system. Therefore, it is most effective to remove the
precursors before the trihalomethanes have a chance to form.
Active Treatment Methods
Introduction
The choice of an active treatment method for taste and odor problems depends on the
cause of the problem. In addition, some methods can be used to solve other problems,
such as trihalomethane formation, which should be factored into the choice of a treatment
method. Active treatment may involve optimizing plant processes, using ion exchange
units, air stripping, performing chemical or mechanical oxidation, or performing
adsorption.
Optimizing Plant Processes
Chlorine smells are one of the most common problems reported by water customers and
are also one of the simplest odor problems to treat. Chlorine smells can be dealt with by
simply optimizing the chlorine dosage.
If the tastes and odors are associated with color and turbidity or with floating algae, then
optimizing the coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration processes may take
care of the problem. This is often the simplest and most economical treatment method
for taste and odor problems since the equipment is already in place. In addition, these
typical plant processes can remove trihalomethane precursors in many cases if
prechlorination is not used at the treatment plant.
Ion Exchange
Ion exchange units are not usually used for taste and odor removal but can be used to
remove trihalomethane precursors if anion exchange resins are used. However, this
process can be expensive and creates the problem of waste disposal.
Air Stripping
Volatile compounds can sometimes be removed from water using aerators which strip the
compounds from the water. This technique is usually more helpful at controlling odors
than tastes, and is very effective at removing hydrogen sulfide. Trihalomethanes can be
removed from water using aeration if the aeration follows chlorination. However, in that
type of setup, the operator must be aware that passing air through treated water can add
contamination back into the water.
Oxidation
Oxidation is another frequently used method to remove tastes, odors, and trihalomethane
precursors. Oxidation can be either mechanical (using an aerator) or chemical (by adding
chlorine, potassium permanganate, ozone, or chlorine dioxide.) Use of aerators is usually
only effective at removing tastes associated with iron and manganese. In other cases,
chemicals must be used.
Chlorine is the most widespread chemical used for oxidation of tastes and odors since
chlorine is already in use in many treatment plants as a disinfectant. When using chlorine
to oxidize taste and odor problems, the dosage of chlorine must be greater than that used
for disinfection, a method calledsuperchlorination. After superchlorination has removed
the taste and odor problems, the excess chlorine must be removed from the water, which
can be achieved using granular activated carbon (which will be discussed later.)
Chlorination can deal with fishy, grassy, or flowery odors and with iron and hydrogen
sulfide. However, chlorination can make some problems worse, especially those caused
by phenols. And, of course, chlorination will increase the trihalomethane concentration.
Other chemicals used for oxidation include potassium permanganate, chlorine dioxide,
and ozone. Potassium permanganate is used to treat organic contaminants while chlorine
dioxide does well against phenolic and algal tastes. Ozone is a very strong oxidant which
will treat more problems than chlorine and lacks the objectionable by-products. All of
these methods can also be used to remove or modify trihalomethane precursors, but with
variable efficiency.
Adsorption
The final treatment method we will discuss is adsorption. As you will remember from the
filtration lesson, adsorption occurs when Van der Waal's forces pull contaminants out of
the water to stick them onto the surface of some other material. This material, known as
the adsorbent, has a very large surface area to allow the removal of large amounts of
contaminants. Adsorbents use large pores, such as the one shown below, to increase their
surface area.
Several different materials can be used as adsorbents in water treatment. The most
widespread of these materials is activated carbon which is formed when carbon from
wood, coal, peat, or nut shells is exposed to heat in the absence of oxygen. Activated
carbon has been used medicinally since 1500 BC in Egypt and is now used in over a
quarter of water treatment plants across the U.S. The popularity of activated carbon
stems from its lack of specificity which allows it to treat many different taste and odor
problems. We will discuss activated carbon in more depth in a later section.
The other two types of adsorbents are activated alumina and synthetic resins, both of
which are typically used as filter media. Activated alumina is used to remove excess
fluoride from water as well as to remove arsenic and selenium. Synthetic resins are more
relevant to this lesson since they can remove trihalomethanes from water. However,
synthetic resins are very costly and their use is still in the developmental stages.
Types of Activated Carbon
Powdered Activated Carbon
Powdered activated carbon, or PAC, is a form of activated carbon with a very small
particle size. Treatment involves adding PAC to water, allowing the PAC to interact with
contaminants in the water, then removing the PAC by sedimentation or filtration.
The feed location of PAC can be at any point prior to filtration. The most common
locations are in the flash mixer or flocculator since these pieces of equipment will mix
the PAC into the water very well. However, some plants feed PAC just before filtration
so that the PAC will form a layer on top of the filter and ensure that all water comes in
contact with the activated carbon. Adding PAC just before filtration can cause problems,
though, since the small PAC particles can pass through the filters and cause dirty water
complaints from customers or can cake filters and result in reduced filter runs.
Regardless of the feed location, PAC can be added to water using either a dry feeder or as
a slurry. Dry feeders are most often used in small plants when PAC is fed at intervals in
response to periodic taste and odor problems. In contrast, slurries (mixtures of PAC with
water) are used in larger plants or when PAC is fed continuously. Since it is difficult to
make the PAC mix with water, the mixer should have an overhead spray system.
The effectiveness of PAC in adsorbing tastes and odors depends on adequate mixing,
contact time, dosage, and on the cause and concentration of the taste/odor problem.
Mixing and contact time are determined by the location at which the PAC is added in the
treatment process, so adjustments made by the operator will usually involve only dosage
adjustments. The dosage usually ranges from 1 to 15 mg/L but must be much higher, in
the range of 100 mg/L or more, when the PAC is being used to remove trihalomethanes
or trihalomethane precursors. The operator chooses an appropriate dosage using jar tests
and the results from odor and taste tests.
If PAC is fed as a slurry, then the actual concentration of PAC in each slurry tank will be
different and an accurate dosage can be difficult to determine. In that case, an imhoff
cone, such as the one shown above, can be used to determine the concentration of PAC in
the slurry. Slurry is placed in the cone and is allowed to sit while PAC settles to the
bottom of the cone. The amount of PAC can be measured using the gradations on the
side of the imhoff cone.
Granular Activated Carbon
Granular activated carbon, also known as GAC, has a larger particle size than PAC
with an associated greater surface area. Like PAC, GAC can remove trihalomethane
precursors as well as taste and odor compounds.
GAC Contactor
GAC is used as a filter medium, either as a layer in a rapid-sand filter or in a separate

filter known as acontactor. When contactors are used, the contactor is placed
downstream of the filter so that turbidity won't clog the contactor.
Like filters, contactors must be designed to provide adequate contact time of water with
the filter medium. This is done by calculating the empty bed contact time, or EBCT,
which is calculated similarly to detention time, as the volume of the filter divided by the
flow rate. The calculation is called "empty bed contact time" because the volume taken
up by the GAC in the contactor is not taken into account. Empty bed contact time should
be about ten minutes.
During operation of a GAC filter or contactor, a variety of factors must be monitored. If

the GAC is part of a filter designed to remove particulate matter as well as to adsorb
tastes and odors, then the effluent turbidity should be monitored. Similarly, the taste and
odor contaminants in the effluent should be monitored to determine whether the GAC is
operating properly. The operator should make regular checks for bacteria since
microorganisms often grow on GAC filters and result in clogging problems. Finally,
head loss must be monitored as it would be for any other filter to determine when the unit
needs to be backwashed. Washing a GAC filter involves backwashing with a 50% bed
expansion and surface washing.
Although GAC filters can be operated like a rapid sand filter in most ways, backwashing
and surface washing are not the only cleaning required for the units. The entire surface of
the GAC will eventually become covered with contaminants, just as a softener's resin will
become covered with magnesium and calcium ions. A GAC filter can typically operate
for months or years before reaching this state, depending on the contaminant levels in the
influent water. Once the GAC has reached its adsorption capacity, it must be regenerated
using the same heating process used to activate the carbon. In many plants, GAC is
simply replaced rather than investing in the equipment required for regeneration.
Choosing a Type of Activated Carbon
GAC and PAC each have advantages and disadvantages. In general, PAC is used more
often due to the low initial cost and to the flexibility of dosage which allows the PAC
concentration to be adjusted to deal with changing contaminant levels. However, PAC
has a high operating cost if used continuously, cannot be regenerated, produces large
quantities of sludge, and can break through filters to cause dirty water complaints by the
customers. In addition, the dust resulting from the small particles of PAC make handling
difficult, as does the flammability of the particles.
GAC becomes a more economical choice in larger systems or where taste and odor must
be controlled continuously. Disadvantages of GAC include a high initial cost to buy the
filter or contactor, and the tendency of GAC filters to grow bacteria.
Review
Tastes and odors can be caused by algae or bacteria, industrial waste, dissolved minerals,
or disinfection reactions. Control programs are necessary at every treatment plant and
may include prevention, monitoring, and active treatment. Many of the active treatment
methods can also be used to treat trihalomethanes. Active treatment methods for
trihalomethane, taste, and odor control include optimizing existing plant processes, ion
exchange, air stripping, oxidation, and adsorption. Activated carbon is a commonly used
adsorption method. Two types of activated carbon used in water treatment are PAC and
GAC.
References

Manual.
Hou, J., and B. Clancy. 1997. Taste and Odor Problems in Water Treatment. Virginia
Tech: Blacksburg.
Sacramento.
Letterman, R.D., ed. 1999. Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community
Water Supplies. McGraw-Hill, Inc.: New York.
Assignments
Complete Assignment 9 on Taste and Odor Control. You may do the Assignment online
to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
Quiz
Lesson 10:
Water Tank Design and Maintenance
Objective

What are the advantages and disadvantages of different types of storage tanks?
How are storage tanks designed?
How is corrosion controlled in storage tanks?
What does the process of tank maintenance involve?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, look over Chapter 10: Plant Operationl, in your
Lecture
Types of Water Tanks
Introduction
As explained in Lesson 8, storage tanks are an important part of any distribution system.
Water can be pumped into the tank during periods of low demand and then pumped out of
the tank into the distribution system during periods of peak demand. In addition, storage
tanks can provide the water pressure in the distribution system.
The two types of storage tanks are ground level tanks and elevated tanks. Elevated
storage facilities are also divided into two types - standpipes and tanks. In this section,
we will consider the pros and cons of various types of water tanks.
Ground Tanks
In the last lesson, we considered the merits of elevated storage tanks. However, in many
cases, water is stored in reservoirs located at ground level due to a lower initial cost of
construction, a lower maintenance cost, the ease with which water quality can be tested,
greater safety, and a greater aesthetic value.
The primary disadvantage of a ground tank is a lack of water pressure. The water in
ground tanks is not put under a significant amount of pressure unless the tank is located at
a high elevation, such as on top of a hill. Any pressure in a ground tank must be
maintained through directly pumping the water. The continuous pumping can be costly
and also means that water pressure in the distribution system will drop if the pumps have
to be shut down.
Elevated Tanks
As mentioned in Lesson 8, elevated tanks have many advantages. Elevated tanks do not
require the continuous operation of pumps. Short term pump shutdown does not affect
water pressure in the distribution system since the pressure is maintained by gravity. And
strategic location of the tank can equalize water pressures in the distribution system.
However, precise water pressure can be difficult to manage in some elevated tanks.
The pressure of the water flowing out of an elevated tank depends on the depth of the
water in the tank. A nearly empty tank probably will not provide enough pressure while a
completely full tank may provide too much pressure. The optimal pressure is achieved at
only one depth.
The optimal depth of water for the purpose of producing pressure is even more specific
for standpipes than for tanks elevated on legs. The length of the standpipe causes
continual and highly unequal pressures on the distribution system. In addition, a
significant quantity of the water in a standpipe is required to produce the necessary water
pressure. The water below a certain level is therefore used only as a support, unless
booster pumps are available for emergency use of this water.
Tank Design
Many factors must be considered when designing a water tank. The structural stability of
the tank, the type and design of other equipment for operation, and the location of the
tank must be considered in all cases. When designing an elevated tank, the required
elevation and the size and shape of structural members (legs, etc.) must also be taken into
account.
Capacity, or the volume of water which a tank can hold, is one of the most important
design factors. The capacity can be determined through an analysis known as a "mass
diagram" or through a graphical solution based on a study of hourly pumping. The
graphical solution takes into account the peak water demand for one hour each day.
Based on this peak hourly demand, a rate of demand can be calculated. The required
capacity of the water tank will, in turn, depend on the calculated rate of demand and on
an estimate of the future population of the area.
Corrosion Control
Corrosion
Corrosion is another word for rust, the breakdown of metal. In a water tank, corrosion is
due to an electrochemical reaction. An electrical current flows through the water from
one point on the water tank's inner surface to another. The flow of the current results in
corrosion of the tank's surface as some of the metal dissolves into the water. An ampere
of current flow in a water tank over a year's time can result in 20 to 24 pounds of steel
being taken into solution.
A corroding water tank works in the same way as a battery. A battery has an anode and a
cathode. The anode is an area which gives off electrons (negatively charged particles
which make up a current.) The electrons flow from the negatively charged anode (-) to
the positively charged cathode (+). In order to flow from the anode to the cathode,
electrons must pass through what is called a closure circuit or an electrolyte, a substance
which forms a bridge between the anode and cathode.
In a water tank, the steel wall of the tank is the anode. It gives off electrons which flow
into the water. The water is the cathode and the surface of the tank is the closure circuit
which connects the anode and cathode. As the electrons flow out of the steel wall of the
tank, the tank corrodes. Over time, this corrosion can discolor the water and can result in
leaks in the tank wall.
Corrosion of a tank is prevented in two ways. The inner wall of the tank can be coated
with paint, which forms a physical barrier between cathode and anode and prevents the
electrons from moving out of the steel wall. Corrosion can also be prevented by cathodic
protection which introduces electrical currents from external sources to counteract the
normal corrosion reactions. Both methods of corrosion control will be explained below.
Coatings
The most common method of corrosion control is coating the tank wall with paint. The
coating of paint forms a physical barrier between the tank wall and the water. As a result,
electrons cannot flow from the tank wall into the water and the tank wall does not
corrode.
Coatings will perform well in the majority of atmospheres. However, the coating should
match the design of the facility in type and application and should be properly inspected.
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) has standard specifications for
maintenance and painting of storage facilities, including a list of coatings for interior and
exterior surfaces.
The coating must be repaired at regular intervals as part of the regular maintenance of the
tank. Coatings fail when the protective barrier is broken or when the dielectric strength is
not sufficient to withstand the electrical-driving force of the corrosion cell.
Breaks may be caused by a variety of circumstances. The paint may be too thin or may
have degraded through proximity to the environment. The coating may be porous and
may not form a complete barrier. Or the paint may have been applied incompletely or
improperly. If the surface was not properly cleaned before applying the paint, then
breaks will occur since the paint will not adhere well to contaminated surfaces or to
blisters. The procedure used to repair breaks in the coating will br discussed later in the
section on maintenance.
Cathodic Protection
The other type of protection from corrosion, cathodic protection, has been in use since the
mid-1930s. Cathodic protection systems now protect hundreds of thousands of miles of
pipe and acres of steel buried in the ground or immersed in water.
Since the first cathodic protection system was invented, fully automatic and error-free
cathodic protection systems have been developed. These systems both control corrosion
and increase the life of the coating systems. The modern, automatic systems do not
require the operator to adjust the system for changing conditions, such as varying water
levels, temperature, and coating effectiveness. Instead, the automatic system will
automatically compensate for these changes.
A cathodic protection system consists of a power unit, an anode, and wiring between the
power unit and anode and between the tank wall and the power unit, as shown above.
The power unit is a direct current source, meaning that it converts electricity from
alternating current to direct current, producing a continuous flow of electrons. The
electrons are fed along a wire to an anode in the water tank. The anode disperses the
electrons into the water, changing the potential of the water from positive to negative.
Since the water now has a negative potential, just like the metal of the tank walls,
electrons do not flow out of the tank walls into the water. Instead, the electrons from the
water flow into the tank walls and then along a wire back to the power source,
completing the circuit.
In essence, the cathodic protection system has created a new corrosion battery. With the
addition of the anode attached to the power source, the tank walls have become cathodes
which take up, rather than lose, electrons. If the cathodic protection system is properly
controlled, the surface of the tank will remain corrosion-free. Corrosion occurs only in
the new anode, which is easily replaceable and relatively inexpensive.
Commonly used materials for the anodes in the cathodic protection system are cast iron
alloyed with 14.5% silicon, aluminum and platinum wire, and ribbon forms. When water
tanks are not prone to freezing, cast iron and other long-life anodes are most commonly
used.
As with most other components of water systems, many factors must be considered when
deciding on a cathodic protection system. The dimensions of the structure to be protected,
the coating, and the water characteristics all factor into the type of system to be used. The
manufacturer's representative will consider these factors and choose a system which will
achieve full corrosion control without providing costly over-protection. A reliable
company should be used which specializes in cathodic protection and which has a service
organization within one day's travel time of the tank's location. When buying a cathodic
protection system, a service agreement should also be considered.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Cathodic protection systems are an economic alternative to periodic repainting and the
associated downtime for repair. The systems are being used quite extensively and have
proved to be dependable when appropriately sized, installed, and maintained.
However, cathodic protection systems will only protect the area of the tank interior where
the water comes in direct contact with the metal tank wall. The area of the tank above the
water line will not be protected and can still corrode. In addition, the bottom of tanks are
usually covered with silt, debris, and sand of varying depths. The tank bottom below this
debris covering will not be protected unless the covering is removed before installing the
cathodic protection system.
Coatings and cathodic protection have often stood on opposite sides of a fence as
exclusive and opposing approaches to corrosion protection. Proponents of coatings often
discount the advantages of cathodic protection and claim that a good, well-applied
coating is the only necessary protection for steel. On the other hand, proponents of
cathodic protection systems claim that any immersed or buried metal structure can best
be protected by a well-engineered cathodic protection installation. Under many
conditions, both sides may be correct in their assertions. However, under many more
commonly occurring conditions, the ideal corrosion protection is actually a combination
of both protection concepts.
Maintenance
Purpose of Tank Maintenance
Every water tank must be periodically maintained in order to ensure long life of the tank
and quality water within the tank. Some tanks, such as the reinforced concrete tanks
often used for ground level or standpipe reservoirs, have lower maintenance costs over
the life of the structure when compared with steel tanks. But all types of tanks require at
least some maintenance.
Maintenance can be considered a cost-saving measure. Periodic maintenance is usually

much cheaper than the large repairs which will be necessary in un-maintained tanks. The
cost of inspection is an insurance policy against premature failure of the tank.
The tank's paint coating requires the most maintenance since it must be replaced
periodically. When the coating is not well maintained, the tank will have to be repaired.
Repair will usually cost two and a half times more than the cost of the original coating.
In addition to the financial cost associated with replacing badly maintained coats of paint,
the coatings applied on such surfaces are usually lower in quality due to adverse
application conditions. Seventy five percent of all coating failures are attributable to
deficient surface preparation or to improper application of the paint. These failures lead
to downtimes during which the tank cannot be used while it is being repaired. The
downtime and loss of facility production can lead to potentially staggering costs.
Formal coating inspections and the associated maintenance will vastly increase the
probability of achieving a successful coat application that will protect for the design life
of the system. They will prevent costly repairs and are financially responsible in the long
run.
Maintenance Inspection
Tanks must be inspected at intervals as the first step of the maintenance procedure. The
purpose of the inspection is to determine if repairs are required and, if so, the exact nature
and extent of the work required. Inspection of water tanks is expensive, but the cost is
insignificant compared to the cost of premature failure of the tank.
A thorough inspection must be performed every two or three years on the entire structure.
Some facilities choose to have annual inspections, as will be discussed later in this
section. In addition, inspections should be performed during the construction of new
water tanks and during any repair, painting, and disinfection.
In many cases, inspection is considered to be a non-essential part of the maintenance
process. Inspectors are often hired only after there has been a costly premature failure in
the tank coating.
In other cases, initial planning for coating jobs includes qualified coat inspections, but the
inspection contract is dropped as a cost-saving measure. The firm contracted to apply the
coating then monitors itself or the tank owner's personnel schedule spot inspections. This
inspection technique usually results in improperly applied coatings which will result in
tank failure.
Inspection should be considered a mandatory part of the maintenance procedure and

should be conducted by an independent expert who will receive no benefit from any
maintenance performed on the tank. In other words, if a tank is inspected by a painting
contractor or a paint manufacturer, then the inspector will probably schedule more
repaintings since he will benefit financially from each paint job. Such inspectors are not
independent and should not be hired to perform inspections.
The inspector should be well trained by a qualified organization. A professional engineer

(see the American Water Works Association Standard D 101) will be able to evaluate the
structure, the grouting, the welds, the formulations, the structural alignment, the paint
conditions (inside and out), the leakage, the rod adjustment, any settling, and successfully
complete a corrosion evaluation in accordance with D 101. The AWWA
Standard: Painting Steel Water Storage Tanks includes a brief section on inspection
which should be followed but which is not adequate as a basis for the entire inspection.
The inspector should outline specific maintenance needed to restore the structure. This
inspection should be the basis for all maintenance of the structure - only maintenance
required by the inspector should be performed. In addition, a complete record of
inspections and maintenance should be kept.
Following the proper guidelines and selecting a qualified engineer to perform regular
inspections will help avoid serious maintenance problems in the future.
Preparing for Maintenance
Inspections determine the need for maintenance. Then the tank must be dewatered and
the surface prepared for maintenance.
The first step during many maintenance procedures is to drain all of the water out of the
tank. Before dewatering any potable water storage vessel, notice should be given to the
state's Department of Environmental Management to allow time for any problems to be
resolved by state and local officials. Insurance carriers should also be notified before
dewatering and inspection occurs.
Next the structure must be prepared for maintenance. This preparation is a very
important part of the process. If preparation is poor, the maintenance job will be poor.
The interior and exterior surfaces must be cleaned of all rust scale, paint scale, blisters,
rust, dirt, and growths. This cleaning can be achieved through any of several methods -
using wire scrapers, sand blasting, flame cleaning, and so on.
After cleaning the surface, loose rivets must be replaced and damaged seams must be
welded.
Painting
To prevent rust, painting should begin as soon as possible after the structure is cleaned
and repaired. A coat of rust-inhibitive primer should be painted on all bare surfaces first.
If the surface preparation resulted in an extensive removal of old paint, then the primer
coat should cover the entire surface.
A protective coating should be applied on top of the primer coat. This protective coating
is applied in a thickness ranging from five to fifteen thousandths of an inch and serves to
protect the tank surface from the environment.
The protective coating is composed of a vehicle containing solvents, resins, pigment and
inert ingredients. The pigments add color, but may also perform a variety of other
functions. The pigments may provide resistance to the sun's ultraviolet light and may
enhance the physical properties of the paint and the gloss.
Curing
The tank must be allowed to dry, or to cure, before being refilled with water and put back
into service. The paint on the inside of the tank may take longer to cure, especially
during the winter. Some types of paint, such as high build epoxies, will be problematic if
applied during the winter. Instead, high solid vinyl should be used during these months
since they will cure more reliably.
Sterilization
If a tank has been emptied for inspection, cleaning, painting, or for any other purpose, the
tank must be thoroughly sterilized before being put back into service. Outside demands
should never be allowed to force a tank back into service before it is properly cured and
disinfected.
The structure should be thoroughly disinfected and chlorinated in accordance with
Plumbing Codes before being used again. Bacteriological samples must be taken and
approved and a copy of the report must be sent to the Health Department.
A suggested method for sterilizing a tank is explained below:
1. Fill the tank 1/2 to 3/4 of the way full of water.
2. Mix the disinfectant into about ten gallons of water and pour into the tank. The
amount of disinfectant to be added will depend on the capacity of the tank. You
should add 12 pounds of HTH or Perchloron or 10 gallons of 10% sodium
hypochlorite for each 20,000 gallons of water that the tank will hold. So, if you
are disinfecting a 75,000 gallon tank, you can either add 45 pounds of HTH, 45
pounds of Perchloron, or 37.5 gallons of sodium hypochlorite.
3. Completely fill the tank with water. This will evenly mix the disinfectant into the
water.
4. Permit the tank to stand for 24 hours if possible, but for no less than 6 hours.
An alternative method may be used by experienced personnel:
1. Wash down all surfaces thoroughly.
2. Spray the bottom, side-walls, and top with a hypochlorite solution containing at
least 200 ppm of chlorine. The person in the tank must take special precautions.
He or she must wear an effective gas mask and must be roped to an attendant on
the outside of the tank.
3. Fill the tank and collect samples for bacteriological analysis.
Annual Maintenance Service
Annual maintenance service contracts are an alternative to hiring an inspector to

periodically inspect a water tank and recommend maintenance. Under this type of plan, a
company is hired to clean the tank once a year, inspect the tank, and make all necessary
repairs including painting, if necessary. In most plants, the entire tank is thoroughly
cleaned and given a coat of paint every fifth year. Annual maintenance service contracts
have become popular in municipalities with tanks and towers with capacities of less than
250,000 gallons. The company hired will often require that their own company restores
the tank before entering into a contract for annual maintenance service. Then the
company agrees to inspect and maintain the tank yearly for a set length of time, often for
twenty years. Due to municipal changes, some companies will allow a municipality the
right to cancel or renew the contract on a yearly basis on the anniversary date. Since the
maintenance company will be given exclusive responsibility for the upkeep of the tank,
great care should be taken in selecting such a company. The company must conduct
work with integrity, honesty, and professionalism. In addition, Comprehensive Liability
and Workmen's Compensation Insurance should be carried on each contract to ensure
performance of the maintenance work. The water works should also demand a corporate
bond, not an individual bond.
If an honest, reliable contractor is selected to perform the work, then annual maintenance
service contracts can be a good choice for the maintenance of water storage facilities.
Review
Water tanks can be divided into two types - ground tanks and elevated storage tanks.
Each type of tank has advantages and disadvantages which should be considered when
planning a new facility. In addition, other factors such as structural stability, equipment
design, tank location, elevation, and capacity should all be taken into account.
Corrosion is a serious problem in water tanks. The metal walls break down due to an
electrochemical reaction. Electrons flow from the walls of the tank (the anode) into the
water (the cathode.) The third component of the corrosion battery is a closure circuit - a
surface linking the anode and cathode through which electrons can flow. A paint coating
protects against corrosion by forming a physical barrier between the anode and the
cathode. The other type of protection, cathodic protection, provides a replacement anode
so that the tank walls do not corrode. Each type of corrosion protection has advantages
and disadvantages when used singly, and they can also be used in combination.
Tank maintenance is essential to prevent costly tank failure. The tank should be inspected
by an independent inspector at least every two or three years. Some water works choose
to hire an annual maintenance service to perform yearly inspections and maintenance. In
either case, the inspector will determine what type of maintenance should be performed.
The first step during painting, a common maintenance procedure, is to empty the tank and
clean the tank surface. Next, a primer coat should be applied and then a protective coat.
Finally, the tank is cured and sterilized before being placed back into service.
Assignment
Complete Assignment 10 on Water Tank Design. You may do the Assignment online to
get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
Quiz
Lesson 11:
Laboratory Procedures
Objective
What laboratory procedures need to be done in the water plant.
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 11: Laboratory Procedures, in your
Lecture
A laboratory is a place for precise work to determine appropriate treatment of raw water
and the quality of the finished water. It must be kept organized, well maintained, and
clean. All instruments must be kept clean and routinely calibrated with proper records. A
number of lab tests are needed daily, quarterly, semiannually, annually, and at other
specified intervals to monitor the water quality before, during, and after the treatment. A
test is not better than the sample, and the sample is not better than the manner in which it
is collected.
Sampling
Valid testing starts with an adequate and representative sampling. A sample is either a
grab or a composite. A grab sample, as the name indicates, is a specific volume collected
at one site at one time. These samples indicate the quality of water at that time and at that
site. Grab samples are taken for bacteriological and disinfection residual tests.
A composite sample is a mixture of a number of portions taken at the specific intervals.
This reduces the number of tests. Each portion can be proportionate to the flow or
volume. For each test operators should follow the prescribed sampling size, collecting,
and preserving procedure given in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Waste Water. Testing must be done as soon as possible and not later than the
specified holding time.
Tests
Various regularly performed common tests by the operating staff are for tastes and odor,
turbidity, jar test, pH, alkalinity, hardness, disinfection residual, coliform bacteria, and the
heterotrophic plate count. All other tests are run either by highly trained chemists and
microbiologists of the lab or by certified contract laboratories.
Tastes and Odors
Testing for taste and odor is important because of aesthetic value. The majority of water
quality complaints are of this type. Most of the organic and some inorganic chemicals
cause tastes and odors. These chemicals come from the decaying organic matter, runoffs,
industrial wastes, and municipal sewage discharges. Geosmin and methyl-isobarneol
(MIB) are the serious odor-causing chemicals; they are produced by bacteria, particularly
actinomycetes, while decomposing dead organic matter at the bottom of the water bodies.
Even a very low concentration of these chemicals can cause earthy-musty odors. The
odors are common in spring and fall due to the turn over of the lakes and reservoirs. In
the groundwater, the tastes and odors can be due to iron, manganese, and hydrogen
sulfide (H2S).
These are general classes of odors:

Aromatic (spicy)
Balsamic (flowery)
Chemical
Disagreeable
Earthy
Musty
Grassy
Vegetable
These are called the reference odor in the water samples.
Turbidity
Turbidity is the murkiness in the water caused by colloidal (1 to 100 nanometer particles)
and other suspended particles, such as clay, sand, silt, organic matter of plant and animal
origin, planktons, and other microscopic organisms. Turbidity particles can be waterborne
pathogens or particles harboring them. The lower the turbidity, the less is the amount of
the particulate matter. It means there is less probability of the presence of waterborne
pathogens, and the water is safer. Therefore, turbidity is one of the primary standards for
the drinking water. The finished water turbidity is tested at least every four hours.
Turbidity is measured as the amount of scattered light by the suspended particles in the
sample. Turbidity of the finished water should be equal to or less than 0.3 nephalometric
turbidity unit (NTU) in 95 percent of the samples/month.
Jar Testing
Jar testing is a useful tool to determine the practical optimum dose of a chemical under
the simulated plant conditions. It uses a range of increasing dose of a particular chemical
in a series of six jars with a stirring and illumination mechanism.
Most of the problems in the source water, particulary in the surface water, quality are due
to seasonal variations or other unusual circumstances, such as drought, heavy rains,
unexpected discharge of raw sewage, or runoffs from farm land. These problems can be
solved by this test, which is important for coagulation, softening, sedimentation, removal
of synthetic organics, and for tastes and odor control. It makes the water treatment more
effective, easy, and economical.
pH
pH, hydronium ion index, is the measurement of acidity (H+). Acidity in water is usually
due to carbon dioxide (CO2) from rain water, mineral acids, chlorine, and heavy metal
salts, such as alum. pH is an important parameter in the water utility. It is used to
determine the condition of water for proper coagulation, softening, and stabilization.
Alkalinity
Alkalinity of water is its capacity to neutralize acidity. Carbonates, bicarbonates, and

hydroxides are the most common forms of alkalinity in natural waters. These chemicals
are mostly compounds of calcium and magnesium coming from mineral deposits such as
limestone and dolomite. Industrial discharges can also cause alkalinity. Bicarbonate
alkalinity is present between pH 4.3 and 8.3. Carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity is
present between pH 8.3 and 9.4, and carbonates and hydroxides are present between pH
9.4 and 14. Alkalinity does not exist below pH 4.3. Alkalinity test is important to
determine proper coagulation and the stability of water.
Disinfection Residual
Chlorine is one of the most effective disinfectants and is quite commonly used for water
disinfection. Chlorine, combined with ammonia, forms chloramines, which are called
combined residual chlorine. Total residual chlorine is the sum of the free residual chlorine
and combined residual chlorine.
Coliform Bacteria Tests
Bacteriological quality of water is important to determine the degree of disinfection and

possible presence of waterborne pathogens. Bacteria, being small, are present almost
everywhere, such as in air, water, and on lab equipment. Therefore, all equipment and
handling is done in a sterile environment to ensure the accuracty of data.
Media are the food for the bacteria to culture them in the laboratory. Different bacteria
have different food requirements; therefore, each medium will allow certain types of
bacteria to grow. Media are either liquid, known as broths, or semisolid (gelatinous),
which are called agars.
To ensure the absence of waterborne pathogens, the water is tested for coliform bacteria.
Coliform bacteria are present in human wastes and in soil contaminated with human
wastes. These bacteria in human wastes are known as fecal coliform bacteria. Those in
the soil are called nonfecal coliforms. Both fecal and nonfecal coliforms are called the
total coliform group. This group is used as an indicator of the presence of human wastes
in water and the possible presence of waterborne pathogens. The two most common
techniques for testing coliform bacteria are the membrane filter technique and the
multiple tube fermentation/most probable number technique.
Heterotrophic or Standard Plate Count (HPC)

This test gives the total count of almost all types of bacteria in the water sample that can
grow on a general medium called the standard plate count agar or nutrient agar. A count
less than 500 colonies/mL of the sample means that the water is properly disinfected, and
vice versa. Furthermore, a count of higher than 500 colonies/mL interferes with the
growth of total coliform bacteria.
Review
A number of lab tests are needed daily, quarterly, semiannually, annually, and at other
specified intervals to monitor the water quality before, during, and after the treatment. A
sample is either a grab or a composite. A grab sample, as the name indicates, is a
specific volume collected at one site at one time. These samples indicate the quality of
water at that time and at that site. Grab samples are taken for bacteriological and
disinfection residual tests. A composite sample is a mixture of a number of portions
taken at the specific intervals. This reduces the number of tests. Each portion can be
proportionate to the flow or volume.
Various regularly performed common tests by the operating staff are for tastes and odor,
turbidity, jar test, pH, alkalinity, hardness, disinfection residual, coliform bacteria, and the
heterotrophic plate count. All other tests are run either by highly trained chemists and
microbiologists of the lab or by certified contract laboratories.
Assignment
Complete Assignment 11 on Laboratory Procedures. You may do the Assignment online

Quiz
Lesson 12:
Overview of the Wastewater Treatment Process
Objective

What the different sources of wastewater include.
What the different steps include in the treatment process.
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 1: The Treatment Plant Operator, Chapter 2:
Why Treat Wastes? and Chapter 3: Wastewater Treatment Facilities, in your
textbook Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Introduction
This lesson begins the second half of ENV 110. This half of the course is concerned with
the treatment of wastewater. Before beginning this lesson, you should have taken Exam 1
and visited two water treatment plants to conclude the water treatment portion of the
course.
Lessons 1 through 11 considered the water treatment process. Water flows from the
source through the treatment plant and to the consumer. But what happens to the water
after it reaches the consumer?
The second half of this course will concern itself with wastewater - the used water and
solids from a community as well as the storm water which runs off streets and other
surfaces during storms.
You will remember that water is naturally cleaned and reused as part of the hydrologic
cycle in the outside world. In the human world, water is also cleaned and reused. Our
wastewater is channeled to a wastewater treatment plant where it is cleaned and released
back into lakes and rivers. This water reenters the hydrologic cycle and will eventually be
pumped back up by another water treatment plant to be purified and released to
customers.
Sources of Wastewater
You can classify wastewater as domestic, industrial, or storm, according to its origin.
Domestic sources include water used for normal activity in homes, businesses and
institutions. Domestic wastewater is readily treatable.
The character of industrical wastewater depends on the type of industry using the water.
Some industrial wastewaters can be treated the same as domestic wastes without
difficulty. Others may contain toxic substances or high percentages of organic materials
or solids which make treatment difficult. In such cases, the industrial plant may have to
pretreat its wastewater to remove these pollutants or reduce them to treatable levels
before they are accepted into a publicly-owned treatment facility.
Storm water often goes to a treatment plant, although it is usually low in pollutants. Great
amounts of storm water can interfere with treatment efficiency in two ways: Storm water
may cause too much dilution of the wastewater. At the same time, it may cause hydraulic
overloading of the plant. In most cases, wastewater systems now call for separate storm
sewers.
In the Treatment Plant

In the treatment plant there are many steps involved in treating wastewater. Below is a
quick overview of the possible steps involved. We will learn more about each step as the
course goes on.
The general principle in wastewater treatment is to remove pollutants from the water by
getting them either to settle or to float, and then removing this material. Some pollutants
are easily removable. Others must be converted to a settleable form before they can be
removed. Treatment facilities are designed in stages. Each stage either removes particles
from the wastewater or changes dissolved and suspended material to a form that can be
removed. A modern wastewater treatment plant may include these stages:
influent
primary treatment
secondary treatment
tertiary treatment
disinfection and effluent discharge
Influent
Influent is the raw material that has been collected and conveyed to the plant for
treatment. It includes all the water and debris that entered the collection system.
Primary Treatment
To prevent damage to pumps and clogging of pipes, raw wastewater passes through
mechanically raked bar screens to remove large debris, such as rags, plastics, sticks, and
cans. Smaller inorganic material, such as sand and gravel, is removed by a grit removal
system. The ligher organic solids remain suspended in the water and flow into large
tanks, called primary clarifiers. Here, the heavier organic solids settle by gravity. These
settled solids, called primary sludge, are removed along with floating scum and grease
and pumped to anaerobic digesters for further treatment.
Secondary Treatment
The primary effluent is then transferred to the biological or secondary stage. Here, the
wastewater is mixed with a controlled population of bacteria and an ample supply of
oxygen. The microorganisms digest the fine suspended and soluble organic materials,
thereby removing them from the wastewater. The effluent is then transferred to secondary
clarifiers, where the biological solids or sludges are settled by gravity. As with the
primary clarifier, these sludges are pumped to anaerobic digesters, and the clear
secondary effluent may flow directly to the receiving environment or to a disinfection
facity prior to release. There are several variations of secondary treatment, including:
activated sludge
trickling filtration
rotating biological contactors (RBC)
lagoons and ponds
Tertiary Treatment
Tertiary, or advanced, wastewater treatment is the term applied to additonal treatment that
is needed to remove suspended and dissolved substances remaining after conventional
secondary treatment. This may be accomplished using a variety of physical, chemical, or
biological treatment processes to remove the targeted pollutants. Advanced treatment may
be used to remove such things as color, metals, organic chemicals, and nutrients such as
phosphorus and nitrogen.
Disinfection
Before the final effluent is released into the receiving waters, it may be disinfected to
reduce the disease-causing microorganisms that remain in it. The most common
processes use chlorine gas or a chlorine-based disinfectant such as sodium hypochlorite.
To avoid excess chlorine escaping to the environment, the effluent may be dechlorinated
prior to discharge. Other disinfection options include untraviolet light and ozone.
Review
You can classify wastewater as domestic, industrial, or storm, according to its origin. In
the treatment plant there are many steps involved in treating wastewater. The general
principle in wastewater treatment is to remove pollutants from the water by getting them
either to settle or to float, and then removing this material. A modern wastewater
treatment plant may include these stages:
influent
primary treatment
secondary treatment
tertiary treatment
disinfection and effluent discharge
Assignment
Complete Assignment 12 on Wastewater Treatment. You may do the Assignment online

Quiz
Lesson 13:
Racks, Screens, Comminutors and Grit Removal
Objective
In this lesson we will answer the following question:

How are racks, screens, comminutors and grit removal used during the
preliminary treatment process?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 4: Racks, Screens, Comminutors, and Grit
Removal in your textbook Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
The First Step
The first step in the treatment of wastewater is known as Preliminary Treatment, which
screens out, grinds up, or separates debris in the wastewater. Sticks, rags, large food
particles, sand, gravel, toys, plastics, and other objects are removed at this stage to
conserve valuable space within the treatment processes and to protect pumping and other
equipment from clogs, jams or excessive wear. Treatment equipment such as bar screens,
comminutors (a large version of a garbage disposal that shreds material), and grit
chambers are used on the wastewater as it first enters a treatment plant. The collected
debris is usually disposed of in a landfill. In this lesson we will describe and discuss each
of these processes and their importance in the treatment process.
Screening
Preliminary treatment begins with screening. Screens remove large solids such as rags,
sticks, plastics and similar materials from the wastewater.
Above is a typical bar screen that consists of a series of parallel bars or a perforated
screen placed in a channel. The flow passes through the screen and the large solids are
trapped on the bars for removal. The bar screen may be coarse (2-4 inch openings) or fine
(0.75-2.0 inch openings). The bar screen may be manually cleaned or mechanically
cleaned. Manual or mechanical cleaning is performed frequently enough to prevent solids
buildup and reduce flow into the plant. The water velocity through the screen is very
important and should be around 1.5 ft/s. If the velocity decreases below 1 ft/s or slower,
grit will drop out of the flow and into the screening channel.
Shredding
In some plants, shredding devices are installed after the bar screen or as alternatives to
screening. Shredding devices reduce solids to a size that can enter the plant without
causing mechanical problems or clogging. The most common shredder is
the comminutor. In this device all of the wastewater flow passes through the grinder
assembly. The grinder consists of a screen or slotted basket, a rotating or oscillating cutter
and a stationary cutter. Solids pass through the screen and are chopped or shredded
between the two cutters. The comminutor will not remove solids that are too large to fit
through the slots, and it will not remove floating objects. The materials must be removed
manually.
Grit Removal
The purpose of grit removal is to remove the heavy inorganic solids, which could cause
excessive mechanical wear. Grit includes sand, gravel, clay, egg shells, coffee grounds,
metal filings, seeds and other similiar materials. There are several devices or proceses
used for grit removal. All of the processes are based on the fact that grit is heavier than
the organic solids that should be kept in suspension for subsequent treatment. Grit
removal processes use gravity/velocity, aeration or centrifugal force to separate the solids
from the wastewater.
Gravity/Velocity Controlled Grit Removal
Gravity/velocity grit removal uses a channel or tank to reduce the velocity or speed of the
wastewater to approximately 1 foot per second (fps). As long as the velocity is controlled
in the range of 0.7 to 1.4 fps, the grit removal process will remain effective.
Aerated Systems
Aerated grit removal systems use aeration to keep the lighter organic solids in suspension
while allowing the heavier grit particles to settle out.
Cyclone Degritter
The cyclone degritter uses a rapid spinning motion to separate the heavy inorganic solids
or grit from the light organic solids and discharge them directly to a storage container.
Inlet pressure is a critical control factor for the cyclone grit removal process.
Review
Preliminary treatment screens out, grinds up, or separates debris in the wastewater.
Objects are removed at this stage to conserve valuable space within the treatment
processes and to protect pumping and other equipment from clogs, jams or excessive
wear. Treatment equipment such as bar screens, comminutors, and grit chambers are used
on the wastewater as it first enters a treatment plant. This is a valuable step in the pre-
treatment of wastewater.
Assignment
Complete Assignment 13 on Racks, Screens, Comminutors and Grit Removal. You may
do the Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
Quiz
Lesson 14:
Sedimentation and Flotation
Objective

How does sedimentation fit into the water treatment process?
What zones are present in a sedimentation basin?
How is sedimentation sludge disposed of?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 5: Sedimentation and Flotation in your
Lecture
Primary Sedimentation
Purpose
Sedimentation is a treatment process in which the velocity of the water is lowered below
the suspension velocity and the suspended particles settle out of the water due to gravity.
The process is also known as settling or clarification .
Settled solids are removed as sludge, and floating solids are removed as scum.
Wastewater leaves the sedimentation tank over an effluent weir to the next step of
treatment. The efficiency or performance of the process is controlled by: detention time,
temperature, tank design, and condition of the equipment.
Most water treatment plants include sedimentation in their treatment processes.

However, sedimentation may not be necessary in low turbidity water of less than 10
NTU. In this case, coagulation and flocculation are used to produce pinpoint (very
small) floc which is removed from the water in the filters.

The most common form of sedimentation follows coagulation and flocculation and
precedes filtration. This type of sedimentation requires chemical addition (in the
coagulation/flocculation step) and removes the resulting floc from the water.
Sedimentation at this stage in the treatment process should remove 90% of the suspended
particles from the water, including bacteria. The purpose of sedimentation here is to
decrease the concentration of suspended particles in the water, reducing the load on the
filters.
Sedimentation can also occur as part of the pretreatment process, where it is known
aspresedimentation . Presedimentation can also be called plain sedimentation because
the process depends merely on gravity and includes no coagulation and flocculation.
Without coagulation/flocculation, plain sedimentation can remove only coarse suspended
matter (such as grit) which will settle rapidly out of the water without the addition of
chemicals. This type of sedimentation typically takes place in a reservoir, grit basin,
debris dam, or sand trap at the beginning of the treatment process.
While sedimentation following coagulation/flocculation is meant to remove most of the

suspended particles in the water before the water reaches the filters, presedimentation
removes most of the sediment in the water during the pretreatment stage. So
presedimentation will reduce the load on the coagulation/flocculation basin and on the
sedimentation chamber, as well as reducing the volume of coagulant chemicals required
to treat the water. In addition, presedimentation basins are useful because raw water
entering the plant from a reservoir is usually more uniform in quality than water entering
the plant without such a holding basin.
The rest of this lesson will be concerned with sedimentation following coagulation and
flocculation. We will consider types of sedimentation basins and parts of a typical
sedimentation basin, as well as the disposal of sludge.
Types of Basins
Three common types of sedimentation basins are shown below:
Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing

water to flow horizontally through a long tank. This type
of basin is usually found in large-scale water treatment
plants. Rectangular basins have a variety of advantages -
predictability, cost-effectiveness, and low maintenance.
In addition, rectangular basins are the least likely to
short-circuit, especially if the length is at least twice the
width. A disadvantage of rectangular basins is the large
amount of land area required.
Double-deck rectangular basins are essentially two
rectangular sedimentation basins stacked one atop the
other. This type of basin conserves land area, but has
higher operation and maintenance costs than a one-level
rectangular basin.
Square or circular sedimentation basins with horizontal

flow are often known as clarifiers . This type of basin is
likely to have short-circuiting problems.
A fourth type of sedimentation basin is more complex. Solids-contact clarifiers , also

known asupflow solids-contact clarifiers or upflow sludge-blanket clarifiers combine
coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation within a single basin. Solids-contact
clarifiers are often found in packaged plants and in cold climates where sedimentation
must occur indoors. This type of clarifier is also often used in softening operations.
Zones
Introduction
All sedimentation basins have four zones - the inlet zone, the settling zone, the sludge
zone, and the outlet zone. Each zone should provide a smooth transition between the
zone before and the zone after. In addition, each zone has its own unique purpose.
Zones can be seen most easily in a rectangular sedimentation basin, such as the one
shown below:
In a clarifier, water typically enters the basin from the center rather than from one end
and flows out to outlets located around the edges of the basin. But the four zones can still
be found within the clarifier:
Inlet Zone
The two primary purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are to distribute the
water and to control the water's velocity as it enters the basin. In addition, inlet devices
act to prevent turbulence of the water.
The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be evenly distributed across the width
of the basin to prevent short-circuiting. Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance
in which water bypasses the normal flow path through the basin and reaches the outlet in
less than the normal detention time. We will discuss short-circuiting in the next lesson.
In addition to preventing short-circuiting, inlets control the velocity of the incoming

flow. If the water velocity is greater than 0.5 ft/sec, then floc in the water will break up
due to agitation of the water. Breakup of floc in the sedimentation basin will make
settling much less efficient.
Two types of inlets are shown below. The stilling wall, also known as a perforated
baffle wall , spans the entire basin from top to bottom and from side to side. Water
leaves the inlet and enters the settling zone of the sedimentation basin by flowing through
the holes evenly spaced across the stilling wall.
From: Water Works Operator's Manual
The second type of inlet allows water to enter the basin by first flowing through the holes
evenly spaced across the bottom of the channel and then by flowing under the baffle in
front of the channel. The combination of channel and baffle serves to evenly distribute
the incoming water.
Settling Zone
After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where water velocity
is greatly reduced. This is where the bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make
up the largest volume of the sedimentation basin. For optimal performance, the settling
zone requires a slow, even flow of water.
The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open water. But in some cases, tube
settlers and lamella plates, such as those shown below, are included in the settling zone.
Tube settlers and lamella plates -
Water flows up through slanted tubes or along slanted plates.
Floc settles out in the tubes or plates and drifts back down into the
lower portions of the sedimentation basin. Clarified water passes
through the tubes or between the plates and then flows out of the basin.
Tube settlers and lamella plates increase the settling efficiency and speed in
sedimentation basins. Each tube or plate functions as a miniature sedimentation basin,
greatly increasing the settling area. Tube settlers and lamella plates are very useful in
plants where site area is limited, in packaged plants, or to increase the capacity of shallow
basins.
Outlet Zone
The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin - both the
amount of water leaving the basin and the location in the basin from which the
outflowing water is drawn. Like the inlet zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent
short-circuiting of water in the basin. In addition, a good outlet will ensure that only
well-settled water leaves the basin and enters the filter. The outlet can also be used to
control the water level in the basin.
Outlets are designed to ensure that the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin has
the minimum amount of floc suspended in it. The best quality water is usually found at
the very top of the sedimentation basin, so outlets are usually designed to skim this water
off the sedimentation basin.
A typical outlet zone begins with a baffle in front of the effluent. This baffle prevents
floating material from escaping the sedimentation basin and clogging the filters. After
the baffle comes the effluent structure, which usually consists of a launder, weirs, and
effluent piping. A typical effluent structure is shown below:
The primary component of the effluent structure is the effluent launder , a trough which
collects the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin and directs it to the effluent
piping. The sides of a launder typically have weirs attached. Weirs are walls preventing
water from flowing uncontrolled into the launder. The weirs serve to skim the water
evenly off the tank.
A weir usually has notches, holes, or slits along its length. These holes allow water to
flow into the weir. The most common type of hole is the V-shaped notch shown on the
picture above which allows only the top inch or so of water to flow out of the
sedimentation basin. Conversely, the weir may have slits cut vertically along its length,
an arrangement which allows for more variation of operational water level in the
sedimentation basin.
Water flows over or through the holes in the weirs and into the launder. Then the launder
channels the water to the outlet , or effluent pipe . This pipe carries water away from the
sedimentation basin and to the next step in the treatment process.
The effluent structure may be located at the end of a rectangular sedimentation basin or
around the edges of a circular clarifier. Alternatively, the effluent may consist of finger
weirs , an arrangement of launders which extend out into the settling basin as shown
below.
Sludge Zone
The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where the sludge
collects temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent resuspension of
sludge.
A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be easily removed from the tank.
The tank bottom should slope toward the drains to further facilitate sludge removal.
In some plants, sludge removal is achieved continuously using automated equipment. In

other plants, sludge must be removed manually. If removed manually, the basin should
be cleaned at least twice per year, or more often if excessive sludge buildup occurs. It is
best to clean the sedimentation basin when water demand is low, usually in April and
October. Many plants have at least two sedimentation basins so that water can continue
to be treated while one basin is being cleaned, maintained, and inspected.
If sludge is not removed from the sedimentation basin often enough,

the effective (useable) volume of the tank will decrease, reducing the efficiency of
sedimentation. In addition, the sludge built up on the bottom of the tank may
become septic , meaning that it has begun to decay anaerobically. Septic sludge may
result in taste and odor problems or may float to the top of the water and become scum.
Sludge may also become resuspended in the water and be carried over to the filters.
Sludge Disposal
Sludge Composition
The sludge which is found in the bottom of a sedimentation tank is primarily composed
of water. The solids in the sludge are mainly excess coagulant, such as alum. Alum
sludge has a solids concentration of only about 1% when automatically removed from the
basin, or about 2% if manually removed. (The greater solids concentration of manually
removed sludge is due to a small amount of gravity thickening.)
Many options exist for disposal of sedimentation sludge. Here we will discuss disposal
in streams, sanitary sewers, lagoons, and landfills.
Disposal in Streams and Sewers
In the past, sludge and backwash water was typically released into streams and other
bodies of water. However, this practice is becoming much less common and is now well
regulated. Backwash water and sludge can only be released into streams if a discharge
permit has been granted by the NPDES. The NPDES further requires extensive daily
monitoring of the water quality when the sludge is being discharged.
Alternatively, sludge may be piped directly to the sanitary sewer. However, this disposal
option also has its disadvantages. Sludge can cause sewer blockages. In addition, fees
charged by the wastewater treatment plant can be expensive. Releasing sludge into the
sewage lines in large batches makes treatment of the wastewater problematic, so sludge is
typically released slowly over a long time period, which requires a large holding tank at
the water treatment plant.
Thickening Sludge
Most of the other alternatives require transporting sludge away from the treatment plant.
Sludge is typically dried before it is trucked away since the greater volume of wet sludge
makes it much more expensive to transport. This drying process is known
as dewatering or thickening . Alum sludge is difficult to thicken, but a variety of
devices have been developed to thicken the sludge, some of which are explained below.
In many cases, the sludge is treated by the addition of polymers to aid in the dewatering
process. Alternatively, the sludge can be heated or frozen and thawed to increase the
solids concentration. Treating the sludge to aid in thickening is known
as conditioning the sludge.
Once the sludge has been conditioned, it may be thickened in a lagoon, drying bed, or
one of several other devices.
Lagoons, which are small-volume storage ponds,

are the simplest device used to thicken sludge.
These lagoons are filled with sludge and the
solids are allowed to settled due to gravity to the
bottom of the lagoon while the clear water is
pumped off the top.
After a few months, gravity and evaporation will have reduced the sludge to a 30-50%
solid state. The sludge can then be covered with soil and left on site, or may be trucked to
a landfill off-site.
Drying beds are often used to thicken

sludge destined for a landfill more
quickly than the sludge would be
thickened in a lagoon.
A drying bed is similar in design to a sand filter, with a layer of sand underlain by a layer
of gravel. The sludge is applied to the top of the sand and the water percolates down
through the sand and gravel and is drained away. When the sludge is sufficiently dry, it is
carefully removed from the top of the sand and is trucked to a landfill. When sludge is
preconditioned with chemicals, dewatering in a drying bed may take only a few days or
weeks.
Other processes used to thicken sludge include filter presses, belt filter presses,
centrifuges, and vacuum filters. These processes result in sludge with a solids content
ranging from 30 to 50%.
Process Control Calculations
As with many other wastewater treatment plant unit processes, process control
calculations aid in determining the performance of the sedimentation process. Process
control calculations are used in the sedimentation process to determine:
percent removal
hydraulic detention time
surface loading rate
weir overflow rate
sludge pumping
percent total solids
Surface Loading Rate
The surface loading rate is the number of gallons of wastewater passing over 1 square
foot of tank per day. This can be used to compare actual conditions with design. (Plant
designs generally use a surface loading rate of 300 to 1,200 gallons/day/ft2.) To view
more examples, read on page 136 in your text.
The flow into a clarifier is 4.0 MGD in a tank 90 feet long and 35 feet wide. What is the
surface loading rate?
You will have to convert 4.0 MGD to gal/day, which is 4,000,000 gpd. Then plug in the
numbers:
Weir Overflow Rate
The weir overflow rate is the amount of water leaving the settling tank per linear foot of
weir. The results of this calculation can be compared with design. Normally weir
overflow rates of 10,000 to 20,000 gal/day/ft are used in the design of a settling tank.
To view more examples, read page 136 in your textbook.
The circular settling tank is 90 feet in diameter and has a weir along its circumference.
This effluent flow is 2.55 MGD. What is the weir overflow rate in gal/day/foot?
Sludge Pumping
For the plant operator, for process control purposes, knowing the amount of sludge
pumped each day is important. This information is not only important for proper
operation of the sedimentation process, but for sludge treatment processes as well. Such
information includes accurate data regarding the quantity of solids and volatile solids
removed from the sedimentation tank.
The sludge pump operates 15 minutes per hour. The pump delivers 30 gallons/minute of
sludge. Laboratory tests indicate that the sludge is 5.1% solids and 69% volatile matter.
How many pounds of volatile matter are transferred from the settling tank to the digester?
Sedimentation Expected Performance
Primary sedimentation clarifiers can be expected to remove:
Settleable solids 90-95%

Total Suspended Solids 40-60%
BOD5 25-35%
Review
Sedimentation is a process used to remove suspended particles from water using gravity.
Sedimentation may take place in a presedimentation device such as a reservoir, grit basin,
debris dam, or sand trap; or sedimentation may follow coagulation/flocculation and take
place in a rectangular sedimentation basin, a double-deck rectangular basin, a clarifier, or
a solids-contact clarifier.
Sedimentation basins typically have four zones - the inlet zone which controls the
distribution and velocity of inflowing water, the settling zone in which the bulk of settling
takes place, the outlet zone which controls the outflowing water, and the sludge zone in
which the sludge collects. Sludge may be disposed of a in sewer or stream or may be
conditioned and then thickened in a lagoon, drying bed, filter press, belt filter press,
centrifuge, or vacuum filter before being transported to a landfill.
Assignment
Read about surface loading in your text and answer the following question (make
sure to read the footnotes): (25 points)
1. The settling tank is 120 feet in diameter and the flow to the unit is 4.5 MGD.
What is the surface loading rate in gallons/day/ft2?
Read about weir overflow rate in your text and answer the following question: (25
points)
2. The settling tank is 120 feet in diameter and has a weir along its circumference.
This effluent flow rate is 2.34 MGD. What is the weir overflow rate in gal/day/ft?
3. Complete Assignment 14 on Sedimentation and Flotation. You may do the

Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor. (50
points)
Quiz
Lesson 15:
Trickling Filters
Objective

What do trickling filters consist of?
How is oxygen controlled in wastewater systems?
How are the total flow, hydraulic loading, and organic loading calculated?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 6: Trickling Filters in your textbook Operation
of Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Fixed Media Filters
Introduction to Fixed Media Filters
There are many ways to treat sewage and plant designs vary greatly from one site to the
next. But no matter how a plant is designed, the results are the same. Some type of
mechanical or biological treatment of the wastewater occurs. The supernate is drawn off,
treated for bacterial contamination, and aerated before being released. Solid waste is
produced from sludge and is graded for land application or dumping.
In nearly all types of wastewater treatment, the organic waste is consumed by microbial
action. This microbial action can be divided into two categories: free swimming or
attached.
Packaged plants and oxidation ditches are an example of the first type of microbial
action. The microorganisms are free-swimming in the water, so they must be cycled
through the system. After being used to break down B.O.D., they are removed from the
wastewater in a clarifier and returned as RAS to the aeration chamber or oxidation ditch.
In contrast, fixed media filters use microorganisms attached to a medium (rocks, plastic,
metal, etc.) The microorganisms stay in place and do not need to be cycled through the
system. Instead, wastewater is circulated past the fixed microorganisms.
A fixed media filter mimics the treatment method used in a healthy stream in which
microorganisms produce a slick coating on rocks and pebbles. This coating of
microorganisms is able to trap and consume B.O.D. and ammonia in the water.
Trickling Filters
Introduction
In most wastewater treatment systems, the trickling filter follows primary treatment and
includes secondary settling tank or clarifier as shown below. The process is a fixed film
biological treatment method designed to remove BOD and suspended solids.
The trickling filter consists of several major components including distribution system,
media, underdrains, effluent channel, secondary settling tank, and recirculation pumps
and piping. Each of these components has one or more purposes.
In operation, wastewater is distributed evenly over the surface of the trickling filter
media. As the wastewater flows over the surface of the media the organisms in the slime
remove the organic matter from the flow.
The organisms aerobically decompose the solids producing more organisms and stable
wastes, which either become part of the zoogleal slime or are discharged back into the
wastewater flowing over the media. The wastewater continues through the filter to the
underdrain system where it is collected and carried out of the filter. At the same time air
flows through the filter (bottom to the top or top to bommtom depending on temperature).
Oxygen is transferred from the air to the wastewater and slime to maintain the aerobic
conditions. Periodically the slime on the media becomes too heavy and portions will be
released. This material known as sloughings is carried out of the filter with the
wastewater flow and is removed in the settling tank following the filter.
Filter media showing biological activities that take place on surface area.
Trickling filters are very efficient at removing B.O.D. and ammonia from wastewater,
and they use a minimal amount of power. The cost to remove B.O.D. is only a few
dollars per ton.
Pretreatment
The beginning of the trickling filter treatment process is like pretreatment in a packaged
plant. The wastewater passes through a bar screen to remove large objects. Then the
influent is passed through a grit screen or chamber to remove inorganic materials such as
eggshells, corn, sand, and tissue. The comminutor shreds the solid material into smaller
pieces, which allows the solids to enter the plant without causing mechanical problems or
clogging the pumps.
Separator and Digester
At this point, treatment begins to differ from the typical packaged plant treatment. We
have previously discussed treatment systems which use only one clarifier, which is often
called a secondary clarifier. But in many treatment systems, two clarifiers are used.
The primary clarifier follows the grit chamber while the secondary clarifier follows the
aerator, oxidation ditch, trickling filter, or other type of biological treatment.
In the case of a trickling filter system, the water from the grit chamber enters
a separator, which acts as a primary clarifier. Here, organic solids are separated out of
the water using changes in velocity. The mostly liquid portion of the organic matter goes
on to the trickling filter while the mostly solid portion goes to the anaerobic digester.
The anaerobic digester is a closed tank in which anaerobic organisms slowly digest the
organic matter in sludge. These organisms produce methane, hydrogen sulfide, and
carbon dioxide in the process. The solids are removed from the tank and sent to a drying
bed for eventual land application while the supernatant is drawn off and sent to the
trickling filter.
Operation
The liquid portion of the B.O.D. and ammonia from the separator, as well as the
supernatant from the anaerobic digester, are pumped to the trickling filter. Both the
B.O.D. and the ammonia are required to produce the right growth of microorganisms on
the media to provide good treatment.
The liquid influent is piped to the spray heads at the top of the trickling filter. The force
of the water causes the spray heads to rotate above the media, acting like a sprinkler and
evenly distributing water across the media.
The influent trickles down through the media. The media is covered with a slime of both
aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. These microorganisms remove the organic
matter from the water. As we have mentioned previously, the microorganisms in a
trickling filter are especially efficient at removing ammonia from the water.
Clarifier, Disinfection, and Aeration

As the water passed through the trickling filter, some of the slime was sloughed off of the
filter bed. In addition, there is still some sludge in the wastewater. These solids are
removed when the water flows from the trickling filter through the secondary clarifier.
The solids are sent to the anaerobic digester.
The supernate from the clarifier (now called effluent) is sent in two directions. Some of
the supernate is re-circulated through the trickling filter to reduce the B.O.D. loading by
watering down the influent. The rest of the clarifier's supernate is chlorinated and de-
chlorinate or passed through a UV light. This disinfection process helps wipe out most of
the microorganisms and the coliform bacteria.
The final part of the treatment process is the step aerator. As the effluent flows over the
step aerator, the dissolved oxygen levels are increased. The water is now ready to be
released into a stream or river.
Recirculation
Factors Influencing Slime Growth
Every organism requires a certain environment in order to grow and thrive. The
microorganisms which make up the slime on a fixed media filter are no exception.
Factors which influence the growth of these microorganisms include pH, concentration of
food, and concentration of oxygen. Their growth can also be restricted by
overpopulation, which will result in a buildup of enzymes and waste in the water and in a
lack of space.
Different microorganisms require different environments. For example, the
microorganisms which are best for B.O.D. removal are most efficient at a pH of
approximately 7, while the microorganisms which remove ammonia are most effective at
a pH of about 8.
Water Recirculation
An important consideration in the operation of a trickling filter is that the microorganisms

(the zoogleal slime) does not move. They just hang onto the media as slime waiting for
the food to trickle by. To give the microorganisms another opportunity to eat food they
missed, operators recycle clarified effluent. This is called recirculation.
Recirculation is used to reduce the organic loading, improve sloughing, reduce odors and
reduce or eliminate filter fly or ponding problems. The amount of recirculation is
dependent on the design of the treatment plant and the operational requirements of the
process. Recirculation flow may be expressed as a specific flow rate (2.5 MGD). In most
cases, it is expressed as ratio (2:1). The recirculation is always listed as the first number
and the influent flow listed as the second number. Since the second number in the ratio is
always 1.0, the ratio is sometimes written as a single number, namely the initial number,
with the 1.0 being dropped.
Trickling filter flows can be recirculated from various points following the filter to
various points before the filter. The most common form of recirculation removes flow
from the filter effluent or settling tank and returns it to the influent of the trickling filter.
Calculations
Total Flow
A number of calculations are useful in the operation of a trickling filter. For example,
along with determining total flow, determining hydraulic loading and organic loading are
also important. For the settling tank, calculating the detention time, surface settling rate,
hydraulic loading, and the sludge pumping rate are important.
The formula below can be used to calculate the total flow, including recirculation:
Total Flow, MGD = Influent Flow (Recirc. Rate + 1.0)

The trickling filter is currently operating with a recirculation rate of 1.5. What is the total
flow applied to the filter when the influent flow rate is 4.25 MGD?
Total Flow, MGD = 4.25 MGD (1.5 + 1.0)
Total Flow = 10.63 MGD
Let's consider a plant with an influent flow of 72 mgd and a recirculation of 0.009. The
total flow would be calculated as follows:
Be sure to convert to the correct units, if necessary. I converted 72 mgd to 72,000,000

gpd.
You may have also noticed that I added 0.009 to 1 before I multiplied the total by
72,000,000 gpd. It is very important to always perform any operation within parenthesis
before simplifying the rest of the equation. Otherwise, you will get the wrong answer.
Hydraulic Loading
Now that you know how to calculate the total flow, you can calculate the hydraulic
loading. Thehydraulic loading is one of the factors which will influence the
performance of the filters. It is defined as the amount of wastewater applied per day over
the surface area of the media. So its units are gallons/day/square foot.
The following formula can be used to calculate the hydraulic loading of a filter, including
recirculation:
Given a total flow of 3 mgd and a filter area of 7,850 ft2, the hydraulic loading would be:
So the hydraulic loading is 382 gpd/ft2.
Organic Loading
The organic loading also influences the performance of the filter. The organic loading is
the amount of B.O.D. applied to the filter per day per volume of filter media. So the units
of organic loading are typically pounds B.O.D./day/1000 ft3 of media.
The organic loading can be calculated using the formula below. This formula does not
include recirculation, so the flow used is the influent flow rather than the total flow.
The B.O.D. is the concentration of B.O.D. in the filter influent. The units of the filter
volume are "1000 ft3", so a filter with a volume of 7,800 ft3 would have to have the units
converted from "ft3" to "1000 ft3". This conversion is accomplished by dividing the filter
volume by 1,000, as shown below:
So let's calculate the organic loading of a 23,500 ft3 filter with an influent B.O.D. of 200
mg/L, and a flow of 3 mgd.
So the organic loading of the filter is 213 lbs/day/1000 ft3.

Review
Fixed media filters use microorganisms attached to a medium, mimicking the water
treatment method of nature in a healthy stream. These filters are very efficient at
removing B.O.D. and ammonia from the water.
The typical wastewater treatment process for trickling filters includes a screen, grit
chamber, comminutor or grinding pump, separator or primary clarifier, trickling filter,
aerobic or anaerobic digester, secondary clarifier, chlorination, dechlorination, and
aeration.
Some cleaned water is recirculated back from the secondary clarifier into the fixed media
filter. This helps control the microorganisms' environment by decreasing the
concentration of food and increasing the D.O. in the water.
New Formulas Used
To calculate total flow:
To calculate hydraulic loading:
To calculate organic loading:
Assignment
Answer the following questions and send in to you instructor. Each question is worth 25
points.
1. The amount of influent flowing into a wastewater treatment plant is 1 mgd. 10%
of the water is recirculated back from the secondary clarifier to the trickling filter.
What is the plant's total flow?
2. The influent flow of a plant is 50 mgd. The total flow is 62 mgd. What percent
of the water is recirculated?
3. Using the total flow of the plant in question 1, and a filter area of 5,000 ft2, what
is the hydraulic loading of the plant?
4. A plant has the following characteristics: B.O.D. of 140 mg/L, influent flow of 5
mgd, recirculation of 5%, filter volume of 20,000 ft3. What is the organic
loading?
Quiz
Lesson 16:
Rotating Biological Contactors
Objective
In this lesson we will answer the following question:

What does Rotating Biological Contactors consist of?
Where are they located in the treatment process?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 7: Rotating Biological Contactors in your
textbookOperation of Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Rotating Biological Contactors
The rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a fixed film biological secondary treatment
device. The basic process is similar to that occurring in the trickling filter. In operation, a
media, consisting of a series of circular disks mounted side by side on a common shaft is
rotated through the wastewater flow.
The surface of the disk is covered with a biological slime similar to that on the media of a
trickling filter. RBC units are usually installed in a concrete tank so that the surface of the
wastewater passing through the tank almost reaches the shaft. This means that about 40%
of the total surface area of the disks is always submerged. The shaft continually rotates at
1 to 2 rpm, and a layer of biological growth 2 to 4 mm thick is soon established on the
wetted surface of each disk. The organisms in the slime assimilate (remove) organic
matter from the wastewater for aerobic decomposition. The disk continues to rotate,
leaving the wastewater and moving through the air. During this time, oxygen is
transferred from the air to the slime. As the slime reenters the wastewater, excess solids
and waste products are stripped off the media as sloughings. These sloughings are
transported with the wastewater flow t a settling tank for removal.
Typically, a single contactor is not sufficient to achieve the desired level of treatment, so
a group of contactors are used in series. Each individual contactor is called a stage and
the group is known as a train. Most RBC systems consist of two or more trains with three
or more stages in each. One major advantage of the RBC system is the level of
nitrification that can be achieved if sufficient stages are provided.
During operation, observations of the RBC movement, slime color, and appearance are
helpful in determining system performance; that is, they can indicate process conditions.
If the unit is covered, observations are usually limited to that portion of the media that
can be viewed through the access door. The following may be observed:
Gray, shaggy slime growth - indicates normal operation

Reddish brown, golden shaggy growth - nitrification
White chalky appearance - high sulfur concentrations
No slime - severe temperature or pH changes
In regard to typical performance, a well-maintained, properly operated RBC typically

produces a high quality effluent with BOD at 8-95% and Suspended Solids Removal at
85-95%. The process may also reduce the levels of organic nitrogen and ammonia
nitrogen significantly if designed for this purpose.
Advantages
Advantages offered by RBCs include:
Short contact periods are required because of the large active surface.
RBCs are capable of handling a wide range of flows.
Sloughed biomass generally has good settling characteristics and can easily be
separated from the waste stream.
Operating costs are low because little skill is required in plant operation.
Short retention time.
Low power requirements.
Elimination of the channeling to which conventional percolators are susceptible.
Low sludge production and excellent process control.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of RBCs include:
Requirement for covering RBC units in northern climates to protect against

freezing.
Shaft bearings and mechanical drive units require frequent maintenance.
Review
The basic process of a RBC is similar to that occurring in the trickling filter. In operation,
a media, consisting of a series of circular disks mounted side by side on a common shaft
is rotated through the wastewater flow. The shaft continually rotates at 1 to 2 rpm, and a
layer of biological growth 2 to 4 mm thick is soon established on the wetted surface of
each disk. The organisms in the slime remove organic matter from the wastewater for
aerobic decomposition. Typically, a single contactor is not sufficient to achieve the
desired level of treatment, so a group of contactors are used in series. Each individual
contactor is called a stage and the group is known as a train. There are many more
advantages to using RBCs than disadvantages.
Assignment
Answer the following questions and send in to your instructor. Each question is worth 25
points. (You will find the answers in your textbook)
1. Describe the rotating biological contactor process and discuss how it works.
2. Why should debris, grit, and suspended solids be removed before the wastewater
being treated reaches the RBC unit?
3. What water quality indicators would you test for in the effluent from an RBC
treatment plant?
4. How do the slime growths (biomass) on the plastic media look under (a) normal
conditions, and (b) abnormal conditions?
Quiz
Lesson 17:
Activated Sludge
Objective

What are the principles of the activated sludge process and the factors that
influence them.
What are the calculations used in the process.
How is it different from the other possible treatment processes available.
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 8: Activated Sludge in your
Lecture
Biological Treatment Processes
To this point the biological systems discussed include trickling filters and rotating
biological contactors. These systems are effective unit processes in treating wastewater.
However, trickling filters and RBCs are termperature sensitive, remove less BOD, and
trickling filters cost more to build than activated sludge systems. Although they are more
expensive to build, the activated sludge systems are much more expensive to operate
because of the need for energy to run pumps and blowers.
Activated Sludge Process
Activated sludge refers to biological treatment processes that use a suspended growth of
organisms to remove BOD and suspended solids. As shown below, the process requires
an aeration tank and a settling tank.
In addition, support equipment, including return pumps, waste pumps, flow measurement
devices for return and waste, as well as equipment to provide aeration (mixers and/or
blowers) is also required.
Note: Activated sludge processes may or may not follow primary treatment. The need for
primary treatment is determined by the process modification selected for use. All
activated sludge systems include a settling tank following the aeration tank.
Primary effluent (or plant influent) is mixed with return activated sludge to form mixed
liquor. The mixed liquor is aerated for a specified length of time. During the aeration the
activated sludge organisms use the available organic matter as food producing stable
solids and more organisms. The suspended solids produced by the process and the
additional organisms become part of the activated sludge. The solids are then separated
from the wastewater in the settling tank. The solids are returned to the influent of the
aeration tank (return activated sludge). Periodically the excess solids and organisms are
removed from the system (waste activated sludge). Failure to remove waste solids will
result in poor performance and loss of solids out of the system over the settling tank
effluent weir.
There are a number of factors that affect the performance of an activated sludge treatment
system. These include:
temperature
return rates
amount of oxygen available
amount of organic matter available
pH
waste rates
aeration time
wastewater toxicity
To obtain desired level of performance in an activated sludge system, a proper balance

must be maintained between the amount of food (organic matter), organisms (activated
sludge) and oxygen (dissolved oxygen).
Activated Sludge Modifications
Many activated sludge process modifications exist. Each modification is designed to

address specific conditions or problems. Such modifications are characterized by
differences in mixing and flow patterns in the aeration basin, and in the manner in which
the microorganisms are mixed with the incoming wastewater.
The major process modifications of the activated sludge process are:
1. conventional
2. tapered aeration
3. complete mix
4. step aeration
5. contact stabilization
6. extended aeration
7. pure oxygen systems
Conventional Modification
This configuration requires primary treatment, has the influent and returned sludge enter
the tank at the head end of the basin, mixing is accomplished by the aeration system, and
provides excellent treatment. On the downside, this modification requires large aeration
tank capacity, higher construction costs, high initial oxygen demand, and is very sensitive
to operation problems, such as bulking.
Tapered Aeration
The tapered aeration system is similar to the conventional activated sludge process. The
major difference is in the arrangement of the diffusers. The diffusers are close together at
the influent end where more oxygen is needed. Toward the other end of the aeration
basin, the spacing of the diffusers is increased.
Step Aeration
In step aeration, the returned sludge is applied at several points in the aeration basin.
Generally, the tank is subdivided into three or more parallel channels with around-the-end
baffles, and the sludge is applied at separate channels or steps. The oxygen demand is
uniformly distributed.
Complete Mix Aeration
In complete mix aeration the influent and the returned sludge are mixed and applied at
several points along the length and width of the basin. The contents are mixed, and the
mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) flows across the tank to the effluent channel. The
oxygen demand and organic loading are uniform along the entire length of the basin.
Contact Stabilization
In contact stabilization, primary treatment is not required. The activated sludge is mixed
with influent in the contact tank where the organics are absorbed by microorganisms. The
MLSS is settled in the clarifier. The returned sludge is aerated in the reaeration basin to
stabilize the organics. The process requires approximately 50% less tank volume and can
be prefabricated as a package plant for flows of 0.05 to 1.0 MGD. On the downside, this
system is more complicated to control because many common control calculations do not
work.
Extended Aeration Activated Sludge
Extended aeration does not require primary treatment. It utilizes a large aeration basin
where a high population of microorganisms is maintained. It is used for small flows from
subdivisions, schools, etc. Prefabricated package plants utilize this process extensively. It
ha a channel inthe shape of a race track, with rotors being used to supply oxygen and
maintain circulation. Typically the process produces high-quality effluent and less
activated sludge. (Oxidation ditch is a variation of extended aeration process).
Pure Oxygen Systems
Oxygen is diffused into covered aeration tanks. A portion of gas is wasted from the tank
to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide. The process is suitable for high-strength
wastes where space may be limited. Special equipment for generation of oxygen is
needed.
Operation
Operation of the activated sludge process requires more operator control than the other
treatment processes discussed. The operator must adjust aeration, return rates and waste
rates to maintain the balance of food, organisms and oxygen. Operators must observe
operation of the aeration basin to check on mixing pattern, type and amount of foam
(normally small amounts of crisp white foam), color of activated sludge (normally dark,
chocolate brown), and odors (normally musty or earth odor). In regard to the settling
tank, observations include flow pattern (normally uniform distribution), settling, amount
and type of solids leaving with the process effluent (normally very clean).
In process control operations, sampling and testing are important. Testing may include
settleability testing to determine the settled sludge volume; suspended solids testing to
determine influent and mixed liquor suspended solids, return activated sludge solids, and
waste activated sludge concentrations; determination of the volatile content of the mixed
liquor suspended solids; dissolved oxygen and pH of the aeration tank; BOD and/or COD
of the aeration tank influent and process effluent; and microscopic evaluation of the
activated sludge to determine the predominant organism.
Activated Sludge Process Control Calculations
Activated sludge process control calculations may include determination of the thiry- and
sixty-minute settled sludge volume (SSV30 and SSV60), sludge volume index (SVI) and
pounds of waste activated sludge removed from the process.
Settled Sludge Volume

Here is a sample problem using the above formula:
A 2,000 mL sample of activated sludge is allowed to settle for thirty minutes. At the end
of the settling time the sludge volume is 1,100 mL. What is the thirty-minute settled
sludge volume (SSV30)?
Sludge Volume Index
Sludge volume index is a quality indicator. It reflects the settling quality of the sludge. As
the SVI increases, the sludge settles slower, does not compact as well, and is likely to
result in more effluent suspended solids.
Here is a sample problem using the formula above:
The sample used in the previous example (SSV) has an MLSS concentration of 2,800
mg/L. What is the SVI?
Waste Activated Sludge
Control of the activated sludge process requires accurate information on te quantity of

solids removed from the process as waste activated sludge.
The operator wastes 0.44 MGD of activated sludge. The waste activated sludge has solids
concentration of 5,840 mg/L. How many pounds of waste activated sludge are removed
from the process?
Review
Activated sludge refers to biological treatment processes that use a suspended growth of
organisms to remove BOD and suspended solids. Primary effluent (or plant influent) is
mixed with return activated sludge to form mixed liquor. The mixed liquor is aerated for
a specified length of time. During the aeration the activated sludge organisms use the
available organic matter as food producing stable solids and more organisms. The
suspended solids produced by the process and the additional organisms become part of
the activated sludge. The solids are then separated from the wastewater in the settling
tank. The solids are returned to the influent of the aeration tank (return activated sludge).
Assignment
points.
1. A 1,500 mL sample of activated sludge is allowed to settle for thirty minutes. At

the end of the settling time the sludge volume is 1,240 mL. What is the thirty-
minute settled sludge volume?
2. Calculate the SVI from the problem above if the sample used has an MLSS
concentration of 2,950 mg/L.
3. The operator wastes 0.52 MGD of activated sludge. The waste activated sludge
has solids concentration of 5,975 mg/L. How many pounds of waste activated
sludge are removed from the process?
4. Complete Assignment 17 on Activated Sludge. You may do the Assignment
online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
Quiz
Lesson 18:
Stabilization Ponds
Objective

What are the different types of ponds used in wastewater treatment?
What are the process control calucations needed for pond operation?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 9: Wastewater Stabilization Ponds in your
Lecture
Introduction to Sewage Ponds
Introduction
Ponds are probably one of nature's most economical ways of treating sewage and
producing a highly purified effluent (end product.) The degree of treatment provided by
ponds depends upon the type and number of ponds used. Ponds can be used as the sole
type of water treatment or can be used in conjunction with other forms of wastewater
treatment.
The beginning of this lesson will be concerned with raw sewage stabilization ponds in
particular and with the requirements which must be met when building sewage treatment
ponds in general. The second half of the lesson will consider other types of ponds used in
wastewater treatment.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Ponds have many advantages and disadvantages compared to treatment in plants. Both
have to deal with aeration of the water being treated, but in ponds, oxygen is transferred
directly into the water across the surface area without the need for any equipment. A
plant, in contrast, must install an aerator to add oxygen to the water.
The natural method of aeration used by a sewage pond takes much longer than an aerator
does to add oxygen to the water. As a result, ponds treat sewage much more slowly than
package plants do. The minimum detention time of a pond is 45 days . In contrast, a
package plant has a two to four hourdetention time. And, since ponds must hold the
wastewater much longer than package plants do, the ponds must also have a much larger
area to retain the sewage.
If the time and area are available, sewage ponds are very economical facilities to
maintain. Package plants require frequent monitoring for various parameters such as
ammonia and B.O.D. In contrast, ponds require only one visit per day to monitor pH and
D.O.
Requirements
Sewage ponds are very simple to construct. A bulldozer is used to remove soil from the
ground and create a basin in which water can collect. However, the pond and
surrounding area must be planned in such a way that the human and natural environments
surrounding the pond are not damaged.
The first requirement of a sewage pond is that it must be surrounded by a berm (a mound
or wall of earth) or an embankment (a raised structure to hold back the water, such as
that shown in the photograph at the beginning of this lesson). The berm or embankment
prevents storm water from running into the pond. Without a berm, a heavy storm could
cause the sewage pond to overflow and send untreated sewage out into the surrounding
area.
The soil in which a pond is built must be impermeable. This will prevent the sewage
from being absorbed into the ground and from leaking pollutants into the area.
A pond must be completely fenced to keep unwanted visitors out. In addition, the area
around the fence must be mowed to keep out vermin which could dig holes into the sides
of the pond. Tree growth must be restricted near the pond since roots could enter the
pond and provide a way for sewage to escape if the trees died.
Sewage ponds must be encircled by a windbreak, which usually consists of a row of pine
trees. The windbreak will prevent the pond's odors from disturbing the nearby residents
and will also make the area aesthetically pleasing.
The depth of the pond is another important factor. The pond must be greater than two
feet deep at all parts to exclude plant growth. Plants growing at the edge of a pond will
create areas of still water in which mosquitoes will lay their eggs. But at depths of over
six feet, anaerobic conditions occur, so regulations stipulate that the depth of a sewage
pond can be no more than 5 feet.
Health of the Surrounding Environment
The final requirement which must be met when constructing sewage ponds is to be
sensitive to any streams or rivers into which the effluent from the pond will be released.
This entails knowing the classification of the stream, whether the stream contains any
endangered species, and whether there are any existing contaminants in the stream.
One way of protecting the surrounding environment is by adding a finishing pond.

A finishing pond , also known as a polishing pond , is like a finishing school - it
prepares the water to go out into the world. The finishing pond is installed between the
sewage pond and the stream as shown below.
One of the largest problems when water is released directly from a sewage pond into a
stream is algae. Sewage ponds are perfect environments for these one-celled plants.
Food is readily available, as is moisture and sunlight, so algae grow quickly and become
quite numerous.
When water from a sewage pond, rich in algae, is released directly into a stream the
stream can be harmed. The large quantities of algae use up the water's oxygen at night or
during an algal bloom(when the algae reproduce very quickly). Without the oxygen they
need to survive, the fish in the stream die.
A finishing pond can eliminate this problem. Finishing ponds are usually stocked with
fish, such as carp, which eat the algae in the water. Finishing ponds also allow the quality
of the effluent to be monitored before it is released into the stream. As a result, streams
being fed by finishing ponds tend to be healthier than those fed directly from sewage
ponds.
Types of Ponds by Location
Introduction
Ponds can be classified based upon their location in the wastewater treatment process and
on what type of waste they receive.
Whether wastewater is being treated in a pond or in another type of treatment facility, it

follows the same general path. First, the water passes through a series
of pretreatment processes including screening and shredding the sewage. Next, the
wastewater receives primary treatment which allows some of the solid matter to settle
out. From primary treatment, the wastewater moves to secondary treatment where
biological processes convert the remaining organic matter into a form which is easier to
remove from the wastewater. Treatment may stop after secondary treatment or may
continue withtertiary treatment , which reduces the nutrient content of wastewater to
prevent algae blooms in the body of water into which the effluent will be released.
The raw sewage stabilization pond, which we explored in depth in the last section, is a
primary treatment pond. After water has been treated in a raw sewage stabilization pond
or in some other type of primary treatment facility, the water can move on to an oxidation
pond, which is a type of secondary treatment. Finally, a polishing pond is a type of
tertiary treatment.
These three types of ponds can be used in a series, as shown in the picture above.
Alternatively, they may be used in conjunction with primary, secondary, and tertiary
treatment in a wastewater treatment plant. The wastewater may receive primary
treatment in the treatment plant then receive secondary treatment in an oxidation pond.
Or the wastewater may receive primary and secondary treatment in a treatment plant and
tertiary treatment in a polishing pond.
Raw Sewage Stabilization Pond
The raw sewage stabilization pond is the most common type of pond. It is a primary
treatment facility which receives wastewater which has had no prior treatment (except
screening or shredding.)
Like any other primary treatment facility, the purpose of the raw sewage stabilization
pond is to settle out most of the solids in the water. In addition, aerobic, facultative, and
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter begins in this pond. Oxygen is provided by
diffusion from the surface of the pond and from photosynthesis by the algae in the pond.
All of these processes occur over the minimum 45 day detention time during which the
water stays in the stabilization pond.
As shown in the previous section, the stabilization pond consists of an influent structure,
berms or walls surrounding the pond, and an effluent structure designed to permit
selection of the best quality effluent. The normal operating depth of the pond is 3 to 5
feet.
The raw sewage stabilization pond is designed to receive no more than 50 pounds of
BOD 5 per day per acre. The biochemical oxygen demand , or BOD 5 , is the amount
of organic matter which can be biologically oxidized in 5 days at 20C in the dark. This
is a way of measuring how much organic matter is in the water.
The quality of the water discharged from a stabilization pond will depend on the time of
year. During the summer, the pond removes most of the BOD 5 but not very much of the
suspended solids. In contrast, during winter months, the pond will have poor BOD 5
removal but excellent suspended solids removal. In either case, the water is usually
transferred from the raw sewage stabilization pond to some type of secondary treatment
facility.
Oxidation Pond
Water from the stabilization pond or from primary settling tanks of a treatment plant
flows into theoxidation pond . In this pond, additional settling of solids and biological
treatment of organic matter in the water occurs. Some of the fecal coliform in the water
is also removed.
The oxidation pond is very similar in design to the stabilization pond.
Polishing Pond
We have already dealt with polishing ponds to some extend in the last section. These
ponds, also known as finishing ponds, receive water flowing from the oxidation pond or
from some other secondary treatment systems. Here, additional BOD 5 , solids, fecal
coliform, and some nutrients are removed from the water.
Polishing ponds have a much shorter detention time than stabilization ponds since they
rely entirely on biological processes and no settling occurs here. Water remains in
polishing ponds for only 1 to 3 days. A greater detention time may result in an increased
concentration of suspended solids in the effluent.
In addition, polishing ponds are typically deeper than the other types of ponds, usually
operating at a depth of 5 to 10 feet.
Types of Ponds by Processes
Aerobic Ponds and Aerated Ponds
Ponds can also be classified based on the type of processes occurring within the pond.
The types refer to the three types of respiration which we treated in more depth in the
lesson on oxygen.
An aerobic pond is a pond in which oxygen is present throughout the pond. All
biological activity in the pond is aerobic decomposition. This type of pond is not widely
used because, without some type of aeration, the lower portions of a pond tend to lack
oxygen and to host anaerobic bacteria, as shown in the picture below. This is why the
mud on the bottom of a pond smells like sulphur when it is stirred up. A pond would
have to be very shallow in order to host only aerobic decomposition without any aeration.
One way of maintaining aerobic processes throughout the pond is to add oxygen to the
water using mechanical or diffused air systems. Ponds which add oxygen to the water in
this way are known asaerated ponds . Aerated ponds allow the depth of the pond and/or
the acceptable loading levels to be increased. The mechanical or diffused aeration
systems can be used to supplement natural oxygen production or to replace it.
Facultative Pond
The typical pond shown above, with an aerobic zone near the surface and an anaerobic
zone near the bottom, is a facultative pond. Like a facultative bacteria, a facultative
pond can carry out both aerobic and anaerobic processes based on the presence or
absence of oxygen. This is the most common type of pond.
Oxygen is present in the upper portions of the pond, so aerobic processes occur here.
there is no oxygen present in the lower levels of the pond, so the processes here are
anaerobic or anoxic (lacking sufficient oxygen.)
The facultative pond must have a balance between photosynthesis and aerobic
decomposition as shown in the picture below.
Oxygen is added to the water in two ways. The wind and the surface area prompt oxygen
to diffuse into the water from the air. Algae also produce oxygen during photosynthesis
when the sun is present.
The oxygen is then used up by bacteria in the aerobic portion of the pond. These bacteria
use oxygen to break down organic matter suspended in the water. In turn, the bacteria
produce the carbon dioxide which the algae use in photosynthesis.
Some of the solids settle to the bottom of the pond. These solids are broken down by
anaerobic bacteria which produce methane or hydrogen sulfide.
Anaerobic Pond
The final type of pond is the anaerobic pond . No oxygen is present in this type of pond,
so all biological activity within an anaerobic pond is anaerobic decomposition.
Wastewater is not usually treated in anaerobic ponds, but these ponds are used to treat
high strength industrial wastes.
Pond Process Control Calculations
Wastewater operators and treatment managers use various process control operations to
determine the state of operation (status) of the pond. These operations include
determining pond area, pond volume, flow rate, hydraulic detention, hydraulic loading,
population loading, and organic loading.
Pond Area in Acres
Pond Volume in Acre Feet

Flow Rate in Acre-feet/Day
Hydraulic Detention Time, Days
Normally in the range of 30-120 days
Hydraulic Loading, inches/day
Organic Loading
Review
When compared with other wastewater treatment systems involving biological treatment,
a pond treatment system is the simplest to operate and maintain. Pond operation and
maintenance activities include collecting and testing samples for dissolved oxygen and
pH, removing weeds and other debris (scum) from the pond, mowing the berms, repairing
erosion, and removing burrowing animals. Dissolved oxygen and pH levels in the pond
will vary throughout the day. Normal operation will result in very high dissolved oxygen
and pH levels due to the natural processes occurring.
The three types of ponds based on location within the treatment process are raw sewage
stabilization pond (primary treatment), oxidation pond (secondary treatment), and
polishing or finishing pond (tertiary treatment). The four types of ponds based on type of
respiration are aerobic pond (oxygen present throughout the pond; aerobic respiration),
aerated pond (oxygen artificially introduced; aerobic respiration), facultative pond
(oxygen present in upper portions of the pond; aerobic and anaerobic respiration), and
anaerobic pond (no oxygen present; anaerobic respiration; used to treat high strength
industrial wastes).
Assignment
Complete Assignment 18 on Stabilization Ponds. You may do the Assignment online to

get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
Quiz
Lesson 19:
Disinfection
Objective

What is disinfection?
What methods can be used to disinfect water?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 10: Disinfection and Chlorination in your
Lecture
Introduction to Disinfection
Control of Waterborne Diseases
As mentioned, wastewatr contains many types of human enteric organisms that are
associated with various waterborne diseases. Typhoid, cholera, paratyphoid, and bacillary
dysentery are caused by bacteria and amebic dysentery is caused by
protozoa. Disinfection refers to selective destruction of disease-causing organisms in the
water supply or in wastewater effluent.
Wastewater, after secondary treatment to remove BOD and solids, may still contain large
numbers of microorganisms. Some of these organisms may be pathogenic and may cause
epidemics if discharged to receiving waters. Wastewater treatment must reduce the
possibility of this happening. As with other steps of treatment, there are many processes
available to achieve disinfection. The most widely used process is chlorination. Other
processes include ultra-violet (UV) light, ozonation, and bromine chloride additions.
Chlorination of the water supply has been practiced since about 1850. Presently,
chlorination of both water supply and wastewater effluent is an extremely widespread
practice for the control of waterborne diseases. However, chlorination may result in the
formation of chlorinated hydrocarbons, some of which are known to be carcinogenic.
Therefore, either dechlorination or alternate methods of disinfection are used. Only the
chlorination process is discussed in this lesson.
Chlorination
Chlorination, which follows all other steps of treatment, reduces the population of
organisms in the wastewater to levels low enough to ensure that pathogenic organisms
will not be present in sufficient quantities to cause disease when the wastewater is
discharged.
In use, chlorine is added to the wastewater to satisfy all chemical demands. When these
initial chemical demands have been satisfied, chlorine will react with substances such as
ammonia to produce chloramines and other substances which, although not as effective as
chlorine, have disinfecting capability. This produces a combined residual that can be
measured using residual chlorine test methods. If additional chlorine is added, free
residual chlorine can be produced. Due to the chemicals typically found in wastewater,
chlorine residuals are normally combined rather than free residuals. Control of the
disinfection process is usually based on maintaining total residual chlorine of at least 1.0
mg/L for a contact time of at least 30 minutes at design flow.
Certain factors affect the disinfection process. These include residual level, contact time,
and/or effluent quality. Failure to maintain the desired residual levels for the required
contact time will result in lower efficiency and increased probability that disease
organisms will be discharged.
Chlorination Chemicals
Chorine used in the disinfection process normally is in the form of hypochlorite (similar
to that used for home swimming pools) or free chlorine gas.
Chlorine Gas
Chlorine can be added to the water as a gas. Once the chlorine enters the water, it
produces hypochlorous acid (NaOH) and the disinfectant HOCl. This is the most
concentrated form of chlorine, being 99.9% concentrated.
Chlorine gas is difficult to handle since it is toxic, heavy, corrosive, and an irritant.
Hypochlorites and Bleaches
Chlorine can also come in a liquid form, known as hypochlorite or bleach . These
liquids work in the same general method as chlorine gas, by producing the disinfectant
HOCl. They are all much less concentrated than chlorine gas.
Hypochlorites have the disadvantage that they may decompose in strength over time
while in storage. Temperature, light, and physical energy can all break down the
hypochlorites before they are able to react with pathogens in water.
We will discuss three types of hypochlorites below - sodium hypochlorite, calcium

hypochlorite, and commercial bleach.
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is up to 12% chlorine. Like chlorine gas, it produces

NaOH and HOCl when introduced to water.
You may remember calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2 ), also known as HTH, from the
water treatment portion of this course. This is the type of chlorine which is used in
swimming pools. Calcium hypochlorite is 65-70% concentrated.
The concentration of commercial bleach varies depending on the brand. Chlorox bleach
is 5% chlorine while some other brands are 3.5% concentrated.
Chloramines
When hypochlorites are mixed with ammonia, the result is a chloramine . The ammonia
and chlorine are mixed at a ratio of 4:5 to 1.
Chloramines are weaker than chlorine, but are more stable, so they are often used as the
disinfectant in the distribution lines of water treatment systems. Despite their stability,
chloramines can be broken down by bacteria, heat, and light.
Chloramines are effective at killing bacteria and will also kill some protozoans, but they
are very ineffective at killing viruses.
Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide , ClO2 , is a very effective form of chlorination since it will kill
protozoans, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and viruses that other systems may not kill. In
addition, chlorine dioxide oxidizes all metals and organic matter, converting the organic
matter to carbon dioxide and water.
Chlorine dioxide is generated on site, and it has the disadvantages that it is very costly
and requires a great deal of technical expertise. The operator must monitor the chlorite in
a chlorine dioxide system.
Chlorine dioxide also has other disadvantages. It is dangerous around activated carbon, it
can produce odors, and it is corrosive.
Types of Disinfection
In the past, wastewater treatment practices have principally relied on the use of chlorine
for disinfection. The prevalent use of chlorine has come about because chlorine is an
excellent disinfecting chemical and, until recently, has been available at a reasonable cost.
However, the rising cost of chlorine coupled with the chemical's toxicity to fish and other
biota and the production of potentially harmful chlorinated hydrocarbons has made
chlorination less favored as the disinfectant of choice in wastewater treatment.
As a result, future wastewater treatment may see an increased use of ozone or ultraviolet
(UV) light. Both types of treatment are effective disinfecting agents and leave no toxic
residual. In addition, ozone will raise the dissolved oxygen level of water.
The use of both UV light and ozone as disinfectants will be considered individually.
However, since chlorine continues to be used extensively as a disinfectant, we will
mainly be concerned with the practice of chlorination.
Other Methods of Disinfection
Ozone
Oxygen in the air (O2) is composed of two oxygen molecules. Under certain conditions,
three oxygen molecules can be bound together instead, forming ozone (O3).
Ozone has many advantages as a disinfectant. It kills all pathogenic organisms by a

direct effect on their DNA. Disinfection occurs 30,000 times faster than with chlorine, so
a prolonged contact time is unnecessary. There is no harmful residual left in the system.
The disadvantages of an ozone disinfection system are a corrosive nature, a high cost for
the initial set-up, and a high electricity consumption.
UV Light
Ultraviolet, or UV, light is light outside the range usually detectable by the human eye.
It can be used to deactivate protozoans so that they can't reproduce and to significantly
reduce the bacteria in water.
The primary disadvantage of UV light is a high operating cost. In addition, anything

which blocks UV light from reaching the water will result in a lack of treatment.
Process Control Calculations
There are several calculations that are useful in operating a chlorination system. These
include chlorine feed rate, chlorine dose, and chlorine demand.
Chlorine Feed Rate
Here is an example using the equation above:
The chorine dose is 7.25 mg/L and the flow rate is 3.25 MGD. What is the feed rate for
chlorine in pounds per day?
Chlorine Dose
Here is an example using the equation above:
The scale indicates that the plant has used 332 pounds of chlorine during the past twenty-
four hours. The flow for the same period was 5.27 MGD. What is the dose of chlorine
applied to the wastewater in milligrams/liter?
Chlorine Demand
Demand, mg/L = Dose, mg/L - Residual, mg/L

Here is an exaple using the equation above:
If the chlorine residual for the previous example was 1.3 mg/L, what was the chlorine
demand?
Demand, mg/L = 7.6 mg/L - 1.3 mg/L
Demand, mg/L = 6.3 mg/L
Review
Disinfection is the act of killing the pathogenic organisms in water. This prevents the
spread of waterborne diseases.
Chlorination is the most widespread form of disinfection. Chlorine can be added to water
in various forms - chlorine gas, hypochlorites and bleaches, chloramines, and chlorine
dioxide.
Use of ozone and UV light for disinfection may become more widespread in the future as
a result of the many disadvantages of chlorine.
Assignment
points.
1. The chlorine dose is 6.58 mg/L and the flow rate is 2.85 MGD. What is the feed
rate for chlorine in pounds per day?
2. The scale indicates that the plant has used 275 pounds of chlorine during the past
24 hours. The flow for the same period was 4.85 MGD. What is the dose of
chlorine applied to the wastewater in mg/L?
3. If the chlorine residual for the previous problem was 1.8, what was the chlorine
demand?
4. Complete Assignment 19 on Disinfection and Chlorination. You may do the
Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
Quiz

Lessons in Water Treatment and Distribution

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Lessons Index

Using Operation of Water Treatment Plants Volume I

Lesson 1: Introduction to Water Treatment

Tips for Exam 1

Using Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I

Lesson 12: Overview of the Wastewater Treatment Process

Tips for Exam 2

Introduction to Water Treatment

In this lesson we will learn about the following concepts:

Evapotranspiration is water evaporating from the ground and transpiration by plants.

Introduction to Water Treatment

In this lesson we will learn the following:

What types of water supplies are available for consumption.

There are two main water supplies: surface and ground.

Surface Water Supply

Lentic Water Supplies

Lotic Water Supplies

Rivers, streams and springs are lotic water supplies.

Underground water is supposed to be the purest form of natural water. Sometimes, it is so

Whenever an aquifer or an underground channel reaches the ground surface such as a

Underground water is supposed to be the purest form of natural water. Sometimes, it is so

In this lesson we will answer the following questions:

The Importance of Watersheds

Potable Water Treatment

Waste Water Treatment

Watershed Boundaries and Contamination

As I mentioned previously, there are three watersheds on the property at Mountain

Another example of the effect of distance and greater volume on dispersing

Defining Watershed Boundaries on a Topographical Map

Responding to Contamination in Your Watershed

As a plant operator, you need to have an understanding of what potential sources of

Other Watershed Problems

Send the following assignment to the instructor:

1. View the following topo map section and print it out.

In this lesson we will answer the following questions:

Overview of the Process

Location in the Treatment Plant

In this lesson, we will primarily be concerned with the theory behind

The primary purpose of the coagulation/flocculation process is the removal of turbidity

In addition to removing turbidity from the water, coagulation and flocculation is

The end product of a well-regulated coagulation/flocculation process is water in which

The chemistry of coagulation and flocculation is primarily based on

Negatively charged particles repel each other due to electricity.

Positively charged coagulants attract to negatively

Neutrally charged particles attract due to van der Waal's forces.

Primary coagulants are always used in the coagulation/flocculation process. Coagulant

Chemically, coagulant chemicals are either metallic salts (such as alum) or

*Used as a primary coagulant only in water softening processes.

Factors Influencing Coagulation

The effectiveness of a coagulant is generally pH dependent. Water with a color will

Improper coagulation related to coagulant may result from:

Using old chemicals

Common Coagulation and Flocculation Problems

Coagulation/flocculation is a process used to remove turbidity, color, and some bacteria

Alabama Department of Environmental Management. 1989. Water Works Operator

Belmont Water Treatment Association. 1997. Coagulation.

3. Complete Assignment 4 on Coagulation and Flocculation. You may do the

Photo Credit: Virginia Department of Health

In this lesson we will answer the following questions:

How does sedimentation fit into the water treatment process?

Most water treatment plants include sedimentation in their treatment processes.

Location in the Treatment Process

While sedimentation following coagulation/flocculation is meant to remove most of the