Compass Work

Magnetism of the Earth and the Ships Deviation

Theory of magnetism as applied to ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials are those in which each molecule has a substantial magnetic moment.
The molecular fields interact and the crystalline structure of the materials is such that groups of
molecules become aligned over regions, which are called domains. If a bar of such material is
subjected to an impressed/inducing field, the domains tend to realign themselves with the field.
The degree of alignment depends upon the structure of the material and the strength of the
inducing field. When the maximum alignment has occurred the material is said to be
magnetically saturated and further increases in the inducing field will evoke no further
contribution from the molecular fields.
Ferromagnetism is a strong effect and permeabilities are much greater than 1.
Above a certain temperature, thermal agitation of the molecules is sufficient to prevent the
formation of domains and ferromagnetic materials at normal temperatures may be made to
exhibit ferromagnetic properties if cooled sufficiently.
This is the temperature to which a Flinders bar and or spherical bar and or spherical correctors
are raised and then cooled slowly to get rid of any magnetism induced in them.

Any piece of metal on becoming magnetized will develop regions of concentrated magnetism
called poles.
Any such magnet will have at least two poles of opposite polarity.
Magnetic force (flux) lines connect one pole of such a magnet with the other pole.
The number of such lines per unit area represents the intensity of the magnetic field in that area.
If two such magnetic bars or magnets are placed close to each other, the like poles will repel each
other and the unlike poles will attract each other. The force between magnetic poles being
directly proportional to the strength of the poles and inversely proportional to the distance
between them.
A unit pole is that which is associated with a magnetic flux of 1 weber ().
Magnetic moment (M) is the product of the pole strength and the length of a magnet, thus,
M = 2 L (Where L = half length of magnet)
Unit field strength is that which exerts a force of one Newton on a pole of strength 1 weber. The
unit of field strength is the ampere per metre. Normally field strength is denoted by H but for
magnetism H is reserved for the horizontal componenet of the Earths field.
The field stength (H) at a point distant d metres from a magnetic pole of strength units is
given by:
H = ( / d2) x 106 / 16
The field strength at a point end on to a short bar magnet at a distance of d from its centre is:
H = (2M / 3) x (106 / 16)
And the field strength at a point broadside on to a short bar magnet at a distance d is:
H = (M / d3) x (106 / 16)
Thus we see the effect of a corrector magnet of constant magnetic moment in a binnacle varies
inversely as the cube of its distance from the compass needles irrespective of whether the magnet
is end on or broadside on to the compass.
Magnetism can be either permanent or induced.

A bar having permanent magnetism will retain its magnetism when it is removed from the
magnetizing field.
Whether or not a bar will retain its magnetism on removal from the magnetizing field will
depend on:
The strength of that field,
The degree of hardness of the iron (retentivity), and also
Upon the amount of physical stress applied to the bar while in the magnetizing field.
The harder the iron, the more permanent will be the magnetism acquired

Magnetic induction and differences between hard and soft iron

Soft Iron: A bar of ferromagnetic material placed in a magnetic field becomes induced with
magnetism. If the material is easily magnetised, but loses most of its magnetism when removed
from the inducing field, it is said to be magnetically soft. Such materials usually, but not
necessarily, have high have high permeabilities and are mechanically soft.
Hard Iron: is a ferromagnetic material which is not easily magnetised by an inducing field, but
which retains a substantial proportion of its magnetism when the inducing field is removed. Such
material usually, but not necessarily, has lower permeability and is mechanically hard.
A uniformly magnetised bar has a pole approximately one twelfth of the length from each end
and gives rise to a magnetic field.

Intensity of magnetisation:
This is the Flux density established within a material due to its own magnetism.
It is related to pole strength and magnetic moment in uniform bar magnets.
Thus, the pole strength (_) is the total flux within a magnet and the flux density is therefore this
quantity divided by the cross sectional area (A) of the magnet.
Permeability
Is the ratio between the induction and the strength of the field in which the object lies or the
number of lines of force per square cm inside the object divided by the number of lines of force
per square cm outside the object.
It is also the ratio between the force that would be exerted on a unit pole inside and the force that
would be exerted on a unit pole outside.
It is therefore the number of gauss produced by 1 oersted.
Susceptibility
Magnetic susceptibility: This is the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation in a material (J) to the
flux density of an inducing field of strength.
Absolute susceptibility is sometimes used instead of the relative susceptibility as defined above.
It compares the intensity of magnetization with the strength of the inducing field rather than with
its flux density.
Terrestrial Magnetism
Consider the earth as a huge magnet surrounded by magnetic flux lines. connecting its two
magnetic poles.
These magnetic poles are near, but not coincidental with, the earths geographic poles.
Since the north-seeking end of a compass needle is conventionally called the North Pole, or
positive pole, it must therefore be attracted to a South Pole, or negative pole.
The flux lines enter the surface of the earth at different angles to the horizontal, at different
magnetic attitudes.
This angle is called the angle of magnetic dip, q, and increases from 0, at the magnetic
equator, to 90 at the magnetic poles.
The direction of the earths total field T at any point lies in the plane of the magnetic meridian
and is inclined to the horizontal by the angle of dip.
The total magnetic field is generally considered as having two components:
H, the horizontal component; and
Z, the vertical component.
These components change as the angle q, changes, such that:
H is maximum at the magnetic equator and decreases in the direction of either pole;
Z is zero at the magnetic equator and increases in the direction of either pole
Magnetic variation

Since the
magnetic poles
of the earth do
not coincide
with the
geographic
poles, a compass
needle in line
with the earths
magnetic field
will not indicate
true north, but
magnetic north.
The angular
difference
between the true
meridian (great
circle connecting the geographic poles) and the magnetic meridian (direction of the lines of
magnetic flux) is called VARIATION
This VARIATION has different values at different locations on the earth.
These values of magnetic variation may be found on a Variation Chart, on pilot charts, and, on
the compass rose of navigational charts.
The VARIATION for most given areas undergoes an annual change, the Lines joining through
places on a chart having the same value of variation are called Isogonic Lines.
Lines drawn through places where the variation is zero are called Agonic Lines.

A compass needle which is constrained to the horizontal can respond only to the horizontal
components H of the earths total field and the field due to the ships magnetism
Here is a representation of the earths total field T as resolved into horizontal H and vertical Z
components:

Ships Magnetism
A ship under construction or major repair will acquire permanent magnetism due to hammering
and vibration while being stationary in the earths magnetic field.
After launching, the ship will lose some of this original magnetism as a result of vibration and
pounding in varying magnetic fields, and will eventually reach a more or less stable magnetic
condition.
The magnetism, which remains, is the permanent magnetism of the ship.
The fact that a ship has permanent magnetism does not mean that it cannot also acquire induced
magnetism when placed in the earths magnetic field.
The magnetism induced in any given piece of soft iron is a function of:
The field intensity,
The alignment of the soft iron in that field, and
The physical properties and dimensions of the iron.
This induced magnetism may add to, or subtract from, the permanent magnetism already present
in the ship, depending on how the ship is aligned in the magnetic field.
The softer the iron, the more readily it will be magnetized by the earths magnetic field, and the
more readily it will give up its magnetism when removed from that field.
The magnetism in the various structures of a ship, which tends to change as a result of sailing,
vibration, or ageing, but which does not alter immediately so as to be properly termed induced
magnetism, is called sub- permanent magnetism.
This magnetism, at any instant, is part of the ships permanent magnetism, and consequently
must be corrected by permanent magnet correctors.
It is the principal cause of deviation changes on a magnetic compass.
Thus when we refer to permanent magnetism the reference is to the apparent permanent
magnetism, which includes the existing permanent, and sub-permanent magnetism. and sub-
permanent magnetism.
A ship, then, has a combination of permanent, sub-permanent, and induced magnetism
Therefore, the ships apparent permanent magnetic condition is subject to change from excessive
shocks, welding, and vibration.
The ships induced magnetism will vary with the earths magnetic field strength and with the
alignment of the ship in that field.
Magnetic Adjustment Magnetic Adjustment
A rod of soft iron, in a plane parallel to the earths horizontal magnetic field, H, will have a north
pole induced in the end toward the north geographic pole and a south pole induced in the end
toward the south geographic pole.
This same rod in a horizontal plane, but at right angles to the horizontal earths field, would have
no magnetism induced in it, because its alignment in the magnetic field is such that there will be
no tendency toward linearmagnetisation, and the rod is of negligible cross section.
Should the rod be aligned in some horizontal direction between those headings which create
maximum and zero induction, it would be induced by an amount which is a function of the angle
of alignment.
If a similar rod is placed in a vertical position in northern latitudes so as to be aligned with the
vertical earths field Z, it will have a south pole induced at the upper end and a north pole
induced at the lower end.
These polarities of vertical induced magnetisation will be reversed in southern latitudes. The
amount of horizontal or vertical induction in such rods, or in ships whose construction is
equivalent to combinations of such rods, will vary with the intensity of H and Z, heading and
heel of the ship.
The magnetic compass must be corrected for the vessels permanent and induced magnetism so
that its operation approximates that of a completely nonmagnetic vessel. Ships magnetic
conditions create magnetic compass deviations and sectors of sluggishness and unsteadiness.

Magnetic Compass
Construction of a liquid card magnetic compass
Keeping the card practically horizontal in all latitudes
The weight of the card and magnets is supported partly by the buoyancy and partly by an iridium
point fitting into a sapphire bearing.

The point of support is above the centre of gravity of the card, so that the card remains
substantially horizontal in all latitudes.

Composition of the liquid and explains how allowance is made for changes in volume of the
liquid
The bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water and pure ethyl alcohol thereby making the
mixture to have the following properties:
Low freezing point about -30C
Small coefficient of expansion
Does not discolour the card
Low relative density about 0.93
The top of the bowl is of transparent glass. The bottom is of frosted glass to diffuse the light
coming from an electric bulb below. This liquid has a small coefficient of expansion, but since its
volume changes slightly with change of temperature, a flexible corrugated plate or expansion
chamber is fitted to the bowl.

Removing Air Bubbles

Air bubbles often appear in a compass bowl. If the bubble is quite small it is preferred that it be
left alone. However if the bubble is too large then the frictionless movement of the card would be
affected, thus the need to remove the air bubble or at least to reduce it to quite a small one.
To remove the air bubble, first the gimbals are locked with the swivel plates provided. Next the
bowl is inverted and the filling hole is unscrewed. A syringe is filled with distilled water and
slowly the water is injected into the bowl. An estimate of the bubble size would give an
indication of the extra fluid that has to be injected, if the same is not possible then the bowl has
to be tilted in the inverted condition such that the highest point is the filling hole, this would
drive the air space (bubble to the filling hole. Once the water is injected to satisfaction the filling
hole is screwed back, and the bowl returned to normal position, and the gimbals unlocked.
Checking that the card is turning freely on its pivot.
The compass card may be tested for pivot friction by deflecting the compass cards a few degrees.
If the pivot is in good condition the card should return to and settle in its original position with
no sign of sticking or jerkiness.
Marking of the lubber line and its purpose
LUBBERS ( LUBBER (clumsy fellow) LINE: The mark on the binnacle, which is brought to
meet the desired point on the compass card.
The lubbers line marks the direction of the fore and aft line of the ship.
So called because a real seaman can do without it.
Binnacle and the arrangement of correcting devices provided
The binnacle is a cylindrical container made of teakwood. No magnetic material is used in the
construction. The compass bowl is slung inside the top portion of the binnacle. The middle
portion is accessible by a door and contains an electric bulb. Light from this bulb passes upwards
through a small slot at the bottom of the compass bowl to illuminate the compass card from
below.
A mechanical shutter can control the intensity of the light. The number of magnets in the bucket,
the buckets position with reference to the compass card and the number of hard iron magnets
depend on the disturbing forces. A qualified compass adjuster can calculate this force after
conducting certain tests.
Once the compass has been adjusted, the magnets should not be disturbed and the doors giving
access to tile corrector magnets should be kept
locked.
Deviation and how it is named
Deviation is defined as deflection right or left of the magnetic meridian.
On a lifeboat (fibreglass) the lifeboat compass magnet is affected only by the Earths magnetic
field. As such the LBs course would be the magnetic course affected only by the variation
caused by the earths magnetism.
And the North of the LB compass would be the Magnetic North.
For a ships magnetic compass however the compass magnet is affected by the Earths magnetic
field as well as by the magnetic field caused by the magnetism of the ships hull. The ships hull
becomes a huge magnet due to the repeated high current used in fabricating the ship.
Thus the ships magnetic compass would show a different North than either the True North or the
Magnetic North this is called compass North. The difference between the Magnetic North and
the Compass North is known as Deviation. If the compass North is west of the Magnetic North
then the deviation is termed West and if the compass north is to the East of the Magnetic North
then the deviation is termed as East. is termed as East.
Care in the placing of portable items of magnetic material, including spare corrector magnets,
or electrical equipment in the vicinity of compasses
Since the magnetic compass is affected by magnetic fields, all Ferro magnetic material if brought
close to a magnetic compass will slowly be magnetised (over a period of time), this material may
later exert a magnetic field on the compass magnet.
Similarly any electrical wiring will produce a electrical field which will exert its influence on the
magnet of the compass. This is the reason all electrical/electronic bridge equipment like Radars
electrical/electronic bridge equipment like Radars etc come with a compass safe distance
marked on them.
Need for regular checking of the compass error
Due to change in latitude, course and speed the compass error should be taken at regular
intervals.

Compass error should be checked after a major alteration of course

After alteration of course the gyro as well as the magnetic compass error should be taken. This
since both are affected differently, errors on different headings should be taken.
Regular comparisons of standard compass, steering compass and gyrocompass should be
made
Comparisons between magnetic compass and gyrocompass should be made once a watch and
after every alteration of course.
All the repeaters should be compared with the Master gyrocompass and the Magnetic compass
should be compared with the Master Gyrocompass.
So that while taking bearings the error if any may be applied.
Since the gyro is based on the electrical current fed to the gyroscope any earthing of the supply
would result in the gyro spinning less than at optimum speed and thus errors may creep in.
Also the synchro motors for the repeaters may sometimes slow down resulting in errors of the
repeaters.
The sphere does not give any warning before it slows down so it is always better to compare
before the watch and after every alteration to a new course.
Gyro Compass may be used to approximate the error of the magnetic compass
Since the gyro compass basically works on the principle of the torque required to tilt a spinning
wheel from its position of rest and that the earths tilt does not vary sufficiently in a short time
period, the gyro compass is more stable and is less affected by local magnetism as well as the
ships inherent magnetism. Whereas the magnetic compass is affected by the twin factors of
variation and deviation. Variation being sufficiently constant over a short time interval change in
distance the deviation is the major factor in causing error on various headings. Thus a magnetic
compass may be compared with a gyro compass to arrive at a approximate of the error.

Compass Work
Gyro Compass
Free Gyroscope

A wheel at rest A wheel in motion

A Gyroscope consists of a spinning wheel. The important properties of this are its inherent
gyroscopic inertia and precession.
If a spinning wheel is free to turn about two axes at right angles to each other and to the spin
axis, it is said to be a free gyroscope.
A free gyroscope, when spinning rapidly, possesses considerable directional stability
or inertia. That is it has a great resistance to any tendency to change the direction in which its
spin axis lies.
The earth too may be compared to a free gyroscope. The earths spin axis lies in the direction of
the pole star.
A spinning wheel can be made to approximate to a free gyroscope by supporting the spin axis in
gimbals. This way on gimbals the centre of gravity of the wheel lies at the level of the gimbals
axes and so that the pivots are made frictionless.
However due to the placing of this gyroscope on the surface of the earth, it will be moved along
the direction of rotation of the earth. As such the gyroscope will have an apparent motion.
For example, at night if the gyroscope is made to point in the direction of a star, then the
gyroscope will follow the star as the earth rotates and the star apparently moves in the sky.
Precession
If a torque a turning moment, in the plane of the spinning wheel is applied to a gyroscope axis,
the effect is only to increase or decrease the rate of spin. The direction in which the spin axis lies
is unaffected.
If a torque is applied to a gyroscope axis in a plane at right angles to the plane of spin, then the
gyroscope becomes unbalanced. And to restore the balance it moves in a direction at right angles
both to the plane of the spinning wheel and the plane in which the torque is applied.
This movement at right angles to the torque is known as precession.
And a balance is achieved. This in much the same way that a weight swung in a circle on the end
of a string achieves a balance by virtue of its movement at right angles to the string although the
force acting on the weight is along the length of the string.
The direction in which a gyroscope axis moves when a force is applied to it depends upon the
direction in which the wheel is spinning.

The direction of the precession due to a particular torque may be predicted by imagining an
arrow pasted on the gyroscope so as to indicate the direction of the force, which causes the
torque. If the gyroscope wheel is the turned through 90 in the direction of spin, the new position
of the arrow will indicate the direction in which the gyroscope must precess in order to balance
the applied torque.
The rate at which a gyroscope precesses depends upon the weight of the gyroscope wheel and the
way in which the weight is distributed with respect to the axis. That is upon the moment of
inertia (I) of the wheel. The greater the torque (T) applied to the gyroscope axis, the greater the
rate of precession. The faster the rate at which the wheel spins (S), the greater will be its
momentum and the slower will be the rate of precession. Combining the three factors the
following formula is arrived at:
Rate of Precession = T / (S * I)
Northerly speed error
A gyrocompass is made North seeking by a gravity control device which senses any tilting of the
gyro axis due to the Earths rotation. If the axis lies out of the meridian the end which points to
the East is sensed to be tilting upwards and the end which lies to the West is sensed to be tilting
downwards.
The gravity control precesses the gyro axis to seek a position in which the rate of tilting is zero.
The rate of tilting due to the Earths rotation varies as the sine of the azimuth and is therefore
zero when the gyro axis lies in the plane of the meridian.
Course, latitude and speed error arises because a gyro axis is also caused to tilt by the velocity of
a ship over the surface of the Earth.
The East-West component of a ships velocity simply adds to or subtracts from the effect of the
Earths rotation, and acts in the same plane.
The North-South component of the ships velocity causes tilting in a plane at right angles to that
caused by the Earths rotation.
The gyro axis is tilted at a rate (in minutes of arc per hour), which is equal to the North-South
component of a ships speed in knots.
If a ship is on a Northerly course the North end of the gyro axis is tilted upwards. The control
system, being unable to distinguish between tilting due to the ships velocity and that due to the
Earths rotation, precesses the North end of the gyro axis to the West, causing an error of this
name (i.e. West).
For a ship on a Southerly course, the North end of the gyro axis is tilted downwards by the ships
velocity and the control system precesses the North end to the East of the meridian.
For a ship heading North or South on a non-rotating Earth a gyrocompass, seeking a position in
which the rate of tilt was zero, would settle with its axis East-West.
In practice the resultant settling position lies between the meridian which it seeks in response to
the earths rate of tilting - 15x60 cos. Lat. Minutes of arc per hour, and the East-West line which
it seeks in response to the tilting due to the North-South component of a vessels speed (Speed
cos. Course in minutes of arc per hour).
The error (A) may be found from a vector triangle. Since it is a small angle, it is given in radian
measure:
A = S. cos. Course/900 cos. B
(S = speed in knots, B = latitude)
Or in degrees:
A = (S. cos. Co./900 cos. B) x (180/)
A = S. cos. Co./5 cos. B
In the above the East-West component of a vessels velocity is small compared to the rotation of
the earth and is therefore neglected.
The name of the error is Westerly for ships on Northerly headings and Easterly for ships on
Southerly headings.
Rate of precession:
The rate of precession of the gyro axis is proportional to the applied torque. It is also inversely
proportional to the gyroscopic inertia of the rotor, which is expressed by the angular momentum
possessed by the rotor.
Thus
Precession Applied torque / Angular momentum
PT/H
Tilt
If a free gyroscope is situated on the equator and lies with its axis East West and horizontal, it
can be assumed of as pointing to a star with zero declination and is about to rise.
The East End of the gyroscope axis will follow the movement of this star and will tilt upwards as
the star rises.
After nearly six hours the axis will be vertical and after nearly twelve hours the gyroscope will
have turned completely over with the axis again horizontal but now the original East end of the
axis would be pointing to the star setting due West.
After one sidereal day, the gyroscope would have tilted through 360 and the star would again be
rising.
This rate of tilting of 360 in a day is a rate of 15 per hour.
If the gyroscope had been situated on the equator with its axis lying in the North South
direction, then the North end would be pointing towards the Pole star and would then have no
apparent movement relative to the Earth.
The rate of tilting thus varies from zero when the axis is lying North South to a maximum
when it is lying East West. That is the rate of tilting varies as the Sine of the Azimuth.
A free gyroscope situated at a pole with its axis horizontal would have an apparent turntable
motion due to the Earths rotation.
That is it would follow a fixed star around the horizon but it would not rise or set.
The rate of tilting thus varies from a maximum when the latitude is 0 to zero when the latitude is
90. That is the rate of tilting varies as the Cosine of the Latitude.
The following formula gives the rate of tilting of a free gyroscope at any instant, but note that the
rate is constantly changing and the value given by this formula cannot be taken over a
considerable period of time.
Rate of tilting in degrees per hour = 15 sine Azimuth * cosine Latitude
The direction of tilting is such that the end of the gyroscope axis, which lies to the East of the
meridian, tilts upwards and the end of the axis, which lies to the West of the meridian tilts
downward.
Drift
Drift is the apparent movement of a gyroscope in azimuth.
A free gyroscope situated at the North Pole with its axis horizontal will have an apparent
movement, which is entirely in the horizontal plane.
Its axis will appear to move in a clockwise direction when viewed from above. This would be
due to the real counter clockwise rotation of the earth beneath.
This circular motion causes the gyroscope to drift through 360 in one sidereal day.
That is at a rate of 15 per hour.
A free gyroscope situated at the equator with its axis horizontal will not drift at all, irrespective
of whether its axis is set in the North South or East West line.
The rate of drift for a gyroscope with its axis horizontal thus varies from a maximum at the poles
to zero at the equator.
That is the rate of drift varies as the sine of the latitude. For a free gyroscope with its axis
horizontal:
Rate of Drift in degrees per hour = 15 sine Latitude
The direction of drift depends upon hemisphere so that the North end of a horizontal gyroscopic
axis drifts to the eastwards in the Northern hemisphere but to the Westwards in the Southern
hemisphere.
Gravity Control
A free gyroscope may be made North seeking by attaching a weight to the rotor casing either
above or below the centre of gravity of the rotor. This so that when the axis lies horizontal the
weight is distributed equally between the two ends of the axis but when the gyroscope is tilted
the weight exerts more thrust on one end of the axis than on the other.
This causes a torque in a vertical plane and the gyroscope axis is made to precess horizontally.
When one end of a gyroscope axis is to the East of the true meridian, and if it is pointing at a
rising star, then that end will always tilt upwards. To cause this end to precess towards the North
if the gyroscope wheel is spinning clockwise when viewed from the West, a downward force is
required on the East end of the axis. This effect can be provided, when the East end of the axis
tilts upwards by suspending a control weight below the gyroscope, thus making the rotor casing
bottom heavy.
To cause the East end of the axis to precess towards the North if the gyroscope rotor is spinning
anti-clockwise when viewed from the West, a downward force is required on the West end of the
axis. This effect can be provided when the East end of the axis tilts upward, by supporting the
control weight above the gyroscope, thus making the rotor casing top heavy.

A gyroscope with gravity control as described above will not settle in the meridian. But the
North-seeking end of the axis will tend to precess towards the meridian when it lies East of
North and tilted upwards. Similarly it will also tend to precess towards the meridian when the
North-seeking end of the axis lies to the west of North and is tilted downwards.
In intermediate North latitude, a free gyroscope set with its axis North South and horizontal has
an apparent motion such that the North end of its axis describes a circle round the celestial pole.
The projection of such a circle on a vertical plane to the Northward of the gyroscope position is
illustrated as the firm line in the diagram below.
The North seeking end of the axis of a gravity controlled gyroscope, started in a similar position
will trace out an elliptical path as illustrated by a pecked line in the figure above.
At position A with the gyroscope axis horizontal the gravity has no effect. The North end of the
axis drifts Eastwards and tilts upwards, initially at the same rate as the free gyroscope. When the
North end of the axis has tilted above the horizontal the gravity control causes precession
towards the West.
This effect at first is not as great as the natural drift towards the East and merely slows the
Easterly movement. But later (at position B) the rate of precession becomes equal and opposite
to the rate of drift and thereafter as the axis continues to tilt upwards, the axis moves towards the
West.
All the time the axis lies to the East of the meridian, the axis is tilting upwards so that the
greatest tilt and hence the greatest rate of precession occurs when the gyroscope axis has
returned to the meridian (C).
Once the North end of the axis has precessed to the West of the meridian the rotation of the earth
causes it to tilt downwards and the rate of precession decreases until at position (D) the rate of
precession is again equal and opposite to the rate of drift.
Thereafter the axis moves Easterly with a continuing decrease in tilt until the axis again crosses
the meridian at its original starting point.
The time taken for a gyroscope axis to trace out a complete ellipse depends on the degree of
control, which is provided, but it will always be less than the sidereal day which is required for a
complete circle of a free gyroscope. The period of commercial gyroscope compasses is often
chosen as 84 minutes.
The size and proportions of the ellipse depend upon the starting position of the gyroscope and the
degree of control. In practice the gravity control is such that the ratio of the major axis of the
ellipse to the minor axis is very large. That is the ellipse is very wide in proportion to its depth.
For the purpose of explaining the ellipse height was increased.
Damping
In order to respond to the drift, tilt and precession, which make it North seeking, the suspension
of a gyroscope must be virtually frictionless. A gravity-controlled gyroscope as described above
would then oscillate indefinitely on either side of the meridian.
In order that the oscillation shall become smaller with each cycle so that the gyroscope axis
finally settles in the meridian, some form of damping other than by friction is required.
Damping in tilt means that when the North-seeking end of the gyroscope axis is tilted a damping
torque is applied in a horizontal plane in such a direction that the resultant precession in a
vertical plane causes the tilt of the axis to decrease.
As the tilt of the gyroscope is decreased so the precession in azimuth becomes progressively
less and the gyroscope spirals in from its starting position to a final settling position as shown.
Damping in azimuth is achieved by introducing a torque in a vertical plane, which causes a
precession opposite to the gravity control precession but out of phase with it, i.e. with a time
delay. The resultant precession in a horizontal plane causes the axis to overshoot the meridian
less each time it crosses it until the gyroscope axis reaches its settling position.
 Making of a free Gyroscope into a North seeking Compass:
A free gyroscope we know after it is set spinning will continually have its axis either tilting or
drifting or doing both if left alone on the surface of the earth. So it is of no use to us to have such
an instrument.
The first step in converting a free gyroscope into a compass is to make the axis north seeking.
This is done by creating a torque about the horizontal east west axis, which is effective when the
gyro tilts out of the horizontal.
This torque will produce a precession in azimuth, which causes the axis to seek the meridian
(north south alignment).
Top-heavy control:
In the figure above the rotor is supported through the spin axis bearings. A weight is placed on
top of the rotor casing such that when the spin axis is horizontal the vertical through the centre of
gravity of the weight passes through the centre of the rotor.
In this condition the weight will produce no torque on the rotor and is completely ineffective.
The spin axis if initially horizontal will not remain so, since the rotation of the earth will cause
the spin axis to develop a tilt.
If the axis is directed towards the east of the meridian then that end will tilt upwards.
As that end tilts upwards, the weight comes into effect; the centre of gravity of the weight will
now instead of passing through the centre of the rotor will now cause a torque about the
horizontal axis, which tends to topple the gyro even further out of the horizontal.
This effect is as if a force was applied to the south side of the rotor casing at the bottom.
If this point is imagined to be carried 90 around in the direction of spin, which is anticlockwise
as viewed from the south, it will be evident that the spin axis will precess in azimuth such that
the north end moves to the west, that is towards the meridian.
This precession is called control precession.
The direction of spin of the rotor must be in such a direction as to produce a westerly precession
of the north end of the spin axis when that end is tilted upwards, and an easterly precession of
that end when it is tilted downwards.
Considering the above, however it should be understood that the control precession will not
always be directed towards the meridian. As long as the north end of the spin axis is tilted
upwards the precession will carry that end towards the west.
The precession will continue even after the axis has passed to the west of the meridian and will
then be carrying the north end away from the meridian.
Similarly when the north end is tilted downwards and directed to the east of the meridian there
will be an easterly precession taking that end away from the meridian.
In the figure we see a top heavy controlled gyro with the north end of the axis tilted upwards by
(positive tilt).
The control weight exerts a moment about the horizontal axis equal to Wx.
And
precession = applied torque / angular momentum
Thus
precession = Wx / H
And
x = h sine
thus
precession = Wh sine / H
Let the constants W and h be expressed by the one constant B.
Then
precession = B sine / H
The negative sign is necessary to comply with the convention that a precession upwards or
eastwards is positive, and a precession downwards or westwards is negative.
If the tilt is small, as is the case with a gyrocompass then
precession = B / H
Where is the tilt is in radians.
Therefore as both B and H are constants determined by the construction of the gyro, it may be
said that the precession is directly proportional to the tilt

The control of a gyro by solid control weight is not used in practical compasses. Commonly used
is a gravity control by a liquid ballistic, which flows between the north and south sides of the
rotor under the influence of gravity, when the gyro axis tilts due to the earth turning.
In the above figure the above is shown the liquid used is mercury because of its high density. The
pots or bottles are also connected at their top ends so that there is equalising of pressure.
The system of pots and the rotor is arranged in such a way that the centre of gravity passes
through the centre of the rotor and that the liquid levels are same when the axis is horizontal.
Thus there is no torque when the axis is horizontal.
In the second figure, the north end of the axis has tilted upwards and so the mercury will get
transferred to the south control pot.
This imbalance will now cause a torque about the horizontal east west axis, which is
transmitted to the rotor via the link to the rotor casing.
The above effect is as if a force were exerted on the rotor at the bottom of the south side. This is
identical to the action of the top mounted control weight, thus this effectively constitutes a top
heavy gyro compass.
The spin must be anticlockwise when viewed from the south in order to create the required
westerly precession when the north end tilts up.
Damping the Controlled Ellipse:
The controlled gyro will never settle in the meridian.
It will only oscillate about the meridian.
Only in one position will the gyro axis remain pointing in a constant direction, if initially set
there, and that is pointing north with a tilt such that the control precession is equal to the drifting.
Precession thus cancels the drifting and there is no tilting in the meridian. This will require a tilt
of the north end upwards in north latitude and downwards in south latitude.
The tilt necessary will increase with increasing latitude. This position however is an unstable
position and any slight deviation from it will result in the axis commencing an elliptical
oscillation. And it will not return to the equilibrium position.
If the above controlled gyrocompass is used therefore we see that it will never point north and
even if it does it will not be stable and will start to oscillate.
Damping means the process by which these oscillations about the meridian will grow lesser and
lesser until the axis is pointing along the meridian and even if destabilised will return to the
meridian.
Damping may be achieved by the provision of:
A precession in azimuth (towards the meridian), or
A precession in tilt (towards the horizon).
Damping in Azimuth:
The amplitude of oscillations may be reduced by having a precession in azimuth.
That is a precession towards the meridian.
Such a precession is similar to the control precession, but in order to damp the controlled ellipse
it must act with the control precession.
When the control precession is directed towards the meridian the damping precession acts with
it. And when the control precession is directed away from the meridian then the damping
precession acts against the control precession.
Thus the motion of the axis towards the meridian would be increased and the motion of the axis
away from the meridian would be reduced.
With a rotor rotating clockwise when viewed from the south:
The control precession is produced by a bottom heavy effect while
The damping precession is produced by a top-heavy effect.
The resulting precessions would therefore be in opposite directions.
A gyrocompass damped in azimuth settles with the spin axis aligned with the meridian but with a
small upwards tilt of the north end in the northern hemisphere, and a small downwards tilt of that
end in the southern hemisphere.
The gyrocompasses damped in azimuth are not subject to the latitude error.
Damping in Tilt:
To create a precession in tilt (horizontal east west axis) a torque about the vertical axis is
required.
Latitude Error Damped in tilt:
The design and construction of the individual compass will determine the magnitude of this
error.
The errors are general controlled by a turning knob on the gyrocompass control panel and has to
be set depending on the latitude the vessel is in.
The damping error is proportional to the tangent of the latitude, as the latitude approaches 90
the tangent approaches infinity.
The error maybe large in higher latitudes, typical values are:
Latitude 45 - 1.5
Latitude 60 - 2.5
Latitude 75 - 5.0
Course Latitude and Speed Error:
The compass will settle with respect to a false meridian if the vessel is moving with a velocity,
which has a northerly or a southerly component. Such a movement would produce a false tilting
of the spin axis.
However if the movement were in the east west direction then this would not occur.
The error is given by:
Error in degrees = (velocity x cosine course) / (5 cosine latitude)

Damping using electrical signals

In more practical gyrocompasses, the liquid bottles are dispensed with. Instead signal sensors
operate servomotors, which provide the required torque.
The gyro sphere is placed in a circular sphere and the interwining space is filled with a liquid
which has a specific gravity that makes the gyro ball floating within the sphere a
neutral buoyancy.
The torsion (tension) wire connecting the sphere to the gyro ball is passed through a flexible
conducting tube( to pass the current)
Whenever the sphere is tilted the torsion wire is stretched a current is induced in either the
vertical or horizontal coils on the outside of the sphere, the phase of the current depending upon
the direction of displacement. This signal is amplified and fed to a tilt or azimuth servomotor
which drives the gearing attached to the outside of the sphere in such a way that the sphere is re-
aligned with the gyro ball.
Settling in
Normally the torsion wire is not supposed to have any twist or stretch, however from a
cold start, the twist to the torsion wire may be manually injected so that the gyro starts off in a
approximate direction as required. This reduces the settling time.
Period of settling differs between different manufacturers. However the usual settling time is
between 84 to 120 minutes.
The period of oscillation of the controlled ellipse:
The period in which the axis completes one oscillation in the controlled ellipse depends upon the
magnitude of the control precession, and upon the magnitude of the drift.
The drift depends upon only the latitude, but the precession is determined by the factors B and H.
In practice gyrocompasses are designed with periods from about 80 minutes to 120 minutes.
Commercial gyrocompasses have a period of about 84 minutes.
The expression for the period of oscillation (T), is given by:
T = 2 {H / (B Cosine Latitude)}
Here is the rate of the earths rotation in radians per second.
Controls
Latitude: Except at the equator the gyroscope will have a drift. As the ship moves away from the
equator a signal is injected into the tilt servomotor producing a precession in azimuth equal but
opposite to the drift rate. The strength of the injected signal is determined by a control knob,
which can be set to any required latitude.
Course, latitude and speed error: The tilting of a gyroscope axis in the East-West plane is used to
make the gyroscope north seeking. The upwards/ downwards tilting of the north end of the
gyroscope axis due to the North/ South component of a vessels speed causes course, latitude and
speed error.
Again as in the above a signal is manually injected to the servomotor to tilt the gyroscope, this
eliminates the above errors. This manual signal is determined by setting a knob.
Repeaters
Transmission to repeaters is achieved by causing the azimuth motor to drive a step by step
transmitter which keeps the repeaters in step with movements of the gyro sphere hence with the
movements of the gyro ball itself.
While adjusting the repeaters, the step transmitters are to be switched off and the repeater tilted
upside down. At the base a cover is shifted to open a square spindle head. A special tool rotates
this and the course adjusted with that of the master compass. Once the heading is the same the
transmitter switch is put on.
Alarms and Indicators
Temperature alarm generally set to a maximum of 62degrees Celsius, the blower which keeps
the gyro cool cuts in at about 51 degrees.
Phase indicators.

Compass Corrections
Definitions
True North: This refers to the geographical North Pole. This is a physical pole since the axis of
the earth passes through the same. All charts are aligned to this pole and the co-ordinate system
refers to this as the North Pole.
Magnetic North: This is the south-seeking pole of the earth when considered as a giant magnet.
All magnetic compasses point to this pole as North. The physical and the magnetic north pole do
not coincide. The magnetic pole shifts over time as the earth cools down and also due to other
various reasons. The physical pole remains stationary.
Compass North: This takes into account both variation and deviation experienced by the
compass while pointing the direction of North. It is not possible to have two ships compass point
at the same direction as North.
Magnetic Course:
The angle between the magnetic meridian and the direction of the ships head. It defines the
direction of the ships head relative to Magnetic North. The difference between the two is the
Variation.
True Course: After allowing for Deviation and Variation to the Magnetic Course/bearing.
Compass Course: The angle between the compass needle and the direction of the ships head. It
defines the direction of the ships head relative to Compass North. The compass course is
indicated by the position of the lubbers line relative to the compass card. Both deviation and
variation are involved in this correction.

Finding deviation and variation from tables and charts

Variation may be found from variation charts as well as from that printed on the compass rose on
any navigational chart.
Calculating true course from compass course
Given: Compass Course - 110 and on this course the deviation is 3E, the chart shows a
Variation of 9W, to find the True Course.
We may combine the two errors - 9W and 3E, this becomes a combined error of 6W. Or we
may say that the compass error is 6W.
Now using the quote:
Error West Compass Best Error East Compass Least
We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than the True.
So, the True course would be less than the compass course by 6. The True course therefore
would be - 104
If we do this step by step then:
Compass Course - 110
Deviation - 3E
Magnetic Course - 113 (Error East Compass Least, so True in this case Magnetic is more
so add)
Variation - 9W
True Course - 104 (Error West Compass Best, so True is less, so subtract)
Calculating compass course from true course
Given: True Course - 110 and on this course the deviation is 3E, the chart shows a Variation of
9W, to find the Compass Course.
We may combine the two errors - 9W and 3E, this becomes a combined error of 6W. Or we
may say that the compass error is 6W.
Now using the quote:
Error West Compass Best Error East Compass Least
We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than the True.
So, the Compass course would be greater than the True course by 6. The Compass course
therefore would be - 116
If we do this step by step then:
True Course - 110
Variation - 9W
Magnetic Course - 119 (Error West Compass Best, so Compass in this case Magnetic is
more so add)
Deviation - 3E
Compass Course - 116 (Error East Compass Least, so Compass is less, so subtract)
Using a transit bearing to find error
Transit bearings are usually taken within Pilotage waters or in very near coastal waters. Two
prominent marks are selected generally a lighthouse and another beacon or a building (should
be marked on the chart). A line is drawn between the two and extended to cut the own vessel
course line at a future time.
It thus becomes obvious that the transit line (the extended line) should cut the course line.
Once this is done the transit line is read off from the compass rose and the same is written on the
chart next to the line.
An estimated time is also written down of approaching this point where the transit line would be
cutting the course line.
A few minutes prior to the time the two objects are sighted through the azimuth mirror and at the
time of actual transit the bearing is noted. This is then compared with that which was read off the
compass rose. This gives the error of the compass.
While entering port the pilot generally looks up at the leading lights which are aligned at a
certain bearing and confidently tells the Master that the compass has an error or not and of the
error amount.
Applying compass error to the ship's head and compass bearings to convert to true
Ships course Correction:
Given: Compass Course - 120 and on this course the deviation is 4E, the chart shows a
Variation of 9W, to find the True Course.
We may combine the two errors - 9W and 4E, this becomes a combined error of 5W. Or we
may say that the compass error is 5W.
Now using the quote:
Error West Compass Best Error East Compass Least
We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than the True.
So, the True course would be less than the compass course by 5. The True course therefore
would be - 115
If we do this step by step then:
Compass Course - 120
Deviation - 4E
Magnetic Course - 124 (Error East Compass Least, so True in this case Magnetic is more
so add)
Variation - 9W
True Course - 115 (Error West Compass Best, so True is less, so subtract)
Observed Bearing Correction:
Given: Compass Course - 110 and on this course the deviation is 3E, the chart shows a
Variation of 9W, Bearing of a light - 145, to find the True Bearing.
We may combine the two errors - 9W and 3E, this becomes a combined error of 6W. Or we
may say that the compass error is 6W.
Now using the quote:
Error West Compass Best Error East Compass Least
We see that the Error is West so the compass bearing would be the best or the greater than the
True bearing.
So, the True bearing would be less than the compass bearing by 6. The True bearing therefore
would be - 139
If we do this step by step then:
Compass bearing - 145
Deviation - 3E
Magnetic bearing - 148 (Error East Compass Least, so True in this case Magnetic is more
so add)
Variation - 9W
True bearing - 139 (Error West Compass Best, so True is less, so subtract)
REMEMBER THE DEVIATION IS OF THE COMPASS IS ON A PARTICULAR SHIPS
HEADING (THE MAGNETIC LINES OF THE EARTH CUT THE SHIP DIFFERENTLY ON
DIFERENT HEADINGS) AS SUCH DO NOT LOOK UP THE DEVIATION ON THE BASIS
OF THE BEARING BUT LOOK UP FOR THE SHIPS HEADING.