Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Abstract
Background: As childrens mental health problems become more complex, more effective prevention is needed.
Though various anxiety and depression prevention programmes based on cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) were
developed and evaluated in Europe, North America, and Australia recently, there are no programmes in Japan. This
study developed a CBT programme for Japanese children and tried to verify its effectiveness in reducing anxiety.
Methods: A CBT-based anxiety prevention programme, Journey of the Brave, was developed to prevent anxiety dis-
orders for Japanese children. Children from 4th through 6th grades (912years old) in Japanese elementary schools
and their parents (13 sample pairs) were the intervention group. For comparison purposes, 16 pairs were the control
group. Ten weekly programme sessions and two follow-ups were conducted. Childrens anxiety levels in both groups
were evaluated by child and parent self-reports using the spence children anxiety scale (SCAS) three times: pre-pro-
gramme (baseline), post-programme, and 3months following the end of the programme.
Results: At 3-month follow-up, no significant difference was shown between the intervention and control groups
on childrens SCAS scores in changes from baseline by using mixed-effects model for repeated measures analysis
(SCAS-C: 8.92 (95% CI=14.12 to 3.72) and 3.17 (95% CI=8.02 to 1.66) respectively; the between group
difference was 5.747 (95% CI=1.355 to 12.85, p=0.062). On the other hand, significant reduction was shown in
the intervention group on parents SCAS (SCAS-P) scores in change from baseline 9.554 (95% CI=12.91 to 6.19)
and 0.154 (95% CI=2.88 to 3.19) respectively; the between group difference was 9.709 (95% CI=5.179 to 14.23,
p=0.0001).
Conclusion: These preliminary results suggest this anxiety prevention programme for Japanese children was partially
effective from parents evaluations. However, it is important to note that this study was conducted on a small sample
with unbalanced groups at pre-intervention with no randomization. The positive results may require discounting due
to the research limitations. A larger-scale study of the programme in elementary school classes to verify its effective-
ness with a more rigorous research design is necessary.
Trial registration: UMIN-CTR UMIN000009021
Keywords: Cognitive behavioural therapy, Anxiety, Prevention, Children, Adolescents, Japan
*Correspondence: girasol324@gmail.com
1
Research Centre forChild Mental Development, Chiba University
Graduate School ofMedicine, 181 Inohana, Chuoku, Chiba2608670,
Japan
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
2016 Urao etal. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license,
and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/
publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Urao et al. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2016) 10:4 Page 2 of 12
Barrett and Turner AUS 1012year 489 10+2s Randomized SCAS Teacher-I 27.00 Teacher-I 18.77 (14.45) T-I 0.46
(2001) M=10.75 75min block design (by (17.99) Psychologist-I 19.14 P-I 0.50
school) Psychologist-I 26.76 (11.89) C 0.35
(15.23) C 23.15 (13.04)
C 27.44 (12.37)
LowryWebster AUS 1013year 594 10+2s Randomized SCAS I 28.09 (18.45) I 18.33 (14.07) I (12m FU) 16.66 I 0.53 I 0.62
etal. (2001) 60min block design (by C 31.45 (14.76) C 28.23 (17.80) (13.91) C 0.22 C 0.27
school) C 27.54 (20.06)
Barrett, Sondereg- AUS 719year 320 10s Block design (ran- RCMAS I-CHN 12.67 (7.63) I-CHN 6.50 (6.00) I 0.43
ger and Xenos 60min domization not C-CHN 9.41 (5.70) C-CHN 12.04 (7.28) C 0.46
(2003) specified) I-YUG 12.89 (7.56) I-YUG 6.26 (5.34) I 0.88
C-YUG 14.75 (2.50) C-YUG 14.75 (2.50) C 0.00
Lock and Barrett AUS 910year, 733 10+2s Randomized SCAS I 22.06 (13.94) I 17.64 (12.95) I (12m FU) 14.89 I 0.32 I 0.52
(2003) 1416year block design (by C 24.40 (12.74) C 21.26 (12.60) (11.64) C 0.25 C 0.56
school) C 17.30 (11.99)
Urao et al. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2016) 10:4
Barrett, Lock and AUS 910year, 692 10+2s Randomized SCAS H I 43.41 (10.81) H I 30.92 (10.89) H I 21.06 (13.71) H I 1.16 H I 2.07
Farrell (2005) 1416year 60min block design (by H C 42.32 (10.75) H C 28.53 (12.03) H C 26.65 (15.35) H C 0.51 H C 0.58
school) M I 26.18 (2.46) M I 21.90 (10.13) M I 17.72 (10.61) M I 0.34 M I 0.68
M C 26.91 (2.43) M C 21.28 (9.23) M C 18.93 (13.76) M C 0.39 MC 0.56
L I 14.85 (5.36) L I 14.38 (8.79) L I 11.11 (9.12) L I 0.09 L I 0.70
L C 14.34 (5.28) L C 13.71 (8.29) L C 12.41 (9.11) L C 0.12 L C 0.37
Mostert and Loxton ZAF 12year 46 5s Quasi-experimen- SCAS I 42.12 (15.82) I 37.48 (16.26) I (6m) 31.64 (16.61) I 0.29 I 0.66
(2008) 120min tal, nonequiva- C 40.14 (12.42) C 38.05 (12.72) C 33.71 (16.24) C 0.17 C 0.52
lent control
group
Gallegos (2008) MEX 813year 1030 10+2s Quasi-experimen- SCAS I 25.82 (8.77) I 24.89 (10.18) I (6m) 22.40 (10.51) I 0.11 I 0.39
M=9.9 75min tal, nonequiva- C 27.57 (7.95) C 26.42(10.14) C 24.31 (10.11) C 0.15 C 0.41
lent control
group
Rose, Miller and CAN 4th 52 8s Block design (ran- MASC I 62.35 (17.00) I 56.88 (20.33) I 0.32
Martinez (2009) 89year 60min domization not C 53.65 (19.82) C 52.73 (16.50) C 0.05
specified)
Miller etal. (2011) CAN 4th6th 253 9s Randomized MASC I 47.10 (17.57) I 45.17 (15.25) I (17m) 39.42 (13.40) I 0.11 I 0.44
M=9.8 60min block design (By C 47.64 (18.51) C 42.38 (16.10) C 36.97 (16.68) C 0.29 C 0.58
school)
Miller etal. (2011) CAN 4th6th 533 9s Randomized MASC I 45.20 (19.10) I 43.35 (20.31) I (3m) 38.77 (17.86) I 0.10 I 0.34
M=9.77 60min block design (By C 47.19 (17.73) C 45.61 (18.70) C 42.10 (18.34) C 0.09 C 0.29
school)
Essau etal. (2012) GER 912year 638 10+2s 60min Randomized SCAS I 22.53 (12.3) I 20.96 (11.7) I (6m) 18.56 (12.2) I 0.13 I 0.32
M=10.91 block design (By C 23.92 (12.2) C 23.31 (11.9) C 24.44 (12.9) C 0.05 C 0.04
school)
Page 3 of 12
Urao et al. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2016) 10:4
Table1 continued
Author (year) Country Sample (age) N No. ofsessions Randomization Instruments Pre M (SD) Post M (SD) FU M (SD) Pre-post ES Pre-FU ES
time () ()
Stallard etal. (2014) GBR 910year 1448 9s Cluster randomizedRCADS30 Health-led 26.24 Health-led 19.49 I 0.43
60min design (By (15.56) (14.81) I 0.14
school) School-led 24.91 School-led 22.86 C 0.26
(14.32) (15.24)
Usual-school 26.78 Usual-school 22.48
(16.32) (15.74)
Rodgers and Dun- GBR 1213year 62 10s Randomized SCAS I 24.68 (13.19) I 19.43 (8.97) I (4m) 12.06 (6.91) I 0.40 I 0.96
smuir, (2015) 60min design (indi- C 20.8 (16.5) C 19.96 (14.93) C 16.16 (12.89) C 0.05 C 0.28
vidual)
M Mean; SD Standard deviation; ES Effect size; Glasss delta; I Intervention group; C Control group; H High; M Medium; L Low
Page 4 of 12
Urao et al. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2016) 10:4 Page 5 of 12
We would then be able to move to the next step to con- programme [34]. It may not be possible for children to
duct Journey of the Brave sessions in regular school distinguish and understand each CBT theory, resulting
classes as a universal approach. in failure to acquire appropriate CBT skills. In order to
make CBT programmes for children more effective, it is
Methods necessary to focus on one feeling and educate them well
Research design regarding its psychological aspects, then teach them the
This is a quasi-experimental study with an interven- actual CBT skill application experience. Therefore, the
tion and control group. Intervention group participants main objective of the programme was the understand-
received an anxiety prevention programme and control ing and acquisition of CBT skills and its theoretical basis
group participants received no intervention. The main to manage anxiety. Among CBT skills, exposure is an
assessments were pre-programme (week 0), post-pro- especially effective CBT skill in handling anxiety prob-
gramme (week 10), and follow-up (3 months following lems [35]. Therefore, development of anxiety hierarchy
post-programme assessment). A universal prevention table and exposure were taught carefully by developing
study design was attempted, but higher priority was an anxiety hierarchy table in the first half of the sessions
placed on programme development and execution than exposing children gradually as the programme proceeded
participant selection. As a result, some indicated level (Table2). A high priority was placed on childrens actual
children are included in the samples giving the impres- understanding through the gradual reduction of anxious
sion that this was an indicated prevention project. feelings. In addition, two sessions were devoted to cogni-
tive restructuring of anxiety accompanied by homework
Programme development with the idea that repeated training will ensure children
Three major characteristics in Journey of the Brave dif- acquire not only behavioural but also cognitive skills. At
fer from FRIENDS to increase programme effectiveness the same time, the normalization of anxious feelings was
in Japan. taught carefully from the early programme stages.
First, the main programme content was focused on Second, in the Journey of the Brave, the main focus
anxiety feelings and skills to deal with them. In the CBT was interpersonal anxiety which is vital for Japanese
prevention programmes developed in other countries, children. It is not always effective to apply a programme
there are cases where depression and other psychologi- used in studies in Western countries to Japanese chil-
cal problems, not only anxiety, were addressed in one dren [36]. In order to motivate childrens interest and
12 Understanding feelings of anxiety To understand that anxiety is an important feeling in order to protect you from danger and it is
not necessary to totally eliminate anxiety
Clarify anxious object and set a target*
3 Body reactions and relaxation To learn that anxiety and tension of both body and mind can be reduced by relaxation
Practice and acquire techniques of breathing and muscle relaxation*
4 Anxiety level stages and stair step exposure To learn that it is important to gradually expose self to anxiety rather than to avoid it
Develop anxiety hierarchy table*
Climb anxiety ladder step by step (up to Session 10)*
5 Anxiety cognition model To learn that cognition, behaviour, and feelings are closely connected to each other and the
level of anxiety changes with cognitions
Develop a triangle of cognition, behaviour, and feeling*
67 Cognitive restructuring when anxious To learn that anxiety can be reduced by reviewing and restructuring cognitions when anxious
Restructure cognition at anxious moments*
8 Assertiveness skills to reduce social stress To learn assertiveness skills to avoid anxiety in interpersonal relationships
Study assertive ways of speaking*
9 Review To review each session content with all participants
Reviewing sessions one to eight*
10 Summary To confirm how anxiety level and self-confidence are changed by participating in Journey of
the Brave
Graduation ceremony*
1112 Follow-up To re-learn what was taught in each stage of the journey with all participants
Reviewing sessions one to eight*
Urao et al. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2016) 10:4 Page 6 of 12
no halfway dropout. Thus, we believe the feasibility of the intervention group. Concurrently, however, anxiety
our programme was partially confirmed by this fact. reduction was shown by parents evaluation. Therefore,
Significant anxiety reduction was demonstrated only the programme was proven neither effective nor inef-
by the parents evaluations. No statistically significant fective at this stage. The following is our thoughts on the
interaction was demonstrated between groups in chil- results of SCAS-C and SCAS-P and study limitations.
drens evaluations. It is regrettable that SCAS-C scores
(the primary outcome measure of this study) did not SCASC
significantly reduce and our original hypothesis was not As mentioned previously, positive anxiety score reduc-
proven. Considering that most of the preceding studies tion was regretfully not shown by the childrens self-
evaluations (Table 1) were completed by the children evaluations between group comparisons. The reason is
and many showed evidence of intervention effective- not clear yet, but it is necessary to continue to improve
ness, it is regrettable that our study did not show posi- the research method as well as the programme con-
tive results in between group comparisons of childrens tent. One possible reason for this result is that childrens
evaluations even though positive reduction was shown in own anxiety standards may have changed between the
pre-programme and post-time periods. For example, in
answering the statement I feel scared if I have to sleep
Table
3Participants demographic data and baseline on my own, if children answered often before the pro-
SCAS score gramme, there is the possibility that they gave the same
Intervention (n=13) Control (n=16) p value answer often even if they started to sleep alone after the
programme due to the learned exposure. This is one limi-
Gender female 6 (46%) 3 (19%) 0.58 tation of questionnaire-based studies; therefore, it may
Male 7 (54%) 13 (81%) be necessary to conduct interview-based evaluations
Grade 4th 5 (38%) 6 (38%) 0.87 concurrently in the future.
5th 3 (24%) 5 (31%) This programme was based on CBT content used to
6th 5 (38%) 5 (31%) treat anxiety disorder and converted to prevention pur-
SCAS-C 20.62 (14.45) 18.56 (9.94) 0.66 poses. There is a possibility that some children did not
SCAS-P 21.08 (11.15) 9.38 (7.42) 0.002 fully understand the session content and were unable to
SCAS-C/P Spence childrens anxiety scale-child/parent versions use the acquired skills since each class was conducted in
Fig.1 Flow-chart shows the number of children and parents at each time and a sample count of MMRM. MMRM, mixed-effect model for repeated
measures
Urao et al. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2016) 10:4 Page 9 of 12
Fig.2 Mean total SCAS-C scores in each group during study shows Fig.3 Mean total SCAS-P scores in each group during study shows
average SCAS-C scores of the intervention group and the control the SCAS-P scores of the intervention group parents and the control
group for each time period. SCAS-C, Spence childrens anxiety scale- group parents for each time period. SCAS-P, Spence childrens anxiety
child version scale-parent version
a group format without detailed attention given to each and tended to overestimate programme effectiveness. In
childs own level of understanding. It may be necessary the future, it will be necessary to conduct interview-type
to evaluate the level of CBT understanding and achieve- research surveying specific changes in children lead-
ment of each participant more carefully in the future. We ing to concrete anxiety reduction in addition to SCAS-P
wish to confirm this point through a universal approach evaluation.
trial in the future. Moreover, it should be noted that there was a signifi-
cant difference in SCAS-P at pre-programme baseline
SCASP in this study and this fact may have contributed to the
In this study, parents were asked to evaluate their chil- result. It would be better to minimize this type of bias
drens anxiety reduction. Parents observe children daily in conducting subsequent studies and improve parents
and are in a position to evaluate the childrens behav- evaluation methods in the next stage.
iour objectively. Therefore, if parents reported that anxi-
ety was reduced in their children, it may partially be the Limitations
result of this programme. There are several serious shortcomings in the research
Concurrently, however, the programme participants design [50] of this study. First, there is an issue of sampling.
were recruited by advertising. There is a strong possibil- Theoretically, in designing a programme effectiveness
ity that the parent saw the advertisement and decided to study aimed at universal level usage in schools, partici-
have their children participate. If this is the case in the pants should be recruited from school classes. However,
sampling, there is a possibility that the expectation lev- in conducting this study, advertising was used initially
els of the parents making the decision were high initially since it was a more practical and realistic approach for a
Table4 Estimated values andchanges frombaseline ateach visit inSCAS-C andSCAS-P byMMRM
Score Visit Intervention (n=13) Control (n=16) Between group difference p value
Estimated mean (95% CI) Estimated mean (95% CI) forbaseline change
pilot study. Japanese teachers and schoolmasters are very immediately following the program. Therefore, in order
conservative and it was not likely that they would accept to firmly secure evidence of long-term anxiety pre-
a universal level pilot study trial with no success history in vention, it is necessary to demonstrate the long-term
their school classes. It was more persuasive to demonstrate effectiveness of this programme clearly by using longer
some effectiveness first before making official presenta- follow-up periods [10, 51] and to conduct cohort research
tions to various schools for full-scale participation. analysing the prevalence rate of mental health disorders
It is conceivable that this may have attracted children such as anxiety disorders or depression.
with higher anxiety levels; although the original inten- Finally, although one author conducted the program
tion was to conduct a universal trial, it may appear that sessions in this study, there is a possibility that effective-
this was an indicated prevention level project. Two ness differs depending on who executes the program [51,
groups were recruited by different methods and there 52]. In order to integrate the universal approach into the
was no randomization in the groups. It is necessary for regular school system in Japan in the future, it would
programme effectiveness verification to conduct the be necessary to estimate the effectiveness of the school-
programme sessions in regular school classes. This was teachers conducting the sessions. Unless proven evidence
impossible because of various constraints in this study of meaningful effectiveness can be expected by whoever
and universal level execution was abandoned. In addi- conducts the session, it would be difficult to disseminate
tion, although the advertising method was originally the program widely throughout Japanese schools.
applied for both groups recruiting, there were minimal Therefore, a programme that is easy for teachers to
responses for control group candidates and the snow- manage at school is being planned and a training man-
ball method was used for this group. It is natural that the ual is being prepared so that any teacher can execute the
parents of the intervention group who were recruited by program. Finally, programme effectiveness based on the
advertising showed higher pre SCAS-P scores than the school trial sessions will be evaluated.
control groups parents who were recruited by the snow-
ball method. Conclusions
This study is positioned as a preliminary study before The preliminary results suggest this anxiety prevention
full implementation in school classes. Although statistical programme for Japanese children was partially effec-
significance was demonstrated in the intervention group, tive from parents evaluation. However, it is important
the small sample size made it difficult to generalize the to note that this study was conducted on a small sam-
results. With these sampling limitations, a major imbal- ple with unbalanced groups at pre-intervention with no
ance of SCAS-P scores emerged. The biased influence of randomization. The positive result may need to be dis-
a statistically significant high pre SCAS-P score in the counted by the research limitations. A future larger-scale
intervention group parents compared with the control study is necessary to execute the programme in elemen-
group that may have contributed to the result should be tary school classes and verify its effectiveness with more
seriously considered. In other words, the positive inter- rigorous research design.
action result of SCAS-P shown from parents evaluations
of their childrens anxiety score reductions at post- and
Abbreviations
FU compared with the control group parents evaluations CBT: cognitive behaviour therapy; CI: confidence interval; FU: follow-up; SCAS-
may have been due to the pre SCAS-P being significantly C/P: spence childrens anxiety scale-child/parent versions; MMRM: mixed-
higher; the positive result should accordingly be viewed effect model for repeated measures.
cautiously. Authors contributions
In verifying the effectiveness of this programme with YU designed and managed the study, performed the statistical analyses, and
stronger evidence in the future, it is necessary to con- drafted the manuscript. NY participated in the design of the study conception.
RI and AT assisted in programme sessions. YS and KA assisted the statistical
duct the process under much more rigorous research analysis. ES administered and supervised programmes and overall conduct of
design recruiting a universal level of participants from the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
the regular school system. Both the intervention and the
Author details
control groups would be randomized for even sample 1
Research Centre forChild Mental Development, Chiba University Gradu-
distribution. ate School ofMedicine, 181 Inohana, Chuoku, Chiba2608670, Japan.
2
In addition, there are other possible limitations such Department ofNursing, Chiba Prefectural University ofHealth Sciences,
2101 Wakaba, MihamaKu, Chiba2610014, Japan. 3Department ofCogni-
as the single usage of the SCAS to estimate symptoms as tive Behavioural Physiology, Chiba University Graduate School ofMedicine,
the evaluation tool for anxiety reduction. Moreover, the 181 Inohana, Chuoku, Chiba2608670, Japan. 4Organization forPromotion
follow up data is only three months post-programme. ofTenure Track, General Education andResearch Building (G704), University
ofMiyazaki, 5200 Kihara, Kiyotake, Miyazaki8891692, Japan. 5Department
It cannot be said definitely that childrens anxiety was ofCognitive andBehavioral Science, Graduate School ofArts andSciences,
prevented because childrens anxiety levels were lower University ofTokyo, 381 Komana Meguroku, Tokyo1538902, Japan.
Urao et al. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2016) 10:4 Page 11 of 12
6
Japanese Red Cross Narita Hospital, 901, Iidacho, Narita2868523, Japan. 20. Barrett PM, Sonderegger R, Xenos S. Using FRIENDS to combat anxiety
7
Department ofGlobal Clinical Research, Chiba University Graduate School and adjustment problems among young migrants to Australia: A national
ofMedicine, 181 Inohana, Chuoku, Chiba2608670, Japan. trial. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2003;8:24160.
21. Mostert J, Loxton H. Exploring the effectiveness of the FRIENDS program
Acknowledgements in reducing anxiety symptoms among South African children. Behav
The primary sources for funding for this project were grants from the Univers Change. 2008;25:8596.
Foundation (12-02-126). The Univers Foundation played no role in the collec- 22. Gallegos J: Preventing childhood anxiety and depression: testing the
tion, management, analysis, and interpretation of data, and had no impact on effectiveness of a school-based program in Mxico. PhD thesis. University
the trial or publication of the results. of Texas at Austin, Department of Education; 2008. [https://www.lib.
utexas.edu/etd/d/2008/gallegosd87338/gallegosd87338.pdf ].
Competing interests 23. Rose H, Miller LD, Martinez Y. FRIENDS for life: the results of a resilience
The authors declare that they have no competing interests. building, anxiety prevention program in a Canadian elementary school.
Prof Sch Couns. 2009;12:4007.
Received: 20 December 2014 Accepted: 17 January 2016 24. Miller LD, Laye-Gindhu A, Liu Y, March JS, Thordarson DS, Garland EJ.
Evaluation of a preventive intervention for child anxiety in two rand-
omized attention-control school trials. Behav Res Ther. 2011;49:31523.
25. Miller LD, Laye-Gindhu A, Bennett JL, Liu Y, Gold S, March JS, Olson BF,
Waechtler VE. An effectiveness study of a culturally enriched school-
based CBT anxiety prevention program. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol.
References 2011;40:61829.
1. Dadds MR, Spence SH, Holland DE, Barrett PM, Laurens KR. Prevention 26. Essau CA, Conradt J, Sasagawa S, Ollendick TH. Prevention of anxiety
and early intervention for anxiety disorders: a controlled trial. J Consult symptoms in children: results from a universal school-based trial. Behav
Clin Psychol. 1997;65:62735. Ther. 2012;43:45064.
2. Albano AM, Chorpita BF, Barlow DH. Childhood anxiety disorders. In: 27. Stallard P, Skryabina E, Taylor G, Phillips R, Daniels H, Anderson R, Simpson
Mash EJ, Barkley RA, editors. Child Psychopathology. 2nd ed. New York: N. Classroom-based cognitive behaviour therapy (FRIENDS): a cluster ran-
Guilford Press; 2003. p. 279329. domised controlled trial to prevent anxiety in children through education
3. Costello EJ, Erkanli A, Angold A. Is there an epidemic of child or adoles- in schools (PACES). Lancet Psychiatry. 2014;1:18592.
cent depression? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006;47:126371. 28. Rodgers A, Dunsmuir S. A controlled evaluation of the FRIENDS for
4. Cartwright-Hatton S, McNicol K, Doubleday E. Anxiety in a neglected Life emotional resiliency programme on overall anxiety levels, anxiety
population: prevalence of anxiety disorders in pre-adolescent children. subtype levels and school adjustment. Child Adolesc Mental Health.
Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26:81733. 2015;20:139.
5. Costello EJ, Mustillo S, Erkanli A, Keeler G, Angold A. Prevalence and 29. Spence SH, Shortt AL. Research review: can we justify the widespread dis-
development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. semination of universal, school-based interventions for the prevention of
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:83744. depression among children and adolescents? J Child Psychol Psychiatry.
6. Liddle I, Macmillan S. Evaluating the FRIENDS Programme in a Scottish 2007;48:52642.
setting. Educ Psychol Pract. 2010;26:5367. 30. Stallard P, Sayal K, Phillips R, Taylor JA, Spears M, Anderson R, Araya
7. Mrazek PJ, Haggerty RJ (Eds): Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders: Frontiers R, Lewis G, Millings A, Montgomery AA. Classroom based cognitive
for Preventive Intervention Research. Washington DC: National Academies behavioural therapy in reducing symptoms of depression in high risk
Press; 1994. [http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2139]. adolescents: pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2012.
8. Barrett P, Turner C. Prevention of anxiety symptoms in primary school doi:10.1136/bmj.e6058.
children: preliminary results from a universal school-based trial. Br J Clin 31. Stallard P. Think GoodFeel Good: A Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Work-
Psychol. 2001;40(Pt 4):399410. book for Children and Young People. Chichester: Wiley; 2002.
9. Neil AL, Christensen H. Efficacy and effectiveness of school-based 32. Friedberg RD, Friedberg BA, Friedberg RJ. Therapeutic Exercises for
prevention and early intervention programs for anxiety. Clin Psychol Rev. Children: Guided Self-Discovery Using Cognitive-Behavioral Techniques.
2009;29:20815. Sarasota: Professional Resource Exchange Inc; 2001.
10. Teubert D, Pinquart M. A meta-analytic review on the prevention of 33. Kendall PC, Hedtke KA. The Coping Cat Workbook. 2nd ed. Ardmore:
symptoms of anxiety in children and adolescents. J Anxiety Disord. Workbook Publishing Inc; 2006.
2011;25:104659. 34. Corrieri S, Heider D, Conrad I, Blume A, Knig H, Riedel-Heller SG. School-
11. Barrett PM. FRIENDS for life: Group Leaders Manual for Children. Samford based prevention programs for depression and anxiety in adolescence: a
Valley: Australian Academic Press; 2005. systematic review. Health Promot Int. 2014;29:42741.
12. Kendall PC. Treating anxiety disorders in children: results of a randomized 35. Seligman LD, Ollendick TH. Cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety
clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1994;62:10010. disorders in youth. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2011;20:21738.
13. Barrett PM, Dadds MR, Rapee R. Family treatment of childhood anxiety: a 36. Ishikawa S, Togasaki Y, Sato S, Sato Y. Prevention programs for depression
controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1996;64:33342. in children and adolescents: a review. Jpn J Educ Psychol. 2006;54:57284
14. Barrett PM. Evaluation of cognitive-behavioral group treatments for child- (in Japanese).
hood anxiety disorders. J Clin Child Psychol. 1998;27:45968. 37. Toward a Culturally-Oriented Nation,Ministry of Education, Culture,
15. Lowry-Webster HM, Barrett PM, Dadds MR. A universal prevention trial of Sports, Science and Technology-Japan: White paper on education
anxiety and depressive symptomatology in childhood: preliminary data 2000. [http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpae200001/
from an Australian study. Behav Change. 2001;18:3650. hpae200001_2_079.html].
16. Lowry-Webster HM, Barrett PM, Lock S. A universal prevention trial of 38. Benedict R. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese
anxiety symptomology during childhood: results at 1-year follow-up. Culture. Boston: Houghton Mifflin; 1946.
Behav Change. 2003;20:2543. 39. Murasawa Y. Taijin-kyofu as an interpersonal communication: the com-
17. Lock S, Barrett PM. A longitudinal study of developmental differences munity and rage. Bull Grad School Educ Hokkaido U. 2001;84:26986.
in universal preventive intervention for child anxiety. Behav Change. 40. Spence SH. Structure of anxiety symptoms among children: a confirma-
2003;20:18399. tory factor-analytic study. J Abnorm Psychol. 1997;106:28097.
18. Barrett PM, Lock S, Farrell LJ. Developmental differences in universal 41. Muris P, Schmidt H, Merckelbach H. Correlations among two self-report
preventive intervention for child anxiety. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. questionnaires for measuring DSM-defined anxiety disorder symptoms in
2005;10:53955. children: the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders and the
19. World Health Organization. Prevention of Mental Disorders: Effective Spence childrens anxiety scale. Personality Individ Differ. 2000;28:33346.
Interventions and Policy Options: Summary Report. Geneva: Author; 42. Spence SH. A measure of anxiety symptoms among children. Behav Res
2004. Ther. 1998;36:54566.
Urao et al. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2016) 10:4 Page 12 of 12
43. Nauta MH, Scholing A, Rapee RM, Abbott M, Spence SH, Waters A. A 49. R Development Core Team: R: A language and environment for statistical
parent-report measure of childrens anxiety: psychometric properties and computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2013.
comparison with child-report in a clinic and normal sample. Behav Res [http://www.R-project.org.].
Ther. 2004;42:81339. 50. Lyneham HJ, Rapee RM: Prevention of child and adolescent anxiety
44. Ishikawa S, Sato H, Sasagawa S. Anxiety disorder symptoms in Japanese disorders. In Silverman WK, Field AP, editors. Anxiety Disorders in Children
children and adolescents. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23:10411. and Adolescents, 2nd Edition. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
45. Mallinckrodt CH, Clark WS, David SR. Accounting for dropout bias using Press; 2011. p. 349-66. [http://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/
mixed-effects models. J Biopharm Stat. 2001;11:921. subjects/medicine/mental-health-psychiatry-and-clinical-psychology/
46. Siddiqui O, Hung HM, ONeill R. MMRM vs. LOCF: a comprehensive com- anxiety-disorders-children-and-adolescents-2nd-edition].
parison based on simulation study and 25 NDA datasets. J Biopharm Stat. 51. Bienvenu OJ, Ginsburg GS. Prevention of anxiety disorders. Int Rev Psy-
2009;19:22746. chiatry. 2007;19:64754.
47. National Research Council. The prevention and treatment of missing 52. Lau EX, Rapee RM. Prevention of anxiety disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep.
data in clinical trials. Washington, DC: National Academies Press 2010. 2011;13:25866.
http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12955/the-prevention-and-treatment-of-
missing-data-in-clinical-trials. (25/12/2015).
48. Little RJ, DAgostino R, Cohen ML, Dickersin K, Emerson SS, Farrar JT, etal.
The prevention and treatment of missing data in clinical trials. N Engl J
Med. 2012;367:135560.