Airlift Bioreactors Hydrodynamics and Rheology

Provisional chapter
Airlift Bioreactors: Hydrodynamics and Rheology

Application to Secondary Metabolites Production
Ana Mara Mendoza Martnez and

Eleazar Mximo Escamilla Silva
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
1. Introduction
The bubble column and airlift bioreactors are pneumatically agitated and often employed in
bioprocesses where gas-liquid contact is important. The role of the gas is to provide contact
with the liquid for mass transfer processes such as absorption or desorption and to provide
energy through gas expansion or bubble buoyancy for liquid mixing. In these two pneumati
cally agitated reactors, gas is sparger usually through the bottom and the buoyancy of the
ascending gas bubbles causes mixing. The main difference between these two pneumatically
agitated reactors is in their fluid flow characteristics. The flow in the airlift is ordered and in a
cyclic pattern like in a loop beginning from top through to bottom. The airlift differs from the
bubble column by the introduction of inner draft tubes which improves circulation, whereas
the bubble column is a simple tower. In the airlift, liquid recirculation occurs due to the four
distinct sections; the riser, downcomer, gas separator and bottom or base. The bubble column
is a simple vessel without any sectioning making the flow rather a complex one.
Some attractive features of the airlift are the low power consumption, simplicity in con
struction with no moving parts, high mass and heat transfer rates and uniform distribu
tion of shear [1, 2].
The advantage of its low power consumption is of particular importance in effluent (e.g.
wastewater) treatment where the product value is comparatively low. Therefore, operational
cost (efficient use of energy) is greatly considered since corresponding applications are usually
on a large scale. Homogenous shear is particularly important for biological processes that are
shearing sensitive. In the conventional stirred tank, shear is greatest at the stirrer and decreases
away from it to the walls of the vessel. This creates a gradient of shearing which can have
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2 Mass Transfer - Advances in Sustainable Energy and Environment Oriented Numerical Modeling
adverse effect on the morphology or sometimes can damage cells (e.g. animal and plant cells).
The simple construction of the airlift without shafts makes it not only aesthetically pleasing to
look at but also eliminates contamination associated with the conventional stirred tank which
is a major drawback in the production of microorganism. A sterile environment is crucial for
growing organisms especially in the bioprocesses since contamination reduces product
quality, generates wastes, also more time and money are spent to restore the whole process.
In addition to the previously described, the development of new biotech products: drugs,
vaccines, tissue culture, agrochemicals and specialty chemicals, biofuels and others have had
a major breakthrough during the last decade. But engineering to scale these developments to
the production phase is lagging far behind in advances in the efficient development of
bioprocesses. Normally these processes are complicated because they are conducted in
complex systems, three or four phases, microorganisms that are susceptible to large shear
produced by stirring; require high airflow rates, and changes in rheology and morphology
cultures through the time. The soul of a bioprocess is still the bioreactor, since it determines
the success of a good separation and therefore the cost of the product. In this chapter we
describe one of the most promising bioreactors for their processing qualities, good mixing, low
shear, easy to operate with immobilized microorganisms, low consumption of energy, we are
talking about the airlift bioreactors. In this context the parties will start from basic engineering
bioreactors: mass balances, mass transfer, and modelling and to cover the hydrodynamics and
rheology of the process. Finally we will present two cases of application on the production of
Bikaverin (a new antibiotic), and L-lysine.
2. Hydrodynamic characteristic of airlift reactors
Fluid mixing is influenced by the mixing time and gas holdup which defines the fluid
circulation and mass transfer properties. The fluid recirculation causes the difference in
hydrostatic pressure and density due to partial or total gas disengagement at the gas separator
(top clearance, tt). Studies have been documented during the last two decades with various
correlations applicable for hydrodynamic parameters [3-5]. This implies that for a successful
design, fundamental understanding of mixing parameters is important for industrial scale-up.
It is difficult to generalize the performance of the bioreactor according to the process for which
the airlift will be employed. For example, in aerobic fermentation, oxygen is important for
mass transfer and therefore, it is imperative to consider a design where there will be less
disengagement of gas resulting in higher gas holdup for a higher mass transfer rate. In this
case, the liquid circulation velocity is low because less gas is disengaged at the top resulting
in a lower differential density. Furthermore, other processes require good mixing other than
a high mass transfer rate. However, provision can be made by increasing the gas disengage
ment at the top to improve the liquid recirculation as in the case for anaerobic fermentation.
Therefore, it is safe to conclude as have been confirmed [3, 6, 7] that, the geometry parameters
such as the top clearance (tt), ratio of cross sectional area of the downcomer to the riser (Ad/
Ar), bottom clearance (tb), the cross sectional areas of riser (Ar) and that of the downcomer
Airlift Bioreactors: Hydrodynamics and Rheology Application to Secondary Metabolites Production 3
(Ad), draft tube internal diameter (Dd), and height of the column (H) and superficial gas
velocity (Ug) have an influence on fluid hydrodynamics.
There is extensive information on the measurement of fluid hydrodynamics published with a

handful of equations. However, most of them Gumery et al.: Characteristics of Macro-Mixing
in Airlift Column Reactors 7 Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2009 cannot be
correlated due to the different medium (Newtonian versus non-Newtonian) used and various
assumptions made. The different measuring techniques often used cannot discriminate
diffusion and convection for mixing whiles others disturb process flow.
On the other hands the interconnections between the design variables, the operating variables,
and the observable hydrodynamic variables in an airlift bioreactor are presented diagram
matically in Figure 4 as has been reported by [8]. The design variables are the reactor height,
the riser-to-downcomer area ratio, the geometrical design of the gas separator, and the bottom
clearance (Cb, the distance between the bottom of the reactor and the lower end of the draft
tube, which is proportional to the free area for flow in the bottom and represents the resistance
to flow in this part of the reactor). The main operating variables are primarily the gas input
rate and, to a lesser extent, the top clearance (Ct, the distance between the upper part of the
draft tube and the surface of the non-aerated liquid). These two independent variables set the
conditions that determine the liquid velocity in the airlift bioreactor via the mutual influences
of pressure drops and holdups, as shown in Figure 1 [9]. Viscosity is not shown in Figure 1 as
an independent variable because in the case of gasliquid mixtures, it is a function of the gas
holdup (and of liquid velocity in the case of non-Newtonian liquids), and because in a real
process, it will change with time due the changes in the composition of the liquid.
3. Flow configuration
3.1. Riser
In the riser, the gas and liquid flow upward, and the gas velocity is usually larger than that of
the liquid. The only exception is homogeneous flow, in which case both phases flow at the
same velocity. This can happen only with very small bubbles, in which case the free-rising
velocity of the bubbles is negligible with respect to the liquid velocity. Although about a dozen
different gasliquid flow configurations have been developed [10], only two of them are of
interest in airlift bioreactors [11, 12]:
1. Homogeneous bubbly flow regime in which the bubbles are relatively small and uniform
in diameter and turbulence is low.
2. Churn-turbulent regime, in which a wide range of bubble sizes coexist within a very
turbulent liquid.
The churn-turbulent regime can be produced from homogeneous bubbly flow by increasing
the gas flow rate. Another way of obtaining a churn-turbulent flow zone is by starting from
slug flow and increasing the liquid turbulence, by increasing either the flow rate or the
diameter of the reactor, as can be seen in Figure 5 [12]. The slug-flow configuration is important
only as a situation to be avoided at all costs, because large bubbles bridging the entire tower
cross-section offer very poor capacity for mass transfer.
Figure 1. Interaction between geometric and fluid dynamic variables in an airlift bioreactor [9].
3.2. Downcomer
In the downcomer, the liquid flows downward and may carry bubbles down with it. For
bubbles to be entrapped and flow downward, the liquid velocity must be greater than the free-
rise velocity of the bubbles. At very low gas flow input, the liquid superficial velocity is low,
practically all the bubbles disengage, and clear liquid circulates in the downcomer. As the gas
input is increased, the liquid velocity becomes sufficiently high to entrap the smallest bubbles.
Upon a further increase in liquid velocity larger bubbles are also entrapped. Under these
conditions the presence of bubbles reduces the cross-section available for liquid flow, and the
liquid velocity increases in this section.
Bubbles are thus entrapped and carried downward, until the number of bubbles in the cross-
section decreases, the liquid velocity diminishes, and the drag forces are not sufficient to
overcome the buoyancy. This feedback loop in the downcomer causes stratification of the
bubbles, which is evident as a front of static bubbles, from which smaller bubbles occasionally
escape downward and larger bubbles, produced by coalescence, escape upward. The bubble
front descends, as the gas input to the system is increased, until the bubbles eventually reach
the bottom and recirculate to the riser. When this point is reached, the bubble distribution in
the downcomer becomes much more uniform. This is the most desirable flow configuration
in the downcomer, unless a single pass of gas is required. The correct choice of cross-sectional
area ratio of the riser to the downcomer will determine the type of flow.
Figure 2. Map of flow configurations for gasliquid concurrent flow in a vertical tube [12].
3.3. Gas separator

The gas separator is often overlooked in descriptions of experimental airlift bioreactor devices,
although it has considerable influence on the fluid dynamics of the reactors. The geometric
design of the gas separator will determine the extent of disengagement of the bubbles entering
from the riser. In the case of complete disengagement, clear liquid will be the only phase
entering the downcomer. In the general case, a certain fraction of the gas will be entrapped
and recirculated. Fresh gas may also be entrapped from the headspace if the fluid is very
turbulent near the interface. The extent of this entrapment influences strongly gas holdup and
liquid velocity in the whole bioreactor.
It is quite common to enlarge the separator section to reduce the liquid velocity and to facilitate
better disengagement of spent bubbles. Experiments have been reported in which the liquid
level in the gas separator was high enough to be represented as two mixed vessels in series [13].
This point will be analysed further in the section devoted to mixing.
4. Gas holdup
Gas holdup is the volumetric fraction of the gas in the total volume of a gasliquidsolid
dispersion:
VG
1 = V L + VG + VS
(1)
where the sub-indexes L, G, and S indicate liquid, gas, and solid, and i indicates the region in
which the holdup is considered, that is, gas separator (s) the riser (r), the downcomer (d), or
the total reactor (T).
The importance of the holdup is twofold: (a) the value of the holdup gives an indication of the
potential for mass transfer, since for a given system a larger gas holdup indicates a larger gas
liquid interfacial area; and (b) the difference in holdup between the riser and the downcomer
generates the driving force for liquid circulation. It should be stressed, however, that when
referring to gas holdup as the driving force for liquid circulation, only the total volume of the
gas is relevant. This is not the case for mass transfer phenomena, in this case, the interfacial
area is of paramount importance, and therefore some information on bubble size distribution
is required for a complete understanding of the process.
Because gas holdup values vary within a reactor, average values, referring to the whole volume
of the bioreactor, are usually reported. Values referring to a particular section, such as the riser
or the downcomer, are much more valuable, since they provide a basis for determining liquid
velocity and mixing. However, such values are less frequently reported.
The geometric design of the airlift bioreactor has a significant influence on the gas holdup.
Ad
Changes in the ratio Ar , the cross-sectional areas of the downcomer and the riser, respectively,
will change the liquid and gas residence time in each part of the reactor and hence their
Ad
contributions to the overall holdup. Gas holdup increases with decreasing Ar , [14-17].
4.1. Gas holdup in internal airlift reactors
Correlations presented for internal-loop airlift bioreactors are shown in Table 1. These take
into account liquid properties and geometric differences within a particular design. Most of
the correlations take the form:
r = a( J G ) ( ) (
Ad
Ar ap ) (2)
where r is the gas holdup in the riser, JG is the superficial gas velocity (gas volumetric flow
rate per unit of cross sectional area), ap is the effective viscosity of the liquid, and , , , and
a are constants that depend on the geometry of the reactor and the properties of the liquid. The
correlation can be used to predict the holdup in a system that is being designed or simulated
as a function of the operating variables, the geometry of the system, or the liquid properties.
Such correlations are effective for fitting data for the same type of reactor (e.g., a split-vessel
reactor) with different area ratios or even different liquid viscosities, but they are mostly
reactor-type specific.
The cyclic flow in the airlift bioreactor complicates the analysis of the system. The riser gas
holdup depends strongly on the geometric configuration of the gasliquid separator and the
water level in the gas separator. This has been shown experimentally in a split-vessel rectan
gular airlift bioreactor [18], but the premise can essentially be extended to any internal loop
airlift bioreactor. Analysis of the system revealed that these factors influence the gas disen
gagement and hence the gas recirculation in the downcomer. When this influence is taken into
account and the holdup is plotted against the true gas superficial velocity, JG, true, which is
defined as the sum of the gas superficial velocity due to the freshly injected gas, Qin, and to
the recirculated gas, Qd, that is,
J G, true = ( Qin + Qd
Ar
) (3)
Then all the data for the different gas separators may be represented by a single relationship,
such as equation 3. In other words, if the actual gas flow is known, the influence of gas
Ad
recirculation (which depends on Ar , and the design of the gas separator) has been airlift
bioreactor ready taken into account and does not need to be considered again. Nevertheless,
this simple approach has a drawback in that the true gas superficial velocity is difficult to
measure because the gas recirculation rate is usually not known. Thus, correlations that take
into account all the variables, which may be easily measured, remain the option of choice.
Table 1 shows most of the correlations of this type that have been proposed for the riser holdup
in internal loop Airlift bioreactors. Comparison of a number of these correlations shows that
there is reasonable agreement between the predictions of the different sources. Figure 1 can
be used as an example of the actual state of-the-art in airlift bioreactor design. A number of
Ad
correlations have been proposed, and three variables ( Ar , lap, and JG) have been tested by most
researchers. The ranges in which these variables were studied vary from source to source.
In addition, some other variables (such as bottom clearance, top clearance or gas separator
design, and surface tension) have been used by some authors but ignored by others. One
example is the disengagement ratio defined by Siegel and Merchuk [19], which represents the
mean horizontal path of a recirculating bubble relative to the external diameter and is
equivalent to the parameter obtained by dimensional analysis [1] as:
DS
M= 4D
(4)
where D is the diameter of column and Ds the diameter of gas separator. If this parameter is
not taken into account, then studies of the influence of the top clearance [13, 20] are incomplete
and difficult to extrapolate to other designs.
The same can be said about the filling factor [21] given by the ratio of the gas separator volume
to the total volume.
The foregoing discussion thus explains why all the correlations coincide for some ranges of
these secondary variables while in other ranges they may diverge. In addition, in some cases
the number of experiments may not have been sufficient to provide correlations or they may
have been ill-balanced from the statistical point of view. The obvious solution to this problem
lies in the collection of a large and detailed bank of reliable data that will constitute the basis
for correlations with greater accuracy and validity. The safest procedure for the prediction of
the gas holdup in an airlift bioreactor under design is to take data provided by researchers
who have made the measurements in that particular type of reactor with the same physico
chemical properties of the system. If this option is not available, then correlation 9 in Table 1
[17], is recommended for prediction of the gas holdup in the riser.
Gas holdup in the downcomer is lower than that in the riser. The extent of this difference
depends mainly on the design of the gas separator [22]. The downcomer gas holdup is linearly
dependent on the riser holdup, as a consequence of the continuity of liquid flow in the reactor.
Many expressions of this type have been published [3]. At low gas flow rates, ud is usually
negligible, since most of the bubbles have enough time to disengage from the liquid in the gas
separator. This usually happens at the low gas flow rates frequently used for animal cell
cultures.
The gas holdup in the separator is very close to the mean gas holdup in the whole reactor [1]
as long as the top clearance Ct is relatively small (one or two diameters). For larger top
clearances, the behaviour of the gas separator begins to resemble that of a bubble column, and
the overall performance of the reactor is influenced by this change.
In our laboratory we had some studies on the production of some secondary metabolites like
phytohormones and protein hydrolysis, amino acid production, xanthophyll and new
antibiotics. The next part of this chapter shows two cases were we try to show the applications
of air lift bioreactors from various viewpoints, such as hydrodynamics, rheology and engi
neering aspects themselves. So to provide some useful engineering tools when these bioreac
tors takes to consideration:
5. Case 1: Hydrodynamics, mass transfer and rheological studies of

Bikaverin production in an airlift bioreactor
5.1. Introduction
Antibiotics are small chemical agents (m.w. 600-800 Daltons) designed to eliminate harmful
bacteria. They are produced from yeasts of fungi and bacteria. The first antibiotic discovered
was penicillin in 1928/29 The first therapeutic application was in 1940 by Florey and Chain,
during the Second World War when the need for antibiotics was increasing. Antibiotics belong
to a group of substances called secondary metabolites. These substances appear to be unrelated
to the main process of growth and reproduction. Good producers of secondary metabolites
possess weak regulation of primary metabolism and visa-versa. Antibiotics are produced in
limited substrate and oxygen conditions. They are produced to provide some protection
against competing species in critical growth conditions. The starting points for antibiotic
production are mainly amino acids and acetyl CoA with isoprene and shikimic acid also being
involved. Antibiotic production commences at some point in differentiation often during
sporulation. Process development consists essentially of modifying the metabolic system so
that diversion of the material and biosynthesis are greatly increased. No cell growth or
reproduction occurs during antibiotic production as the energy produced is being used to
produce the antibiotic so that the cell can survive in the limited substrate.
After the discovery and first use of antibiotics the productivity and product concentration was
increased by development of better strains or by improvement of the reaction conditions such
r = 0.44 f G0.841ap
-0.135
r
1
d = 0.297 f G0.935
r
2 r = 2.47 f G0.97
r
3 r = 0.465 f 0.65
(1 + ) Ad -1.06
Ar
-0.103
ap
4
r = 0.65 f
(0.603+0.078Co )
(1 + ) Ad -0.258
Ar
d = 0.46r - 0.0244
)(A )
Ad -0.254
5 (
r = 0.491 - f G0.706
r r
-0.068
Dr ap
6
r = 0.16 ( ) (1 + )
J Gr 0.57
J 1r
Ad
Ar
d = 0.79r - 0.057
7 r = 0.364 J Gr
2
n+
2(n+1)
r JG
r
=
8
/ / / ( )
1 - r Ad 3(n+2)/4(n+1)
K
( )
n+2 2(n+1) 1/2(n+1) g
1
n 2(n+1) 1+ A
r
3n+1 n +1n
2
9
0.124 ( 1
)g 14 D( )
J G 1 0.996 113 0.294 Dr 0.114
=
(1 - )4
1 - 0.276 1 - e (
-0.0368M a
)
Fr
)( )
r =
10
0.415 + 4.27 ( J Gr + J 1r
g Dr
g 1 D 2 -0.188
1 + 1.13F r 1.22M o0.0386
1
( )
0.0386
11

(1 - )4
= 0.16 ( J Gr
1 )
1 M o -0.283 ( )
Dr -0.222
D
( ) 1

0.283
+ (1 - 1.61(1 - e
-0.00565M a
))
d = 4.51 106M o0.115 ( )

Ad
Ar 4.2
r
12 When r < 0.0133 ( )

Ad -1.32
Ar and d = 0.05M o-0.22 ( )
Ar 0.6
Ad r
0.31M o-0.0273
When r > 0.0133 ( )

Ad -1.32
Ar
73.3 -
13 r = 0.0057 (1 - w )2.75 - 161 79.3 - . f G0.88
r
0.4F r
r =
14
1 + 0.4F r 1 + J
Gr
( J1
)
15 = 0.24n -0.6 F r0.84-0.14n Ga
Table 1. Gas Hold-Up in Internal-Loop airlift bioreactors

as substrates and process controls. There was also a change from surface cultures to batch
stirred tank reactors with complex media. The next step was the introduction of the fed batch
configuration, which extended the length of the production phase and avoided repression
during high substrate levels.
For maximum yield we have to design a process that only minimally involves the primary
metabolism.
The main function of a properly designed bioreactor is to provide a controlled environment

in order to achieve optimal growth and/or product formation. In this review we will look at
the bioreactor design and the factors that are available in producing high yields of antibiotics.
In general bioreactor design, the growth kinetics of the microorganism plays a key role in
determining the type of reactor. Factors include; yield coefficients and maintenance require
ments, the exponential, stationary and lag phase kinetics, and the formation of growth and
non-growth associated product production formation. Due to the constraints of the report,
these factors are largely ignored and the main focus is on gaining knowledge on reactor
configuration on the maximum yield of general antibiotics.
In our laboratory after work of ten years in research the optimal production of gibberellins we
found that the Gibberella fujkuroi produce a potent antibiotic named Bikaverin. Bikaverin is a
red pigment with specific anti-protozoal activity against Leishmania brasiliensis and anti-
tumour activity. Additionally, bikaverin and its derivatives have a cytotoxic effect on in vitro
proliferating cells of Erlich ascites carcinoma, Sarcoma 37 and leukaemia L-5178 and is a
fermentation product of Gibberella fujikuroi or Fusarium sp. The formation of bikaverin precedes
that of gibberellin [23] and both secondary metabolites are produced from the primary
metabolite acetyl-CoA. Bikaverin is synthesized via the polyketide route while gibberellin is
synthesized through the isoprenoid pathway [24].
The industrial production of these secondary metabolites is done with cultures of mycelia in
liquid (submerged) or solid substrate fermentation. Models of mould growth and metabolic
production based on characteristics of mycelial physiology are important to understand,
design, and control those industrial fermentation processes [23, 25]. In other words these
models enable us to obtain information in a practical way, facilitating fermentation analysis,
and can be used to solve problems that may appear during the fermentation process.
5.2. Materials and methods
Microorganism and inoculum preparation Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) strain CDBB H-984
maintained on potato dextrose agar slants at 4 C and sub-cultured every 2 months was used
in the present work (Culture collection of the Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineer
ing, CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico). Fully developed mycelia materials from a slant were removed
by adding an isotonic solution (0.9% NaCl). The removed mycelium was used to inoculate 300
ml of fresh culture medium contained in an Erlenmeyer flask. The flask was placed in a radial
shaker (200 rev min1) for 38 h at 29 1C. Subsequent to this time; the contents of the flask
were used to inoculate the culture medium contained in the airlift bioreactor. The culture
medium employed for the inoculum preparation is reported by Escamilla [26].
5.3. Batch culture in the airlift bioreactor
An airlift bioreactor (Applikon, Netherlands, working volume, 3.5 l) was employed in the
present work (Fig 3). It consists of two concentric tubes of 4.0 and 5.0 cm of internal diameter
with a settler. The air enters the bioreactor through the inner tube. A jacket filled with water
allowing temperature control surrounds the bioreactor. It is also equipped with sensors of pH
and dissolved oxygen to control these variables. Moreover it allows feed or retiring material
from the bioreactor employing peristaltic pumps.
During the fermentation period, the pH was controlled to 3.0, temperature to 29 C and
aeration rate to 1.6 volume of air by volume of media by minute (vvm). These conditions
promoted Bikaverin production with the studied strain were optimized values [26]. About 30
ml subsamples were withdrawn from the bioreactor at different times and were used to
perform rheological studies. Biomass concentration was quantified by the dry weight method.
Figure 3. Airlift bioreactor used for the process for Bikaverin production
5.4. Batch culture in the airlift bioreactor
Typical culture medium contained glucose (50 g l1), NH4Cl (0.75 g l1) or NH4NO3 (1.08 g l1),
KH2PO4 (5 g l1), MgSO4.7H2O (1 g l1) and trace elements (2 ml l1). A stock solution of the trace
elements used contained (g l1) 1.0 Fe SO4. 7H2O, 0.15 CuSO4. 5H2O 1.0 ZnSO4. 7H2O, 0.1
MnSO4 7H2O, 0.1 NaMoO4, 3.0 EDTA (Na2 salt) 1 l of distilled water, and hydrochloric acid
sufficient to clarify the solution (Barrow et al. 1960). During the fermentation period, the pH
was controlled to 3.0, temperature to 29 C and aeration rate to 1.6 v/v/m. These conditions
promoted Bikaverin production with the studied strain but they are not optimized values.
About 30 ml subsamples were withdrawn from the bioreactor at different times and were used
to perform rheological studies. Biomass concentration was quantified by the dry weight
method.
5.5. Hydrodynamics and mass transfer studies
Gas holdup was determined in the actual culture medium using an inverted U-tube manom
eter as described by [27]. Liquid velocities in the riser were determined measuring the time
required for the liquid to travel through the riser by means of a pulse of concentrated sulphuric
acid using phenolphthalein as an indicator; the same was done for the downcomer.
The mixing time was calculated as the time required obtaining a pH variation within 5% of
the final pH value. For doing this, pH variation was followed after injection of a pulse of a
concentrated solution of ammonium hydroxide. The volumetric mass transfer coefficient was
determined employing the gassing-out method as described elsewhere [28].
5.6. Rheological studies
Rheological studies of fermentation broth were performed in a rotational rheometer (Haake,

Model CV20N) equipped with a helical impeller to perform torque measurements. This type
of geometry is appropriate when dealing with complex fluids and the measurement method
ology is reported by Brito [29]. Rheological results, like hydrodynamics and mass transfer, are
given as the average of two replicates for each sample. All the experiments were carried out
in triplicate and the results that are presented are an average.
5.7. Results and discussion
5.7.1. Gas holdup
The importance of gas holdup is multifold. The gas holdup determines the residence time of
the gas in the liquid and, in combination with the bubble size, influences the gasliquid
interfacial area available for mass transfer. The gas holdup impacts upon the bioreactor design
because the total design volume of the bioreactor for any range of operating conditions
depends on the maximum gas holdup that must be accommodated [1]. Figure 4 shows the gas
holdup () variation with superficial gas velocity in the riser (vgr).
0.1
0.08
0.06
Gas holdup
0.04
0.02
0
0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11
vgr, m/s
Experimental data; Equation 5;Equation 14

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Gas holdup variation with superficial gas velocity in the riser.
Experimental data were fitted to a correlation of the type of Eq. 5.

F = AvGBr (5)
Where F could be the gas holdup (), the liquid velocity in the riser (vlr), liquid velocity in the
downcomer (vld) or the volumetric mass transfer coefficient (kLa). This type of correlation has
been applied by many investigators (1, 30-33) and was derived empirically. [34] presented an
analysis for Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids where shows the theoretical basis of Eq. 5
(for the gas holdup case). He found that parameters A and B were dependent on the flow
regime and on the flow behaviour index of the fluid.
Moreover, parameter A is dependent on the consistency index of the fluid, on the fluid densities
and on the gravitational field. Equation 6 was obtained from fitting experimental data.
e = 0.7980 v1.0303
gr (6)
An increase in superficial gas velocity in the riser implies an increase in the quantity of gas
present in the riser, that is, an increase of gas fraction in the riser [27, 32]. Chisti, [34] reports a
correlation that calculates the value of B in Equation 5 (for gas holdup case). The obtained value
employing this correlation is 1.2537. Gravilescu and Tudose [32] present a similar correlation,
which predicts a value of 0.8434 for B. The B value obtained in the present work is between
the B values obtained from these correlations that employ the flow behaviour index obtained
from rheological studies. Shah [30] reported that B values in Equation 5 oscillate between 0.7
and 1.2.
5.7.2. Liquid velocity
The liquid circulation in airlift bioreactors originates from the difference in bulk densities of
the fluids in the riser and the downcomer. The liquid velocity, while itself controlled by the
gas holdups in the riser and the downcomer, in turn affects these holdups by either enhancing
or reducing the velocity of bubble rise. In addition, liquid velocity affects turbulence, the fluid-
reactor wall heat transfer coefficients, the gas-liquid mass transfer and the shear forces to which
the microorganism are exposed. Figure 5 shows liquid velocities variation in the riser and the
downcomer as a function of superficial gas velocity in the riser.
Liquid velocities in the riser (vlr) and in the downcomer (vld) were fitted to correlations of the
type of Equation 1 and Equations 7 and 8 were obtained.
vlr = 1.3335 v 0.3503

gr (7)
vld = 0.8716 v 0.2970

gr (8)
Freitas and Teixeira [35] point out that B value in equation 7 must be close to 0.3333 for the
liquid velocity in the riser since this value was theoretically derived by Kawase [36] and others.
The B value obtained in the present work (0.3503) is only a little bit higher than 0.3333. Freitas
0.7
0.6
vlr or vld, m/s

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
vgr, m/s
0.7
Experimental data Equation 7 or 8 Figure 5.
0.6
vlr or vld, m/s
Figure 5. Liquid velocities as a function

0.5of superficial gas velocity in the riser.
0.4
and Teixeira [35] also obtain that
0.3 B value for the liquid velocity in the downcomer is less than
B value for the liquid velocity 0.2
in the riser which agrees with the results obtained in this work.
Liquid velocities in the riser and in the0.04
0.02 downcomer
0.06 increase
0.08 0.1 with an increase in gas velocity
0.12
in the riser due to an increase in the densityvgrdifference
, m/s of the fluids in the riser and the
downcomer.
Figure 5. Liquid velocities as a function of superficial gas velocity in the riser.
Experimental data Equation 7 or 8
Freitas 5.7.3. Mixing(35)
and Teixeira timepoint out that B value in equation 7 must be close to 0.3333 for the liquid velocity in the riser since
this value was theoretically derived by Kawase (36) and others. The B value obtained in the present work (0.3503) is only a
Mixing in airlift bioreactors may be considered to have two contributing components:
little bit higher than 0.3333. Freitas and Teixeira (35) also obtain that B value for the liquid velocity in the downcomer is less
than B value for the liquid velocity in the riser which agrees with the results obtained in this work. Liquid velocities in the riser
and inbackmixing
the downcomerdue to recirculation
increase with an increaseand axial
in gas dispersion
velocity in the riser in
duethe riser
to an andindowncomer
increase due to
the density difference of the
fluids turbulence and
in the riser and the differential
downcomer. velocities of the gas and liquid phases [37](Ch. Mixing time is used
astime
Mixing a basis
for comparing various reactors as well as a parameter for scaling up [32]. Figure 6
shows the mixing time variation with the superficial gas velocity in the riser.
Mixing in airlift bioreactors may be considered to have two contributing components: backmixing due to recirculation and
Once again, the mixing time variation was fitted to a correlation of the type of Equation 5 and
axial dispersion in the riser and downcomer due to turbulence and differential velocities of the gas and liquid phases (37)(Ch.
Mixing time is used as a basis for comparing various reactors as well as a parameter for scaling up (32). Figure 6 shows the
mixingEquation 8 was
time variation withobtained.
the superficial gas velocity in the riser.
Once again, the mixing time variation was fitted to a correlation of the type of Equation 5 and Equation 8 was obtained.
-0.3628
t = 5.0684 v gr (9)
t m 5.0684mv gr
0.3628 (9)
20
16
tm, s
12
8
0.01 0.04 vgr, m/s 0.07 0.1
Experimental data Equation 5
Figure 6. Mixing timeFigure 6. Mixing

as a function time as a gas
of superficial function of superficial
velocity in the riser.gas velocity in the riser.
Experimental data Equation 5
Choi et al., (37) report a B value in Equation 5 of 0.36 while Freitas and Teixeira (35) report a B value equal to 0.417. The
B value obtained in this work is similar to the value reported by Choi et al., (37). The mixing time decreases with an increase
in superficial gas velocity in the riser since the fluid moves more often to the degassing zone where most of the mixing
phenomenon takes place due to the ring vortices formed above the draught tube (35).
Volumetric mass transfer coefficient
One of the major reasons that oxygen transfer can play an important role in many biological processes is certainly the limited
oxygen capacity of the fermentation broth due to the low solubility of oxygen. The volumetric mass transfer coefficient (kLa) is
Choi et al., [37] report a B value in Equation 5 of 0.36 while Freitas and Teixeira [35] report a
B value equal to 0.417. The B value obtained in this work is similar to the value reported by
Choi et al., [37]. The mixing time decreases with an increase in superficial gas velocity in the
riser since the fluid moves more often to the degassing zone where most of the mixing
phenomenon takes place due to the ring vortices formed above the draught tube [35].
5.7.4. Volumetric mass transfer coefficient

One of the major reasons that oxygen transfer can play an important role in many biological
processes is certainly the limited oxygen capacity of the fermentation broth due to the low
solubility of oxygen. The volumetric mass transfer coefficient (kLa) is the parameter that
characterizes gas-liquid oxygen transfer in bioreactors. One of the commonest employed scale-
up criteria is constant kLa. The influences of various design (i.e., bioreactor type and geometry),
system (i.e., fluid properties) and operation (i.e., liquid and gas velocities) variables on kLa must
be evaluated so that design and operation are carried out to optimize kLa [37].
The value of the volumetric mass transfer coefficient determined for a microbial system can
differ substantially from those obtained for the oxygen absorption in water or in simple
aqueous solutions, i.e., in static systems with an invariable composition of the liquid media
along the time. Hence kLa should be determined in bioreactors which involve the actual media
and microbial population [38]. Figure 7 shows the volumetric mass transfer coefficient
variation with the superficial gas velocity in the riser.
120
90
kLa, h-1
60
30
0
0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125
vgr, m/s
Experimental data Equation 6 Equation 12

Figure 7
Figure 7. Effect of the superficial gas velocity in the riser on kLa.
Experimental data shown in Figure 7 were fitted to a correlation of the type of Equation 1 and
Equation 6 was obtained.
k L a = 0.4337 v1.2398
gr (10)
[39] report a B value in Equation 6 equal to 1.33 and Schgerl et al., [40] report a value of 1.58.
The value of 1.2398, obtained in this work, is closed to these last values.
Volumetric mass transfer coefficient (kLa) increases with an increase in superficial gas velocity
in the riser due to an increase in gas holdup which increases the available area for oxygen
transfer. Moreover an increase in the superficial gas velocity in the riser increases the liquid
velocity which decreases the thickness of the gas-liquid boundary layer decreasing the mass
transfer resistance.
Figure 8 shows the evolution of kLa through fermentation course employing two different
nitrogen sources. The kLa decreases in the first hours of fermentation and reaches a minimum
value at about 24 hours. After this time the kLa starts to increase and after 48 hours of fermen
tation it reaches a more or less constant value which remains till the end of fermentation
process. This behaviour is similar irrespective of the nitrogen source and will be discussed
with the rheological results evidence.
79
69
kLa, h-1
59
49
39
0 48 96 144 192 240
Time, h
Ammonium chloride Ammonium nitrate
Figure 8. Sthe evolution of kLa through fermentation course employing two different nitrogen sources.
Figure 8
Figure 9 shows the relation between gas holdup and kLa. Mc Manamey and Wase [21] point
out that the volumetric mass transfer coefficient is dependent on gas holdup in pneumatically
agitated systems. The later was experimentally determined in bubble columns by Akita and
Yoshida and other authors [30, 41, 42] they mention that this was expectable since both the
volumetric mass transfer coefficient and the holdup present similar correlations with the
superficial gas velocity. Mc Manamey and Wase [21] proposed a correlation similar to Equation
1 to relate volumetric mass transfer coefficient with gas holdup. Equation 7 presents the
obtained result.
k L a = 0.2883 e 0.9562 (11)
Akita and Yoshida [41] and Prokop et al. [42] found that the exponent in Equation 7 oscillates
between 0.8 and 1.1.
It is well known [16] that logarithmic scale plots of kLa vs. /(1- ) for any particular data set
should have a unit slope according to Equation 8.
0.06
0.04
kL/dB, hr-1
0.02
0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
vgr, m/s
Figure 10. The kL/dB ratio asFigure

a function of superficial
8. The kL/dB ratio gas
as avelocity.
function of superficial gas velocity.
-1
The average value of kL/dB obtained in the present work is 0.050 s . Chisti (27) performed a similar analysis for 97 data
-1
points obtained from several different reactors and found an average value of 0.053 s . The foregoing observations have
kL
important scale-up implications. In large industrial fermenters thee kLa determination is not only difficult, but there is
ln k L a =reflect
ln 6 the real
+ ln (12)
uncertainty as to whether the measured results e ) The gas holdup measurements on these reactors
dB kLa(1or- not.
are relatively easy to carry out, however. Thus, Equation 9 can help to estimate kLa in these reactors once holdup
measurements have been made (1).
Where
Rheology kL is the mass transfer coefficient and dB is the bubble diameter. Even though the latter
is a generally
Rheological known
parameters suchfact,
as few investigators
the flow index (n) anddetermined these slopes
the consistency fordepend
index (K) their data to ascertain
on such factors as the
the validity
concentration of their
of solids experimental
in the results. (length,
broth, the morphology Figurediameter,
10 shows this of
degree analysis forshape)
branching, the experimental
of the particles, the
growth conditions (flexibility of cell wall and particle), the microbial species and the osmotic pressure of the suspending liquid,
dataothers
among of the present
possible work obtaining a slope of 1.034. Chisti [16] shows the same analysis for two
factors.
different data set and obtained slopes of 1.020 and 1.056.
For the case of mycelia cultures, as the biomass concentration increases the broth becomes more viscous and non-
Newtonian; leading to substantial decreases in oxygen transfer rates. This effect is often important since for many aerobic
processes involving viscous non-Newtonian broths oxygen supply is the limiting factor determining bioreactor productivity
(43). Apparent viscosity is a widely used
0.1 design parameter which correlates mass transfer and hydrodynamic parameters for
viscous non-Newtonian systems (44).
kLa, h-1
It is worth to mention that the present

0.01work uses impeller viscometer for performing rheological studies avoiding the use of
other geometries, i.e., concentric tubes or cone and plate, overcoming associated problems with these geometries such
sedimentation, solids compacting and jamming between measuring surfaces or pellet destruction (45).
0.001
Rheograms obtained for the fermentations0.01 employing different nitrogen source were0.1 fitted to Ostwald-de Waele model
(power law) and in both cases a pseudoplastic behaviour for/(1-)
the fermentative medium was found. Figure 9 shows the results
of consistency and flow indexes for these two fermentations where similar results were obtained.
Figure 9. kLa vs. gas holdup in the airlift bioreactor, unit slope.
1.5
Figure 9
A rearrangement of Equation
1
8 leads to Equation 9 which results are shown in Figure 10
ln
0.5 k L k L a (1 - e )
= (13)
dB 6e
0
0 1 2 3 4
ln
t=0h t = 24 h t = 48 h
The average value of kL/dB obtained in the present work is 0.050 s-1. Chisti [27] performed a
similar analysis for 97 data
Figurepoints obtained
9. Typical rheogram from several
employing different
impeller reactors and found an
viscometer.
average value of 0.053 s . The foregoing observations have important scale-up implications.
-1
In large industrial fermenters the kLa determination is not only difficult, but there is uncertainty
as to whether the measured results reflect the real kLa or not. The gas holdup measurements
1.5
ln
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
ln
t=0h t = 24 h t = 48 h
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Typical rheogram employing impeller viscometer.
on these reactors are relatively easy to carry out, however. Thus, Equation 9 can help to estimate
kLa in these reactors once holdup measurements have been made [1].
5.7.5. Rheology
Rheological parameters such as the flow index (n) and the consistency index (K) depend on
such factors as the concentration of solids in the broth, the morphology (length, diameter,
degree of branching, shape) of the particles, the growth conditions (flexibility of cell wall and
particle), the microbial species and the osmotic pressure of the suspending liquid, among
others possible factors.
For the case of mycelia cultures, as the biomass concentration increases the broth becomes
more viscous and non-Newtonian; leading to substantial decreases in oxygen transfer rates.
This effect is often important since for many aerobic processes involving viscous non-Newto
nian broths oxygen supply is the limiting factor determining bioreactor productivity [43].
Apparent viscosity is a widely used design parameter which correlates mass transfer and
hydrodynamic parameters for viscous non-Newtonian systems [44].
It is worth to mention that the present work uses impeller viscometer for performing rheo
logical studies avoiding the use of other geometries, i.e., concentric tubes or cone and plate,
overcoming associated problems with these geometries such sedimentation, solids compacting
and jamming between measuring surfaces or pellet destruction [45].
Rheograms obtained for the fermentations employing different nitrogen source were fitted to
Ostwald-de Waele model (power law) and in both cases a pseudoplastic behaviour for the
fermentative medium was found. Figure 11 shows the results of consistency and flow indexes
for these two fermentations where similar results were obtained.
During the first 24 hours of fermentation, medium viscosity increases due to exponential
growth of mycelia (no lag phase is present) which causes a kLa decrease in Figure 9. After this
time, the formation of pellets by the fungus starts to occur reflected in a decrease of medium
viscosity and hence an increase in kLa value in Figure 10. After 72 hours of fermentation the
medium viscosity was practically unchanged because the stationary growth phase is reached
by the fungus reflected in practically constant values of medium viscosity and kLa. With the
2 ,0 0 ,6
1 ,6 0 ,5
0 ,4
K, N sn m-2
1 ,2
n, -
0 ,3
0 ,8
0 ,2
0 ,4 0 ,1
0 ,0 0 ,0
0 50 100 150 200 250
T im e, h
Figure 12Figure 12. K and n through fermentation time in the airlift bioreactor. K for ammonium nitrate n for ammonium
nitrate K for ammonium chloride n for ammonium chloride,
aid of rheological studies is possible to use correlations of the type of Equation 10 to relate
holdup and volumetric mass transfer coefficient with fermentation medium viscosity [20, 31,
39, 44] to obtain Equations 12 and 13.
B C
F = Av gr mapp (14)
k L a = 0.0036 v 0.3775
gr
-0.5488
mapp (15)
e = 0.0072 v 0.2381
gr
-0.5703
mapp (16)
Figures 2 and 6 show experimental data fitting for holdup and kLa, respectively. As it was
expectable, Equations 12 and 13 present a better fit to experimental data than that obtained
with the aid of Equations 2 and 3 due to the existence of an extra adjustable parameter.
As can be seen in Fig. 13, there is no lag phase and exponential growth of mycelia starts
immediately and ceases during the first 24 h of fermentation. The later causes the medium
viscosity to increase (K and n increase in Fig. 12), which causes a k La decrease in Fig. 6. After
24 h of fermentation, the formation of pellets by the fungus starts to occur, reflected in a
decrease of medium viscosity (K and n start to decrease in Fig. 12) and hence an increase in
kLa value in Fig. 5. After 72 h of fermentation the medium viscosity was practically unchanged
(K and n remain constant in Fig. 12) because the stationary growth phase is reached by the
fungus reflected in practically constant values of medium viscosity and kLa. Also, after 72 h of
fermentation, the pellet formation process by the fungus stops.
Figure 13 shows the correlation between consistency and flow indexes with biomass concen
tration. Experimental data were fitted to Eqs. 12 and 13 proposed in the present work.
Optimized values for constants in Eqs. 12 and 13 are summarized in Table 1.
12
10
-1
8
Biomass, g l
6
4
2
0
0 100 200 300
Time, h
Figure 13
Figure 13. Growth kinetics employing ammonium chloride () or ammonium nitrate () as nitrogen source.
2.0 0.6
1.8
0.5
1.6
0.4
1.4
K, Nsnm-2
n, -
1.2 0.3
1.0
0.2
0.8
0.1
0.6
0.4 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Biom ass, g/L
re 14 Figure 14. K and n as a function of biomass concentration in the airlift bioreactor. K for ammonium nitrate n for
ammonium nitrate K for ammonium chloride n for ammonium chloride
c1
K= 2
c2 x (17)
1 + +
x c3
c1
n= 2
c2 x (18)
1 + +
x c3
With the aid of rheological studies is possible to use correlations of the type of Equation 14 to
relate gas holdup and volumetric mass transfer coefficient with fermentation medium viscosity
[20, 31, 39, 44] to obtain Equations 15 and 16.
B C
F = Av gr mapp (19)
k L a = 0.0036 v 0.3775
gr
-0.5488
mapp (20)
e = 0.0072 v 0.2381
gr
-0.5703
mapp (21)
Figures 2 and 5 show experimental data fitting for gas holdup and kLa, respectively. As it was
expectable, Eqs. 15 and 16 present a better fit to experimental data than that obtained with the
aid of Eqs. 2 and 3 due to the existence of an extra adjustable parameter.
5.8. Conclusions
In the present work preliminary hydrodynamics, mass transfer and rheological studies of
Bikaverin production in an airlift bioreactor were achieved and basic correlations between gas
holdup, liquid velocity in the riser, liquid velocity in the downcomer, mixing time and
volumetric mass transfer coefficient with superficial gas velocity in the riser were obtained.
Adjustable parameters calculated for each variable were compared with literature reported
values and a good agreement was obtained.
The gassing out method was successfully applied in determining volumetric mass transfer
through fermentation time employing two different nitrogen sources. Irrespective of the
nitrogen source the volumetric mass transfer behaviour was similar and it was explained in
terms of the fungus growth and changes in its morphology, which affect the culture medium
rheology.
Pellet formation by the fungus was used to explain the increase of kLa or the decrease of
medium viscosity. In both fermentations, kLa decreases as exponential growth of the fungus
occurs and reaches an asymptotic value once the stationary growth phase is reached. A helical
impeller was employed successfully for rheological studies, avoiding problems of settling,
jamming or pellet destruction, finding that the culture medium behaves as a pseudoplastic
fluid. Rheological measurements were used to correlate gas holdup and kLa with apparent
culture medium viscosity. Once again, for both fermentations, apparent viscosity increases as
exponential growth of the fungus occurs and reaches an asymptotic value once the stationary
growth phase is reached.
A satisfactory validation of experimental data for gas holdup and volumetric mass transfer
coefficient was performed which allows the employment of these data in scale-up strategies.
6. Case 2: Studies on the kinetics, oxygen mass transfer and rheology in the
l-lysine prodution by Corynebaterium glutamicum
6.1. Introduction
The industrial application of amino acids in broiler feed has a long history, from the late 1950's
have been used to increase the efficiency of the food they eat these animals. Lysine is one of
these amino acids to its importance as a feed additive for pigs and poultry, is that it increases
the willingness of proteins, bone growth, ossification and stimulates cell division.
Lysine used as an additive for food, is imported because lysine production nationally not exist.
The approximate amount of lysine produced worldwide is 550 000 tons per year and almost
everything is produced by international companies. Only in the state of Guanajuato, the
estimated demand of 300 tons of lysine [46], so that the implementation of appropriate
technology for the production of this important amino acid, reduce production costs of animal
feed feedlot to reduce imports and generate jobs in the country [47].
Lysine can be produced by chemical synthesis or by enzymatic or microbiological processes.
Lysine for obtaining a chemical synthesis is expensive and inefficient process that also by this
method are obtained racemic mixtures of D and L forms must then be processed to obtain the
L-form which is biologically active. Microbiological fermentation processes are more efficient
and direct methods to be based on the accumulation of amino acid that is excreted by the
organism in culture media and / or fermentation containing high sugar concentrations and
ammonium ions at neutral pH and under aerobic conditions in crops batches [48].
The most commonly used species for the production of lysine is the Corynebaterium glutami
cum are employed although Arthrobacter, Brevbibacterium, Microbacterium and Micrococuus.
Traditionally, the production process of lysine by microbiological fermentation is carried out
in stirred vessels, the characteristics of this type of reactor, sometimes, it is economically
inconvenient. A better alternative to this configuration are the airlift reactors, the advantages
are: low shear, high-speed transfer of oxygen and good mixing, implying a better mass transfer
eliminating concentration gradients of either the medium components, avoiding sedimenta
tion of the cells, thereby creating a more favourable environment for development and
maintenance, increasing yields and production of lysine.
6.2. Methodology
Inoculum development. Inoculated to the reactor biomass was obtained from a pre-inoculum
of ATCC 21253 in lyophilized strain Corynebacterium glutamicum.
Experiments in the bioreactor. The batch fermentations were carried out in a reactor airlift with
a working volume of 3.4 litres at 30 C (Fig 15). Dissolved oxygen was monitored with a
polarographic electrode. The pH of the culture pH was controlled at 7.0 by addition of a
solution of 70% NH4OH. The bioreactor has a condenser which minimizes the error by
evaporation losses. The quantity of biomass was inoculated approximately 10% of the
bioreactor working volume and sampled periodically.
Figure 15. Airlift bioreactor for L-Lysine production
6.3. Mass transfer
For the determination of KLa was used the gas elimination technique [49] and dynamic
technique [28]. Measurements for the calculation of KLa by both methods were carried out at
30 C and pH 7.0, with a working volume of 3.4 litres of sterile fermentative medium.
Evaluation of the parameters , and ms, the equations were solved using the Runge-Kutta
4th order and an adjustment of the experimental data by nonlinear regression using the GREG
program.
The growth rate model is as follows
dX
dt = X 1 - ( X
L
) (22)
Where is the specific growth rate and L is the maximum value that people can achieve.
The model of product formation rate where the rate of formation is related to the rate of growth:
dP dX
dt = dt
(23)
Where is a constant stoichiometric. In the case where the product is formed independently
of the speed of growth:
dP
dt = X (24)
where is a proportionality constant. The constant is similar to the enzyme activity [28]
The substrate consumption model is represented by the following equation:
rX rp
rS = Y X' /S
+ Y P' /S
+ mS X (25)
6.4. Results and discussion
The results obtained with the gas elimination technique, allowed calculating the maximum
oxygen transfer rate in the system, the dissolved oxygen conditions required.
Figure 16. Adjusting KLa experimental values obtained by the technique of gas removal.
Finding no correlations suitable KLa experimental data obtained by the technique of gas phase
were adjusted to a logarithmic trend line shown in Figure 16.
Figure 17, shows that the production of lysine started between 11 and 12 hours. From 21 up to
46 h the lysine production rate was kept constant (0.385 g / l of lysine h) and declined at 53 h
the reduction in production rate was 22% approximately. The overall yield YP / S was 0.244 g
of lysine / g glucose (at 53 h YP / S = 0.223 g lysine / g glucose).
Figure 17. Kinetics of growth, production and consumption with initial glucose 145 g / l.
Parameter 102g/l glucose 145g/l glucose
0.422 0.362
L 11.36 9.26
0.974 0.72
0.0405 0.0378
YX/S 0.42 0.38
YP/S 0.36 0.36
ms 0.0245
Table 2. Models parameter of growth, production, and lysine and glucose consumption.
In the experiment with 102 g / l initial glucose (Figure 17), lysine production started between
9 and 10 hours. From 22 up to 46 hours the lysine production rate was kept constant (0.475 g /
l h of lysine), at 52 hours the reduction in production rate was only 8%. The overall yield YP /
S was 0.247 g of lysine / g glucose.
Figure 18. Kinetics of growth, production and consumption with initial glucose 102 g / l.
The model parameters of growth, production and consumption presented in equations [1] to
[4] are presented in Table 2.
For evaluation of the parameters , and ms. The equations were solved using the Runge-
Kutta 4th order and an adjustment of the experimental data by nonlinear regression using the
GREG program [50].
In evaluating the parameters , and ms, the other parameters were kept constant and
adjusting the experimental data was performed with the data obtained from 12 h until the end
of the maintenance phase (phase to production rate constant).
In Figures 19 and 20 shows the experimental data and the values generated by equations (solid
lines) and can be seen that models correctly predict the growth of the microorganism, product
formation and substrate consumption from the beginning of the lysine production phase, until
the end of the maintenance phase.
Initial Glucose (g/L) L X0 YX/Thr qThr
145 9.04 0.362 30.1 0.0120
102 11.14 0.422 37.1 0.0114
Table 3. Results obtained from the specified speed of consumption of threonine to two different initial
concentrations of glucose.
The rate of consumption of threonine is affected by the initial concentration of glucose due to
the effect that the osmotic pressure produced in the cells.
Figure 19. Setting the biomass data to the logistic model (glucose = 145 g/L)
Based on the data in Table 4, an experiment was conducted with airflow of 1 vvm and initial
concentration of 150 g / l and 0.6 g / l glucose and L-threonine respectively (Figure 20). The
dissolved oxygen began to decrease at approximately 2 h and reached a level below 5%
saturation at approximately 20 hours. In Figure 20 it can be seen the effect of oxygen in the
growth rate, until 8 h, = 0.250 s-1with a saturation percentage of dissolved oxygen of 20% and
22 to 46, = 0.0135, after the culture was oxygen limited.
liquid entrained by the air

Air flow (vvm) ml of antifoam uptake (12 h)
trapped in the condenser
0.5 <1 -
1.0 15 2.2
1.5 27.5 4.4
2.0 55.5 8.0
2.5 >75 11.2
3.0 - 16.8
Table 4. Exploratory experiments for found the optimal initial air flow in the airlift bioreactor.
Figure 20. Oxygen limiting effect on the biomass formation.
6.5. Experimental determination of the volumetric coefficient of oxygen transfer
Determination of the solubility of oxygen in the fermentative culture. Because in the experi
ments with variable air flow was not possible to maintain the dissolved oxygen concentration
required for the fermentation experiments was determined by enriching the airflow with
oxygen. Were tested for solubility of oxygen in the fermentative culture with various concen
trations of glucose, 100, 140 and 180 g / l were obtained the following results:
Glucose (g/l) DO (%) MgO2/l
180 85.22 5.27
140 85.98 5.31
100 87.30 5.40
Table 5. Solubility of oxygen in the fermentative medium with different glucose concentrations.
The difference in concentration of dissolved oxygen concentration between the highest and
lowest blood glucose was only 2.11% [51]. Therefore experiments to determine kLa is conducted
in fermentative medium with 140 g / l glucose. One way to improve oxygen transfer in the
fermentations is to increase the solubility by increasing the mole fraction of gas in the airflow.
Based on this, we measured the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the bioreactor by varying
the mole fraction of oxygen in the air flow. The results are presented in Table 6.
Oxygen flow rate Oxygen molar

Air flow rate (vvm) mmol O2/l mg O2/l
(vvm) fraction
0 3400 0.209 0.165 5.27
500 2900 0.325 0.255 8.15
750 2650 0.383 0.307 9.81
1000 2400 0.442 0.349 11.18
1500 1900 0.558 0.441 14.10
Table 6. Experimental results of the measurement of dissolved oxygen.
Experimental data of solubility of oxygen, according to Henry's Law can be adjusted to a

straight line (Figure 21). These data were used in subsequent calculations.
Figure 21. Adjusting kLa experimental values obtained by the technique of gas removal.
In 2003, Ensari and Lim [52] proposed a model in which incorporated the rate of oxygen
consumption to describe the kinetics of fermentation of L-lysine and handled 0,266 mmolO2 /
l as 100% saturation, 30% of this amount is equivalent mgO2 to 2.55 / l. If we take the value of
2.55 mgO2 / l, as the minimum value of dissolved oxygen should be maintained during the
fermentation and used to calculate the oxygen transfer rate, as the mole fraction of oxygen
increases in the air flow, the percentage of dissolved oxygen is reduced, due to the increase in
the concentration gradient, which is the driving force for oxygen transfer.
Once the solubility data obtained at different levels of enrichment, we proceeded to calculate
the values of the volumetric coefficient of oxygen transfer. KLa value is proportional to the
increase in the molar fraction of oxygen in the air flow, this is because increasing the amount
of oxygen in the flow, and the contact area is higher. The results obtained with the gas
elimination technique, are shown in Table 7 and were useful because together with the values
of solubility of oxygen, were used to calculate the maximum oxygen transfer rate in the system,
the conditions of dissolved oxygen required.
Mole fraction of oxygen kLa (h-1] Number of adjusted data R2
0.209 57 10 0.9977
0.209 56 10 0.9979
0.325 171 5 0.9958
0.325 169 5 0.9903
0.383 205 5 0.9921
0.383 208 5 0.9911
0.442 233 3 0.999
0.442 230 3 0.9975
Table 7. Experimental KLa data obtained by the technique of gassing out.
While gassing out method showed a good correlation decided to try the dynamic method to
see if you got a better approximation.
6.6. Dynamic method
In Figure 22, shows the data obtained during the development of direct measurements were
performed to calculate the volumetric coefficient of oxygen transfer. Data from the first phase
of the experiment were used to measure the oxygen consumption rate in the second phase, the
coefficient of volumetric oxygen transfer. In fermentation, the oxygen transfer rate can be
calculated using the following equation:
= K L a(C L* - C L ) - QO2 X
d CL
dt
(26)
Where, QO2 is the specific rate of oxygen consumption, which can be defined as the specific
growth rate between the yields of oxygen.

QO2 = YO (27)
2
Figure 22. Typical response during the development of the dynamic technique of oxygen uptake
QO2 value can be considered constant during the exponential phase of growth, since, during
this stage, both the specific growth rate and yield of oxygen remained constant [25].
This dependency has been used by several authors [51, 53] for correlating the concentration of
biomass and the rate of oxygen consumption by a constant parameter, at least during the
exponential growth phase. For these experiments, we used a concentration we used a concen
tration of 140 g / l glucose and the flow of air not enriched with oxygen. The results of
calculating the specific rate of oxygen consumption are shown in Table 8. The average value
of QO2, was 159 mg O2 / g of cells per h, with a standard deviation of 1,414. With this information
it is possible to determine the amount of oxygen required for a given biomass concentration
in a fermentation and establish the amount of oxygen to be provided shall in the airflow.
QO2
Molar fraction molar of Oxygen QO2X R2 X (g cells)
(mgO2/g cell h)
0.209 0.01242 0.999 0.28 160
0.209 0.01443 0.997 0.33 158
Table 8. Calculation of the specific rate of oxygen consumption
To calculate the volumetric coefficient of oxygen transfer, we generated a graph (Figure 23) of
dC / dt + QO2X against CL, where the slope of the line is -1/kLa and intercept and CL. kLa value
of the average between the two experiments was 53 with a standard deviation of 1.414 that
show a good acceptation.
Figure 23. Calculation of the oxygen consumption rate using a direct method, the slope of the line is equal to-QO2X.
Comparing the values obtained with the technique kLa gas removal and direct measurement
shows that the kLa value measured in the early hours of the fermentation is very similar to the
calculated half fermentative bacteria free. Therefore, to calculate the oxygen transfer rate was
determined considering constant since the viscosity during the fermentation does not vary
significantly. The solubility of oxygen, may be affected if, therefore, the dissolved oxygen
electrode was calibrated at the start of fermentation to a high saturation conditions chosen and
the operation of the fermenter was held at the level of dissolved oxygen concentration
corresponding.
Figure 24. Calculating the volumetric coefficient of oxygen transfer, using a direct method, the slope of the line is
equal to -1/kLa.
6.7. Oxygen enrichment experiments
In the case of the 21253 strain of Corynebacterium glutamicum, the course of the airlift fermen
tation in the bioreactor can be divided in 4 phases. The first phase is characterized by expo
nential growth of the organism (as long as there are no restrictions of any nutrient). The
duration of this phase depends on the initial concentration of threonine in the fermentative
medium. The depletion of threonine, the second phase begins. At this point lysine production
begins, the dissolved oxygen concentration is increased (this implies a decrease in oxygen
consumption at the maximum consumption of oxygen is given up to the point of exhaustion),
the cell concentration continues to increase and eventually reaches a maximum of approxi
mately 1.6 times the amount shown at the point of exhaustion of threonine 1.7 times [54].
The end of biomass production is due to the depletion of threonine [48] and begins the third
phase, in which occurs the maintenance stage and the lysine production rate remains constant.
In the fourth phase, the decrease in the production rate is remarkable, because it is not possible
cell turnover by the lack of threonine, leucine and methionine, therefore, the biomass concen
tration decreases.
The yield of threonine should vary depending on the initial concentration of glucose due to
growth inhibition that occurs in high concentrations. So far, in experiments with variable air
flow, with an initial concentration average of 145 g / l of glucose values were = 0.331 (h -1)
YX / Thr = 23.10 (g biomass / g of threonine) and qThr = 0.0143 (g threonine / g biomass h) in the
bioreactor airlift was obtained in a yield of 40.50 (g biomass / g of threonine). In both cases the
oxygen limited the growth.
Figure 25. Stages in the lysine fermentation with Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 21253 in an airlift bioreactor.
To determine the parameters of the model without oxygen limitation were conducted two
experiments with initial concentrations of 145 and 100 g / l glucose and 0.3 g / l of threonine.
For fermentation with 145 g / l initial glucose, the maximum molar fraction of oxygen was 0.325
and 0.349 for fermentation with 102 g / l initial glucose. In Table 8 shows the final results of
the two fermentations. The kinetics of growth, product formation and substrate consumption
can be observed in Figures 26 and 27.
Initial Glucose (g/l) Biomass (g/l) Lysine (g/l) Residual glucose (g/l) Process time(h)
145 9.26 21.96 55.0 79
102 11.36 21.9 13.2 52
Table 9. Final results of the fermentations with oxygen-enriched air at the same culture conditions.
The yield YX / Thr between both experiments varied due to the inhibition caused by the initial
concentration of glucose, for the experiment with 145 g / l initial glucose YX / Thr = 30.13 (g
biomass / g of threonine) and in which was used 102 g / l initial glucose was 37.1 (g biomass /
g of threonine). This indicates that the amount of threonine to increase relative to the amount
of glucose for an adequate quantity of biomass in each fermentation and minimize residual
glucose concentrations.
Figure 26. Rheological behaviour when the shear stress versus the shear stress change respect the times and with ini
tial glucose concentration of 100 g / L.
6.8. Results of dynamic rheological behaviour of fermentation process
The model that best described the shear stress in function of the shear rate was
Biofluido behaviour in initial concentrations of 100 (Exp. 1), 140 (Exp. 2) and 180 g / l (Exp. 3)
glucose and 1 vvm of air flow, presents different behaviour with respect to its apparent
viscosity. Analyses were performed on a controlled stress rheometer with ARG2 type concen
tric cylinder geometry and with an observation range of 0.1 to 300 rps. The following figures
show the behaviour of the shear stress on the shear rate and at different times to take sample
of fermentation broth.
The rheological analysis was carried out both in increasing the shear rate and decreasing the
same and no significant change was observed i.e. a curve passes over another, this being a
feature of pseudoplastic fluids.
Figure 29. Apparent viscosity versus Shear rate at different times, with initial glucose 100 g / l.
It is evident that the maximum apparent viscosity is obtained between 24 and 36 hours the
fermentation process, and subtly observed as the shear stress decreases with increasing the
initial concentration of glucose in the medium (Figure 28) for the same shear rate.
The following graphs we can provide additional information to what occurs with respect to
the apparent viscosity of the medium and in the same manner at different initial values of
glucose.
Similarly one can conclude that the reduced carbon source leads to a decrease in apparent
viscosity. The rheological parameters can be described in terms of the model of power law
fluids for pseudoplastic, which show a nonlinear relationship between shear stress () and
shear rate ().
= k* n (28)
The constant k is a measure of the consistency of the fluid consistency index is called, and the
exponent n is indicative of the deviation of the fluid flow about the behaviour and often called
Newtonian behaviour index. For pseudoplastic fluids it holds that n <1, while n> 1 means a
dilatant flow behaviour. The power law representing the Newtonian fluid when n = 1. To look
more closely shown in the following tables the evolution of the flow rate and consistency index
with respect to time and the initial glucose concentration.
Time (h) K (Pa*s) n
0 0.00509 1.0055
6 0.00580 1.0111
24 0.00599 1.0136
36 0.01010 0.9779
48 0.00827 0.9926
Table 10. Evolution of the flow and consistency index when were used the initial glucose 100 g / l.
Time (h) K (Pa*s) n
0 0.00640 1.0141
6 0.00682 1.0093
12 0.00320 1.0133
24 0.00625 1.0095
36 0.00620 1.0033
48 0.00626 1.0048
54 0.00638 0.9929
72 0.00864 0.9514
Table 11. Evolution of the flow and consistency index when were used the initial glucose 140 g / l.
Time (h) K (Pa*s) n
0 0.00157 1.0028
6 0.00209 0.9577
12 0.00202 0.9633
24 0.00227 0.9389
36 0.00212 0.9589
48 0.00199 0.9735
54 0.00152 0.9944
72 0.00149 0.9891
96 0.00133 0.9889
102 0.00126 0.9995
Table 12. Evolution of the flow and consistency indices when were used the initial glucose 180 g / l.
With these data it is easy to see how the cross breeding ground of a pseudoplastic to dilatant,
if however it remains very close to the threshold of Newtonian behaviour.
Trying to interpret which may be the kinetic relationship with the following graphs are
presented, which illustrates the behaviour of the indices of both flow and consistency.
Can be seen from the graph that during the growth phase of the microorganism fluid behaves
as pseudoplastic and when it reaches the stationary phase changes dilatant. The interesting
thing is that presented in this final stage the culture broth is such that can be separated easily
from the microorganism and undesirable solids, providing the following extraction step of the
lysine.
Figure 32. Behaviour consistency index (k) and biomass through fermentation time, using an initial glucose concen
tration of 100 g / l.
Shows the effect of glucose on the growth of the microorganism, presenting a catabolic
repression, and which manifests itself in changing the rheology of the system. We can see that
it is present a phase lag increased with increasing initial glucose concentration and the fluid
is Newtonian behaviour.
When using the higher initial glucose concentration shows a higher apparent viscosity and
thus shows the suppressive effect on growth of the microorganism, once decreases the
concentration of glucose over time changes the rheological behaviour of the system, but with
a low lysine production.
With this new information becomes more evident that the media has a high apparent viscosity
at about 24 hours of fermentation, if this information is compared by the kinetics osmolality
can be concluded to be due to agglomeration of biomass and the relative glucose in the
medium.
Similarly one can conclude that the reduced carbon source leads to a decrease in apparent
viscosity. The rheological parameters can be described in terms of the model of power law
fluids for pseudoplastic, which show a nonlinear relationship between shear stress and shear
rate.
7. Conclusions
Using the obtained relationships between amino acids were prepared culture media in which,
L-threonine limits growth and the amino acids L-leucine and L-methionine is not present in
excess, reducing the cost of these amino acid supplementation. The initial concentrations of
threonine and glucose, affect the growth of the microorganism. The lack of threonine causes a
cessation in growth and a subsequent decrease in biomass, while glucose depending on the
initial concentration affects the specific growth rate and inhibits the formation of biomass. Thus
the overall process yield is closely related to the initial concentrations of threonine and glucose
airlift reactors in the oxygen transfer rate can be increased by increasing the air flow. In studies
in the present study we observed that, the use of air flows greater than 1 vvm generate a large
amount of foam, making it necessary to use defoamers, in decreasing the solubility of oxygen
in the fermentative medium. To maintain adequate oxygenation, in combination with the
advantages of the airlift bioreactor, resulted in a prolongation of the maintenance phase,
whereby the lysine production rate was constant for a period of time greater than that reported
in stirred tank bioreactors. In an airlift, using a minor amount of biomass can generate the same
or greater amount of product, reducing the initial amount of amino acids, glucose and
ammonium sulfate. Growth models, product formation and substrate consumption correctly
predict from the start of the production phase of lysine, to the end of phase constant production
rate. It can therefore be used for the simulation of the process from the beginning of fermen
tation, until the end of the maintenance phase.
Author details
Ana Mara Mendoza Martnez1 and Eleazar Mximo Escamilla Silva2*
*Address all correspondence to: eleazar@iqcelaya.itc.mx
1 Technological Institute of Madero City, Division of Graduate Studies and Research

(ITCM), Madero, Mxico
2 Chemical Departments, Technological Institute of Celaya, Celaya, Mxico
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Provisional chapter

Airlift Bioreactors: Hydrodynamics and Rheology

Ana Mara Mendoza Martnez and

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

2. Hydrodynamic characteristic of airlift reactors

There is extensive information on the measurement of fluid hydrodynamics published with a

3.3. Gas separator

4.1. Gas holdup in internal airlift reactors

5. Case 1: Hydrodynamics, mass transfer and rheological studies of

d = 4.51 106M o0.115 ( )

12 When r < 0.0133 ( )

When r > 0.0133 ( )

Table 1. Gas Hold-Up in Internal-Loop airlift bioreactors

The main function of a properly designed bioreactor is to provide a controlled environment

5.2. Materials and methods

5.3. Batch culture in the airlift bioreactor

5.4. Batch culture in the airlift bioreactor

5.5. Hydrodynamics and mass transfer studies

5.6. Rheological studies

Rheological studies of fermentation broth were performed in a rotational rheometer (Haake,

5.7. Results and discussion

5.7.1. Gas holdup

Experimental data; Equation 5;Equation 14

Experimental data were fitted to a correlation of the type of Eq. 5.

5.7.2. Liquid velocity

vlr = 1.3335 v 0.3503

vld = 0.8716 v 0.2970

vlr or vld, m/s

Figure 5. Liquid velocities as a function

Experimental data Equation 5

Figure 6. Mixing timeFigure 6. Mixing

Volumetric mass transfer coefficient

5.7.4. Volumetric mass transfer coefficient

Experimental data Equation 6 Equation 12

Figure 7. Effect of the superficial gas velocity in the riser on kLa.

k L a = 0.2883 e 0.9562 (11)

Figure 10. The kL/dB ratio asFigure

It is worth to mention that the present

Figure 15. Airlift bioreactor for L-Lysine production

6.3. Mass transfer

The growth rate model is as follows

The substrate consumption model is represented by the following equation:

6.4. Results and discussion

Parameter 102g/l glucose 145g/l glucose

YX/S 0.42 0.38

YP/S 0.36 0.36

Initial Glucose (g/L) L X0 YX/Thr qThr

145 9.04 0.362 30.1 0.0120

102 11.14 0.422 37.1 0.0114

liquid entrained by the air

Figure 20. Oxygen limiting effect on the biomass formation.

6.5. Experimental determination of the volumetric coefficient of oxygen transfer

Glucose (g/l) DO (%) MgO2/l

180 85.22 5.27

140 85.98 5.31

100 87.30 5.40

Oxygen flow rate Oxygen molar

0 3400 0.209 0.165 5.27

500 2900 0.325 0.255 8.15

750 2650 0.383 0.307 9.81

1000 2400 0.442 0.349 11.18

1500 1900 0.558 0.441 14.10

Table 6. Experimental results of the measurement of dissolved oxygen.

Experimental data of solubility of oxygen, according to Henry's Law can be adjusted to a