MBDCI

Collapsing Geomaterials
5-E Collapsing Geomaerials

Maurice Dusseault
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What are Collapsing Geomaterials?

Materials with a quasi-stable structure that
collapses when effective stresses increase

Usually, these materials are cemented at the
grain contacts, or comprised of hollow grains

When the grain-to-grain contact stresses
surpass a threshold the fabric destroyed
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fi -collapse of a hollow grain (e.g. Chalk)

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Elastic Compression

leads to increased contact forces, fn

The contact area increases, porosity drops

This is a function of compressibility

If truly elastic, V is recoverable (-V = +V)

fi Ap - A
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fj

E,
p,

Ap fk
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Grain Contact Stiffness (Elastic)

As goes up, E
F F
(and K) increase

Stress (1 3)
Hertz
d - d E = ()

Reality v
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C SS
U

Strain - a
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But In Collapsing Materials

Such as (these are the major examples)
 Coal (high internal porosity)
 North Sea Chalk (coccoliths, lightly cemented)

 Diatomite (hollow diatoms, spicules..)

 Some high sandtones, lightly cemented

leads to a breakdown of a structure which then

5-E Collapsing Geomaerials

seeks to occupy a lower state (loss of porosity)

This usually happens at a characteristic stress level

One contact breaks, f is cast onto adjacent contacts

which break leading to a cascade of rupture
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Collapse and Irreversible Strain

In a collapsing rock As goes up, E
a threshold is reached (and K) increase

Collapse onset is

Stress (1 3)
fairly abrupt, and

The deformation is
mostly irrecoverable
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A permanent loss of

k
porosity (V) takes

al
Ch
,
al
place

Co
Strain - a

Affecting k, Cc, vP
V
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Example: High-Porosity Sandstone

Pore pressure in a high-porosity, lightly
cemented rock is reduced by production (p)

The effective stress, , rises

Distortion of grain contacts by compressive &
shear forces causes the cementation to rupture
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The sand then undergoes sudden compaction

leading to a significant porosity reduction
(at least 2%), & 100% irrecoverable

Other properties are also changed (k, E, , vP,
vS, Cc)
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Cohesion Destruction

Cohesion
loss and
grain
rotation

fi
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Denser
packing
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Wilmington. California

Bowl shaped z

Shear of casings
occurred mainly on
the shoulders of the
subsidence bowl

Few shears in the
middle, where z
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greatest

Few on flanks

Associated
earthquakes
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Geological History!

Geological history is a vital factor in the
development of collapsing materials

Diagenesis = pressure solution, densification,
grain-to-grain cementation

Light cementation before densification can
preserve a very high porosity (collapsible, like
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Chalk, Wilmington Field sandstone)

Or, a hollow internal structure is preserved
 Coal, Chalk, Diatomite all have, in part, hollow
internal structures
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AlsoGrain Crushing with High

Cleavable grains, lithic fragments, volcanic
shards. all tend to crush easily

Greywackes, arkoses crush more easily than Q
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Compression: Log(v) x Plot

- porosity
elastic behavior Depletion = +
Injection = -
inelastic compaction curve
behavior
irrecoverable
compaction elastic behavior
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inelastic compression
rebound curve
1 MPa 10 MPa 100 MPa

log(v)
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Processes and Compaction

porosity
elastic compression at low

elastic grain rearrangement

0.30 recovery at intermediate

irrecoverable
compaction elastoplastic grain
contact behavior
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0.25 rebound
curve grain crushing
at high

log(v)
0.20 1 MPa 10 MPa 100 MPa

low high
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Mechanisms, Chalk, Diatomite

North Sea Chalks (and a few other materials

such as diatomite and coal) exist in a high-
porosity state (>35-40%)

This state is quasi-stable: it exists mainly
because of a hollow grain structure
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If grains crush, massive compaction occurs

(~10 m at Ekofisk), and surface subsidence

This is triggered by the increase in v, and
also by increased stress difference (1 - 3)
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Why Does Chalk Collapse?

Hollow, weak grains (coccoliths)

Weak cementation
(dog-tooth calcite)
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Weak, cleavable grain

mineral (CaCO3)
5-E Collapsing Geomaerials Coccolithic Structure of Chalk

Hjuler ML. 2007. Diagenesis of Upper Cretaceous onshore and offshore

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chalk from the North Sea area. PhD Thesis, Institute of Environmental and
Resources, Technical University of Denmark, 70 p.
5-E Collapsing Geomaerials Hollow Coccoliths, Little Cement

Risnes, R., Madland, M.V., Hole, M. & Kwabiah, N.K., 2005. Water weakening
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of chalk Mechanical effects of water-glycol mixtures. Journal of Petroleum

Science and Engineering, 48, 21-36.
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Mechanisms, Chalk

There is a threshold stress that may exist
because of cementation

or because hollow grains and pores need a
certain level before they collapse

Once collapse happens, the Chalk can even
become liquefied locally (excess liquid)
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The stresses are transferred to adjacent rock

and the process can propagate far

The whole reservoir compacts when the
collapse is at the interwell scale
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North Sea Chalk Collapse

porosity
threshold stress

irrecoverable strain collapse of fabric

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rebound curves compression curve

1 MPa 10 MPa 100 MPa

log(v)
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Including Crushing in MC Plot

shear stress This part of Y is

called the cap. It
addresses the
M-C plot issue of crushing.
ield
y
ar Y
he
S
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Stresses at crushing
crushing yield
n
h v
Crushing failure is contractile, with a loss in volume, -V
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Crushing Yield from Depletion

M-C plot Initiation of plastic

crushing, as in Ekofisk
shear stress

This is the cap of the

MC criterion for a
before p, initial in
collapsing medium
situ conditions
Y
ield
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y
ar
he after p
S
crushing
n
h]b h]a v]b v]a
a & b stand for after and before p

North Sea Chalk collapses under a hydrostatic stress.

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Massive Subsidence - Ekofisk

Huge reservoir, over 300 m thick

High porosity (high-) Chalk (see next slide)

Oil production causes:
 Drawdown of reservoir pressure p
 Increase in effective stress
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 Collapse of high- Chalk to a lower porosity

 Massive reservoir compaction (> 11 m at present)

 Seafloor subsidence (>9 m at present)

 Good reservoir drive energy!

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Ekofisk
Reservoir structure
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Subsidence
10 km
bowl
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Valhall Disposition
Ekofisk and Valhall are similar
Chalk reservoirs, formed
because of deep-seated salt
EKOFISK doming creating an anticline.

From: Zoback MD, Zinke JC. Production-induced Normal

Faulting in the Valhall and Ekofisk Oil Fields. Pure Appl.
Geophys. 159 (2002) 403-420
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VALHALL A

Geography
Deep salt ridge
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Coal can be a Collapsing Material

1. The CH4 is depleted near the

wellbore, -V in coal blocks. k - apparent
permeability
2. Coal fractures open up,
increasing permeability.
ko
3. Closure stress drop, helping

fractures remain open po
- stress
4. The well improves with time! pressure - p
5. But, crushing can occur!!!
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affected region fracture-dominated stratum

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Cementation, Compaction
porosity apparent threshold

normal collapse if cement

densification is ruptured
cementation effect
virgin
compression curve
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stiff
response

log(v)
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Diagenetic Densification

porosity apparent threshold

diagenetic
porosity loss
@ constant virgin
compression curve
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present state
stiff
response

log(v)
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Precompaction Effect

porosity apparent threshold

virgin
compression curve
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present state
stiff
response

log(v)
Deep burial followed by uplift and erosion lead to precompaction
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Threshold Drawdown

Usually, some threshold drawdown must occur
before significant compaction starts

There are three effects responsible:
The sand may be geologically pre-densified
There may be a cementation to overcome (Chalk)
The p may not yet be at the reservoir scale (arching)
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These are hard to quantify without careful

geological studies and laboratory testing

Short-term well testing can be misleading!
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Diatomite

A rare material, made up of diatoms

In California, large-scale thermal operations in
heavy oil diatomites trigger massive collapse

Helps produce the oil through compaction of
the diatomite, good for p maintenance
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Casing shearing

Surface subsidence

Loss of well integrity seal along backside

And other issues; some good, some bad
5-E Collapsing Geomaerials Diatomite
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Belridge Field, CA - Subsidence

30-40 cm per year
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Belridge
Subsidence
Rate
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0.0 in./yr

12.5

25.0

over 18 months
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Summary Collapsing Materials

Predicting the behavior of collapsing materials
is a geomechanics issue

We must understand the physics, consequences

Materials of interest
 Sandstones, high , large p, weak grains
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 Chalks of high porosity (North Sea)

 Diatomite (California)

 Coal of high porosity

Again, the integration of geology with

geomechanics is vital