The Mughal Empire (Persian: ‫مغول‬ ‫ شاهان‬Shāhān-e Moġul; self-designation: ‫ گوركانى‬-

[1][2]
Gūrkānī), or Mogul Empire in former English usage, was an Islamic imperial power that ruled
a large portion of Indian subcontinent which began in 1526, invaded and ruled most
of Hindustan (South Asia) by the late 17th and early 18th centuries, and ended in the mid-19th
century.[3] The Mughal Emperors were descendants of the Timurids ofTurkistan, and at the height
of their power around 1700, they controlled most of theIndian Subcontinent—extending
from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west,Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the
south.[4] Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 130 million, over a
territory of over 4 million sq. km (1.5 million sq. mi.).[5]

The "classic period" of the Empire started in 1556 with the accession of Jalaluddin Mohammad
Akbar, better known as Akbar the Great. It ended with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707,[6]
[7]
although the Empire continued for another 150 years. During this period, the Empire was
marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant
monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterised
by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary,
artistic and architectural results.

Following 1725 the empire declined rapidly, weakened by wars of succession, agrarian crises
fueling local revolts, the growth of religious intolerance, the rise of Maratha Empire as well
as Durrani Empire and finally British colonialism. The last king, Bahadur Zafar Shah II, whose rule
was restricted to the city of Delhi, was imprisoned and exiled by the British after the Indian
Rebellion of 1857.

The name Mughal is derived from the original homelands of the Timurids, the Central Asian
steppes once conquered by Genghis Khan and hence known as Moghulistan, "Land of Mongols".
Although early Mughals spoke the Chagatai language and maintained Turko-Mongol practices,
they were essentially Persianized.[8] They transferred the Persian literature and culture[8] to India,
thus forming the base for theIndo-Persian culture.[8]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Early history

• 2 Mughal dynasty

o 2.1 Decline

• 3 List of Mughal Emperors

• 4 Influence on the Indian Subcontinent

 o 4.1 Mughal Society

• 5 Science and technology

o 5.1 Astronomy

o 5.2 Technology

• 6 See also

• 7 References

• 8 External links

[edit]Early history
The foundation for the empire was established around the early 1500s by
the Timuridprince Babur, when he took control of the Doab and eastern regions of Khorasan,
which controlled the fertile Sindh region and the lower valley of the Indus River.[9] In 1526, Babur
defeated the last of the Delhi Sultans, Ibrahim Shah Lodi, at the First Battle of Panipat. To secure
his newly founded kingdom, Babur then had to face the formidable Rajput confederacy led
by Rana Sanga of Chittor, at the Battle of Khanwa. Rana Sanga offered stiff resistance but was
defeated due to treachery within his own ranks.

Babur's son Humayun succeeded him in 1530 but suffered major reversals at the hands of
the Pashtun Sher Shah Suri and effectively lost most of the fledgling empire before it could grow
beyond a minor regional state. From 1540 Humayun became a ruler in exile, reaching the court of
theSafavid rule in 1554 while his force still controlled some fortresses and small regions. But
when the Pashtuns fell into disarray with the death of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun returned with a
mixed army, raised more troops and managed to reconquer Delhi in 1555.

Humayun crossed the rough terrain of the Makran people with his wife, but left behind their infant
son Jalaluddin to spare him the rigours of the journey. Akbar, as Jalaluddin would be better
known in his later years, was born in the town of Sindh in where he was raised by his uncle
Askari. There he became an excellent outdoorsman, horseman, and hunter, and learned the arts
of war. The resurgent Humayun then conquered the central plateau around Delhi, but months
later died in an accident, leaving the realm unsettled and in war.

Akbar succeeded his father on 14 February, 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar
Shah Suri for the throne of Delhi. He soon won his eighteenth victory at age 21 or 22. He became
known as Akbar, as he was a wise ruler, set fair but steep taxes. He was born in a Hindu Rajput
household. He was a more inclusive in his approach to the non-Muslim subjects of the Empire.
He investigated the production in a certain area and taxed inhabitants one-fifth of their agricultural
produce. He also set up an efficient bureaucracy and was tolerant of religious differences which
softened the resistance by the locals. He made alliances with Rajputs and appointed Hindu
generals and administrators. Later in life, he also came up with his own brand of religion based
on tolerance and inspired by views from both Hinduism and Islam. However, after his death this
religion did not catch on but is still remembered for its noble intentions of bringing people and
minds together.

Jahangir, son of Emperor Akbar, ruled the empire from 1605–1627. In October 1627, Shah
Jahan, son of Emperor Jahangir succeeded to the throne, where he inherited a vast and rich
empire. At mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world. Shah Jahan
commissioned the famous Taj Mahal (1630–1653) in Agra which was built by the Persian
architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri as a tomb for Shah Jahan's wifeMumtaz Mahal, who died giving
birth to their 14th child. By 1700 the empire reached its peak under the leadership of Aurangzeb
Alamgir with major parts of present day India, Pakistan and most of Afghanistan under its domain.
Aurangzeb was the last of what are now referred to as the Great Mughal kings.

[edit]Mughal dynasty
The Mughal Empire was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent between the mid-16th
century and the early 18th century. Founded in 1526, it officially survived until 1858, when it was
supplanted by the British Raj. The dynasty is sometimes referred to as the Timurid
dynasty asBabur was descended from Timur.

The Mughal dynasty was founded when Babur, hailing from Ferghana (Modern Uzbekistan),
invaded parts of northern India and defeated Ibrahim Shah Lodhi, the ruler of Delhi, at the First
Battle of Panipat in 1526. The Mughal Empire superseded the Delhi Sultanate as rulers of
northern India. In time, the state thus founded by Babur far exceeded the bounds of the Delhi
Sultanate, eventually encompassing a major portion of India and earning the appellation of
Empire. A brief interregnum (1540-1555) during the reign of Babur's son, Humayun, saw the rise
of the AfghanSuri Dynasty under Sher Shah Suri, a competent and efficient ruler in his own right.
However, Sher Shah's untimely death and the military incompetence of his successors enabled
Humayun to regain his throne in 1555. However, Humayun died a few months later, and was
succeeded by his son, the 13-year-old Akbar the Great.

The greatest portions of Mughal expansion was accomplished during the reign of Akbar (1556-
1605). The empire was maintained as the dominant force of the present-day Indian
subcontinent for a hundred years further by his successors Jahangir, Shah Jahan,
and Aurangzeb. The first six emperors, who enjoyed power both ‘’de jure’’ and ‘’de facto’’, are
usually referred to by just one name, a title adopted upon his accession by each Emperor. The
relevant title is bolded in the list below.

Akbar the Great initiated certain important policies, such as religious liberalism (abolition of
the jizya tax), inclusion of Hindus in the affairs of the empire, and political alliance/marriage with
the Hindu Rajput caste, that were innovative for his milieu; he also adopted some policies of Sher
Shah Suri, such as the division of the empire into sarkars, in his administration of the empire.
These policies, which undoubtedly served to maintain the power and stability of the empire, as
the Hindu populace had shown resistance to the Islamic conquest in its years in the Indian
subcontinent. These were preserved by his two immediate successors but were discarded by
Aurangzeb, who followed a more strict interpretation of Islam and followed a stricter policy of
intolerance to the practice of religions than his own. Furthermore, Aurangzeb spent nearly his
entire career seeking to expand his realm into the Deccan and south India, Assam in the east;
this venture sapped the resources of the empire while provoking strong resistance from
the Marathas, Sikhs of Punjab, Ahoms of Assam and some elements within Hindu Rajputs.
Ahoms in Assam successfully resisted the Mughal invasions, the last battle being the Battle of
Saraighat. It is interesting to note in this regard that while the Mughals ruled India for a nearly
three hundred years they never ruled the complete geographical extent of the subcontinent that is
known as India in the modern day context. The power was mostly centered around Delhi which
was for historical reasons considered a strategic stronghold but there always existed strong
independent Hindu kingdoms which maintained their sovereignty and offered stiff resistance to
Mughal expansion.

[edit]Decline
Sikh and Maratha states gained territory after Mughal empire's decline. Map showing territories in 1700 and 1792

After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the empire fell into decline. Beginning with Bahadur Shah I, the
Mughal Emperors progressively declined in power and became figureheads, being initially
controlled by sundry courtiers and later by various rising warlords. In the 18th century, the Empire
suffered the depredations of invaders like Nadir Shah of Persia and Ahmed Shah Abdaliof
Afghanistan, who repeatedly sacked Delhi, the Mughal capital. The greater portion of the empire's
territories in India passed to the Marathas, who sacked Delhi, reducing the once powerful and
mighty empire to just lone city before falling to the British. Other adversaries included Sikh
Empire and Hyderabad Nizams. In 1804, the blind and powerless Shah Alam IIformally accepted
the protection of the British East India Company. The British had already begun to refer to the
weakened Emperor as "King of Delhi," rather than "Emperor of India." The once glorious and
mighty Mughal army was disbanded in 1805 by the British; only the guards of the Red Fort were
spared to serve with the King Of Delhi, which avoided the uncomfortable implication that British
sovereignty was outranked by the Indian monarch. Nonetheless, for a few decades afterward,
the BEIC continued to rule the areas under its control as the nominal servants of the emperor,
and in his name. In 1857, even these courtesies were disposed. After some rebels in the Sepoy
Rebellion declared their allegiance to Shah Alam's descendant,Bahadur Shah Zafar (mostly
symbolically, as he was just a figurehead for the purpose of rebellion), the British decided to
abolish the institution altogether. They deposed the last Mughal Emperor in 1857 and exiled him
to Burma, where he died in 1862. Thus the Mughal dynasty came to an end, which formed a
momentous chapter in the history of India.

There are still many Mughals living in the Indian Subcontinent. The term Mughal in the current
socio-political context also does not have decisive meaning as the blood lines of the original
Mughals are now mixed with the local population and have South-Asian identities which are
stronger than any original Turkic or Mongoloid origins [Citation reqd]. The language spoken by
the Mughals also slowly adapted itself to a form of Hindustani known as Urdu. Though a script
was invented for it close to Arabic (known as Nastaliq) the basic vocabulary is
mostly Sanskrit based and it is very similar in form and content to modern day Hindi.

[edit]List of Mughal Emperors

Main article: Mughal emperors

Certain important particulars regarding the Mughal Emperors is tabulated below:

Reign
Emperor Birth Death Notes
Period

Dec
Feb 23, 1526-
Zahir ud-din MuhammadBabur 26, Founder of the Mughal Dynasty.
1483 1530
1530

Reign interrupted by Suri Dynasty. Youth

Nasiruddin Mar 6, 1530- Jan and inexperience at ascension led to his being
MuhammadHumayun 1508 1540 1556 regarded as a less effective ruler than usurper,
Sher Shah Suri.

1540- May
Sher Shah Suri 1472 Deposed Humayun and led the Suri Dynasty.
1545 1545

2nd and last ruler of the Suri Dynasty, claims

1545-
Islam Shah Suri c.1500 1554 of sons Sikandar and Adil Shah were
1554
eliminated by Humayun's restoration.

Restored rule was more unified and effective

Nasiruddin Mar 6, 1555- Jan
than initial reign of 1530-1540; left unified
MuhammadHumayun 1508 1556 1556
empire for his son, Akbar.
 Akbar greatly expanded the Empire and is
regarded as the most illustrious ruler of the
Mughal Dynasty as he set up the empire's
various institutions; he married Mariam-uz-
Nov 14, 1556- Oct 27,
Jalaluddin MohammedAkbar Zamani, a Rajput princess. He eventually
1542 1605 1605
founded Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion
based on Hinduism and Islam. One of his
most famous construction marvels was
the Lahore Fort.

Jahangir set the precedent for sons rebelling

against their Emperor fathers. Opened first
relations with the British East India
1605-
Nuruddin MohammedJahangir Oct 1569 1627 Company. Reportedly was an alcoholic and
1627
his wife Empress Nur Jahan became the real
power behind the throne and competently
ruled in his place.

Under him, Mughal art and architecture

reached their zenith; constructed the Taj
Shahabuddin MohammedShah Jan 5, 1627- Mahal,Jama Masjid, Red Fort, Jahangir
1666
Jahan 1592 1658 mausoleum and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore.
Deposed and imprisoned by his son
Aurangzeb.

More conservative in behavior and far less

extravagant as the previous emperors;
brought back Islamic law, and the jizya tax.
He is well-known for his personal piety and
for leading an extremely simple and pious
life. His conquests expanded the empire to its
Mohiuddin Oct 21, 1658- Mar 3, greatest extent, incorporating much
MohammedAurangzeb Alamgir 1618 1707 1707 of southern India. A major and last desperate
attempt was also made to
conquer Assam during his rule but with no
success at Battle of Saraighat; the over-
stretched empire would face challenges after
his death. He wrote the Quran in his own
Handwriting twice.

First of the Mughal emperors to preside over

a steady and severe decline in the territories
Oct 14, 1707- Feb
Bahadur Shah I under the empire's control and military
1643 1712 1712
power. After his reign, the emperor became a
progressively insignificant figurehead.
 He was merely a puppet in the hands of his
1712- Feb Chief Minister Zulfikar Khan. The acts of
Jahandar Shah 1664
1713 1713 Jahandar Shah brought down the prestige of
the Mughal Empire.

In 1717 he granted a firman to the English

1713- East India Company granting them duty free
Furrukhsiyar 1683 1719
1719 trading rights for Bengal, and confirmed their
position in India.

Rafi Ul-Darjat Unknown 1719 1719

Rafi Ud-Daulat
Unknown 1719 1719
a.k.a Shah Jahan II

Nikusiyar Unknown 1719 1743

Muhammad Ibrahim Unknown 1720 1744

1719-
1720, Suffered the invasion of Nadir-Shah of Persia
Muhammad Shah 1702 1748
1720- in 1739.
1748

Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1725 1748-54 1754

1754-
Alamgir II 1699 1759
1759

Shah Jahan III Unknown In 1759 1770s

Suffered the invasion of Ahmed-Shah-

Abdali in 1761; granted the 'Nizami' of
1759-
Shah Alam II 1728 1806 Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the BEIC in
1806
1765, formally accepted the protection of the
BEIC in 1803.
 1806-
Akbar Shah II 1760 1837 Titular figurehead under British protection
1837

1837- Deposed by the British and exiled

Bahadur Shah Zafar 1775 1862
1857 to Burma following the Great Mutiny.

[edit]Influence on the Indian Subcontinent

The Taj Mahal in Agra, India built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan

The Red Fort in Delhi was the main palace of the empire during the reign of Shah Jahan.
The Alamgiri Gate is the main entrance to theLahore Fort built during the reign of Aurangzeb.

A major Mughal contribution to the Indian Subcontinent was their unique architecture. Many
monuments were built by the Muslim emperors, especially Shahjahan, during the Mughal era
including the UNESCO World Heritage Site Taj Mahal, which is known to be one of the finer
examples of Mughal architecture. Other World Heritage Sites includes the Humayun's
Tomb,Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Agra Fort and Lahore Fort.

The palaces, tombs and forts built by the dynasty stands today in Delhi, Aurangabad, Fatehpur
Sikri, Agra, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura and many other cities
of India, Pakistan,Afghanistan and Bangladesh.[10] With few memories of Central Asia, Babur's
descendents absorbed traits and customs of the Indian Subcontinent[11], and became more or less
naturalised. The Mughal period would be the first to witness the blending of Indian, Iranian and
Central Asian customs and traditions.

Contributions such as[12]:

 Centralised, imperialistic government which brought together many smaller kingdoms.[13]

 Persian art and culture amalgamated with Indian art and culture.[14]
 New trade routes to Arab and Turkic lands.
 The development of Mughlai cuisine.[15]
  The Urdu language developed from the Hindi language by borrowing heavily
from Persian as well as Arabic and Chaghatai Turkic. Urdu developed as a result of the
fusion of the Indianand Islamic cultures during the Mughal period. Modern Hindi which
uses Sanskrit-based vocabulary along with loan words from Persian and Arabic, is mutually
intelligible withUrdu.[16]
 Mughal Architecture found its way into local Indian architecture, most conspicuously in
the palaces built by Rajputs and Sikh rulers.
 Landscape gardening

Although the land the Mughals once ruled has separated into what is now India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Afghanistan their influence can still be seen widely today. Tombs of the
emperors are spread throughout India, Afghanistan[17] and Pakistan. There are 16 million
descendants spread throughout the Subcontinent and possibly the world.[18][19]

[edit]Mughal Society
The Indian economy remained as prosperous under the Mughals as it was, because of the
creation of a road system and a uniform currency, together with the unification of the
country.Manufactured goods and peasant-grown cash crops were sold throughout the world. Key
industries included shipbuilding (the Indian shipbuilding industry was as advanced as the
European, and Indians sold ships to European firms), textiles, and steel. The Mughals maintained
a small fleet, which merely carried pilgrims to Mecca, imported a few Arab horses
inSurat. Debal in Sindh was mostly autonomous. The Mughals also maintained various river
fleets of Dhows, which transported soldiers over rivers and fought pirates. Among its admirals
wereMunnawar Khan and Muhammad Saleh Kamboh. The Mughals also protected
the Siddis ofJanjira. Its sailors were renowned and often voyaged to China and the East African
Swahili Coast, together with some Mughal subjects carrying out private-sector trade. Cities and
towns boomed under the Mughals; however, for the most part, they were military and political
centers, not manufacturing or commerce centers. Only those guilds which produced goods for the
bureaucracy made goods in the towns; most industry was based in rural areas. The Mughals also
built Maktabs in every province under their authority, where youth were taught
the Quranand Islamic law (such as: Fatwa-e-Alamgiri) in their indigenous languages, which later
became very powerful religious institutions in South Asia.

The nobility was a heterogeneous body; while it primarily consisted of Rajput aristocrats and
foreigners from Muslim countries, people of all castes and nationalities could gain a title from the
emperor. The middle class of openly affluent traders consisted of a few wealthy merchants living
in the coastal towns; the bulk of the merchants pretended to be poor to avoid taxation. The bulk of
the people were poor. The standard of living of the poor was as low as, or somewhat higher than,
the standard of living of the Indian poor under the British Raj; whatever benefits the British
brought with canals and modern industry were neutralized by rising population growth, high taxes,
and the collapse of traditional industry in the nineteenth century.

[edit]Science and technology

[edit]Astronomy

In the Mughal Empire lots of curry was distributed amoungst all, in turn this created mass
ringsting problems. this also created a theory that curry was the leader in all universal questions.
The 16th and 17th centuries saw a synthesis between Islamic astronomy and Indian astronomy,
where Islamic observational techniques and instruments were combined with Hindu
computational techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical
astronomy, Muslim and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational
astronomyand produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory
near Delhi, while Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were
unable to do so. The instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories
were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition, and the computational techniques from the Hindu
tradition.[20][21] In particular, one of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in
Mughal India is the seamless celestial globe (see Technology below).

[edit]Technology

Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian-Indian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked
for Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire, invented the autocannon, the earliest multi-shot gun.
As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China,
respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded
with gunpowder.[22]

The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India
by Akbar the Great. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[23]

Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the seamless globe and celestial
globe were invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE), and twenty
other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before
they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically
impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology. Another
famous series of seamless celestial globes was produced using a lost-wax casting method in the
Mughal Empire in 1070 AH (1659-1960 CE) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi (from Thatta, Sind)
with Arabic and Persian inscriptions. It is considered a major feat in metallurgy. These Mughal
metallurgists pioneered the method of wax casting while producing these seamless globes.[24]