Thereisnosuchthingaswesterncivilisation

Thevaluesofliberty,toleranceandrationalinquiryarenotthebirthrightofasingle
culture.Infact,theverynotionofsomethingcalledwesterncultureisamodern
invention

byKwameAnthonyAppiah

Wednesday9November201605.59GMT

LikemanyEnglishmenwhosufferedfromtuberculosisinthe19thcentury,SirEdward
BurnettTylorwentabroadonmedicaladvice,seekingthedrierairofwarmerregions.
TylorcamefromaprosperousQuakerbusinessfamily,sohehadtheresourcesfora
longtrip.In1855,inhisearly20s,heleftfortheNewWorld,and,afterbefriendinga
Quakerarcheologisthemetonhistravels,heendedupridingonhorsebackthroughthe
Mexicancountryside,visitingAztecruinsanddustypueblos.Tylorwasimpressedby
whathecalledtheevidenceofanimmenseancientpopulation.AndhisMexican
sojournfiredinhimanenthusiasmforthestudyoffarawaysocieties,ancientand
modern,thatlastedfortherestofhislife.In1871,hepublishedhismasterwork,
PrimitiveCulture,whichcanlayclaimtobeingthefirstworkofmodernanthropology.

PrimitiveCulturewas,insomerespects,aquarrelwithanotherbookthathadculture
inthetitle:MatthewArnoldsCultureandAnarchy,acollectionthathadappearedjust
twoyearsearlier.ForArnold,culturewasthepursuitofourtotalperfectionbymeans
ofgettingtoknow,onallthematterswhichmostconcernus,thebestwhichhasbeen
thoughtandsaidintheworld.Arnoldwasntinterestedinanythingasnarrowasclass
boundconnoisseurship:hehadinmindamoralandaestheticideal,whichfound
expressioninartandliteratureandmusicandphilosophy.

ButTylorthoughtthatthewordcouldmeansomethingquitedifferent,andinpartfor
institutionalreasons,hewasabletoseethatitdid.ForTylorwaseventuallyappointed
todirecttheUniversityMuseumatOxford,andthen,in1896,hewasappointedtothe
firstchairofanthropologythere.ItistoTylormorethananyoneelsethatweowethe
ideathatanthropologyisthestudyofsomethingcalledculture,whichhedefinedas
thatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,belief,arts,morals,law,customs,and
anyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.Civilisation,
asArnoldunderstoodit,wasmerelyoneofculturesmanymodes.

Nowadays,whenpeoplespeakaboutculture,itisusuallyeitherTylorsorArnolds
notionthattheyhaveinmind.Thetwoconceptsofcultureare,insomerespects,
antagonistic.Arnoldsidealwasthemanofcultureandhewouldhaveconsidered
primitivecultureanoxymoron.Tylorthoughtitabsurdtoproposethatapersoncould
lackculture.Yetthesecontrastingnotionsofculturearelockedtogetherinourconcept

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ofwesternculture,whichmanypeoplethinkdefinestheidentityofmodernwestern
people.Soletmetrytountanglesomeofourconfusionsabouttheculture,both
TylorianandArnoldian,ofwhatwehavecometocallthewest.

SomeoneaskedMahatmaGandhiwhathethoughtofwesterncivilisation,andhe
replied:Ithinkitwouldbeaverygoodidea.Likemanyofthebeststories,alas,this
oneisprobablyapocryphal;butalsolikemanyofthebeststories,ithassurvived
becauseithastheflavouroftruth.Butmyownresponsewouldhavebeenvery
different:Ithinkyoushouldgiveuptheveryideaofwesterncivilisation.Itisatbestthe
sourceofagreatdealofconfusion,atworstanobstacletofacingsomeofthegreat
politicalchallengesofourtime.IhesitatetodisagreewitheventheGandhioflegend,
butIbelievewesterncivilisationisnotatallagoodidea,andwesterncultureisno
improvement.

Onereasonfortheconfusionswesternculturespawnscomesfromconfusionsabout
thewest.Wehaveusedtheexpressionthewesttodoverydifferentjobs.Rudyard
Kipling,Englandspoetofempire,wrote,Oh,eastiseastandwestiswest,andnever
thetwainshallmeet,contrastingEuropeandAsia,butignoringeverywhereelse.
Duringthecoldwar,thewestwasonesideoftheironcurtain;theeastitsopposite
andenemy.Thisusage,too,effectivelydisregardedmostoftheworld.Often,inrecent
years,thewestmeansthenorthAtlantic:EuropeandherformercoloniesinNorth
America.TheoppositehereisanonwesternworldinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmerica
nowdubbedtheglobalsouththoughmanypeopleinLatinAmericawillclaima
westerninheritance,too.Thiswayoftalkingnoticesthewholeworld,butlumpsa
wholelotofextremelydifferentsocietiestogether,whiledelicatelycarvingaround
AustraliansandNewZealandersandwhiteSouthAfricans,sothatwesternherecan
looksimplylikeaeuphemismforwhite.

Ofcourse,weoftenalsotalktodayofthewesternworldtocontrastitnotwiththesouth
butwiththeMuslimworld.AndMuslimthinkerssometimesspeakinaparallelway,
distinguishingbetweenDaralIslam,thehomeofIslam,andDaralKufr,thehomeof
unbelief.Iwouldliketoexplorethisoppositionfurther.BecauseEuropeanand
AmericandebatestodayaboutwhetherwesterncultureisfundamentallyChristian
inheritagenealogyinwhichChristendomisreplacedbyEuropeandthenbytheideaof
thewest.

Thiscivilisationalidentityhasrootsgoingbacknearly1,300years,then.Buttotellthe
fullstory,weneedtobeginevenearlier.

FortheGreekhistorianHerodotus,writinginthefifthcenturyBC,theworldwas
dividedintothreeparts.TotheeastwasAsia,tothesouthwasacontinenthecalled
Libya,andtherestwasEurope.Heknewthatpeopleandgoodsandideascouldtravel
easilybetweenthecontinents:hehimselftravelleduptheNileasfarasAswan,andon
bothsidesoftheHellespont,thetraditionalboundarybetweenEuropeandAsia.
Herodotusadmittedtobeingpuzzled,infact,astowhytheearth,whichisone,has
threenames,allwomens.Still,despitehispuzzlement,thesecontinentswereforthe

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GreeksandtheirRomanheirsthelargestsignificantgeographicaldivisionsofthe
world.

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Butherestheimportantpoint:itwouldnothaveoccurredtoHerodotustothinkthat
thesethreenamescorrespondedtothreekindsofpeople:Europeans,Asians,and
Africans.HewasbornatHalicarnasusBodruminmodernTurkey.Yetbeingbornin
AsiaMinordidntmakehimanAsian;itlefthimaGreek.AndtheCelts,inthefarwest
ofEurope,weremuchstrangertohimthanthePersiansortheEgyptians,aboutwhom
heknewratheralot.HerodotusonlyusesthewordEuropeanasanadjective,neveras
anoun.Foramillenniumafterhisday,nooneelsespokeofEuropeansasapeople,
either.

ThenthegeographyHerodotusknewwasradicallyreshapedbytheriseofIslam,which
burstoutofArabiaintheseventhcentury,spreadingwithastonishingrapiditynorthand
eastandwest.Aftertheprophetsdeathin632,theArabsmanagedinamere30years
todefeatthePersianempirethatreachedthroughcentralAsiaasfarasIndia,andto
wrestprovincesfromRomesresidueinByzantium.

TheUmayyaddynasty,whichbeganin661,pushedonwestintonorthAfricaandeast
intocentralAsia.Inearly711,itsentanarmyacrossthestraitsofGibraltarintoSpain,
whichtheArabscalledalAndalus,whereitattackedtheVisigothswhohadruledmuch
oftheRomanprovinceofHispaniafortwocenturies.Withinsevenyears,mostofthe
IberianPeninsulawasunderMuslimrule;notuntil1492,nearly800yearslater,wasthe
wholepeninsulaunderChristiansovereigntyagain.

TheMuslimconquerorsofSpainhadnotplannedtostopatthePyrenees,andthey
maderegularattemptsintheearlyyearstomovefurthernorth.ButnearTours,in
732CE,CharlesMartel,Charlemagnesgrandfather,defeatedtheforcesofalAndalus,
andthisdecisivebattleeffectivelyendedtheArabattemptsattheconquestofFrankish
Europe.The18thcenturyhistorianEdwardGibbon,overstatingsomewhat,observed
thatiftheArabshadwonatTours,theycouldhavesaileduptheThames.Perhaps,he
added,theinterpretationoftheKoranwouldnowbetaughtintheschoolsofOxford,
andherpulpitsmightdemonstratetoacircumcisedpeoplethesanctityandtruthofthe
revelationofMahomet.

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TheworldaccordingtoHerodotus.Photograph:Interfoto/Alamy/Alamy

WhatmattersforourpurposesisthatthefirstrecordeduseofawordforEuropeansasa
kindofperson,sofarasIknow,comesoutofthishistoryofconflict.InaLatin
chronicle,writtenin754inSpain,theauthorreferstothevictorsoftheBattleofTours
asEuropenses,Europeans.So,simplyput,theveryideaofaEuropeanwasfirst
usedtocontrastChristiansandMuslims.(Eventhis,however,isabitofa
simplification.InthemiddleoftheeighthcenturymuchofEuropewasnotyet
Christian.)

Now,nobodyinmedievalEuropewouldhaveusedthewordwesternforthatjob.For
onething,thecoastofMorocco,homeoftheMoors,stretcheswestofIreland.For
another,therewereMuslimrulersintheIberianPeninsulapartofthecontinentthat
HerodotuscalledEuropeuntilnearlythe16thcentury.Thenaturalcontrastwasnot
betweenIslamandthewest,butbetweenChristendomandDaral Islam,eachofwhich
regardedtheotherasinfidels,definedbytheirunbelief.

Startinginthelate14thcentury,theTurkswhocreatedtheOttomanempiregradually
extendedtheirruleintopartsofEurope:Bulgaria,Greece,theBalkans,andHungary.
Onlyin1529,withthedefeatofSuleimantheMagnificentsarmyatVienna,didthe
reconquestofeasternEuropebegin.Itwasaslowprocess.Itwasntuntil1699thatthe
OttomansfinallylosttheirHungarianpossessions;Greecebecameindependentonlyin
theearly19thcentury,Bulgariaevenlater.

Wehave,then,aclearsenseofChristianEuropeChristendomdefiningitself
throughopposition.AndyetthemovefromChristendomtowesterncultureisnt
straightforward.

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Foronething,theeducatedclassesofChristianEuropetookmanyoftheirideasfrom
thepagansocietiesthatprecededthem.Attheendofthe12thcentury,Chrtiende
Troyes,bornacoupleofhundredkilometressouthwestofParis,celebratedtheseearlier
roots:Greeceoncehadthegreatestreputationforchivalryandlearning,hewrote.
ThenchivalrywenttoRome,andsodidalloflearning,whichnowhascometo
France.

TheideathatthebestofthecultureofGreecewaspassedbywayofRomeintowestern
Europegraduallybecame,inthemiddleages,acommonplace.Infactthisprocesshada
name.Itwascalledthetranslatiostudii:thetransferoflearning.Anditwasan
astonishinglypersistentidea.Morethansixcenturieslater,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich
Hegel,thegreatGermanphilosopher,toldthestudentsofthehighschoolheranin
Nuremberg:ThefoundationofhigherstudymustbeandremainGreekliteratureinthe
firstplace,Romaninthesecond.

Sofromthelatemiddleagesuntilnow,peoplehavethoughtofthebestinthecultureof
GreeceandRomeasacivilisationalinheritance,passedonlikeapreciousgolden
nugget,dugoutoftheearthbytheGreeks,transferred,whentheRomanempire
conqueredthem,toRome.PartitionedbetweentheFlemishandFlorentinecourtsand
theVenetianRepublicintheRenaissance,itsfragmentspassedthroughcitiessuchas
Avignon,Paris,Amsterdam,Weimar,EdinburghandLondon,andwerefinallyreunited
piecedtogetherlikethebrokenshardsofaGrecianurnintheacademiesofEurope
andtheUnitedStates.

Therearemanywaysofembellishingthestoryofthegoldennugget.Buttheyallfacea
historicaldifficulty;if,thatis,youwanttomakethegoldennuggetthecoreofa
civilisationopposedtoIslam.Becausetheclassicalinheritanceitidentifieswasshared
withMuslimlearning.InBaghdadoftheninthcenturyAbbasidcaliphate,thepalace
libraryfeaturedtheworksofPlatoandAristotle,PythagorasandEuclid,translatedinto
Arabic.InthecenturiesthatPetrarchcalledtheDarkAges,whenChristianEurope
madelittlecontributiontothestudyofGreekclassicalphilosophy,andmanyofthe
textswerelost,theseworkswerepreservedbyMuslimscholars.Muchofourmodern
understandingofclassicalphilosophyamongtheancientGreekswehaveonlybecause
thosetextswererecoveredbyEuropeanscholarsintheRenaissancefromtheArabs.

InthemindofitsChristianchronicler,aswesaw,thebattleofTourspittedEuropeans
againstIslam;buttheMuslimsofalAndalus,bellicoseastheywere,didnotthinkthat
fightingforterritorymeantthatyoucouldnotshareideas.Bytheendofthefirst
millennium,thecitiesoftheCaliphateofCordobaweremarkedbythecohabitationof
Jews,Christians,andMuslims,ofBerbers,Visigoths,Slavsandcountlessothers.

TherewerenorecognisedrabbisorMuslimscholarsatthecourtofCharlemagne;inthe
citiesofalAndalustherewerebishopsandsynagogues.Racemondo,Catholicbishopof
Elvira,wasCordobasambassadortothecourtsoftheByzantineandtheHolyRoman
empires.HasdaiibnShaprut,leaderofCordobasJewishcommunityinthemiddleof
the10thcentury,wasnotonlyagreatmedicalscholar,hewasthechairmanofthe

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Caliphsmedicalcouncil;andwhentheEmperorConstantineinByzantiumsentthe
CaliphacopyofDioscoridessDeMateriaMedica,hetookupIbnShaprutssuggestion
tohaveittranslatedintoArabic,andCordobabecameoneofthegreatcentresof
medicalknowledgeinEurope.ThetranslationintoLatinoftheworksofIbnRushd,
borninCordobainthe12thcentury,begantheEuropeanrediscoveryofAristotle.He
wasknowninLatinasAverroes,ormorecommonlyjustasTheCommentator,
becauseofhiscommentariesonAristotle.Sotheclassicaltraditionsthataremeantto
distinguishwesterncivilisationfromtheinheritorsofthecaliphatesareactuallyapoint
ofkinshipwiththem.

Theterm'westernculture'issurprisinglymodernmorerecentcertainlythanthe
phonograph

Butthegoldennuggetstorywasboundtobebesetbydifficulties.Itimagineswestern
cultureastheexpressionofanessenceasomethingwhichhasbeenpassedfrom
handtohandonitshistoricjourney.Thepitfallsofthissortofessentialismareevident
inawiderangeofcases.Whetheryouarediscussingreligion,nationality,raceor
culture,peoplehavesupposedthatanidentitythatsurvivesthroughtimeandspacemust
bepropelledbysomepotentcommonessence.Butthatissimplyamistake.Whatwas
EnglandlikeinthedaysofChaucer,fatherofEnglishliterature,whodiedmorethan
600yearsago?Takewhateveryouthinkwasdistinctiveofit,whatevercombinationof
customs,ideas,andmaterialthingsthatmadeEnglandcharacteristicallyEnglishthen.
WhateveryouchoosetodistinguishEnglishnessnow,itisntgoingtobethat.Rather,
astimerollson,eachgenerationinheritsthelabelfromanearlierone;and,ineach
generation,thelabelcomeswithalegacy.Butasthelegaciesarelostorexchangedfor
othertreasures,thelabelkeepsmovingon.Andso,whensomeofthoseinone
generationmovefromtheterritorytowhichEnglishidentitywasoncetiedmove,for
example,toaNewEnglandthelabelcaneventravelbeyondtheterritory.Identities
canbeheldtogetherbynarratives,inshort,withoutessences.Youdontgettobecalled
Englishbecausetheresanessencethatthislabelfollows;youreEnglishbecauseour
rulesdeterminethatyouareentitledtothelabelbybeingsomehowconnectedwitha
placecalledEngland.

SohowdidthepeopleofthenorthAtlantic,andsomeoftheirkinaroundtheworld,get
connectedtoarealmwecallthewest,andgainanidentityasparticipantsinsomething
calledwesternculture?

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JamesGillrays1805cartoon,ThePlumbPuddinginDanger,depictsprimeminister
WilliamPittandNapoleonBonapartecarvinguptheworldPhotograph:Rischgitz/Getty
Images

Itwillhelptorecognisethatthetermwesterncultureissurprisinglymodernmore
recentcertainlythanthephonograph.Tylorneverspokeofit.Andindeedhehadno
reasonto,sincehewasprofoundlyawareoftheinternalculturaldiversityevenofhis
owncountry.In1871hereportedevidenceofwitchcraftinruralSomerset.Ablastof
windinapubhadblownsomeroastedonionsstabbedwithpinsoutofthechimney.
One,Tylorwrote,hadonitthenameofabrothermagistrateofmine,whomthe
wizard,whowasthealehousekeeper,heldinparticularhatred...andwhomapparently
hedesignedtogetridofbystabbingandroastinganonionrepresentinghim.Primitive
culture,indeed.

Sotheveryideaofthewest,tonameaheritageandobjectofstudy,doesntreally
emergeuntilthe1890s,duringaheatederaofimperialism,andgainsbroadercurrency
onlyinthe20thcentury.When,aroundthetimeofthefirstworldwar,OswaldSpengler
wrotetheinfluentialbooktranslatedasTheDeclineoftheWestabookthat
introducedmanyreaderstotheconcepthescoffedatthenotionthattherewere
continuitiesbetweenwesterncultureandtheclassicalworld.Duringavisittothe
Balkansinthelate1930s,thewriterandjournalistRebeccaWestrecountedavisitors
sensethatitsuncomfortablyrecent,theblowthatwouldhavesmashedthewholeof
ourwesternculture.TherecentblowinquestionwastheTurkishsiegeofViennain
1683.

Tobeblunt:ifwesternculturewerereal,wewouldntspendsomuchtimetalkingitup

IfthenotionofChristendomwasanartefactofaprolongedmilitarystruggleagainst
Muslimforces,ourmodernconceptofwesternculturelargelytookitspresentshape
duringthecoldwar.Inthechillofbattle,weforgedagrandnarrativeaboutAthenian
democracy,theMagnaCarta,Copernicanrevolution,andsoon.PlatotoNato.Western
culturewas,atitscore,individualisticanddemocraticandlibertymindedandtolerant

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andprogressiveandrationalandscientific.NevermindthatpremodernEuropewas
noneofthesethings,andthatuntilthepastcenturydemocracywastheexceptionin
Europesomethingthatfewstalwartsofwesternthoughthadanythinggoodtosay
about.Theideathattolerancewasconstitutiveofsomethingcalledwesternculture
wouldhavesurprisedEdwardBurnettTylor,who,asaQuaker,hadbeenbarredfrom
attendingEnglandsgreatuniversities.Tobeblunt:ifwesternculturewerereal,we
wouldntspendsomuchtimetalkingitup.

Ofcourse,oncewesternculturecouldbeatermofpraise,itwasboundtobecomea
termofdispraise,too.Criticsofwesternculture,producingaphotonegative
emphasisingslavery,subjugation,racism,militarism,andgenocide,werecommittedto
theverysameessentialism,eveniftheyseeanuggetnotofgoldbutofarsenic.

Talkofwesternculturehashadalargerimplausibilitytoovercome.Itplaces,atthe
heartofidentity,allmannerofexaltedintellectualandartisticachievements
philosophy,literature,art,music;thethingsArnoldprizedandhumanistsstudy.Butif
westernculturewasthereinTroyesinthelate12thcenturywhenChrtienwasalive,it
hadlittletodowiththelivesofmostofhisfellowcitizens,whodidnotknowLatinor
Greek,andhadneverheardofPlato.Todaytheclassicalheritageplaysnogreaterrole
intheeverydaylivesofmostAmericansorBritons.AretheseArnoldianachievements
thatholdustogether?Ofcoursenot.Whatholdsustogether,surely,isTylorsbroad
senseofculture:ourcustomsofdressandgreeting,thehabitsofbehaviourthatshape
relationsbetweenmenandwomen,parentsandchildren,copsandcivilians,shop
assistantsandconsumers.Intellectualslikemehaveatendencytosupposethatthe
thingswecareaboutarethemostimportantthings.Idontsaytheydontmatter.But
theymatterlessthanthestoryofthegoldennuggetsuggests.

Sohowhavewebridgedthechasmhere?Howhavewemanagedtotellourselvesthat
wearerightfulinheritorsofPlato,Aquinas,andKant,whenthestuffofourexistenceis
moreBeyoncandBurgerKing?Well,byfusingtheTylorianpictureandtheArnoldian
one,therealmoftheeverydayandtherealmoftheideal.Andthekeytothiswas
somethingthatwasalreadypresentinTylorswork.Rememberhisfamousdefinition:it
beganwithcultureasthatcomplexwhole.Whatyourehearingissomethingwecan
callorganicism.Avisionofculturenotasalooseassemblageofdisparatefragments
butasanorganicunity,eachcomponent,liketheorgansinabody,carefullyadaptedto
occupyaparticularplace,eachpartessentialtothefunctioningofthewhole.The
Eurovisionsongcontest,thecutoutsofMatisse,thedialoguesofPlatoareallpartsofa
largerwhole.Assuch,eachisaholdinginyourculturallibrary,sotospeak,evenifyou
haveneverpersonallycheckeditout.Evenifitisntyourjam,itisstillyourheritage
andpossession.Organicismexplainedhowoureverydayselvescouldbedustedwith
gold.

Britonsonceswappedtheirfishandchipsforchickentikkamasala,now,Igather,
theyreallhavingacheekyNandos

Now,thereareorganicwholesinourculturallife:themusic,thewords,thesetdesign,
thedanceofanoperafitandaremeanttofittogether.Itis,inthewordWagner
invented,aGesamtkunstwerk,atotalworkofart.Butthereisntonegreatbigwhole

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calledculturethatorganicallyunitesalltheseparts.Spain,intheheartofthewest,
resistedliberaldemocracyfortwogenerationsafterittookoffinIndiaandJapaninthe
east,thehomeofOrientaldespotism.JeffersonsculturalinheritanceAthenian
liberty,AngloSaxonfreedomdidnotpreservetheUnitedStatesfromcreatingaslave
republic.Atthesametime,FranzKafkaandMilesDaviscanlivetogetheraseasily
perhapsevenmoreeasilythanKafkaandhisfellowAustroHungarianJohann
Strauss.YouwillfindhiphopinthestreetsofTokyo.Thesameistrueincuisine:
Britonsonceswappedtheirfishandchipsforchickentikkamasala,now,Igather,
theyreallhavingacheekyNandos.

Onceweabandonorganicism,wecantakeupthemorecosmopolitanpictureinwhich
everyelementofculture,fromphilosophyorcuisinetothestyleofbodilymovement,is
separableinprinciplefromalltheothersyoureallycanwalkandtalklikeanAfrican
AmericanandthinkwithMatthewArnoldandImmanuelKant,aswellaswithMartin
LutherKingandMilesDavis.NoMuslimessencestopstheinhabitantsofDaralIslam
fromtakingupanythingfromwesterncivilisation,includingChristianityordemocracy.
NowesternessenceistheretostopaNewYorkerofanyancestrytakingupIslam.

ThestorieswetellthatconnectPlatoorAristotleorCiceroorSaintAugustineto
contemporarycultureinthenorthAtlanticworldhavesometruthinthem,ofcourse.
Wehaveselfconscioustraditionsofscholarshipandargumentation.Thedelusionisto
thinkthatitsufficesthatwehaveaccesstothesevalues,asiftheyaretracksona
Spotifyplaylistwehaveneverquitelistenedto.Ifthesethinkersarepartofour
Arnoldianculture,thereisnoguaranteethatwhatisbestinthemwillcontinuetomean
somethingtothechildrenofthosewhonowlookbacktothem,anymorethanthe
centralityofAristotletoMuslimthoughtforhundredsofyearsguaranteeshiman
importantplaceinmodernMuslimcultures.

Valuesarentabirthright:youneedtokeepcaringaboutthem.Livinginthewest,
howeveryoudefineit,beingwestern,providesnoguaranteethatyouwillcareabout
westerncivilisation.ThevaluesEuropeanhumanistsliketoespousebelongjustas
easilytoanAfricanoranAsianwhotakesthemupwithenthusiasmastoaEuropean.
Bythatverylogic,ofcourse,theydonotbelongtoaEuropeanwhohasnottakenthe
troubletounderstandandabsorbthem.Thesame,ofcourse,istrueintheother
direction.Thestoryofthegoldennuggetsuggeststhatwecannothelpcaringaboutthe
traditionsofthewestbecausetheyareours:infact,theoppositeistrue.Theyareonly
oursifwecareaboutthem.Acultureofliberty,tolerance,andrationalinquiry:that
wouldbeagoodidea.Butthesevaluesrepresentchoicestomake,nottrackslaiddown
byawesterndestiny.

IntheyearofEdwardBurnettTylorsdeath,whatwehavebeentaughttocallwestern
civilisationstumbledintoadeathmatchwithitself:theAlliesandtheGreatCentral
Powershurledbodiesateachother,marchingyoungmentotheirdeathsinorderto
defendcivilisation.Thebloodsoakedfieldsandgaspoisonedtrencheswouldhave
shockedTylorsevolutionist,progressivisthopes,andconfirmedArnoldsworstfears
aboutwhatcivilisationreallymeant.ArnoldandTylorwouldhaveagreed,atleast,on
this:cultureisntaboxtocheckonthequestionnaireofhumanity;itisaprocessyou
join,alifelivedwithothers.

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Culturelikereligionandnationandraceprovidesasourceofidentityfor
contemporaryhumanbeings.And,likeallthree,itcanbecomeaformofconfinement,
conceptualmistakesunderwritingmoralones.Yetallofthemcanalsogivecontoursto
ourfreedom.Socialidentitiesconnectthesmallscalewhereweliveourlivesalongside
ourkithandkinwithlargermovements,causes,andconcerns.Theycanmakeawider
worldintelligible,alive,andurgent.Theycanexpandourhorizonstocommunities
largerthantheoneswepersonallyinhabit.Butourlivesmustmakesense,too,atthe
largestofallscales.Weliveinanerainwhichouractions,intherealmofideologyas
intherealmoftechnology,increasinglyhaveglobaleffects.Whenitcomestothe
compassofourconcernandcompassion,humanityasawholeisnottoobroada
horizon.

Welivewithsevenbillionfellowhumansonasmall,warmingplanet.The
cosmopolitanimpulsethatdrawsonourcommonhumanityisnolongeraluxury;ithas
becomeanecessity.AndinencapsulatingthatcreedIcandrawonafrequentpresence
incoursesinwesterncivilisation,becauseIdontthinkIcanimproveonthe
formulationofthedramatistTerence:aformerslavefromRomanAfrica,aLatin
interpreterofGreekcomedies,awriterfromclassicalEuropewhocalledhimself
TerencetheAfrican.Heoncewrote,Homosum,humaninihilamealienumputo.I
amhuman,Ithinknothinghumanalientome.Nowtheresanidentityworthholding
onto.

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