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CHAPTER 1 The Earth and Its Atmosphere 2

CHAPTER 2 Energy: Warming the Earth and the Atmosphere 28
CHAPTER 3 Seasonal and Daily Temperatures 56
CHAPTER 4 Atmospheric Humidity 88
CHAPTER 5 Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds 110
CHAPTER 6 Stability and Cloud Development 140
CHAPTER 7 Precipitation 164
CHAPTER 8 Air Pressure and Winds 192
CHAPTER 9 Wind: Small Scale and Local Systems 222
CHAPTER 10 Wind: Global Systems 258
CHAPTER 11 Air Masses and Fronts 286
CHAPTER 12 Middle-Latitude Cyclones 312
CHAPTER 13 Weather Forecasting 338
CHAPTER 14 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 370
CHAPTER 15 Hurricanes 410
CHAPTER 16 The Earth's Changing Climate 438
CHAPTER 17 Global Climate468
CHAPTER 18 Air Pollution 500
CHAPTER 19 Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics 528

CHAPTER 1

The Earth and Its Atmosphere 2

Overview of the Earths Atmosphere 4
Composition of the Atmosphere 4
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
A Breath of Fresh Air 6
The Early Atmosphere 10
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 10
A Brief Look at Air Pressure and Air Density 10
Layers of the Atmosphere 12
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Atmospheres of Other Planets 14
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
The Radiosonde 16
The Ionosphere 17
Weather and Climate 18
MeteorologyA Brief History 18
A Satellites View of the Weather 19
Storms of All Sizes 19
A Look at a Weather Map 20
Weather and Climate in Our Lives 22
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
What is a Meteorologist? 25
Summary 26
Key Terms 26
Questions for Review 26
Questions for Thought 27
Problems and Exercises 27

CHAPTER 2

Energy: Warming the Earth and

the Atmosphere 28
Energy, Temperature, and Heat 30
Temperature Scales 31
Specifi c Heat 32
Latent HeatThe Hidden Warmth 32
Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere 34
Conduction 34
Convection 34
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Fate of a Sunbeam 35
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Rising Air Cools and Sinking Air Warms 36
vii
FransLanting/Minden Pictures

CHAPTER 3

Seasonal and Daily Temperatures 56

Why the Earth Has Seasons 58

Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere 59
Seasons in the Southern Hemisphere 63
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Is December 21 Really the First Day of Winter? 64
Local Seasonal Variations 65
Daily Temperature Variations 65
Daytime Warming 66
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
Solar Heating and the Noonday Sun 66
Nighttime Cooling 68
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Record High Temperatures 68
Radiation Inversions 69
Protecting Crops from the Cold 71
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Record Low Temperatures 71
The Controls of Temperature 73
Air Temperature Data 73
Daily, Monthly, and Yearly Temperatures 75
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
When It Comes to Temperature, Whats Normal? 77
The Use of Temperature Data 78
Air Temperature and Human Comfort 79
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
A Thousand Degrees and Freezing to Death 80
Measuring Air Temperature 82
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Should Thermometers Be Read in the Shade? 84
Summary 85
Key Terms 85
Questions for Review 85
Questions for Thought 86
Problems and Exercises 87

CHAPTER 4

Atmospheric Humidity 88

Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere 90

The Many Phases of Water 91
Evaporation, Condensation, and Saturation 91
Humidity 93
Absolute Humidity 93
Specifi c Humidity and Mixing Ratio 93
Vapor Pressure 94
Relative Humidity 95
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Vapor Pressure and BoilingThe Higher You Go,
the Longer Cooking Takes 96
Relative Humidity and Dew Point 97
Comparing Humidities 100
Relative Humidity in the Home 101
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Computing Relative Humidity and Dew Point 102
Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort 103
Measuring Humidity 105
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Is Humid Air Heavier Than Dry Air? 106
Summary 107
Key Terms 107
Questions for Review 108
Questions for Thought 108
Problems and Exercises 109

CHAPTER 5

Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds 110

The Formation of Dew and Frost 112

Condensation Nuclei 113
Haze 113
Fog 114
Radiation Fog 115
Advection Fog 116
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Why Are Headlands Usually Foggier Than
Beaches? 117
Upslope Fog 118
Evaporation (Mixing) Fog 118
C. Donald Ahrens
viii
Foggy Weather 119
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Fog That Forms by Mixing 120
Clouds 122
Classification of Clouds 122
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
Fog Dispersal 122
Cloud Identification 123
High Clouds 123
Middle Clouds 124
Low Clouds 125
Clouds with Vertical Development 126
Some Unusual Clouds 128
Cloud Observations 131
Determining Sky Conditions 131
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Measuring Cloud Ceilings 132
Satellite Observations 133
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Satellites Do More Than Observe Clouds 136
Summary 137
Key Terms 138
Questions for Review 138
Questions for Thought 138
Problems and Exercises 139

CHAPTER 6
Stability and Cloud Development 140

Atmospheric Stability 142

Determining Stability 143
A Stable Atmosphere 143
An Unstable Atmosphere 145
A Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere 146
Causes of Instability 147
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Subsidence InversionsPut A Lid on It 150
Cloud Development 151
Convection and Clouds 151
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Determining Convective Cloud Bases 155
Topography and Clouds 156
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC
Adiabatic Charts 158
Changing Cloud Forms 158
Summary 161
Key Terms 161
Questions for Review 161
Questions for Thought 161
Problems and Exercises 161

CHAPTER 7

Precipitation 164

Precipitation Processes 166

How Do Cloud Droplets Grow Larger? 166
Collision and Coalescence Process 168
Ice-Crystal Process 169
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Freezing of Tiny Cloud Droplets 171
Cloud Seeding and Precipitation 173
Precipitation in Clouds 174
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation? 175
Precipitation Types 175
Rain 175
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Are Raindrops Tear-Shaped? 177
Snow 177
Snowflakes and Snowfall 177
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Snowing When the Air Temperature is Well Above
Freezing 179
A Blanket of Snow 179
Sleet and Freezing Rain 181
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Sounds and Snowfalls 181
J. L. Medeiros
ix
x
Snow Grains and Snow Pellets 183
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Aircraft Icing 183
Hail 184
Measuring Precipitation 186
Instruments 186
Doppler Radar and Precipitation 188
Measuring Precipitation from Space 189
Summary 190
Key Terms 190
Questions for Review 190
Questions for Thought 191
Problems and Exercises 191

CHAPTER 8

Air Pressure and Winds 192

Atmospheric Pressure 194

Horizontal Pressure VariationsA Tale of Two
Cities 194
Daily Pressure Variations 195
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law 196
Pressure Measurements 197
Pressure Readings 199
Surface and Upper-Level Charts 200
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Flying on a Constant Pressure SurfaceHigh to Low,
Look Out Below 204
Newtons Laws of Motion 205
Forces That Influence the Winds 205
Pressure Gradient Force 205
CoriolisForce 206
Straight-Line Flow AloftGeostrophic Winds 209
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC
A Mathematical Look at the Geostrophic Wind 211
Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs Aloft
Gradient Winds 211
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Estimating Wind Direction and Pressure Patterns Aloft
by Watching Clouds 212
Winds on Upper-Level Charts 213
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere 215
Surface Winds 215
Winds and Vertical Air Motions 216
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC
The Hydrostatic Equation 218
Summary 219
Key Terms 219
Questions for Review 219
Questions for Thought 220
Problems and Exercises 221

CHAPTER 9

Wind: Small Scale and Local Systems 222

Small-Scale Winds Interacting with the

Environment 224
Scales of Motion 224
Friction and Turbulence in the Boundary Layer 225
EddiesBig and Small 227
The Force of the Wind 228
Microscale Winds Blowing over the Earths
Surface 228
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Eddies and Air Pockets 229
Determining Wind Direction and Speed 232
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Pedaling into the Wind 233
The Influence of Prevailing Winds 233
Wind Measurements 235
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Wind Power 235
C. Donald Ahrens
Local Wind Systems 238
Thermal Circulations 238
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Observing Winds from Space 238
Sea and Land Breezes 239
Local Winds and Water 242
Seasonally Changing WindsThe Monsoon 243
Mountain and Valley Breezes 245
Katabatic Winds 246
Chinook (Foehn) Winds 247
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Snow Eaters and Rapid Temperature Changes 248
Santa Ana Winds 248
Desert Winds 249
Other Local Winds of Interest 252
Summary 253
Key Terms 254
Questions for Review 254
Questions for Thought 255
Problems and Exercises 256

CHAPTER 10

Wind: Global Systems 258

General Circulation of the Atmosphere 260

Single-Cell Model 260
Three-Cell Model 260
Average Surface Winds and Pressure:
The Real World 262
The General Circulation and Precipitation
Patterns 264
Average Wind Flow and Pressure Patterns Aloft 265
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
The Dishpan Experiment 267
Jet Streams 268
The Formation of the Polar Front Jet and the
Subtropical Jet 269
Other Jet Streams 270
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC
MomentumA Case of Give and Take 271
Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions 273
Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean
Currents 273
Upwelling 274
El Nino and the Southern Oscillation 276
Pacifi c Decadal Oscillation 280
North Atlantic Oscillation 281
Arctic Oscillation 281
Summary 283
Key Terms 283
Questions for Review 284
Questions for Thought 284
Problems and Exercises 284

CHAPTER 11

Air Masses and Fronts 286

Air Masses 288

Source Regions 288
Classification 288
Air Masses of North America 289
cP (Continental Polar) and cA (Continental Arctic) Air
Masses 290
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Lake-Effect (Enhanced) Snows 291
mP (Maritime Polar) Air Masses 293
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Return of the Siberian Express 294
mT (Maritime Tropical) Air Masses 295
cT (Continental Tropical) Air Masses 297
Fronts 298
Stationary Fronts 299
Cold Fronts 299
Warm Fronts 302
Occluded Fronts 305
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Drylines 305
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Wavy Warm Front 306
Upper-Air Fronts 309
Summary 309
Key Terms 309
Questions for Review 310
Questions for Thought 310
Problems and Exercises 311
C. Donald Ahrens
xi

CHAPTER 12

Middle-Latitude Cyclones 312

Polar Front Theory 314

Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Tend to Form? 316
Vertical Structure of Deep Dynamic Lows 317
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Northeasters 318
Upper-Level Waves and Mid-Latitude Cyclones 320
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
A Closer Look at Convergence and Divergence 320
The Necessary Ingredients for a Developing Mid-Latitude
Cyclone 322
Upper-Air Support 322
The Role of the Jet Stream 323
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Jet Streaks and Storms 324
Conveyor Belt Model of Mid-Latitude Cyclones 325
A Developing Mid-Latitude CycloneThe March
Storm of 1993 326
Vorticity, Divergence, and Developing Mid-Latitude
Cyclones 329
Vorticity on a Spinning Planet 330
Putting It All TogetherA Monstrous
Snowstorm 332
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Vorticity and Longwaves 333
Polar Lows 334
Summary 335
Key Terms 335
Questions for Review 336
Questions for Thought 336
Problems and Exercises 336

CHAPTER 13

Weather Forecasting 338

Acquisition of Weather Information 340

FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Watches, Warnings, and Advisories 341
Weather Forecasting Tools 341
Weather Forecasting Methods 344
The Computer and Weather Forecasting: Numerical
Weather Prediction 344
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Thickness ChartA Forecasting Tool 345
Why NWS Forecasts Go Awry and Steps to Improve
Them 346
Other Forecasting Methods 349
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
TV WeathercastersHow Do They Do It? 349
Types of Forecasts 351
Accuracy and Skill in Forecasting 353
Predicting the Weather from Local Signs 354
Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts 354
Determining the Movement of Weather
Systems 355
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Forecasting Temperature Advection by
Watching the Clouds 356
A Forecast for Six Cities 358
Weather Forecast for Augusta, Georgia 359
Rain or Snow for Washington, D.C.?360
Big Snowstorm for Chicago 360
Mixed Bag of Weather for Memphis 360
Cold Wave for Dallas 361
Clear but Cold for Denver 361
A Meteorologist Makes a Prediction 362
Help from the 500-mb Chart 363
The Computer Provides Assistance 363
A Valid Forecast 365
Assistance from the Satellite 365
A Day of Rain and Wind 366
Summary 367
Key Terms 368
Questions for Review 368
Questions for Thought 368
Problems and Exercises 369

CHAPTER 14

Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 370

Thunderstorms 372
Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms 373
Multicell Thunderstorms 375
C. Donald Ahrens
xii
The Gust Front 376
Microbursts 377
Squall-Line Thunderstorms 378
Mesoscale Convective Complexes 380
Supercell Thunderstorms 381
Thunderstorms and the Dryline 384
Floods and Flash Floods 385
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Terrifying Flash Flood in
the Big Thompson Canyon 386
Distribution of Thunderstorms 387
Lightning and Thunder 389
Electrification of Clouds 389
The Lightning Stroke 390
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
ELVES in the Atmosphere 390
Lightning Detection and Suppression 393
Tornadoes 394
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Dont Sit Under the Apple Tree 395
Tornado Life Cycle 395
Tornado Outbreaks 396
Tornado Occurrence 396
Tornado Winds 398
Seeking Shelter 398
The Fujita Scale 399
Tornado Formation 401
Supercell Tornadoes 401
Nonsupercell Tornadoes 403
Severe Weather and Doppler Radar 404
Waterspouts 406
Summary 406
Key Terms 407
Questions for Review 407
Questions for Thought 408
Problems and Exercises 408

CHAPTER 15

Hurricanes 410

Tropical Weather 412

Anatomy of a Hurricane 412
Hurricane Formation and Dissipation 414
The Right Environment 414
The Developing Storm 417
The Storm Dies Out 418
Hurricane Stages of Development 418
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
How Do Hurricanes Compare with
Middle-Latitude Storms? 419
Hurricane Movement 419
Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 422
Devastating Winds, Flooding, and the Storm Surge 422
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
A Tropical Storm Named Allison 425
Some Notable Hurricanes 427
Camille, 1969 427
Hugo, 1989 428
Andrew, 1992 428
Ivan, 2004 429
Katrina, 2005 430
Other Devastating Hurricanes 431
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
The Record-Setting Atlantic Hurricane Season of 2004
and 2005 431
Hurricane Watches, Warnings, and Forecasts 433
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
Hurricanes in a Warmer World 434
Modifying Hurricanes 435
Summary 436
Key Terms 436
Questions for Review 436
Questions for Thought 437
Problems and Exercises 437

CHAPTER 16

The Earth's Changing Climate 438

Reconstructing Past Climates 440

Climate Throughout the Ages 442
Climate During the Past 1000 Years 443
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The Ocean Conveyor Belt and Climate Change 444
Temperature Trend during the Past 100-Plus
Years 445
Possible Causes of Climate Change 446
Climate Change: Feedback Mechanisms 446
NASA
xiii
Climate Change: Plate Tectonics and
Mountain Building 447
Climate Change: Variations in the Earths Orbit 449
Climate Change: Atmospheric Particles 452
Aerosols in the Troposphere 452
Volcanic Eruptions and Aerosols in the
Stratosphere 452
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Nuclear WinterClimate Change Induced
by Nuclear War 454
Climate Change: Variations in Solar Output 455
Global Warming 456
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Climate Models 456
The Recent Warming: Perspective 456
Radiative Forcing Agents 456
Climate Models and Recent Temperature Trends 457
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC
Radiative ForcingThe Ins and Outs 458
Future Global Warming: Projections 459
Uncertainties About Greenhouse Gases 459
The Question of Clouds 460
Consequences of Global Warming: The
Possibilities 452
Global Warming: Land Use Changes 464
Global Warming: Efforts to Curb 464
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
The SahelAn Example of Climatic Variability and
Human Existence 465
Summary 466
Key Terms 466
Questions for Review 466
Questions for Thought 467
Problems and Exercises 467

CHAPTER 17

Global Climate 468

A World with Many Climates 470

Global Temperatures 470
Global Precipitation 471
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Precipitation Extremes 474
Climatic Classification 474
The Ancient Greeks 474
The Koppen System 475
Thornthwaites System 476
The Global Pattern of Climate 477
Tropical Moist Climates (Group A) 478
Dry Climates (Group B) 483
Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates
(Group C) 485
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
A Desert with Clouds and Drizzle 487
Moist Continental Climates (Group D) 490
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
When a Dry Spell Is Not a Drought, and a Drought
Does Not Mean "Dry" 492
Polar Climates (Group E) 494
Highland Climates (Group H) 495
Summary 497
Key Terms 497
Questions for Review 498
Questions for Thought 498
Problems and Exercises 499

CHAPTER 18

Air Pollution 500

A Brief History of Air Pollution 502

Types and Sources of Air Pollutants 503
Principal Air Pollutants 504
Ozone in the Troposphere 507
Ozone in the Stratosphere 508
Stratospheric Ozone: Production-Destruction 508
Stratospheric Ozone: Upsetting the Balance 509
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
The Ozone Hole 511
Air Pollution: Trends and Patterns 512
Factors that Affect Air Pollution 515
The Role of the Wind 515
The Role of Stability and Inversions 515
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
Indoor Air Pollution 516
C. Donald Ahrens
xiv
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Smokestack Plumes 518
The Role of Topography 519
Severe Air Pollution Potential 520
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Five Days in DonoraAn Air Pollution Episode 521
Air Pollution and the Urban Environment 522
Acid Deposition 523
Summary 525
Key Terms 525
Questions for Review 526
Questions for Thought 526
Problems and Exercises 527

CHAPTER 19
Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics 528

White and Colors 530

White Clouds and Scattered Light 530
Blue Skies and Hazy Days 531
Red Suns and Blue Moons 532
Twinkling, Twilight, and the Green Flash 534
The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing 537
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
The Fata Morgana 539
Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars 539
Rainbows 542
Coronas, Glories, and Heiligenschein544
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Can It Be a Rainbow If It Is Not Raining? 545
Summary 547
Key Terms 547
Questions for Review 548
QuestionsforThought 548
Problems and Exercises 549CHAPTER 16 The Earth's Changing
Climate 438
CHAPTER 1 The Earth and Its Atmosphere

CHAPTER 2 Energy: Warming the Earth and the Atmosphere

CHAPTER 3 Seasonal and Daily Temperatures

CHAPTER 4 Atmospheric Humidity

CHAPTER 5 Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds
CHAPTER 6 Stability and Cloud Development
CHAPTER 7 Precipitation

CHAPTER 8 Air Pressure and Winds

CHAPTER 9 Wind: Small Scale and Local Systems
CHAPTER 10 Wind: Global Systems
CHAPTER 11 Air Masses and Fronts
CHAPTER 12 Middle-Latitude Cyclones
CHAPTER 13 Weather Forecasting
CHAPTER 14 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
CHAPTER 15 Hurricanes
CHAPTER 16 The Earth's Changing Climate
CHAPTER 17 Global Climate
CHAPTER 18 Air Pollution
CHAPTER 19 Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics 5