INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH, ATOMS AND CHEMICAL BONDS, AND MINERALS

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an onion. These layers
can be defined by their chemical and their rheological properties

Inner Core - the innermost layer of the Earth. It is a solid ball made of metal.
Outer Core - is a magma like liquid layer that surrounds the Inner Core and creates
Earth's magnetic field.
Earths Mantle
Lower Mantle - lower liquid portion of the mantle ranging from 400 miles below the
surface to about 1,800 miles below the surface. It is incredibly large and takes up
most of the volume of the earth.
Upper Mantle - extends from the crust to a depth of about 410 kilometers (255
miles). The upper mantle is mostly solid, but its more malleable regions contribute
to tectonic activity.
Lithosphere - the solid outer section of Earth, which includes Earth's crust, or
the outermost layer, as well as the underlying cool, dense, and rigid upper part of
the upper mantle
Asthenosphere - the layer of the Earth that lies below the lithosphere.
Tectonic Plates
Lithosphere - crust + rigid upper mantle
Asthenosphere - a weaker mantle layer beneath the lithosphere

ATOMS AND CHEMICAL BONDS

ATOMS
The basic unit of a chemical element and it consist of nuclei and electrons.
Nucleus - center of mass (A), but does not significantly contribute to volume. It is made
of protons and neutrons.
Electrons - determines the size, or volume, of the atom, but does not significantly
contribute to mass.
Number of protons determines the atomic number (element).
Number of neutrons + protons determines the atomic mass (isotope).

Electronic States and Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers are parameters that describe the distribution of electrons in the atom,
and therefore its fundamental nature.
Principle quantum number: n =1,2,3
Angular momentum quantum number: l = 0,1,2,, n-1 (s, p, d and f for l = 0,1,2
and 3)
Magnetic quantum number: ml = -l, -l +1, , +l
Spin quantum number: ms = +1/2 and -1/2 (up and down)
Quantum numbers provide us with a picture of the electronic arrangement in the
atom relative to the nucleus.

The Relationship Between Potential Energy And Stability Is Inverse

As the potential energy of a system increases, the systems stability is more easily
disrupted.
Valence Shell - electrons in the outermost shell that react, that is to say, get
transferred from one atom to another.
Electrons do not revolve around the nucleus following elliptical, planar paths. They
reside in 3-D regions of space of various shapes called orbitals.
FIRST ROW ELEMENTS: n = 1
l = 0 only s orbitals are possible, denoted as 1s orbitals.
 SECOND ROW ELEMENTS: n = 2
l = 0 s orbitals are possible, denoted as 2s orbitals,
l = 1 and p orbitals are possible, denoted as 2p orbitals.
THIRD ROW ELEMENTS: n = 3
l = 0 s orbitals are possible, denoted as 3s orbitals,
l = 1 p orbitals are possible, denoted as 3p orbitals,
l = 2 and d orbitals are possible, denoted as 3d orbitals.
Electronic Configuration

to write the electronic configuration for a given atom is the atomic number Z.

Orbitals which are of exactly the same energy, such as the 2pX, 2pY, and 2pZ
orbitals, are said to be degenerate.
Aufbau Principle
Electrons are placed in the atom one by one.
We start by placing the first electron at the lowest potential energy level, which is the
1s orbital, and then following with the rest of the electrons always placing them at
the lowest available level of potential energy.
Hunds Rule
When electrons go into degenerate orbitals, they occupy them singly before pairing
begins.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

Only electrons with opposite spins can occupy the same orbital.
If two electrons must go into the same orbital, they must be paired.

CHEMICAL BONDS
All chemistry except for nuclear reactions involve electron transfers from one atom to
another. More specifically, this electron trade takes place at the valence shells of the atoms.
Ionic Bonding
More likely to take place between elements of highly different electronegativities,
especially between metals and nonmetals. The dots around the atomic symbol represent
the electrons in the valence shell of each
element.

Covalent Bonding
More likely to take place between elements of similar electronegativities, especially
between nonmetals.
There is no formation of full positive or negative charges and therefore there is no
electrostatic attraction.
The force that keeps the atoms together is the fulfillment of the octet rule.