0321933354.pdf - Unknown

10 Acids and Bases
and Equilibrium
A 30-year-old man has been brought to the emergency room after an automobile
accident. The emergency room nurses are tending to the patient, who is
unresponsive. A blood sample is taken, which is sent to Brianna, a clinical laboratory
technician, who begins the process of analyzing the pH, the partial pressures of O2
and CO2, and the concentrations of glucose and electrolytes.
Within minutes, Brianna determines that the patients blood pH is 7.30 and
the partial pressure of CO2 gas is above the desired level. Blood pH is typically in
the range of 7.35 to 7.45, and a value less than 7.35 indicates a state of acidosis.
Respiratory acidosis occurs when there is an increase in the partial pressure of CO2
gas in the bloodstream.
Brianna recognizes these signs and immediately contacts the emergency room to
inform them that the patients airway may be blocked. In the emergency room, the staff
provide the patient with an IV containing bicarbonate to increase the blood pH and
begin the process of unblocking the patients airway. Shortly afterward, the patients
airway is cleared, and his blood pH and partial pressure of CO2 gas return to normal.
Career Clinical Laboratory Technician

Clinical laboratory technicians, also known as medical
laboratory technicians, perform a wide variety of tests on
body fluids and cells that help in the diagnosis and treatment
of patients. These tests range from determining blood
concentrations of glucose and cholesterol to determining
drug levels in the blood for transplant patients or a patient
undergoing treatment. Clinical laboratory technicians also
prepare specimens in the detection of cancerous tumors,
and type blood samples for transfusions. Clinical laboratory
technicians must also interpret and analyze the test results,
which are then passed on to the physician.
322
A
cids and bases are important substances in health, industry, and the Looking ahead
environment. One of the most common characteristics of acids is their 10.1 Acids and Bases
sour taste. Lemons and grapefruits are sour because they contain 10.2 Strengths of Acids and
organic acids such as citric and ascorbic acid 1vitamin C2. Vinegar tastes sour Bases
because it contains acetic acid. We produce lactic acid in our muscles when we 10.3 AcidBase Equilibrium
exercise. Acid from bacteria turns milk sour in the production of yogurt or cot- 10.4 Ionization of Water
tage cheese. We have hydrochloric acid in our stomachs that helps us digest 10.5 The pH Scale
10.6 Reactions of Acids and
food. Sometimes we take antacids, which are bases such as sodium bicarbon-
Bases
ate or milk of magnesia, to neutralize the effects of too much stomach acid. 10.7 Buffers
In the environment, the acidity, or pH, of rain, water, and soil can have signif-
icant effects. When rain becomes too acidic, it can dissolve marble statues and
accelerate the corrosion of metals. In lakes and ponds, the acidity of water can
affect the ability of plants and fish to survive. The acidity of soil around plants
affects their growth. If the soil pH is too acidic or too basic, the roots of the plant
cannot take up some nutrients. Most plants thrive in soil with a nearly neutral
pH, although certain plants such as orchids, camellias, and blueberries require a
more acidic soil. Major changes in the pH of the body fluids can severely affect
biological activities within the cells. Buffers are present to prevent large fluctua- Citrus fruits are sour because of the
tions in pH. presence of acids.
ChapTer readiness*
Key Math SKillS Using MoleMole Factors 17.62

Converting Grams to Grams 17.72
Solving Equations 11.4D2
Using Concentration as a Conversion Factor 19.42
Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation 11.4F2
Core CheMiStry SKillS

Writing Ionic Formulas 16.22
Balancing a Chemical Equation 17.32
*These Key Math Skills and Core Chemistry Skills from previous chapters are listed here for your review as you proceed to the new material in this
chapter.
10.1 acids and Bases learning goal
The term acid comes from the Latin word acidus, which means sour. We are familiar Describe and name acids and
with the sour tastes of vinegar and lemons and other common acids in foods. bases; identify BrnstedLowry
In 1887, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius was the first to describe acids as sub- acids and bases.
stances that produce hydrogen ions 1H + 2 when they dissolve in water. Because acids pro-
duce ions in water, they are also electrolytes. For example, hydrogen chloride ionizes
completely in water to give hydrogen ions, H + , and chloride ions, Cl- . It is the hydrogen
ions that give acids a sour taste, change blue litmus indicator to red, and corrode some
metals.
H 2O
HCl1g2 H+1aq2 + Cl-1aq2
Polar molecular Ionization Hydrogen
compound ion
323
324 ChapTer 10 Acids and Bases and Equilibrium
naming acids
Acids dissolve in water to produce hydrogen ions, along with a negative ion that may be a
simple nonmetal anion or a polyatomic ion. When an acid dissolves in water to produce a
hydrogen ion and a simple nonmetal anion, the prefix hydro is used before the name of the
nonmetal, and its ide ending is changed to ic acid. For example, hydrogen chloride 1HCl2
dissolves in water to form HCl1aq2, which is named hydrochloric acid. An exception is
hydrogen cyanide 1HCN2, which dissolves in water to form hydrocyanic acid, HCN1aq2.
Sulfuric acid dissolves in water to When an acid contains oxygen, it dissolves in water to produce a hydrogen ion and an
produce one or two H + and an oxygen-containing polyatomic anion. The most common form of an oxygen-containing acid
anion. has a name that ends with ic acid. The name of its polyatomic anion ends in ate. An acid that
contains one less oxygen atom than the common form is named as an ous acid. The name of its
polyatomic anion ends with ite 1see Table 10.12. By learning the names of the most common
acids, we can derive the names of the corresponding ous acids and their polyatomic anions.
TaBLe 10.1 Names of Common Acids and Their Anions

acid name of acid anion name of anion
HCl Hydrochloric acid Cl - Chloride
-
HBr Hydrobromic acid Br Bromide
-
HI Hydroiodic acid I Iodide
HCN Hydrocyanic acid CN - Cyanide
-
HNO3 Nitric acid NO3 Nitrate
HNO2 Nitrous acid NO2- Nitrite
A soft drink contains H3PO4 and H2SO4 Sulfuric acid SO42- Sulfate
H2CO3. H2SO3 Sulfurous acid Sulfite
SO32-
H2CO3 Carbonic acid CO32- Carbonate
-
NaOH1s2 HC2H3O2 Acetic acid C2H3O2 Acetate
H3PO4 Phosphoric acid PO43- Phosphate
H3PO3 Phosphorous acid PO33- Phosphite
HClO3 Chloric acid ClO3- Chlorate
HClO2 Chlorous acid ClO2- Chlorite
+ - OH -
+ + -
- + Na+
+ - +
+ -
- Bases
- - + You may be familiar with some household bases such as antacids, drain openers, and oven
+ - Water
cleaners. According to the Arrhenius theory, bases are ionic compounds that dissociate
H 2O into a metal ion and hydroxide ions 1OH - 2 when they dissolve in water. Thus, Arrhenius
NaOH1s2 Na+1aq2 + OH -1aq2
bases are also electrolytes. For example, sodium hydroxide is an Arrhenius base that dis-
Ionic Dissociation Hydroxide
compound ion sociates in water to give sodium ions, Na + , and hydroxide ions, OH - .
An Arrhenius base produces a Most Arrhenius bases are formed from Groups 1A 112 and 2A 122 metals, such
cation and an OH - anion in an as NaOH, KOH, LiOH, and Ca1OH22. The hydroxide ions 1OH - 2 give Arrhenius bases
aqueous solution. common characteristics such as a bitter taste and soapy, slippery feel. A base turns litmus
indicator blue and phenolphthalein indicator pink.
naming Bases
Typical Arrhenius bases are named as hydroxides.
Base name
LiOH Lithium hydroxide
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
KOH Potassium hydroxide
Ca1OH22 Calcium hydroxide
Al1OH23 Aluminum hydroxide
10.1 Acids and Bases 325
SaMple probleM 10.1 dissociation of an arrhenius Base

Write the equation for the dissociation of solid calcium hydroxide in water.
soLuTion
When calcium hydroxide, which has the formula Ca1OH22, dissolves in water, the solu-
tion contains calcium ions 1Ca2+ 2 and twice as many hydroxide ions 1OH - 2. The equa-
tion is written as
H 2O
Ca1OH221s2 Ca2+1aq2 + 2OH-1aq2 Calcium hydroxide, Ca1OH22, also
called slaked lime, is used in the
sTudy CheCk 10.1 food industry to produce bever-
Write the equation for the dissociation of solid lithium hydroxide in water. ages, and in dentistry as a filler for
root canals.
BrnstedLowry acids and Bases

In 1923, J. N. Brnsted in Denmark and T. M. Lowry in Great Britain expanded the defini-
tion of acids and bases to include bases that do not contain OH - ions. A BrnstedLowry
acid can donate a hydrogen ion 1H + 2 to another substance, and a BrnstedLowry base
can accept a hydrogen ion 1H + 2.
A BrnstedLowry acid is a substance that donates H + .
A BrnstedLowry base is a substance that accepts H + .
A free hydrogen ion, H + , does not actually exist in water. Its attraction to polar water
molecules is so strong that the H + bonds to a water molecule and forms a hydronium ion,
H3O+ .
+
H O + H+ H O H
H H
Water Hydrogen Hydronium ion
ion
We can write the formation of a hydrochloric acid solution as a transfer of H + from

hydrogen chloride to water. By accepting H + in the reaction, water is acting as a base
according to the BrnstedLowry concept.
+ -
HCl + H 2O H 3O + + Cl-
Hydrogen Water Hydronium Chloride
chloride ion ion
Acid Base
1H+ donor2 1H+ acceptor2 Acidic solution
Ammonia, NH3, acts as a base by accepting H + when it reacts with water. Because the
nitrogen atom of NH3 has a stronger attraction for H + than the oxygen of water, water acts
as an acid by donating H + .
+
-
NH3 + H 2O NH4+ + OH-

Ammonia Water Ammonium Hydroxide
ion ion
Base Acid
1H+ acceptor2 1H+ donor2 Basic solution
Table 10.2 compares some characteristics of acids and bases.
TaBLe 10.2 Some Characteristics of Acids and Bases

Characteristic acids Bases
+
Arrhenius Produce H Produce OH -
+
BrnstedLowry Donate H Accept H +
Electrolytes Yes Yes
Taste Sour Bitter, chalky
Feel May sting Soapy, slippery
Litmus Red Blue
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink
Neutralization Neutralize bases Neutralize acids
SaMple probleM 10.2 acids and Bases

In each of the following equations, identify the reactant that is a BrnstedLowry acid
and the reactant that is a BrnstedLowry base:
a. HBr1aq2 + H2O1l2 h Br - 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
b. CN - 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h HCN1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
h
soLuTion
a. HBr, acid; H2O, base
b. H2O, acid; CN - , base
sTudy CheCk 10.2

When HNO3 reacts with water, water acts as a base 1H + acceptor2. Write the equation
for the reaction.
Core CheMiStry SKill Conjugate acidBase pairs

Identifying Conjugate AcidBase According to the BrnstedLowry theory, a conjugate acidbase pair consists of mole-
Pairs cules or ions related by the loss of one H + by an acid, and the gain of one H + by a base.
Every acidbase reaction contains two conjugate acidbase pairs because an H + is trans-
Conjugate acidbase pair ferred in both the forward and the reverse directions. When an acid such as HF loses an
H + , the conjugate base F - is formed. When the base H2O gains an H + , its conjugate acid,
-
Donates H+ H3O+ , is formed.
Because the overall reaction of HF is reversible, the conjugate acid H3O+ can donate
HF F- H to the conjugate base F - and re-form the acid HF and the base H2O. Using the rela-
+
tionship of loss and gain of one H + , we can now identify the conjugate acidbase pairs as
HF > F - along with H3O+ >H2O.
Conjugate acidbase pair
+
H+ gain
Accepts H+
H+ loss
+ Acid Conjugate base
H 2O H 3O
HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 F-1aq2 + H3O+1aq2
Base Conjugate acid

+
H gain
H+ loss
10.1 Acids and Bases 327
In another reaction, ammonia, NH3, accepts H + from H2O to form the conjugate acid
NH4 and conjugate base OH - . Each of these conjugate acidbase pairs, NH4+>NH3 and
+
H2O>OH - , is related by the loss and gain of one H + .

NH31g2 + H2O1l2 NH4+1aq2 + OH-1aq2
In these two examples, we see that water can act as an acid when it donates H + or as a
base when it accepts H + . Substances that can act as both acids and bases are amphoteric.
For water, the most common amphoteric substance, the acidic or basic behavior depends
on the other reactant. Water donates H + when it reacts with a stronger base, and it accepts
H + when it reacts with a stronger acid. Another example of an amphoteric substance is
bicarbonate, HCO3- . With a base, HCO3- acts as an acid and donates one H + to give
CO32-. However, when HCO3- reacts with an acid, it acts as a base and accepts one H + to
form H2CO3.
H 3O + H 2O OH- Amphoteric substances act

Acts as a Base Acts as an Acid
H2CO3 HCO3- CO32- as both acids and bases.
SaMple probleM 10.3 identifying Conjugate acidBase pairs

Identify the conjugate acidbase pairs in the following reaction:
HBr1aq2 + NH31aq2 h Br - 1aq2 + NH 4+ 1aq2
soLuTion
Guide to Writing Conjugate
sTep 1 Identify the reactant that loses H + as the acid. In the reaction, HBr AcidBase Pairs
donates H + to NH3. Thus HBr is the acid and Br - is its conjugate base.
STEP 1
sTep 2 Identify the reactant that gains H + as the base. In the reaction, NH3 Identify the reactant that loses
gains H + to form NH4+ . Thus, NH3 is the base and NH4+ is its conjugate acid. H+ as the acid.
sTep 3 Write the conjugate acidbase pairs. The conjugate acidbase pairs are STEP 2
HBr>Br - and NH4 + >NH3. Identify the reactant that gains
H+ as the base.
sTudy CheCk 10.3
STEP 3
In the following reaction, identify the conjugate acidbase pairs:
Write the conjugate acidbase
HCN1aq2 + SO42-1aq2 h CN - 1aq2 + HSO4 - 1aq2
h
pairs.
QueStionS and probleMS

10.1 acids and Bases
learning goal Describe and name acids and bases; 10.2 Indicate whether each of the following statements is characteristic
identify BrnstedLowry acids and bases. of an acid, a base, or both:
a. neutralizes acids
10.1 Indicate whether each of the following statements is characteristic b. produces OH - ions in water
of an acid, a base, or both: c. has a slippery feel
a. has a sour taste d. turns litmus red
b. neutralizes bases e. conducts an electrical current in solution
c. produces H + ions in water
d. is named barium hydroxide
e. is an electrolyte
10.3 Name each of the following acids or bases: 10.10 Write the formula for the conjugate base for each of the
a. HCl b. Ca1OH22 c. H2CO3 following acids:
d. HNO3 e. H2SO3 f. HBrO2 a. HSO3 -
10.4 Name each of the following acids or bases: b. H3O +
a. Al1OH23 b. HBr c. H2SO4 c. HPO42-
d. KOH e. HNO2 f. HClO2 d. HNO2
10.5 Write the formula for each of the following acids and bases: 10.11 Write the formula for the conjugate acid for each of the
a. magnesium hydroxide b. hydrofluoric acid following bases:
c. phosphoric acid d. lithium hydroxide a. CO32-
e. ammonium hydroxide f. sulfuric acid b. H2O
c. H2PO4-
10.6 Write the formula for each of the following acids and bases:
d. Br -
a. barium hydroxide b. hydroiodic acid
c. nitric acid d. strontium hydroxide 10.12 Write the formula for the conjugate acid for each of the
e. sodium hydroxide f. chloric acid following bases:
a. SO42-
10.7 Identify the reactant that is a BrnstedLowry acid and the reac-
b. CN -
tant that is a BrnstedLowry base in each of the following:
c. OH -
a. HI1aq2 + H2O1l2 h I - 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
d. ClO2-
b. F - 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h HF1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
h
10.13 Identify the BrnstedLowry acidbase pairs in each of the
10.8 Identify the reactant that is a BrnstedLowry acid and the reac- following equations:
tant that is a BrnstedLowry base in each of the following:
a. H2CO31aq2 + H2O1l2 h HCO3- 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
a. CO32- 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h HCO3- 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
h
b. NH4+1aq2 + H2O1l2 h NH31aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
b. H2SO41aq2 + H2O1l2 h HSO4 - 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
c. HCN1aq2 + NO2- 1aq2 h CN - 1aq2 + HNO21aq2
h
10.9 Write the formula for the conjugate base for each of the
10.14 Identify the BrnstedLowry acidbase pairs in each of the
following acids:
following equations:
a. HF
b. H2O a. H3PO41aq2 + H2O1l2 h H2PO4- 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
c. H2CO3 b. CO32- 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h HCO3- 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2

h
d. HSO 4- c. H3PO41aq2 + NH31aq2 h H2PO4- 1aq2 + NH4+1aq2

h
learning goal 10.2 strengths of acids and Bases

Write equations for the ionization The strength of an acid is determined by the moles of H3O+ that are produced for each
of acids and bases. mole of acid that dissolves. The strength of a base is determined by the moles of OH - that
are produced for each mole of base that dissolves. Strong acids and strong bases ionize
completely in water whereas weak acids and weak bases ionize only slightly in water,
leaving most of the initial acid or base as molecules.
strong and Weak acids

Strong acids are examples of strong electrolytes because they donate H + so easily that
their ionization in water is virtually complete. For example, when HCl, a strong acid, ion-
izes in water, H + is transferred to H2O; the resulting solution contains only the ions H3O+
and Cl- . We consider the reaction of HCl in H2O as going 100% to products. Thus, the
equation for a strong acid such as HCl is written with a single arrow to the products.
HCl1g2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + Cl- 1aq2
There are only six common strong acids. All other acids are weak 1see Table 10.32.
Weak acids are weak electrolytes because they ionize slightly in water, which produces
only a few ions. A solution of a strong acid contains all ions, whereas a solution of a weak
acid contains mostly molecules and few ions 1see Figure 10.12.
10.2 Strengths of Acids and Bases 329
TaBLe 10.3 Common Strong and Weak Acids

strong acids
Hydroiodic acid HI
Hydrobromic acid HBr
Perchloric acid HClO4
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Nitric acid HNO3
Increasing
Acid Weak acids
Strength Hydronium ion H3O+
Hydrogen sulfate ion HSO4 -
Phosphoric acid H3PO4

Hydrofluoric acid HF
Nitrous acid HNO2
Acetic acid HC2H3O2
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Hydrosulfuric acid H2S
Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO42-
Ammonium ion NH4 +
Hydrocyanic acid HCN
Bicarbonate ion HCO3-
Hydrogen sulfide ion HS-
Water H2O
HCl HC2H3O2
1M 1M
-
+ +
- -
+
-
+
- + -
+
- +
+
- -
-
+
+
Figure 10.1 N A strong acid such as HCl is ionized 1essentially 100%2, whereas a solu-
tion of weak acid such as HC2H3O2 contains mostly dissolved molecules and a few ions.
Q What is the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid?
Many of the products you use at home contain weak acids. In carbonated soft drinks,
CO2 dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3, a weak acid. A weak acid such as
H2CO3 contains mostly H2CO3 molecules and a few H3O+ and HCO - 3 ions. A weak acid
such as carbonic acid, H2CO3, is written with a double arrow. Carbonic acid is a diprotic
acid that has two H + , which ionize one at a time. Because HCO 3- is also a weak acid, a
second ionization produces another hydronium ion and the carbonate ion, CO32-.
v H3O+ 1aq2 + HCO3- 1aq2
H2CO31aq2 + H2O1l2 h
HCO3-1aq2 + H2O1l2 H3O+1aq2 + CO32-1aq2

Bicarbonate ion Carbonate ion
1hydrogen carbonate2
Acids produce hydrogen ions in
aqueous solutions.
HF
F-
H2CO3 HCO3- CO32-
Citric acid is a weak acid found in fruits and fruit juices such as lemons, oranges, and
grapefruit. In the vinegar used in salad dressings, the weak acid, acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is
present as a 5% 1m>v2 acetic acid solution.
H 3O +
HC2H3O21l2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+1aq2 + C2H3O2- 1aq2
h
Acetic acid Acetate ion
In summary, a strong acid such as HI in water ionizes completely to form an aqueous

solution of the ions H3O+ and I - . A weak acid such as HF ionizes only slightly in water
to form an aqueous solution that consists mostly of HF molecules and a few H3O+ and
F - ions 1see Figure 10.22.
Strong acid: HI1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+1aq2 + I - 1aq2 Completely ionized
Weak acid: HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+1aq2 + F - 1aq2 Slightly ionized
h
Hydrofluoric acid is the only

halogen acid that is a weak
acid.
Strong acid Final Weak acid Final
initially initially
HI H 3O + I- HF
HF
H 2O H 2O
H 3O + F-
1a2 1b2
H3O+ I- HF
HF
I -
+
H3O+
H3O I- HF HF
- HF
I
H3O+ F-
H3O+ HF
Figure 10.2 N After ionization in water, 1a2 the strong acid 1HI2 has a high concentra-
tion of H3O + and I - , whereas 1b2 the weak acid 1HF2 has a high concentration of HF and
low concentrations of H3O + and F - .
Q How do the heights of H3O + and F - compare to the height of the weak acid HF in
the bar diagram?
10.2 Strengths of Acids and Bases 331
strong and Weak Bases

As strong electrolytes, strong bases dissociate completely in water. Because these strong
bases are ionic compounds, they dissociate in water to give an aqueous solution of metal
ions and hydroxide ions. The Group 1A 112 hydroxides are very soluble in water, which
can give high concentrations of OH - ions. For example, when KOH forms a KOH solu-
tion, it contains only the ions K+ and OH - .
H 2O
KOH1s2 K+1aq2 + OH-1aq2
A few strong bases are less soluble in water, but what does dissolve dissociates com-
pletely as ions.
Bases in household products are
strong Bases used to remove grease and to open
drains.
Lithium hydroxide LiOH
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Potassium hydroxide KOH
Strontium hydroxide Sr1OH22*
Calcium hydroxide Ca1OH22*
Barium hydroxide Ba1OH22*
*Low solubility, but they dissociate completely.
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH 1also known as lye2, is used in household products to

Bases in household products
remove grease in ovens and to clean drains. Because high concentrations of hydroxide Weak Bases
ions cause severe damage to the skin and eyes, directions must be followed carefully when Window cleaner, ammonia, NH3
such products are used in the home, and use in the chemistry laboratory should be care- Bleach, NaOCl
fully supervised. If you spill an acid or a base on your skin or get some in your eyes, be Laundry detergent, Na 2CO3, Na 3PO4
sure to flood the area immediately with water for at least 10 minutes and seek medical Toothpaste and baking soda, NaHCO3
attention. Baking powder, scouring powder, Na 2CO3
Weak bases are weak electrolytes that are poor acceptors of hydrogen ions and pro- Lime for lawns and agriculture, CaCO3
duce very few ions in solution. A typical weak base, ammonia, NH3, is found in window Laxatives, antacids, Mg1OH22, Al1OH23
cleaners. In an aqueous solution, only a few ammonia molecules accept H + to form NH4+ strong Bases
and OH - . Drain cleaner, oven cleaner, NaOH
NH31g2 + H2O1l2 h NH4 +1aq2 + OH - 1aq2

h
Ammonia Ammonium hydroxide

10.2 strengths of acids and Bases
learning goal Write equations for the ionization of 10.17 Using Table 10.3, identify the weaker acid in each of the follow-
acids and bases. ing pairs:
a. HCl or HSO4-
10.15 Using Table 10.3, identify the stronger acid in each of the fol- b. HNO2 or HF
lowing pairs: c. HCO3- or NH4+
a. HBr or HNO2
10.18 Using Table 10.3, identify the weaker acid in each of the follow-
b. H3PO4 or HSO4-
ing pairs:
c. HCN or H2CO3
a. HNO3 or HCO3-
10.16 Using Table 10.3, identify the stronger acid in each of the fol- b. HSO4- or H2O
lowing pairs: c. H2SO4 or H2CO3
a. NH4+ or H3O+
b. H2SO4 or HCN
c. H2O or H2CO3
learning goal 10.3 acidBase equilibrium

Use the concept of reversible reac- As we have seen, reactants in acidbase reactions are not always completely converted
tions to explain acidbase equilib- to products because a reverse reaction takes place in which products form reactants. A
rium. Use Le Chteliers principle to reversible reaction proceeds in both the forward and reverse directions. That means
determine the effect on equilibrium there are two reactions taking place: One is the reaction in the forward direction, while
concentrations when reaction the other is the reaction in the reverse direction. Initially, the forward reaction occurs at
conditions change.
a faster rate than the reverse reaction to form products. As the initial reactants are con-
sumed, products accumulate. Then the forward reaction slows, and the rate of the reverse
reaction increases.
equilibrium
3Reactants4 decrease
Eventually, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become equal. This means
Concentration 1mole>L2
that the reactants form products at the same rate that the products form reactants.
Equilibrium has been reached when no further change takes place in the concentra-
tions of the reactants and products. However, the forward and reverse reactions con-
Equilibrium tinue at equal rates.
Let us look at the reaction of the weak acid HF and H2O as it proceeds to equilib-
rium. Initially, only the reactants HF and H2O are present.
3Products4 increase Forward reaction: HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 h F - 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
As F - and H3O+ products build up, the rate of the reverse reaction increases, while
Time
the rate of the forward reaction decreases.
Equilibrium is reached when there Reverse reaction: F - 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2 h HF1aq2 + H2O1l2
are no further changes in the con-
centrations of reactants and Eventually, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become equal, which means
products. that equilibrium has been reached. Then the concentrations of the reactants and products
remain constant even though the forward and reverse reactions continue. The forward and
reverse reactions are usually shown together in a single equation, using a double arrow.
Forward reaction
HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 h F - 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
Reverse reaction
SaMple probleM 10.4 reversible reactions and equilibrium

Complete each of the following with equal or not equal, faster or slower, change or do
not change:
a. Before equilibrium is reached, the concentrations of the reactants and products
.
b. Initially, reactants have a rate of reaction than the rate of reaction of the
products.
c. At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is to the rate of the
reverse reaction.
d. At equilibrium, the concentrations of the reactants and products .
soLuTion
a. change b. faster
c. equal d. do not change
sTudy CheCk 10.4

What does the double arrow indicate about the following reaction at equilibrium?
-
NH31g2 + H2O1l2 h NH + h
4 1aq2 + OH 1aq2
Ammonia Ammonium hydroxide
10.3 AcidBase Equilibrium 333
Le Chteliers principle Core CheMiStry SKill

When we alter the concentration of a reactant or product of a system at equilibrium, the Using Le Chteliers Principle
rates of the forward and reverse reactions will no longer be equal. We say that a stress is
placed on the equilibrium. Le Chteliers principle states that when equilibrium is dis-
turbed, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions change to relieve that stress and rees-
tablish equilibrium.
Suppose we have two water tanks connected by a pipe. When the water levels in the
tanks are equal, water flows in the forward direction from Tank A to Tank B at the same
rate as it flows in the reverse direction from Tank B to Tank A. If we add more water to
Tank A, there is an increase in the rate at which water flows from Tank A into Tank B,
which is shown with a longer arrow. Equilibrium is reestablished when the water levels in
both tanks become equal. The water levels are higher than before, but the water flows
equally between Tank A and Tank B.
Water at equilibrium Stress as water is added to first tank New equilibrium established
Increasing rate of forward direction
Tank A Tank B Tank A Tank B Tank A Tank B
When water is added to one tank, the levels readjust to equalize.
effect of Concentration Changes on equilibrium

We will use the reaction of HF and H2O to illustrate how a change in concentration dis-
turbs a reaction at equilibrium and how the system responds to that stress.
HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 h F - 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
Suppose that more HF is added to the equilibrium mixture, which increases the con-
centration of HF. The system relieves this stress by increasing the rate of the forward reac-
tion. According to Le Chteliers principle, adding more reactant causes the system to shift
in the direction of the products until equilibrium is reestablished.
Add HF
HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 F - 1aq2 + H3O+1aq2
In another example, suppose that some HF is removed from the reaction mixture at
equilibrium. The decrease in HF concentration slows the rate of the forward reaction.
According to Le Chteliers principle, the stress of removing some of the reactant causes
the system to shift in the direction of the reactants until equilibrium is reestablished.
Remove HF
Stress is also placed on a system at equilibrium by changing the concentration of a

product. For example, if more F - is added to the equilibrium mixture, the rate of the
reverse reaction increases as products are converted to reactants until equilibrium is rees-
tablished. According to Le Chteliers principle, the addition of more product causes the
system to shift in the direction of the reactants.
Add F -
In summary, Le Chteliers principle indicates that a stress caused by adding a sub-

stance at equilibrium is relieved when the system shifts the reaction away from that
substance. When some of a substance is removed, the equilibrium system shifts in the
direction of that substance. These features of Le Chteliers principle are summarized
in Table 10.4.
TaBLe 10.4 Effect of Concentration Changes on Equilibrium

stress Change shift in the direction of
Add reactant Increases forward reaction rate Products
Remove reactant Decreases forward reaction rate Reactants
Add product Increases reverse reaction rate Reactants
Remove product Decreases reverse reaction rate Products
Chemistry Link to health

OxygenHemoglobin Equilibrium and Hypoxia
The transport of oxygen involves an equilibrium between hemoglo- Treatment of altitude sickness includes hydration, rest, and, if
bin 1Hb2, oxygen, and oxyhemoglobin 1HbO22. necessary, descending to a lower altitude. The adaptation to lowered
oxygen levels requires about 10 days. During this time, the bone mar-
Hb1aq2 + O21g2 h HbO21aq2
h
row increases red blood cell production, providing more red blood
When the O2 level is high in the alveoli of the lung, the reaction cells and more hemoglobin. A person living at a high altitude can
shifts in the direction of the product HbO2. In the tissues where O2 have 50% more red blood cells than someone at sea level. This
concentration is low, the reverse reaction releases the oxygen from increase in hemoglobin causes a shift in the equilibrium back in the
the hemoglobin. direction of HbO2 product. Eventually, the higher concentration of
At normal atmospheric pressure, oxygen diffuses into the blood HbO2 will provide more oxygen to the tissues and the symptoms of
because the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli is higher than hypoxia will lessen.
that in the blood. At an altitude above 8000 ft, a decrease in the Hb1aq2 + O21g2 h HbO21aq2
atmospheric pressure results in a significant reduction in the partial
pressure of oxygen, which means that less oxygen is available for For those who climb high mountains, it is important to stop and
the blood and body tissues. The fall in atmospheric pressure at acclimatize for several days at increasing altitudes. At very high alti-
higher altitudes decreases the partial pressure of inhaled oxygen. tudes, it may be necessary to use an oxygen tank.
At an altitude of 18 000 ft, a person will obtain 29% less oxygen.
When oxygen levels are lowered, a person may experience hypoxia,
characterized by increased respiratory rate, headache, decreased
mental acuteness, fatigue, decreased physical coordination, nau-
sea, vomiting, and cyanosis. A similar problem occurs in persons
with a history of lung disease that impairs gas diffusion in the alve-
oli or in persons with a reduced number of red blood cells, such as
smokers.
According to Le Chteliers principle, we see that a decrease in
oxygen will shift the system in the direction of the reactants to rees-
tablish equilibrium. Such a shift depletes the concentration of HbO2
and causes the hypoxia.
Hb1aq2 + O21g2
h
HbO21aq2 Hypoxia may occur at high altitudes where
the oxygen concentration is lower.
10.3 AcidBase Equilibrium 335
SaMple probleM 10.5 effect of Changes in Concentration on equilibrium

An important reaction in the body fluids is
H2CO31aq2 + H2O1l2 h HCO3- 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
Use Le Chteliers principle to predict whether the system shifts in the direction of prod-
ucts or reactants for each of the following:
a. adding some H2CO31aq2
b. removing some HCO3- 1aq2
c. adding some H3O+ 1aq2
soLuTion
According to Le Chteliers principle, when stress is applied to a reaction at equilibrium,
the system shifts to relieve that stress.
a. When the concentration of the reactant H2CO3 increases, the rate of the forward reaction
increases to shift the system in the direction of the products until equilibrium is
reestablished.
b. When the concentration of the product HCO3- decreases, the rate of the reverse reac-
tion decreases. The system shifts in the direction of the products until equilibrium is
reestablished.
c. When the concentration of the product H3O+ increases, the rate of the reverse reaction
increases. The system shifts in the direction of the reactants until equilibrium is
reestablished.
sTudy CheCk 10.5

Using the reaction in Sample Problem 10.5, predict whether removing H2CO3 causes the
system to shift in the direction of products or reactants.

10.3 acidBase equilibrium
learning goal Use the concept of reversible reactions 10.23 Use Le Chteliers principle to predict whether each the follow-
to explain acidbase equilibrium. Use Le Chteliers principle to ing changes causes the system to shift in the direction of prod-
determine the effect on equilibrium concentrations when reac- ucts or reactants:
tion conditions change. HCHO21aq2 + H2O1l2 h CHO2- 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
10.19 What is meant by the term reversible reaction?
a. adding some CHO2- 1aq2

10.20 When does a reversible reaction reach equilibrium? b. removing some HCHO21aq2
10.21 Which of the following are at equilibrium? c. removing some H3O + 1aq2
a. The rate of the forward reaction is twice as fast as the rate of d. adding some HCHO21aq2
the reverse reaction. 10.24 Use Le Chteliers principle to predict whether each the follow-
b. The concentrations of the reactants and the products do not ing changes causes the system to shift in the direction of prod-
change. ucts or reactants:
c. The rate of the reverse reaction does not change.
HNO21aq2 + H2O1l2 h NO2- 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
10.22 Which of the following are not at equilibrium?
a. The rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. a. adding some HNO21aq2
b. The rate of the forward reaction does not change. b. removing some NO2- 1aq2
c. The concentrations of reactants and the products are not c. adding some H3O+ 1aq2
constant. d. removing some HNO21aq2
learning goal 10.4 ionization of Water

Use the ion product for water to We have seen that in some acidbase reactions, water is amphoteric, which means that it
calculate the 3H3O + 4 and 3OH - 4 in can act either as an acid or as a base. In pure water, there is a forward reaction between
an aqueous solution. two water molecules that transfers H + from one water molecule to the other. One molecule
acts as an acid by losing H + , and the water molecule that gains H + acts as a base. Every
time H + is transferred between two water molecules, the products are one H3O+ and one
OH - , which react in the reverse direction to re-form two water molecules. Thus, equilib-
rium is reached between the conjugate acidbase pairs of water.
-
O H + O H H O H+ + O H
H H H

Acid Base Acid Base
H+ H+ H+ H+
donor acceptor donor acceptor
Writing the ion product Constant for Water, Kw

In the equation for the ionization of water, there is both a forward and a reverse reaction:
H2O1l2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
h
Base Acid Conjugate Conjugate
acid base
Experiments have determined that, in pure water, the concentrations of H3O+ and OH - at
25 C are each 1.0 * 10 -7 M. Square brackets are used to indicate the concentrations in
moles per liter 1M2.
Pure water 3H3O+ 4 = 3OH - 4 = 1.0 * 10 -7 M
When these concentrations are multiplied, we obtain the expression and value called the
ion product constant of water, Kw. The concentration units are omitted in the Kw value.
Kw = 3H3O+ 43OH - 4
= 11.0 * 10 -7 M211.0 * 10 -7 M2 = 1.0 * 10 -14
neutral, acidic, and Basic solutions

The Kw value 11.0 * 10 -142 applies to any aqueous solution at 25 C because all aqueous
solutions contain both H3O+ and OH - 1see Figure 10.32.
When the 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH - 4 in a solution are equal, the solution is neutral. However,
most solutions are not neutral; they have different concentrations of 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH - 4. If
acid is added to water, there is an increase in 3H3O+ 4 and a decrease in 3OH - 4, which makes
an acidic solution. If base is added, 3OH - 4 increases and 3H3O+ 4 decreases, which gives a
basic solution. However, for any aqueous solution, whether it is neutral, acidic, or basic, the
product 3H3O+ 43OH - 4 is equal to Kw 11.0 * 10 -14 at 25 C2 1see Table 10.52.
using the Kw to Calculate 3 h3o+ 4 and 3 oh 4 in a solution

If we know the 3H3O+ 4 of a solution, we can use the Kw to calculate 3OH - 4. If we know
the 3OH - 4 of a solution, we can calculate 3H3O+ 4 as seen in Sample Problem 10.6.
Kw = 3H3O+ 43OH - 4
Kw Kw
3OH - 4 = 3H3O+ 4 =
3H3O+ 4 3OH - 4
10.4 Ionization of Water 337
100
H 3O + OH -
10-7
H 3O + OH -
Figure 10.3 N In a neutral
solution, 3H3O + 4 and 3OH - 4 are
equal. In acidic solutions, the
OH - H 3O + 3H3O +4 is greater than the 3OH -4.
In basic solutions, the 3OH - 4 is
greater than the 3H3O + 4.
10-14
3H3O +4 > 3OH -4 3H3O +4 = 3OH -4 3H3O +4 < 3OH -4 Q Is a solution that has a
3H3O +4 of 1.0 * 10-3 M
Acidic solution Neutral solution Basic solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
TaBLe 10.5 Examples of 3H3O + 4 and 3OH 4 in Neutral, Acidic, and Basic Solutions
Type of solution 3 h3o+ 4 3 oh 4 Kw 125 C2
-7 -7
Neutral 1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10 -14
-2 -12
Acidic 1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10 -14
Acidic 2.5 * 10 -5 M 4.0 * 10 -10 M 1.0 * 10 -14
-8 -6
Basic 1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10 -14
Basic 5.0 * 10 -11 M 2.0 * 10 -4 M 1.0 * 10 -14
Core CheMiStry SKill

SaMple probleM 10.6 Calculating the 3 h3o+ 4 of a solution
A vinegar solution has a 3OH - 4 = 5.0 * 10 -12 M at 25 C. What is the 3H3O+ 4 of the Calculating 3H3O + 4 and 3OH - 4 in
vinegar solution? Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral? Solutions
soLuTion
sTep 1 State the given and needed quantities. Guide to Calculating 3H3O+4
and 3OH 4 in Aqueous
given need know Solutions
AnAlyzE tHE
-
3OH 4 = 5.0 * 10 -12
M 3H 3 O + 4 Kw = 3H3O + 43OH - 4 STEP 1
PrOblEm
= 1.0 * 10 -14 State the given and needed
quantities.
sTep 2 Write the Kw for water and solve for the unknown 3H3O +4. STEP 2
Rearrange the ion product expression by dividing both sides by the 3OH - 4. Write the Kw for water and
Kw = 3H3O+ 4 3OH - 4 = 1.0 * 10 -14 solve for the unknown 3H3O+4
or 3OH 4 .
Kw 3H3O+ 4 3OH - 4
- = STEP 3
3OH 4 3OH - 4 Substitute the known 3H3O+4
1.0 * 10 -14 or 3OH 4 into the equation
3H3O+ 4 =
3OH - 4 and calculate.
sTep 3 Substitute the known 3OH - 4 into the equation and calculate.
1.0 * 10 -14
3H3O+ 4 = = 2.0 * 10 -3 M
35.0 * 10 -124
Because the 3H3O+ 4 of 2.0 * 10 -3 M is larger than the 3OH - 4 of
5.0 * 10 -12 M, the solution is acidic.
sTudy CheCk 10.6

What is the 3H3O+ 4 of an ammonia cleaning solution with 3OH - 4 = 4.0 * 10 -4 M?
Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?

10.4 ionization of Water
learning goal Use the ion product for water to calcu- 10.31 Calculate the 3H3O+ 4 of each aqueous solution with the
late the 3H3O + 4 and 3OH - 4 in an aqueous solution. following 3OH - 4:
a. vinegar, 1.0 * 10 -11 M
10.25 Why are the concentrations of H3O+ and OH - equal in pure water?
b. urine, 2.0 * 10 -9 M
10.26 What is the meaning and value of Kw? c. ammonia, 5.6 * 10 -3 M
10.27 In an acidic solution, how does the concentration of H3O+ d. NaOH solution, 2.5 * 10 -2 M
compare to the concentration of OH - ? 10.32 Calculate the 3H3O+ 4 of each aqueous solution with the
+
10.28 If a base is added to pure water, why does the 3H3O 4 decrease? following 3OH - 4:
10.29 Indicate whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic, a. baking soda, 1.0 * 10 -6 M
or neutral: b. orange juice, 5.0 * 10 -11 M
a. 3H3O+ 4 = 2.0 * 10 -5 M c. milk, 2.0 * 10 -8 M
b. 3H3O+ 4 = 1.4 * 10 -9 M d. bleach, 2.1 * 10 -3 M
c. 3OH - 4 = 8.0 * 10 -3 M 10.33 Calculate the 3OH - 4 of each aqueous solution with the
d. 3OH - 4 = 3.5 * 10 -10 M following 3H3O+ 4:
10.30 Indicate whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic, a. coffee, 1.0 * 10 -5 M
or neutral: b. soap, 1.0 * 10 -8 M
a. 3H3O+ 4 = 6.0 * 10 -12 M c. cleanser, 5.0 * 10 -10 M
b. 3H3O+ 4 = 1.4 * 10 -4 M d. lemon juice, 2.5 * 10 -2 M
c. 3OH - 4 = 5.0 * 10 -12 M 10.34 Calculate the 3OH - 4 of each aqueous solution with the
d. 3OH - 4 = 4.5 * 10 -2 M following 3H3O+ 4:
a. NaOH solution, 1.0 * 10 -12 M
b. aspirin, 6.0 * 10 -4 M
c. milk of magnesia, 1.0 * 10 -9 M
d. stomach acid, 5.2 * 10 -2 M
learning goal 10.5 The ph scale

Calculate the pH of a solution from Personnel working in food processing, medicine, agriculture, spa and pool mainte-
3H3O +4; given the pH, calculate nance, soap manufacturing, and wine making measure the 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH - 4 of solu-
3H 3 O + 4. tions. The proper level of acidity is necessary to evaluate the functioning of the lungs
and kidneys, to control bacterial growth in foods, and to prevent the growth of pests
in food crops.
Although we have expressed H3O+ and OH - as molar concentrations, it is more con-
venient to describe the acidity of solutions using the pH scale. On this scale, a number
between 0 and 14 represents the H3O+ concentration for common solutions. A neutral
solution has a pH of 7.0 at 25 C. An acidic solution has a pH less than 7.0; a basic solu-
tion has a pH greater than 7.0 1see Figure 10.42.
Acidic solution pH 6 7.0 3H3O+ 4 7 1 * 10 -7 M
Neutral solution pH = 7.0 3H3O+ 4 = 1 * 10 -7 M
Basic solution pH 7 7.0 3H3O+ 4 6 1 * 10 -7 M
In the laboratory, a pH meter is commonly used to determine the pH of a solution.
There are also indicators and pH papers that turn specific colors when placed in
solutions of different pH values. The pH is found by comparing the colors to a chart 1see
Figure 10.52.
10.5 The pH Scale 339
pH Value
1 M HCl solution 0.0
0
1
Gastric juice 1.6
2 Lemon juice 2.2
Vinegar 2.8
Carbonated beverage 3.0
3
Orange 3.5
Acidic Apple juice 3.8
4 Tomato 4.2
Coffee 5.0
5
Bread 5.5
Potato 5.8
Urine 6.0
6
Milk 6.4
Neutral Water 1pure2 7.0

7 Drinking water 7.2
Blood 7.4
Bile 8.0Detergents 8.09.0

8
Seawater 8.5
10
Milk of magnesia 10.5
Basic
Ammonia 11.0
11
Bleach 12.0
12
Figure 10.4 N On the pH scale,

13 values below 7.0 are acidic, a value
of 7.0 is neutral, and values above
1 M NaOH solution 1lye2 14.0 7.0 are basic.
14
Q Is apple juice acidic, basic,
or neutral?
1a2 1b2 1c2

Figure 10.5 N The pH of a solution can be determined using 1a2 a pH meter, 1b2 pH paper, and 1c2 indicators that turn
different colors corresponding to different pH values.
Q If a pH meter reads 4.00, is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
SaMple probleM 10.7 ph of solutions

Consider the pH of the following items:
item ph
Root beer 5.8
Kitchen cleaner 10.9
Pickles 3.5
Glass cleaner 7.6
Cranberry juice 2.9
a. Place the pH values of the items on the list in order of most acidic to most basic.
b. Which item has the highest 3H3O+ 4?
Cranberry juice has a pH of 2.9.
soLuTion
a. The most acidic item is the one with the lowest pH, and the most basic is the item with the
highest pH: cranberry juice 12.92, pickles 13.52, root beer 15.82, glass cleaner 17.62,
kitchen cleaner 110.92.
b. The item with the highest 3H3O+ 4 would have the lowest pH value, which is cranberry
juice.
sTudy CheCk 10.7

Which item in the list in Sample Problem 10.7 has the highest 3OH - 4?
Key Math SKill Calculating the ph of solutions

Calculating pH from 3H3O +
4 The pH scale is a logarithmic scale that corresponds to the 3H3O+ 4 of aqueous solutions.
Mathematically, pH is the negative logarithm 1base 102 of the 3H3O+ 4.
pH = - log3H3O+ 4
Essentially, the negative powers of 10 in the molar concentrations are converted to positive
numbers. For example, a lemon juice solution with the 3H3O+ 4 = 1.0 * 10 -2 M has a pH
of 2.00. This can be calculated using the pH equation:
p H = - log31.0 * 10 -24
pH = - 1 - 2.002
= 2.00
The number of decimal places in the pH value is the same as the number of signifi-
cant figures in the coefficient of 3H3O+ 4. The number to the left of the decimal point in the
pH value is the power of 10.
3H3O+4 = 1.0 * 10-2 M pH = 2.00
Two SFs Two SFs
Because pH is a log scale, a change of one pH unit corresponds to a tenfold change in

3H3O+ 4. It is important to note that the pH decreases as the 3H3O+ 4 increases. For exam-
ple, a solution with a pH of 2.00 has a 3H3O+ 4 10 times higher than a solution with a pHof
3.00 and 100 times higher than a solution with a pH of 4.00.
ph Calculation
The pH of a solution is calculated from the 3H3O+ 4 by using the log key and changing the
sign as shown in Sample Problem 10.8.
SaMple probleM 10.8 Calculating ph from 3 h3o+ 4

Aspirin, which is acetylsalicylic acid, was the first nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
used to alleviate pain and fever. If a solution of aspirin has a 3H3O+ 4 = 1.7 * 10 -3 M,
what is the pH of the solution?
Acidic H
that ionizes in
aqueous solution
Aspirin, acetylsalicylic acid, is a weak acid.

soLuTion
Guide to Calculating pH
sTep 1 State the given and needed quantities. of an Aqueous Solution
given need know
STEP 1
AnAlyzE tHE
State the given and needed
PrOblEm 3H3O +4 = 1.7 * 10-3 M pH pH = - log3H3O + 4
quantities.
sTep 2 Enter the 3H3O + 4 into the pH equation. STEP 2
+
pH = - log3H3O 4 = - log31.7 * 10 4 -3 Enter the 3H3O+4 into the pH
equation.
Procedure Calculator Display
STEP 3
00
Enter 1.7 and press EE or EXP 1.7 or 1.7 00 or 1.7E00 Press the log key and change
Enter 3 and press +/ to change the sign. 1.7 -03 or 1.7- 03 or 1.7E - 03 the sign. Adjust the number
of SFs on the right of the
sTep 3 Press the log key and change the sign. Adjust the number of SFs on decimal point.
the right of the decimal point.
log
+/ 2.769551079
The steps can be combined to give the calculator sequence as follows:
pH = - log31.7 * 10 -34 = 1.7 EE or EXP 3 +/ log +/
= 2.769551079
Be sure to check the instructions for your calculator. On some calculators,
the log key is used first, followed by the concentration.
In a pH value, the number to the left of the decimal point is an exact
number derived from the power of 10. Thus, the two SFs in the coefficient
determine that there are two SFs after the decimal point in the pH value.
Coefficient Power of ten
1.7 * 10 -3 M pH = - log31.7 * 10 -34 = 2.77
h
h
h
h
h
Two SFs Exact Exact Two SFs
sTudy CheCk 10.8

What is the pH of bleach with 3H3O+ 4 = 4.2 * 10 -12 M?
Explore Your World

Using Vegetables and Flowers as pH Indicators
Many flowers and vegetables with strong color, especially reds and water. Blend until thoroughly mixed, remove, and pour off the red
purples, contain compounds that change color with changes in pH. liquid.
Some examples are red cabbage, cranberry juice, and other highly col- 2. Place small amounts of each household solution into separate clear
ored drinks. glass containers and mark what each one is. If the sample is a solid
or a thick liquid, add a small amount of water. Add some cranberry
Materials needed juice or red cabbage indicator until you obtain a color.
Red cabbage or cranberry juice or drink, water, and a saucepan 3. Observe the colors of the various samples. The colors that indicate
Several glasses or small glass containers and some tape and a pen or acidic solutions are the pink and orange colors 1pH 1 to 42 and the
pencil to mark the containers pink to lavender colors 1pH 5 to 62. A neutral solution has about
the same purple color as the indicator. Bases will give blue to green
Several colorless household solutions such as vinegar, lemon juice,
color 1pH 8 to 112 or a yellow color 1pH 12 to 132.
other fruit juices, window cleaners, soaps, shampoos, and detergents
4. Arrange your samples by color and pH. Classify each of the solu-
and common household products such as baking soda, antacids, aspi-
tions as acidic 11 to 62, neutral 172, or basic 18 to 132.
rin, salt, and sugar
5. Try to make an indicator using other colorful fruits or flowers.
procedure Questions
1. Obtain a bottle of cranberry juice or cranberry drink, or use a red
1. Which products that tested acidic listed an acid on their labels?
cabbage to prepare the pH indicator, as follows: Tear up several red
2. Which products that tested basic listed a base on their labels?
cabbage leaves and place them in a saucepan and cover with water.
3. Which products were neutral?
Boil for about 5 minutes. Cool and collect the purple solution.
4. Which flowers or vegetables behaved as indicators?
Alternatively, place red cabbage leaves in a blender and cover with
Key Math SKill Calculating 3 h3o+ 4 from ph

Calculating 3H3O + 4 from pH In another type of calculation, we are given the pH of a solution and asked to determine
the 3H3O+ 4. This is a reverse of the pH calculation. For whole number pH values, the
negative pH value is the power of 10 in the H3O+ concentration.
3H3O+ 4 = 10 -pH
For pH values that are not whole numbers, the calculation requires the use of the 10 x key,
which is usually a 2nd function key. On some calculators, this operation is done using the
inverse key and the log key as shown in Sample Problem 10.9.
SaMple probleM 10.9 Calculating 3 h3o+ 4 from ph

Guide to Calculating 3H3O+4 Determine the 3H3O+ 4 for solutions having each of the following pH values:
from pH a. pH = 3.0
STEP 1 b. pH = 8.25
State the given and needed
quantities. soLuTion
a. For pH values that are whole numbers, the 3H3O+ 4 can be written 1 * 10 -pH.
STEP 2
Enter the pH value into the 3H3O+ 4 = 1 * 10 -3 M
inverse log equation and b. For pH values that are not whole numbers, the 3H3O+ 4 is calculated as follows:
change the sign.
sTep 1 State the given and needed quantities.
STEP 3
Adjust the SFs in the AnAlyzE tHE given need know
coefficient. PrOblEm pH = 8.25 +
3H 3 O 4 3H3O +4 = 10-pH
Step 2 Enter the pH value into the inverse log equation and change the sign.
8.25 +/ - 8.25
Press the 2nd function key and then the 10 x key. Or press the inverse key and
then the log key.
2nd 10x or inv log 5.623413252 - 09 or 5.623413252 - 09 or 5.623413252E - 09
Step 3 Adjust the SFs in the coefficient. Because the pH value of 8.25 has two digits on
the right of the decimal point, the 3H3O+ 4 is written with two significant figures.
3H3O+ 4 = 5.6 * 10 -9 M
Two SFs
Study CheCk 10.9

What is the 3H3O+ 4 of a beer that has a pH of 4.5?
A comparison of 3H3O+ 4, 3OH - 4, and their corresponding pH values is given in

Table 10.6.
table 10.6 A Comparison of 3H3O + 4, 3OH 4, and Corresponding pH Values

3 h3O+ 4 ph 3 Oh 4
100 0 10 -14
10 -1 1 10 -13
10 -2 2 10 -12
10 -3 3 10 -11
Acidic
10 -4 4 10 -10
10 -5 5 10 -9
10 -6 6 10 -8
10 -7 7 10 -7 Neutral
10 -8 8 10 -6
10 -9 9 10 -5
10 -10 10 10 -4 Basic
10 -11 11 10 -3
10 -12 12 10 -2
10 -13 13 10 -1
10 -14 14 100
QuEstIONs ANd PRObLEms

10.5 the ph Scale
LEARNING GOAL Calculate the pH of a solution from 10.38 State whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic,
3H3O +4; given the pH, calculate 3H3O +4. or neutral:
10.35 Why does a neutral solution have a pH of 7.0? a. soda, pH 3.22 b. shampoo, pH 5.7
c. laundry detergent, pH 9.4 d. rain, pH 5.83
10.36 If you know the 3OH - 4, how can you determine the pH of a e. honey, pH 3.9 f. cheese, pH 5.2
solution?
10.39 Calculate the pH of each solution given the following 3H3O+ 4 or
10.37 State whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic, 3OH -4 values:
or neutral: a. 3H3O+ 4 = 1 * 10 -4 M b. 3H3O+ 4 = 3 * 10 -9 M
a. blood, pH 7.38 b. vinegar, pH 2.8 - -5
c. 3OH 4 = 1 * 10 M d. 3OH - 4 = 2.5 * 10 -11 M
c. drain cleaner, pH 11.2 d. coffee, pH 5.54
e. tomatoes, pH 4.2 f. chocolate cake, pH 7.6 e. 3H3O+ 4 = 6.7 * 10 -8 M f. 3OH - 4 = 8.2 * 10 -4 M
10.40 Calculate the pH of each solution given the following 3H3O+ 4 10.42 Complete the following table:
or 3OH - 4 values:
acidic, Basic,
a. 3H3O+ 4 = 1 * 10 -6 M b. 3H3O+ 4 = 5 * 10 -6 M
- -2
3 h3o+ 4 3 oh 4 ph or neutral?
c. 3OH 4 = 4.0 * 10 M d. 3OH - 4 = 8.0 * 10 -3 M
+ -2
10.0
e. 3H3O 4 = 4.7 * 10 M f. 3OH - 4 = 3.9 * 10 -6 M
Neutral
10.41 Complete the following table:
-5
1 * 10 M
acidic, Basic,
-2
3 h3o+ 4 3 oh 4 ph or neutral? 1 * 10 M
1 * 10 M -6 11.3
3.0
-5
2 * 10 M
1 * 10 -12 M
4.62

Stomach Acid, HCl
Gastric acid, which contains HCl, is produced by parietal cells that until the stomach has a pH of about 2, which is the optimum for acti-
line the stomach. When the stomach expands with the intake of food, vating the digestive enzymes without ulcerating the stomach lining. In
the gastric glands begin to secrete a strongly acidic solution of HCl. addition, the low pH destroys bacteria that reach the stomach. Nor-
In a single day, a person may secrete 2000 mL of gastric juice, which mally, large quantities of viscous mucus are secreted within the stom-
contains hydrochloric acid, mucins, and the enzymes pepsin and ach to protect its lining from acid and enzyme damage. Gastric acid
lipase. may also form under conditions of stress when the nervous system
The HCl in the gastric juice activates a digestive enzyme from the activates the production of HCl. As the contents of the stomach move
chief cells called pepsinogen to form pepsin, which breaks down pro- into the small intestine, cells produce bicarbonate that neutralizes the
teins in food entering the stomach. The secretion of HCl continues gastric acid until the pH is about 5.
Esophagus
Epithelial
Stomach cell
lining
Parietal
cell
Mucous
cell
Duodenum
Gastric
gland
Chief cell
Parietal cells in the lining of the stomach secrete gastric acid HCl.
10.6 Reactions of Acids and Bases 345
10.6 reactions of acids and Bases learning goal
Typical reactions of acids and bases include the reactions of acids with metals, bases, and Write balanced equations for reac-
carbonate or bicarbonate ions. For example, when you drop an antacid tablet in water, the tions of acids and bases; calculate
bicarbonate ion and citric acid in the tablet react to produce carbon dioxide bubbles, water, the molarity or volume of an acid
and a salt. A salt is an ionic compound that does not have H + as the cation or OH - as the from titration information.
anion.
Core CheMiStry SKill

acids and Metals
Acids react with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas 1H22 and a salt. Metals that react Writing Equations for Reactions
with acids include potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, zinc, iron, and tin. of Acids and Bases
In reactions that are single replacement reactions, the metal ion replaces the hydrogen in
the acid.
Mg1s2 + 2HCl1aq2 h H21g2 + MgCl21aq2
Metal Acid Hydrogen Salt
Zn1s2 + 2HNO31aq2 h H21g2 + Zn1NO3221aq2
SaMple probleM 10.10 equations for Metals and acids

Write a balanced equation for the reaction of Al1s2 with HCl1aq2.
soLuTion
Write the reactants and products. When a metal reacts with an acid, the products
are hydrogen gas and a salt. The unbalanced equation is written as
Magnesium reacts rapidly with acid
Al1s2 + HCl1aq2 h H21g2 + salt1aq2 and forms H2 gas and a salt of
Determine the formula of the salt. When Al1s2 reacts, it forms Al3+ , which is magnesium.
balanced by 3Cl- from HCl.
Al1s2 + HCl1aq2 h H21g2 + AlCl31aq2
balance the equation.
2Al1s2 + 6HCl1aq2 h 3H21g2 + 2AlCl31aq2
sTudy CheCk 10.10

Write the balanced equation when Ca1s2 reacts with HBr1aq2.
acids, Carbonates, and Bicarbonates

When an acid is added to a carbonate or bicarbonate 1hydrogen carbonate2, the products
2-
are carbon dioxide gas, water, and an ionic compound 1salt2. The acid reacts with CO3
-
or HCO3 to produce carbonic acid, H2CO3, which breaks down rapidly to CO2 and H2O.
2HCl1aq2 + Na 2CO31aq2 h CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + 2NaCl1aq2
Acid Carbonate Carbon Water Salt
dioxide
HBr1aq2 + NaHCO31aq2 h CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + NaBr1aq2
Acid Bicarbonate Carbon Water Salt When sodium bicarbonate 1baking
dioxide soda2 reacts with an acid 1vinegar2,
the products are carbon dioxide
gas, water, and a salt.
acids and hydroxides: neutralization
Neutralization is a reaction between an acid and a base to produce water and a salt.
The H + of an acid that can be strong or weak and the OH - of a strong base combine to
form water as one product. The salt is the cation from the base and the anion from the
acid. We can write the following equation for the neutralization reaction between HCl
and NaOH:
HCl1aq2 + NaOH1aq2 h H2O1l2 + NaCl1aq2
Acid Base Water Salt
If we write the strong acid HCl and the strong base NaOH as ions, we see that H + reacts
with OH - to form water, leaving the ions Na + and Cl- in solution.
H +1aq2 + Cl- 1aq2 + Na+ 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2 h H2O1l2 + Na+ 1aq2 + Cl- 1aq2
If soil is too acidic, nutrients are not
absorbed by crops. Then lime When we omit the ions that do not change during the reaction 1Na + and Cl- 2, we see that
1CaCO32, which acts as a base, the net ionic equation for neutralization is the formation of H2O from H + and OH - .
may be added to increase the
soil pH.
H + 1aq2 + Cl- 1aq2 + Na + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2 h H2O1l2 + Na + 1aq2 + Cl- 1aq2
H + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2 h H2O1l2 Net ionic equation
In a neutralization reaction, one H + always combines with one OH - . Therefore, a
neutralization equation uses coefficients to balance H + in the acid with the OH - in the
base. Sample Problem 10.11 shows how to balance the equation for the neutralization of
HCl and Ba1OH22.
SaMple probleM 10.11 Balancing equations of acids

Write the balanced equation for the neutralization of HCl1aq2 and Ba1OH221s2.
soLuTion
Guide to Balancing an
Equation for Neutralization sTep 1 Write the reactants and products.
STEP 1 HCl1aq2 + Ba1OH221s2 h H2O1l2 + salt
Write the reactants and
sTep 2 balance the H + in the acid with the OH in the base. Placing a coef-
products.
ficient of 2 in front of HCl provides 2H + for the 2OH - in Ba1OH22.
STEP 2 2HCl1aq2 + Ba1OH221s2 h H2O1l2 + salt
Balance the H+ in the acid with
the OH in the base. sTep 3 balance the H2O with the H + and the OH . Use a coefficient of 2 in
front of H2O to balance 2H + and 2OH - .
STEP 3
Balance the H2O with the H+ 2HCl1aq2 + Ba1OH221s2 h 2H2O1l2 + salt
and the OH .
sTep 4 Write the salt from the remaining ions. Use the ions Ba2+ and 2Cl - to
STEP 4 write the formula for the salt, BaCl2.
Write the salt from the 2HCl1aq2 + Ba1OH221s2 h 2H2O1l2 + BaCl21aq2
remaining ions.
sTudy CheCk 10.11
Write the balanced equation for the reaction between H2SO41aq2 and NaHCO31aq2.
Core CheMiStry SKill acidBase Titration

Calculating Molarity or Volume of Suppose we need to find the molarity of a solution of HCl, which has an unknown concen-
an Acid or Base in a Titration tration. We can do this by a laboratory procedure called titration in which we neutralize an
acid sample with a known amount of base. In a titration, we place a measured volume of the
acid in a flask and add a few drops of an indicator such as phenolphthalein. In an acidic
solution, phenolphthalein is colorless. Then we fill a buret with a NaOH solution of known
molarity and carefully add NaOH solution to the acid in the flask 1see Figure 10.62.
In the titration, we neutralize the acid by adding a volume of base that contains a
matching number of moles of OH - . We know that neutralization has taken place when the
phenolphthalein in the solution changes from colorless to pink. This is called the neutraliza-
tion endpoint. From the volume added and molarity of the NaOH solution, we can calculate
the number of moles of NaOH, the moles of acid, and then the concentration of the acid.
10.6 Reactions of Acids and Bases 347
Figure 10.6 N The titration of an acid. A

known volume of an acid solution is placed in a
flask with an indicator and titrated with a mea-
sured volume of a base solution, such as NaOH,
to the neutralization endpoint.
Q What data is needed to determine the
molarity of the acid in the flask?
SaMple probleM 10.12 Titration of an acid Guide to Calculations for an

A 25.0-mL 10.025 L2 sample of an HCl solution is placed in a flask with a few drops of AcidBase Titration
phenolphthalein 1indicator2. If 32.6 mL of a 0.185 M NaOH solution is needed to reach STEP 1
the endpoint, what is the molarity of the HCl solution? State the given and needed
NaOH1aq2 + HCl1aq2 h H2O1l2 + NaCl1aq2 quantities.
STEP 2
soLuTion Write a plan to calculate the
sTep 1 State the given and needed quantities. molarity or volume.
given need STEP 3

State equalities and
25.0 mL 10.0250 L2 of HCl solution, molarity of the HCl solution
AnAlyzE tHE conversion factors, including
32.6 mL of 0.185 M NaOH solution concentrations.
PrOblEm
neutralization equation
STEP 4
NaOH1aq2 + HCl1aq2 h H2O1l2 + NaCl1aq2 Set up the problem to
calculate the needed quantity.
sTep 2 Write a plan to calculate the molarity.
mL of NaOH Metric L of NaOH moles of Molemole moles of Divide by molarity of

Molarity
solution factor solution NaOH factor HCl liters HCl solution
sTep 3 State equalities and conversion factors, including concentrations.

1 L1of
L1 NaOH
of
L of
NaOH
NaOH
solution
solution
solution
= 1000
== 1000
1000
mLmLofmL
NaOH
of of
NaOH
NaOH
solution
solution
solution1 L1of
L1 NaOH
of
L of
NaOH
NaOH
solution
solution
solution
= =0.185
=0.185
0.185
mole
mole
mole
of NaOH
of of
NaOH
NaOH
1 L1NaOH
L1 NaOH
L NaOH
solution
solution
solution 10001000
1000
mLmLNaOH
mL
NaOH
NaOH
solution
solution
solution 1 L1NaOH
L1 NaOH
L NaOH
solution
solution
solution 0.1850.185
0.185
mole
mole
mole
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
andandand andandand
1000
1000
1000
mLmL NaOH
mL NaOH
NaOH
solution
solution
solution 1 L1NaOH
L1 NaOH
L NaOH
solution
solution
solution 0.185
0.185
0.185
mole
mole
mole
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH 1 L1NaOH L1 NaOH
L NaOH
solution
solution
solution
1 mole
1 mole
1 mole
of HCl
of of
HClHCl
= 1= mole
=1 mole
1 mole
of NaOH
of of
NaOH
NaOH
1 mole
1 mole
1 mole
HClHClHCl 1 mole 1 mole
1 mole
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
andandand
1 mole
1 mole
1 mole
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH 1 mole 1 mole
1 mole
HClHClHCl
sTep 4 Set up the problem to calculate the needed quantity.
1 L NaOH solution 0.185 mole NaOH 1 mole HCl

32.6 mL NaOH solution * * * = 0.00603 mole of HCl
1000 mL NaOH solution 1 L NaOH solution 1 mole NaOH
0.00603 mole HCl

molarity of HCl = = 0.241 M HCl solution interactive Video
0.0250 L solution
sTudy CheCk 10.12

What is the molarity of an HCl solution, if 28.6 mL of a 0.175 M NaOH solution is
needed to neutralize a 25.0-mL sample of the HCl solution? Titration of an Acid

Antacids
Antacids are substances used to neutralize excess stomach acid Antacids neutralize
1HCl2. Some antacids are mixtures of aluminum hydroxide and mag- excess stomach acid.
nesium hydroxide. These hydroxides are not very soluble in water, so
the levels of available OH - are not damaging to the intestinal tract.
However, aluminum hydroxide has the side effects of producing con-
stipation and binding phosphate in the intestinal tract, which may
cause weakness and loss of appetite. Magnesium hydroxide has a
laxative effect. These side effects are less likely when a combination
of the antacids is used.
Al1OH231s2 + 3HCl1aq2 h 3H2O1l2 + AlCl31aq2

Mg1OH221s2 + 2HCl1aq2 h 2H2O1l2 + MgCl21aq2 The neutralizing substances in some antacid preparations are
given in Table 10.7.
Some antacids use calcium carbonate to neutralize excess stom-
ach acid. About 10% of the calcium is absorbed into the bloodstream,
where it elevates the levels of serum calcium. Calcium carbonate is TaBLe 10.7 Basic Compounds in Some Antacids
not recommended for patients who have peptic ulcers or a tendency
antacid Base 1s2
to form kidney stones.
Amphojel Al1OH23
CaCO31s2 + 2HCl1aq2 h CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + CaCl21aq2
Milk of magnesia Mg1OH22
Still other antacids contain sodium bicarbonate. This type of ant- Mylanta, Maalox, Di-Gel, Gelusil, Riopan Mg1OH22, Al1OH23
acid has a tendency to increase blood pH and elevate sodium levels in
the body fluids. It also is not recommended in the treatment of peptic Bisodol, Rolaids CaCO3, Mg1OH22
ulcers. Titralac, Tums, Pepto-Bismol CaCO3
NaHCO31s2 + HCl1aq2 h CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + NaCl1aq2 Alka-Seltzer NaHCO3, KHCO3

10.6 reactions of acids and Bases
learning goal Write balanced equations for reactions of 10.46 Balance each of the following neutralization equations:
acids and bases; calculate the molarity or volume of an acid a. HNO31aq2 + Ba1OH221s2 h H2O1l2 + Ba1NO3221aq2
from titration information. b. H2SO41aq2 + Al1OH231aq2 h
H2O1l2 + Al21SO4231aq2
10.43 Complete and balance the equation for each of the following
10.47 Write a balanced equation for the neutralization of each of the
reactions:
following:
a. ZnCO31s2 + HBr1aq2 h
a. H2SO41aq2 and NaOH1aq2
b. Zn1s2 + HCl1aq2 h
b. HCl1aq2 and Fe1OH231s2
c. HCl1aq2 + NaHCO31s2 h
c. H2CO31aq2 and Mg1OH221s2
d. H2SO41aq2 + Mg1OH221s2 h
10.48 Write a balanced equation for the neutralization of each of the
10.44 Complete and balance the equation for each of the following
following:
reactions:
a. H3PO41aq2 and NaOH1aq2
a. KHCO31s2 + HCl1aq2 h
b. HI1aq2 and LiOH1aq2
b. Ca1s2 + H2SO41aq2 h
c. HNO31aq2 and Ca1OH221s2
c. H2SO41aq2 + Ca1OH221s2 h
d. Na 2CO31s2 + H2SO41aq2 h 10.49 What is the molarity of a solution of HCl if 5.00 mL is titrated
with 28.6 mL of a 0.145 M NaOH solution?
10.45 Balance each of the following neutralization equations:
a. HCl1aq2 + Mg1OH221s2 h H2O1l2 + MgCl21aq2 HCl1aq2 + NaOH1aq2 h H2O1l2 + NaCl1aq2
b. H3PO41aq2 + LiOH1aq2 h H2O1l2 + Li3PO41aq2
10.7 Buffers 349
10.50 What is the molarity of the acetic acid solution if 29.7 mL of a 10.52 If 32.8 mL of a 0.162 M NaOH solution is required to titrate
0.205 M KOH solution is required to neutralize 25.0 mL of a 25.0 mL of a solution of H2SO4, what is the molarity of the
solution of HC2H3O2? H2SO4 solution?
HC2H3O21aq2 + KOH1aq2 h H2O1l2 + KC2H3O21aq2 H2SO41aq2 + 2NaOH1aq2 h 2H2O1l2 + Na 2SO41aq2
10.51 If 38.2 mL of a 0.163 M KOH solution is required to titrate
25.0 mL of a solution of H2SO4, what is the molarity of the
H2SO4 solution?
H2SO41aq2 + 2KOH1aq2 h 2H2O1l2 + K2SO41aq2
10.7 Buffers learning goal
The pH of water and most solutions changes drastically when a small amount of acid or Describe the role of buffers in main-
base is added. However, when an acid or base is added to a buffer solution, there is little taining the pH of a solution.
change in pH. A buffer solution maintains pH by neutralizing small amounts of added
acid or base. For example, blood contains buffers that maintain a consistent pH of about
7.4. If the pH of the blood goes slightly above or below 7.4, changes in oxygen levels
and metabolic processes can be drastic enough to cause death. Even though we obtain
acids and bases from foods and cellular reactions, the buffers in the body absorb those
compounds so effectively that the pH of the blood remains essentially unchanged 1see
Figure 10.72.
Figure 10.7 N Adding an acid or a base to

water changes the pH drastically, but a buffer
resists pH change when small amounts of acid or
pH base are added.
Q Why does the pH change several pH units
+ when acid is added to water, but not when
O
H3 acid is added to a buffer?
Add
pH OH -
H 2O
pH
pH
+
O
H3
Add
pH OH -
Buffer
pH
In a buffer, an acid must be present to react with any OH - that is added, and a base
must be available to react with any added H3O + . However, that acid and base must not
neutralize each other. Therefore, a combination of an acidbase conjugate pair is used to
prepare a buffer. Most buffer solutions consist of nearly equal concentrations of a weak
acid and a salt containing its conjugate base 1see Figure 10.82. Buffers may also contain a
weak base and a salt containing its conjugate acid.
HC2H3O2 C2H3O2-
HC2H3O2 C2H3O2-
C2H3O2- HC2H3O2
H 3O + OH -
Weak acid Conjugate base Weak acid Conjugate base Weak acid Conjugate base
Figure 10.8 N The buffer described here consists of about equal concentrations of ace-
tic acid 1HC2H3O22 and its conjugate base, acetate ion 1C2H3O2 - 2. Adding H3O + to the
buffer reacts with C2H3O2 - , whereas adding OH - neutralizes HC2H3O2. The pH of the
solution is maintained as long as the added amounts of acid or base are small compared
to the concentrations of the buffer components.
Q How does this acetic acidacetate ion buffer maintain pH?
For example, a typical buffer can be made from the weak acid, acetic acid 1HC2H3O22,
and its salt, sodium acetate 1NaC2H3O22. As a weak acid, acetic acid ionizes slightly in
water to form H3O + and a small amount of C2H3O2 -. The addition of its salt provides a
much larger concentration of the acetate ion 1C2H3O2-2, which is necessary for its buffer-
ing capability.
HC2H3O21aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + C2H3O2 - 1aq2
h
Large amount Large amount
We can now describe how this buffer solution maintains the 3H3O+ 4. When a small
amount of acid is added, it combines with the acetate ion, C2H3O2 - , causing the equilib-
rium to shift in the direction of HC2H3O2. There will be a slight decrease in 3C2H3O2- 4
and a slight increase in 3HC2H3O24; thus both 3H3O+ 4 and pH are maintained.
HC2H3O21aq2 + H2O1l2 H3O+ 1aq2 + C2H3O2- 1aq2
h
Equilibrium shifts in the

direction of the reactants
If a small amount of base is added to this buffer solution, it is neutralized by the acetic
acid, HC2H3O2. The equilibrium shifts in the direction of the products, water and C2H3O2 - .
The 3HC2H3O24 decreases slightly and the 3C2H3O2 - 4 increases slightly, but again the

3H3O+ 4 and the pH of the solution are maintained 1see Figure 10.82.
HC2H3O21aq2 + OH - 1aq2 h H2O1l2 + C2H3O2 - 1aq2
direction of the products
SaMple probleM 10.13 identifying Buffer solutions

Indicate whether each of the following would make a buffer solution:
a. HCl, a strong acid, and NaCl
b. H3PO4, a weak acid
c. HF, a weak acid, and NaF
soLuTion
a. No. A buffer requires a weak acid and a salt containing its conjugate base.
b. No. A weak acid is part of a buffer, but the salt containing the conjugate base of the
weak acid is also needed.
c. Yes. This mixture would be a buffer since it contains a weak acid and a salt containing
its conjugate base.
sTudy CheCk 10.13

In a buffer made from the weak acid HCHO2 and its salt, KCHO2, when H3O+ is added,
is it neutralized by 112 the salt, 122 H2O, 132 OH - , or 142 the acid?
10.7 Buffers 351

buffers in the blood
In the body, the concentration of carbonic acid is closely associated
The arterial blood has a normal pH of 7.35 to 7.45. If changes in
H3O + lower the pH below 6.8 or raise it above 8.0, cells cannot with the partial pressure of CO2. Table 10.8 lists the normal values
for arterial blood. If the CO2 level increases, it produces more H2CO3
function properly and death may result. In our cells, CO2 is continu-
and more H3O + , lowering the pH. This condition is called acidosis.
ally produced as an end product of cellular metabolism. Some CO2 is
Difficulty with ventilation or gas diffusion can lead to respiratory aci-
carried to the lungs for elimination, and the rest dissolves in body
dosis, which can happen in emphysema or when the medulla of the
fluids such as plasma and saliva, forming carbonic acid. As a weak
acid, carbonic acid ionizes to give bicarbonate, HCO3- , and H3O + .
brain is affected by an accident or depressive drugs.
More of the anion HCO3- is supplied by the kidneys to give an A decrease in the CO2 level leads to a high blood pH, a condition
important buffer system in the body fluid: the H2CO3 >HCO3-
called alkalosis. Excitement, trauma, or a high temperature may
buffer. cause a person to hyperventilate, which expels large amounts of CO2.
As the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood falls below normal,
CO21g2 + H2O1l2 H2CO31aq2 + H2O1l2 H3O+1aq2H+ CO
HCO -
3 1aq2 +
2 3 forms CO2 and H2O, decreasing the 3H3O 4 and raising
+ - thepH. Table 10.9 lists some of the conditions that lead to changes in
g2 + H2O1l2 H2CO31aq2 + H2O1l2 H3O 1aq2 + HCO3 1aq2
the blood pH and some possible treatments. The kidneys also regu-
+
Excess H3O entering the body fluids reacts with the HCO3- and late H3O+ and HCO3- components, but more slowly than the adjust-
excess OH - reacts with the carbonic acid. ment made by the lungs through ventilation.
H2CO31aq2 + H2O1l2 H3O+ 1aq2 + HCO3- 1aq2
h
TaBLe 10.8 Normal Values for Blood Buffer in Arterial Blood
direction of the reactants PCO2 40 mmHg
H2CO31aq2 + OH - 1aq2 h H2O1l2 + HCO3- 1aq2 H2CO3 2.4 mmoles>L of plasma

Equilibrium shifts in HCO3- 24 mmoles>L of plasma
the direction of the products
pH 7.35 to 7.45
TaBLe 10.9 Acidosis and Alkalosis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments

respiratory acidosis: Co2 ph
S
S
symptoms: Failure to ventilate, suppression of breathing, disorientation, weakness, coma

Causes: Lung disease blocking gas diffusion 1e.g., emphysema, pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma2; depression
of respiratory center by drugs, cardiopulmonary arrest, stroke, poliomyelitis, or nervous system
disorders
Treatment: Correction of disorder, infusion of bicarbonate
Metabolic acidosis: h+ ph
S
S
symptoms: Increased ventilation, fatigue, confusion

Causes: Renal disease, including hepatitis and cirrhosis; increased acid production in diabetes mellitus,
hyperthyroidism, alcoholism, and starvation; loss of alkali in diarrhea; acid retention in renal
failure
Treatment: Sodium bicarbonate given orally, dialysis for renal failure, insulin treatment for diabetic ketosis
respiratory alkalosis: Co2 ph
S
symptoms: Increased rate and depth of breathing, numbness, light-headedness, tetany

Causes: Hyperventilation because of anxiety, hysteria, fever, exercise; reaction to drugs such as salicylate,
quinine, and antihistamines; conditions causing hypoxia 1e.g., pneumonia, pulmonary edema,
heart disease2
Treatment: Elimination of anxiety-producing state, rebreathing into a paper bag
Metabolic alkalosis: h+ ph
S
symptoms: Depressed breathing, apathy, confusion

Causes: Vomiting, diseases of the adrenal glands, ingestion of excess alkali
Treatment: Infusion of saline solution, treatment of underlying diseases

10.7 Buffers
learning goal Describe the role of buffers in maintain- d. When H3O+ is added, the equilibrium shifts in the direction
ing the pH of a solution. of the:
1. reactants 2. products
10.53 Which of the following represents a buffer system? Explain.
3. does not change
a. NaOH and NaCl b. H2CO3 and NaHCO3
c. HF and KF d. KCl and NaCl 10.56 Consider the buffer system of nitrous acid, HNO2, and its salt,
NaNO2.
10.54 Which of the following represents a buffer system? Explain.
a. H3PO3 b. NaNO3 HNO21aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + NO2 -1aq2
h
c. HC2H3O2 and NaC2H3O2 d. HCl and NaOH
a. The purpose of this buffer system is to:
10.55 Consider the buffer system of hydrofluoric acid, HF, and its salt, NaF.
1. maintain 3 HNO2 4 2. maintain 3NO -
2 4
HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + F - 1aq2
h 3. maintain pH
b. The weak acid is needed to:
a. The purpose of this buffer system is to: 1. provide the conjugate base
1. maintain 3 HF 4 2. maintain 3 F - 4 2. neutralize added OH -
3. maintain pH 3. provide the conjugate acid
b. The salt of the weak acid is needed to: c. If H3O+ is added, it is neutralized by:
1. provide the conjugate base 1. the salt 2. H2O
2. neutralize added H3O+ 3. OH -
3. provide the conjugate acid d. When OH - is added, the equilibrium shifts in the direction
c. If OH - is added, it is neutralized by: of the:
1. the salt 2. H2O 1. reactants 2. products
3. H3O+ 3. does not change
ConCept Map
ACIDS AND BASES AND EQUILIBRIUM

undergo
Acid Base Dissociation of H2O Neutralization
is a is a gives to form
H+ Donor H+ Acceptor H 3O + OH Salt and Water
100% small % small % 100 % gives product of a
Strong Weak Weak Strong log 3 H3O+4 Kw = 3 H3O+4 3 OH4 Weak

Acid Acid Base Base Acid or
is Base
involves
pH with its
Reversible Reactions
conjugate
forms a
that reach
Buffer
Equilibrium
to
adjusts for change maintain
in concentration
pH
Le Chteliers
Principle
Chapter Review 353
Chapter review
10.1 acids and Bases NaOH1s2 In pure water, the molar concentrations of
learning goal Describe and H3O+ and OH - are each 1.0 * 10 -7 M.
H 3O + OH-
name acids and bases; identify The ion product constant for water,
BrnstedLowry acids and bases. Kw = 3H3O+ 4 3OH - 4 = 1.0 * 10 -14 at
- OH -
+ + - + 25 C.
An Arrhenius acid produces H + and -
+
+ Na+
In acidic solutions, the 3H3O+ 4 is greater than
+ -
an Arrhenius base produces OH - in + -
-
aqueous solutions.
-
+
-
-
+
Water the 3OH - 4.
3H3O+4 = 3OH-4
Acids taste sour, may sting, and NaOH1s2
HO
Na+1aq2 + OH -1aq2
2 In basic solutions, the 3OH - 4 is greater than
Neutral solution
neutralize bases. Ionic Dissociation Hydroxide the 3H3O+ 4.
compound ion
Bases taste bitter, feel slippery, and
neutralize acids. 10.5 The ph scale
Acids containing a simple anion use a hydro prefix, whereas acids learning goal
with oxygen-containing polyatomic anions are named as ic or ous Calculate the pH of a solution from
acids. 3H3O +4; given the pH, calculate 3H3O +4.
According to the BrnstedLowry theory, acids are H + donors and The pH scale is a range of numbers typi-
bases are H + acceptors. cally from 0 to 14, which represents the
A conjugate acidbase pair is related by the loss or gain of one H + . 3H3O+4 of the solution.
For example, when the acid HF donates H + , the F - is its conjugate A neutral solution has a pH of 7.0. In
base. The other acidbase pair would be H3O+ >H2O. acidic solutions, the pH is below 7.0; in basic solutions, the pH is
HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + F - 1aq2
h
above 7.0.
Mathematically, pH is the negative logarithm of the hydronium ion
10.2 strengths of acids and Bases concentration, pH = - log3H3O+ 4.
learning goal Write equations for the
ionization of acids and bases. HC2H3O2
1M 10.6 reactions of acids and Bases
Strong acids ionize completely in water, and the learning goal Write balanced
H + is accepted by H2O acting as a base. equations for reactions of acids and
A weak acid ionizes slightly in water, producing bases; calculate the molarity or volume
only a small percentage of H3O+ . - of an acid from titration information.
Strong bases are hydroxides of Groups 1A 112 An acid reacts with a metal to produce
and 2A 122 that dissociate completely in water. +
hydrogen gas and a salt.
An important weak base is ammonia, NH3. The reaction of an acid with a carbonate
or bicarbonate produces carbon dioxide,
10.3 acidBase equilibrium water, and a salt.
learning goal Use the 3Reactants4 decrease
In neutralization, an acid reacts with a
concept of reversible reactions to base to produce water and a salt.

explain acidbase equilibrium. In a titration, an acid sample is neutralized with a known amount of
Use Le Chteliers principle to Equilibrium
a base.
determine the effect on equilib- From the volume and molarity of the base, the concentration of the
rium concentrations when acid is calculated.
reaction conditions change. 3Products4 increase
Chemical equilibrium occurs in a Time

10.7 Buffers
reversible reaction when the rate
learning goal Describe
of the forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of the reverse HC2H3O2 C 2H 3O 2-
the role of buffers in maintain-
reaction.
ing the pH of a solution.
At equilibrium, no further change occurs in the concentrations of the
A buffer solution resists
reactants and products as the forward and reverse reactions continue.
changes in pH when small
When reactants are removed or products are added to an equilib-
amounts of an acid or a base are
rium mixture, the system shifts in the direction of the reactants to
added.
reestablish equilibrium.
A buffer contains either a weak
When reactants are added or products are removed from an equi-
acid and its salt or a weak base and its salt.
librium mixture, the system shifts in the direction of the products
In a buffer, the weak acid reacts with added OH - , and the anion of
to reestablish equilibrium.
the salt reacts with added H3O+ .
10.4 ionization of Water
learning goal Use the ion product for water to calcu-
late the 3H3O + 4 and 3OH - 4 in an aqueous solution.
In pure water, a few water molecules transfer H + to other water
molecules, producing small, but equal, amounts of H3O+ and OH - .
354 Chapter 10 Acids and Bases and Equilibrium
Key Terms
acid A substance that dissolves in water and produces hydrogen ions equilibrium The point at which the rate of forward and reverse
1H + 2, according to the Arrhenius theory. All acids are hydrogen reactions are equal so that no further change in concentrations of
ion 1H + 2 donors, according to the BrnstedLowry theory. reactants and products takes place.
acidosis A physiological condition in which the blood pH is lower hydronium ion The ion formed by the attraction of H + to a H2O
than 7.35. molecule, written as H3O+ .
alkalosis A physiological condition in which the blood pH is higher ion product constant of water, K w The product of 3H3O+ 4 and
than 7.45. 3OH -4 in solution; Kw = 3H3O+43OH -4.
amphoteric Substances that can act as either an acid or a base in Le Chteliers principle When a stress is placed on a system at equi-
water. librium, the system shifts to relieve that stress.
base A substance that dissolves in water and produces hydroxide neutral The term that describes a solution with equal concentrations
ions 1OH - 2 according to the Arrhenius theory. All bases are of H3O+ and OH - .
hydrogen ion 1H + 2 acceptors, according to the BrnstedLowry neutralization A reaction between an acid and a base to form water
theory. and a salt.
BrnstedLowry acids and bases An acid is a hydrogen ion 1H + 2 ph A measure of the 3H3O+ 4 in a solution; pH = - log3H3O+ 4.
donor, and a base is a hydrogen ion 1H + 2 acceptor. strong acid An acid that completely ionizes in water.
buffer solution A solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a strong base A base that completely dissociates in water.
weak base and its conjugate acid that maintains the pH by neu- titration The addition of base to an acid sample to determine the
tralizing added acid or base. concentration of the acid.
conjugate acidbase pair An acid and base that differ by one H + . weak acid An acid that is a poor donor of H + and ionizes only
When an acid donates a hydrogen ion 1H + 2, the product is its slightly in water.
conjugate base, which is capable of accepting a hydrogen ion weak base A base that is a poor acceptor of H + and ionizes only
1H + 2 in the reverse reaction. slightly in water.
Key maTh sKills

The chapter section containing each Key Math Skill is shown in Calculating 3 h3O+ 4 from ph 110.52
parentheses at the end of each heading.
The calculation of 3H3O+ 4 from the pH is done by reversing the pH
Calculating ph from 3 h3O+ 4 110.52 calculation using the negative pH or the inverse log 12nd 10x2.
The pH of a solution is calculated from the negative log of the 3H3O+ 4. 3H3O+4 = 10-pH
pH = - log3H3O+ 4 example: What is the 3H3O+ 4 of a solution with a pH of 4.80?
example: What is the pH of a solution that has answer: 3H3O+4 = 10-pH
3H3O+4 = 2.4 * 10-11 M? = 10 -4.80
2nd xx
2nd 1010 or
=or inv
inv log
log - 4.80
answer: We substitute the given 3H3O+ 4 into the pH equation and
calculate the pH. or
+
pH = - log3H3O 4 = 2nd x x oror- 4.80
2nd 1010 inv
inv log
log
pH = - log32.4 * 10 -114 = 1.6 * 10 -5 M
pH = - 1 - 10.622
pH = 10.62 1Two decimal places equal the 2 SFs
in the 3H3O+ 4 coefficient.2
Core ChemisTry sKills

The chapter section containing each Core Chemistry Skill is shown in example: Identify the conjugate acidbase pairs in the following
parentheses at the end of each heading. reaction:
Identifying Conjugate acidBase pairs 110.12 HSO4- 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h SO42- 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
According to the BrnstedLowry theory, a conjugate acidbase answer: HSO4- 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h SO42- 1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2
h
pair consists of molecules or ions related by the loss of one H + by Acid Base Conjugate base Conjugate acid
an acid, and the gain of one H + by a base.
Every acidbase reaction contains two conjugate acidbase pairs Conjugate acidbase pairs: HSO4- >SO42- , H3O+ >H2O
because an H + is transferred in both the forward and reverse directions.
When an acid such as HF loses one H + , the conjugate base F - is
formed. When H2O acts as a base, it gains an H + , which forms its
conjugate acid, H3O+ .
Understanding the Concepts 355
using Le Chteliers principle 110.32 Writing equations for reactions of acids and Bases
Le Chteliers principle states that when a system at equilibrium is 110.62
disturbed by changes in concentration, the system will shift in the Acids react with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas 1H22 and a
direction that will reduce that stress. salt.
H2S1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H O+ 1aq2 + HS- 1aq2
h
3 Mg1s2 + 2HCl1aq2 h H21g2 + MgCl21aq2
example: For each of the following changes at equilibrium, indicate
whether the system shifts in the direction of products or When an acid is added to a carbonate or bicarbonate, the products
reactants: are carbon dioxide gas, water, and a salt.
a. removing some H2S1aq2 2HCl1aq2 + Na 2CO31aq2 h CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + 2NaCl1aq2
b. adding some H3O+ 1aq2 Acid Carbonate Carbon Water Salt
dioxide
answer: a. Removing a reactant shifts the system in the direction of
the reactants. Neutralization is a reaction between a strong or a weak acid with a
b. Adding a product shifts the system in the direction of strong base to produce water and a salt.
the reactants. HCl1aq2 + NaOH1aq2 h H2O1l2 + NaCl1aq2
Acid Base Water Salt
Calculating 3 h3o+ 4 and 3 oh 4 in solutions 110.42
example: Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of
For all aqueous solutions, the product of 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH - 4 is
equal to the ion product constant of water, Kw. ZnCO31s2 and hydrobromic acid HBr1aq2.
+
Kw = 3H3O 43OH 4 - answer: ZnCO31s2 + 2HBr1aq2 h CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + ZnBr21aq2
- +
Because pure water contains equal numbers of OH ions and H3O
Calculating Molarity or Volume of an acid or Base in a
ions each with molar concentrations of 1.0 * 10 -7 M, the numeri-
Titration 110.62
cal value of Kw is 1.0 * 10 -14 at 25 C.
In a titration, a measured volume of acid is neutralized by a basic
Kw = 3H3O+ 43OH - 4 = 31.0 * 10 -7431.0 * 10 -74
solution of known molarity.
= 1.0 * 10 -14 From the measured volume of the strong base solution required for
If we know the 3H3O+ 4 of a solution, we can use the Kw to calculate titration and its molarity, the number of moles of base, the moles of
the 3OH - 4. If we know the 3OH - 4 of a solution, we can calculate acid, and the concentration of the acid are calculated.
3H3O+4 using the Kw. example: A 15.0-mL 10.0150 L2 sample of an H2SO4 solution is
-
Kw +
Kw titrated with 24.0 mL of a 0.245 M NaOH solution. What is
3OH 4 = 3H3O 4 =
the molarity of the H2SO4 solution?
3H3O 4 +
3OH -4
H2SO41aq2 + 2NaOH1aq2 h 2H2O1l2 + Na 2SO41aq2
example: What is the 3OH - 4 in a solution that has
+
3H3O 4 = 2.4 * 10 -11
M? Is the solution acidic or basic? 1 L NaOH solution
answer: 24.0 mL NaOH solution *
1000 mL NaOH solution
answer: We solve the Kw expression for 3OH - 4 and substitute in the
0.245 mole NaOH 1 mole H2SO4
known values of Kw and 3H3O + 4. * * = 0.00294 mole of H2SO4
1 L NaOH solution 2 moles NaOH
Kw 1.0 * 10 -14
3OH -4 = + 3OH - 4 = = 4.2 * 10 -4 M 0.00294 mole H2SO4
3H3O 4 32.4 * 10-114 = 0.196 M H2SO4 solution
0.0150 L H2SO4 solution
-
Because the 3OH 4 is greater than the 3H3O + 4, this is a basic solution.
underStanding the ConCeptS

The chapter sections to review are shown in parentheses at the end of 10.60 Complete the following table: 110.12
each question.
Base Conjugate acid
10.57 Identify each of the following as an acid or a base: 110.12
a. H2SO4 b. RbOH HS-
c. Ca1OH22 d. HI H3O +
10.58 Identify each of the following as an acid or a base: 110.12 NH3
a. Sr1OH22 b. H2SO3
HCO3-
c. HC2H3O2 d. CsOH
10.59 Complete the following table: 110.12 10.61 State whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic,
or neutral: 110.52
acid Conjugate Base
a. rain, pH 5.2 b. tears, pH 7.5
H2O c. tea, pH 3.8 d. cola, pH 2.5
CN - e. photo developer, pH 12.0
HNO2
H2PO4 -
10.62 State whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic, 10.65 Sometimes, during stress or trauma, a person can start to
or neutral: 110.52 hyperventilate. To avoid fainting, a person might breathe into a
a. saliva, pH 6.8 b. urine, pH 5.9 paper bag to avoid fainting. 110.72
c. pancreatic juice, pH 8.0 d. bile, pH 8.4 a. What changes occur in the blood pH during
e. blood, pH 7.45 hyperventilation?
10.63 Determine if each of the following diagrams represents a strong b. How does breathing into a paper bag help return blood pH
acid or a weak acid. The acid has the formula HX. 110.22 to normal?
HX HX
HX X - H 3O +
HX H 3O + X -
HX
H3O+ HX X- H O+
3
H 3O +
X- + X-
HX HX H 3O -
X
A B
10.64 Adding a few drops of a strong acid to water will lower the pH Breathing into a paper bag
appreciably. However, adding the same number of drops to a can help a person who is
buffer does not appreciably alter the pH. Explain. 110.72 hyperventilating.
10.66 In the blood plasma, pH is maintained by the carbonic acid

bicarbonate buffer system. 110.72
a. How is pH maintained when acid is added to the buffer
system?
b. How is pH maintained when base is added to the buffer
system?
pH = pH = pH = pH =
7.0 3.0 7.0 6.9
Water Buffer
additional QueStionS and probleMS

10.67 Identify each of the following as an acid, a base, or a salt, and 10.71 Use Le Chteliers principle to predict if each the following
give its name: 110.12 changes causes the system to shift in the direction of products
a. LiOH b. Ca1NO322 c. HBr or reactants: 110.32
d. Ba1OH22 e. H2CO3 H2S1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + HS- 1aq2
h
10.68 Identify each of the following as an acid, a base, or a salt, and a. adding some H2S1aq2 b. removing some HS- 1aq2
give its name: 110.12 c. adding some H3O+ 1aq2 d. removing some H2S1aq2
a. H3PO4 b. MgBr2 c. NH3
d. HClO2 e. NaCl 10.72 Use Le Chteliers principle to predict if each the following
changes causes the system to shift in the direction of products
10.69 Using Table 10.3, identify the stronger acid in each of the fol- or reactants: 110.32
lowing pairs: 110.22
a. HF or HCN b. H3O+ or H2S HClO1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + ClO- 1aq2
h
c. HNO2 or HC2H3O2 d. H2O or HCO3- a. removing some HClO1aq2 b. adding some ClO- 1aq2
10.70 Using Table 10.3, identify the weaker acid in each of the fol- c. removing some H3O+ 1aq2 d. adding some HClO1aq2
lowing pairs: 110.22 10.73 Determine the pH for the following solutions: 110.52
a. HNO2 or H2CO3 b. HF or HCO3- a. 3H3O+ 4 = 1.0 * 10 -8 M
-
c. HBr or HSO4 d. NH4+ or H3PO4 b. 3H3O+ 4 = 5.0 * 10 -2 M
c. 3OH - 4 = 3.5 * 10 -4 M
d. 3OH - 4 = 0.005 M
Challenge Questions 357
10.74 Determine the pH for the following solutions: 110.52 10.81 A buffer is made by dissolving H3PO4 and NaH2PO4 in water.
a. 3OH - 4 = 1.0 * 10 -7 M 110.72
b. 3H3O+ 4 = 4.2 * 10 -3 M a. Write an equation that shows how this buffer neutralizes
added acid.
c. 3H3O+ 4 = 0.0001 M
b. Write an equation that shows how this buffer neutralizes
d. 3OH - 4 = 8.5 * 10 -9 M added base.
10.75 Identify each of the solutions in problem 10.73 as acidic, basic, 10.82 A buffer is made by dissolving HC2H3O2 and NaC2H3O2 in
or neutral. 110.52 water. 110.72
10.76 Identify each of the solutions in problem 10.74 as acidic, basic, a. Write an equation that shows how this buffer neutralizes
or neutral. 110.52 added acid.
10.77 Calculate the 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH - 4 for a solution with the b. Write an equation that shows how this buffer neutralizes
following pH values: 110.52 added base.
a. 3.0 b. 6.00 c. 8.0 10.83 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of a 0.150 M NaOH solution
d. 11.0 e. 9.20 needed to neutralize each of the following: 110.62
10.78 Calculate the 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH - 4 for a solution with the a. 25.0 mL of a 0.288 M HCl solution
following pH values: 110.52 b. 10.0 mL of a 0.560 M H2SO4 solution
a. 10.0 b. 5.0 c. 7.00 c. 5.00 mL of a 0.618 M HBr solution
d. 6.5 e. 1.82 10.84 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of a 0.215 M KOH solution
10.79 Solution A has a pH of 4.0, and solution B has a pH of 6.0. needed to neutralize each of the following: 110.62
110.52 a. 2.50 mL of a 0.825 M H2SO4 solution
a. Which solution is more acidic? b. 18.5 mL of a 0.560 M HNO3 solution
b. What is the 3H3O+ 4 in each? c. 5.00 mL of a 3.18 M HCl solution
c. What is the 3OH - 4 in each? 10.85 A 0.205 M NaOH solution is used to titrate 20.0 mL of a
10.80 Solution X has a pH of 9.0, and solution Y has a pH of 7.0. solution of H2SO4. If 45.6 mL of the NaOH solution is
110.52 required, what is the molarity of the H2SO4 solution? 110.62
a. Which solution is more acidic? H2SO41aq2 + 2NaOH1aq2 h 2H2O1l2 + Na 2SO41aq2
b. What is the 3H3O+ 4 in each? 10.86 A 10.0-mL sample of vinegar, which is an aqueous solution of
c. What is the 3OH - 4 in each? acetic acid, HC2H3O2, requires 16.5 mL of a 0.500 M NaOH
solution to reach the endpoint in a titration. What is the molar-
ity of the acetic acid solution? 110.62
HC2H3O21aq2 + NaOH1aq2 h H2O1l2 + NaC2H3O21aq2
Challenge QueStionS
The following groups of questions are related to the topics in this 10.92 Complete and balance each of the following: 110.62
chapter. However, they do not all follow the chapter order, and they a. H3PO41aq2 + Ca1OH221s2 h
require you to combine concepts and skills from several sections. These b. KHCO31s2 + HNO31aq2 h
questions will help you increase your critical thinking skills and prepare 10.93 Determine each of the following for a 0.050 M KOH solution:
for your next exam. 110.5, 10.62
a. 3H3O+ 4
10.87 For each of the following: 110.22
b. pH
1. H2S 2. H3PO4
c. the balanced chemical equation for the reaction with H2SO4
a. Write the formula for the conjugate base.
d. milliliters of the KOH solution required to neutralize
b. Which is the weaker acid 11 or 22?
40.0mL of a 0.035 M H2SO4 solution
10.88 For each of the following: 110.22
10.94 Determine each of the following for a 0.100 M HBr solution:
1. HCO -3 2. H2O
110.5, 10.62
a. Write the formula for the conjugate base.
a. 3H3O+ 4
b. Which is the weaker acid 11 or 22?
b. pH
10.89 Identify the conjugate acidbase pairs in each of the following c. the balanced chemical equation for the reaction with LiOH
equations: 110.12 d. milliliters of the HBr solution required to neutralize
a. NH31aq2 + HNO31aq2 h NH + -
4 1aq2 + NO3 1aq2 36.0mL of a 0.250 M LiOH solution
+ -
b. H2O1l2 + HBr1aq2 h H3O 1aq2 + Br 1aq2
10.95 A 0.204 M NaOH solution is used to titrate 50.0 mL of an
10.90 Identify the conjugate acidbase pairs in each of the following H3PO4 solution. 110.62
equations: 110.12 a. Write the balanced chemical equation.
a. HNO21aq2 + HS- 1aq2 h NO2 - 1aq2 + H2S1g2
h
b. What is the molarity of the H3PO4 solution if 16.4 mL of
b. HCl1aq2 + OH - 1aq2 h Cl - 1aq2 + H2O1l2 the NaOH solution is required?
10.91 Complete and balance each of the following: 110.62 10.96 A 0.312 M KOH solution is used to titrate 15.0 mL of an
a. ZnCO31s2 + H2SO41aq2 h H2SO4 solution. 110.62
b. Al1s2 + HCl1aq2 h a. Write the balanced chemical equation.
b. What is the molarity of the H2SO4 solution if 28.2 mL of
the KOH solution is required?
10.97 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of a 0.250 M LiOH a. What are the 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH - 4 of Little Echo Pond?
solution that will completely neutralize each of the following: b. What are the 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH - 4 of a lake that has a pH
110.62 of 6.5?
a. 38.5 mL of a 0.150 M H3PO4 solution c. One way to raise the pH 1and restore aquatic life2 is to
b. 15.0 mL of a 0.420 M H2SO4 solution add limestone 1CaCO32. How many grams of CaCO3 are
10.98 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of a 0.215 M NaOH needed to neutralize 1.0 kL of the acidic water from Little
solution that will completely neutralize each of the following: Echo Pond if the acid is sulfuric acid?
110.62 H2SO41aq2 + CaCO31s2 h CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + CaSO41aq2
a. 3.80 mL of a 1.25 M HNO3 solution
10.100 The daily output of stomach acid 1gastric juice2 is 1000 mL
b. 8.50 mL of a 0.825 M H3PO4 solution
to 2000 mL. Prior to a meal, stomach acid 1HCl2 typically
10.99 One of the most acidic lakes in the United States is Little has a pH of 1.42. 110.5, 10.62
Echo Pond in the Adirondacks in New York. Recently, this a. What is the 3H3O+ 4 of stomach acid?
lake had a pH of 4.2, well below the recommended pH of 6.5. b. One chewable tablet of the antacid Maalox contains
110.5, 10.62 600. mg of CaCO3. Write the neutralization equation,
and calculate the milliliters of stomach acid neutralized
by two tablets of Maalox.
c. The antacid milk of magnesia contains 400. mg of
Mg1OH22 per teaspoon. Write the neutralization equation,
and calculate the number of milliliters of stomach acid
neutralized by one tablespoon of milk of magnesia
1one tablespoon = three teaspoons2.
A helicopter drops
calcium carbonate
on an acidic lake to
increase its pH.
anSwerS
answers to study Checks 10.3 a. hydrochloric acid b. calcium hydroxide
H 2O c. carbonic acid d. nitric acid
10.1 LiOH1s2 h Li + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2 e. sulfurous acid f. bromous acid
10.2 HNO31aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O+ 1aq2 + NO3 - 1aq2 10.5 a. Mg1OH22 b. HF
10.3 The conjugate acidbase pairs are HCN>CN - and c. H3PO4 d. LiOH
HSO4- >SO42- . e. NH4OH f. H2SO4
10.4 The double arrow indicates that the reaction is reversible and 10.7 a. HI is the acid 1H + donor2 and H2O is the base 1H + acceptor2.
that at equilibrium the rates of forward and reverse reactions b. H2O is the acid 1H + donor2 and F - is the base 1H + acceptor2.
are equal. 10.9 a. F - b. OH -
10.5 Removing H2CO3 causes the equilibrium to shift in the direc- c. HCO3- d. SO42-
tion of the reactants. 10.11 a. HCO3- b. H3O+
+
10.6 3H3O 4 = 2.5 * 10 -11
M, basic c. H3PO4 d. HBr
10.7 kitchen cleaner 10.13 a. The conjugate acidbase pairs are H2CO3 >HCO3- and
10.8 11.38 H3O+>H2O.
b. The conjugate acidbase pairs are NH 4 +>NH3 and
10.9 3H3O+ 4 = 3 * 10 -5 M H3O +>H2O.
10.10 Ca1s2 + 2HBr1aq2 h H21g2 + CaBr21aq2 c. The conjugate acidbase pairs are HCN>CN - and
10.11 H2SO41aq2 + 2NaHCO31s2 h HNO2 >NO2- .
2CO21g2 + 2H2O1l2 + Na 2SO41aq2 10.15 a. HBr b. HSO4- c. H2CO3
-
10.17 a. HSO4 b. HNO2 c. HCO3 -
10.12 0.200 M HCl solution
10.19 A reversible reaction is one in which a forward reaction con-
10.13 1. the salt
verts reactants to products, whereas a reverse reaction converts
answers to selected Questions and problems products to reactants.
10.21 a. not at equilibrium b. at equilibrium
10.1 a. acid b. acid c. acid
c. at equilibrium
d. base e. both
Answers 359
10.23 a. Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the reactants. 10.63 a. weak acid b. strong acid
b. Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the reactants. 10.65 a. Hyperventilation will lower the CO2 level in the blood,
c. Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the products. which lowers the 3H2CO34, which decreases the 3H3O+ 4
d. Equilibrium shifts in the direction of the products. and increases the blood pH.
10.25 In pure water, 3H3O+ 4 = 3OH - 4 because one of each is pro- b. Breathing into a bag increases the CO2 level, increases the
duced every time an H + transfers from one water molecule to 3H2CO34, and increases the 3H3O+4, which lowers the blood
another. pH.
10.27 In an acidic solution, the 3H3O +4 is greater than the 3OH - 4. 10.67 a. base, lithium hydroxide b. salt, calcium nitrate
10.29 a. acidic b. basic c. acid, hydrobromic acid d. base, barium hydroxide
c. basic d. acidic e. acid, carbonic acid
10.31 a. 1.0 * 10 -3 M b. 5.0 * 10 -6 M 10.69 a. HF b. H3O +
c. 1.8 * 10 -12 M d. 4.0 * 10 -13 M c. HNO2 d. HCO3-
10.33 a. 1.0 * 10 -9 M b. 1.0 * 10 -6 M 10.71 a. System shifts in the direction of the products.
c. 2.0 * 10 -5 M d. 4.0 * 10 -13 M b. System shifts in the direction of the products.
c. System shifts in the direction of the reactants.
10.35 In a neutral solution, the 3H3O + 4 is 1 * 10 -7 M and the pH is
d. System shifts in the direction of the reactants.
7.0, which is the negative value of the power of 10.
10.73 a. 8.00 b. 1.30
10.37 a. basic b. acidic c. basic
c. 10.54 d. 11.7
d. acidic e. acidic f. basic
10.75 a. basic b. acidic
10.39 a. 4.0 b. 8.5 c. 9.0
c. basic d. basic
d. 3.40 e. 7.17 f. 10.92
10.77 a. 3H3O+4 = 1 * 10 -3 M, 3OH - 4 = 1 * 10 -11 M
10.41
acidic, Basic, b. 3H3O+4 = 1.0 * 10 -6 M, 3OH - 4 = 1.0 * 10 -8 M
3 h3o+ 4 3 oh 4 ph or neutral? c. 3H3O+4 = 1 * 10 -8 M, 3OH - 4 = 1 * 10 -6 M
-8
1 * 10 M 1 * 10 -6 M 8.0 Basic d. 3H3O+4 = 1 * 10 -11 M, 3OH - 4 = 1 * 10 -3 M
1 * 10 M -3
1 * 10 -11
M 3.0 Acidic e. 3H3O+4 = 6.3 * 10 -10 M, 3OH - 4 = 1.6 * 10 -5 M
-5 -10 4.7 Acidic 10.79 a. Solution A with a pH of 4.0 is more acidic than solution B.
2 * 10 M 5 * 10 M
b. Solution A: 3H3O+ 4 = 1 * 10 -4 M,
1 * 10 -12 M 1 * 10 -2 M 12.0 Basic Solution B: 3H3O+ 4 = 1 * 10 -6 M
2.4 * 10 M -5
4.2 * 10 -10
M 4.62 Acidic c. Solution A: 3OH - 4 = 1 * 10 -10 M,
Solution B: 3OH - 4 = 1 * 10 -8 M
10.43 a. ZnCO31s2 + 2HBr1aq2 h 10.81 a. Acid added:
CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + ZnBr21aq2 H2PO4-1aq2 + H3O+ 1aq2 h H2O1l2 + H3PO41aq2
b. Zn1s2 + 2HCl1aq2 h H21g2 + ZnCl21aq2 b. Base added:
c. HCl1g2 + NaHCO31s2 h H3PO41aq2 + OH - 1aq2 h H2O1l2 + H2PO4- 1aq2
CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + NaCl1aq2
d. H2SO41aq2 + Mg1OH221s2 h 2H2O1l2 + MgSO41aq2 10.83 a. 48.0 mL
b. 74.7 mL
10.45 a. 2HCl1aq2 + Mg1OH221s2 h 2H2O1l2 + MgCl21aq2 c. 20.6 mL
b. H3PO41aq2 + 3LiOH1aq2 h 3H2O1l2 + Li3PO41aq2
10.85 0.234 M H2SO4 solution
10.47 a. H2SO41aq2 + 2NaOH1aq2 h 2H2O1l2 + Na 2SO41aq2
b. 3HCl1aq2 + Fe1OH231aq2 h 3H2O1l2 + FeCl31aq2 10.87 a. 1. HS- 2. H2PO4 -
c. H2CO31aq2 + Mg1OH221s2 h 2H2O1l2 + MgCO31s2 b. H2S
10.49 0.830 M HCl solution 10.89 a. NH4+ >NH3 and HNO3 >NO3-
b. H3O+ >H2O and HBr>Br -
10.51 0.124 M H2SO4 solution
10.91 a. ZnCO31s2 + H2SO41aq2 h
10.53 b and c are buffer systems; b contains the weak acid H2CO3 and CO21g2 + H2O1l2 + ZnSO41aq2
its salt NaHCO3; c contains HF, a weak acid, and its salt KF. b. 2Al1s2 + 6HCl1aq2 h 3H21g2 + 2AlCl31aq2
10.55 a. 3 b. 1 and 2 10.93 a. 2.0 * 10 -13 M
c. 3 d. 1 b. 12.70
10.57 a. acid b. base c. H2SO41aq2 + 2KOH1aq2 h 2H2O1l2 + K2SO41aq2
c. base d. acid d. 56 mL
10.59 10.95 a. H3PO41aq2 + 3NaOH1aq2 h 3H2O1l2 + Na 3PO41aq2
acid Conjugate Base
-
b. 0.0224 M H3PO4 solution
H2O OH
10.97 a. 69.3 mL of a LiOH solution
HCN CN - b. 50.4 mL of a LiOH solution
HNO2 NO2 -
10.99 a. 3H3O+ 4 = 6 * 10 -5 M; 3OH - 4 = 2 * 10 -10 M

-
H3PO4 H2PO4
b. 3H3O+ 4 = 3 * 10 -7 M; 3OH - 4 = 3 * 10 -8 M
10.61 a. acidic b. basic c. 3 g of CaCO3
c. acidic d. acidic
e. basic

0321933354.pdf - Unknown

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

0321933354.pdf - Unknown

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

10 Acids and Bases

Career Clinical Laboratory Technician

Key Math SKillS Using MoleMole Factors 17.62

Core CheMiStry SKillS

10.1 acids and Bases learning goal

TaBLe 10.1 Names of Common Acids and Their Anions

SaMple probleM 10.1 dissociation of an arrhenius Base

BrnstedLowry acids and Bases

We can write the formation of a hydrochloric acid solution as a transfer of H + from

NH3 + H 2O NH4+ + OH-

Table 10.2 compares some characteristics of acids and bases.

TaBLe 10.2 Some Characteristics of Acids and Bases

SaMple probleM 10.2 acids and Bases

sTudy CheCk 10.2

Core CheMiStry SKill Conjugate acidBase pairs

Base Conjugate acid

H2O>OH - , is related by the loss and gain of one H + .

NH31g2 + H2O1l2 NH4+1aq2 + OH-1aq2

Conjugate acidbase pair

H 3O + H 2O OH- Amphoteric substances act

SaMple probleM 10.3 identifying Conjugate acidBase pairs

QueStionS and probleMS

c. H2CO3 b. CO32- 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h HCO3- 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2

d. HSO 4- c. H3PO41aq2 + NH31aq2 h H2PO4- 1aq2 + NH4+1aq2

learning goal 10.2 strengths of acids and Bases

strong and Weak acids

TaBLe 10.3 Common Strong and Weak Acids

Phosphoric acid H3PO4

HCO3-1aq2 + H2O1l2 H3O+1aq2 + CO32-1aq2

In summary, a strong acid such as HI in water ionizes completely to form an aqueous

Hydrofluoric acid is the only

strong and Weak Bases

Sodium hydroxide, NaOH 1also known as lye2, is used in household products to

NH31g2 + H2O1l2 h NH4 +1aq2 + OH - 1aq2

QueStionS and probleMS

learning goal 10.3 acidBase equilibrium

SaMple probleM 10.4 reversible reactions and equilibrium

sTudy CheCk 10.4

Le Chteliers principle Core CheMiStry SKill

Tank A Tank B Tank A Tank B Tank A Tank B

When water is added to one tank, the levels readjust to equalize.

effect of Concentration Changes on equilibrium

Stress is also placed on a system at equilibrium by changing the concentration of a

In summary, Le Chteliers principle indicates that a stress caused by adding a sub-

TaBLe 10.4 Effect of Concentration Changes on Equilibrium

Chemistry Link to health

SaMple probleM 10.5 effect of Changes in Concentration on equilibrium

sTudy CheCk 10.5

QueStionS and probleMS

learning goal 10.4 ionization of Water

Conjugate acidbase pair

Conjugate acidbase pair

Writing the ion product Constant for Water, Kw

neutral, acidic, and Basic solutions

using the Kw to Calculate 3 h3o+ 4 and 3 oh 4 in a solution

Core CheMiStry SKill

sTudy CheCk 10.6

QueStionS and probleMS

learning goal 10.5 The ph scale

2 Lemon juice 2.2

Neutral Water 1pure2 7.0

Bile 8.0Detergents 8.09.0

Figure 10.4 N On the pH scale,

1a2 1b2 1c2