CARBOHYDRATES (Written Report by Az Grace Mola Duran)

Etymology. From carbo-, combination form of carbon, + hydrate (n.), denoting a compound produced when certain substances combine with water,
from Greek hydor "water". (1851) The name carbohydrate was given to these compounds because, in composition, they are
apparently hydrates of carbon. In structure, however, they are far more complex.

Carbohydrates are compounds composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen arranged as monosaccharides or multiples of monosaccharides. They
have a ratio of one carbon molecule to one water molecule.

Sugars and starches are produced in plants by the process of photosynthesis. 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
+ 6O2

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

According to Complexity of the molecules and the no. of sugar units:

Monosaccharides and simple sugar are the simplest forms of carbohydrates (CHOs) that cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler compounds. Hexoses
and pentoses have nutritional significance.

1. Glucose- the bodys major fuel to provide energy; formed in the body from starch digestion; also known physiologic fuel; found in
dextrose, grape sugar, and corn sugar.
2. Fructose- fruit sugar; sweetest of the simple sugars; also known as levulose
3. Galactose- milk-sugar; synthesized in mammary glands; not found in free state in nature.

Pentoses (ribose and ribulose) are found in nucleic acids of meat and seafoods in bound form. In the body, they are important component of
coenzymes (e.g. ATP, FAD, and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA.

Disaccharides refer to two monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds such as in the cases of sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
1. Sucrose, like glucose and fructose, are found in cane and beet sugar, molasses, pineapple, and carrots.
2. Lactose such as glucose and galactose are found in milk.
3. Maltose like glucose and glucose are found in malt and germinating cereals, starch, and hydrolysis.

Oligosaccharides are made of less than 15 monosaccharide units.

Polysaccharides refer to complex carbohydrates with (>15) monosaccharide units. Examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, several forms
of dietary fibers, and dextrins.

1. Starch yields glucose upon hydrolysis and is made up of two chief portions, namely amylase and amylopectin.
a. Amylose are straight chained and soluble components.
b. Amylopectin refers to the branched orderly and crystalline portion.

2. Glycogens are highly branched, tree-like, structured animal polysaccharide. They are formed in the body from glucose and are stored in the
liver and muscle.
3. Dextrins are intermediate products of starch digestion and are more soluble and shorter than glucose units.
4. Cellulose refers to the indigestible polysaccharide that is resistant to the digestive enzymes of man and contributes bulk to the diet.
5. Hemicellulose refers to insoluble or soluble polysaccharides of various monosaccharides with branching chains.
6. Pectins pertain to indigestible but soluble fiber that highly absorbs water.
7. Lignins are tough nonpolysaccharide fibers.
8. Gums and mucilages refer to noncellulose polysaccharide found in seeds.
9. Algal polysaccharides are polysaccharides found in seaweeds and algae.

Dietary Fibers are the structural parts of plants that are not hydrolyzed by enzymes.
Properties
1. Water holding capacity refers to the ability to hold water.
2. Viscosity is the ability to form a gel.
3. Cation-exchange capacity pertains to the ability to bind minerals.
4. Bile-binding capacity is the ability to bind bile.
5. Solubility pertains to the ability to form a solution in water.
6. Fermentability refers to the extent to which bacteria can break down fibers to short chain fatty acids (SCFAs).

According to Digestibility:
1. Digestible Carbohydrates: Sugars, Starches, Dextrin, and Glycogen
2. Partially Digestible Carbohydrates: Galactogens, Mannosans, Inulin and Pentosans
3. Indigestible Carbohydrates: Cellulose and Hemicellulose
 Solubility, Sources, and Action of Fiber

Type of Fiber Major Food Sources Action in the Body

Soluble Fibers

Gums, Pectins, Fruits (apple, citrus), a. Delay glycemic index transit (benefits digestive
some Hemicelluloses, Oats, Barley,Legumes disorders)
Mucilages b. Delay glucose absorption (benefits diabetes)
c. Lower blood cholesterol (benefits heart disease)

Insoluble Fibers

Cellulose, Wheat Bran, Corn Bran, a. Accelerate glycemic index transit

many Hemicelluloses, Whole-grain bread and cereals, b. Increase fecal weight (promotes bowel movement)
Lignins c. Slow starch Hydrolysis
d. Delay glucose absorption
Vegetables (such as cabbage,
carrots and brussel sprouts)

Source: Whitney, Cataldo, and Rolfes, 2002 Note: These generalizations are useful, but exceptions can occur. For example, example, insoluble rice
bran also lowers blood cholesterol, and the soluble fiber of the psyllium plant effectively promotes bowel movements.

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Energy Source. Approximately 4 kcal/gm for the brain, blood, and the moving muscles.
2. Protein-sparing action. Adequate carbohydrates to meet energy demands promote the use of proteins for synthesis and repair tissues instead as
source of energy.
3. Anti-ketogenic effect. Adequate carbohydrates prevent excess formation of ketones.
4. Control of Fat oxidation. Adequate carbohydrates to meet energy demands prevent oxidation of fats as source of energy.
5. Regulatory. Such as in effects of fiber on bowel movement, blood cholesterol and glucose regulation.
6. Structural. CHOs are vital constituents of body compounds that are vital to metabolism, e.g. galactose and glucose are constituents of brain and
nerve tissues; glucoronic acids are constituents of nucleic acids, matrix of connective tissues.
7. Detoxifying agent. Presence of fiber in the gut stimulates peristalsis thereby promotes cleansing of the gut and removal of toxins.

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Mastication breaks the food into small particles and mixes it with saliva.
2. Salivary amylase acts on starch and begins its breakdown into dextrins and maltose.
3. Pancreatic secretions contain pancreatic amylase. Intestinal secretions contain sucrase, lactase, and maltase that breakdown dextrins and
maltose into monosaccharides, mainly glucose with some fructose and galactose.

UTILIZATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Briefly summarized, starch undergoes digestion in the mouth with the action of salivary amylase forming dextrins and maltose. However, this
conversion is insignificant considering the time food stays in the mouth. Starch digestion occurs mainly in the intestines where pancreatic amylase
converts starch into dextrins, and dextrins into maltose. Intestinal maltase completes the digestion to glucose. The enzymes: sucrose and lactase, of
the small intestines act on sucrose and lactose, respectively.
The simple sugars: glucose, fructose and galactose are activated by phosphorylation to be absorbed through the small intestinal walls. In the cells,
glucose may be anabolized to release energy, water and carbon dioxide. Fructose and galactose are first converted to glucose in the liver with the help
of enzyme systems before they can be useful as energy source. Another source of glucose is from the glycerol portion of fat and from deaminated
amino acids. These processes are catalyzed by enzymes and regulated by hormones.

Glucose enters a series of chemical reactions and the ultimate pathway is known as Krebs cycle or Citric Acid Cycle. Complete oxidation of glucose
results in the release of energy, production of metabolic water and excretion of carbon dioxide. Any excess glucose after fulfilling energy needs will
be converted to body fat, a chemical process called lipogenesis.

Foods containing carbohydrate have a wide range of effects on blood glucose concentration during the time course of digestion (glycemic response),
with some resulting in a rapid rise followed by a rapid fall in blood glucose concentration, and others resulting in a slow extended rise and a slow
extended fall.

The glycemic index and glycemic load concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank
carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity of their effect on blood glucose levels. The insulin index is a similar, more recent classification method
that ranks food based on their effects on blood insulin levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food.

Glycemic index (GI) is a measure of how quickly food glucose is absorbed, while glycemic load (GL) is a measure of the total absorbable glucose
in foods. The GI of food is based on the glucose index -where glucose is set to equal 100. The GL is the glycemic index divided by 100 multiplied by
its available carbohydrate content (i.e. carbohydrates minus fiber) in grams. The serving size (grams) is used for calculating the GL.
ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Glucose and galactose are either absorbable by diffusion or by a sodium-dependent active transport.
2. Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
3. Insulin is a hormone that facilitates the entry of glucose into the cells, except for brain and liver.

METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
Function of Carbohydrates
1. Metabolic fates of Carbohydrates
a. Source of Blood Glucose b. Carbohydrates c. Liver and Muscles glycogen
2. Energy Source
3. Precursor of Fats

Carbohydrate Digestion in the Gastro-intestinal Tract (Whitney, Cataldo, and Rolfes, 2002)

Glucose Homeostasis
After ingesting a meal, blood glucose level increases to about 120-130 mg/dL. Insulin is secreted by the pancreas to attain normal blood glucose level
by favoring synthesis of glycogen and fats. During fasting, blood glucose levels decrease to 70 mg/dL. Glucagon is secreted by the pancreas to
increase blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver.

Other hormones contribute to glucose control:

1. Cortisol is secreted by the adrenal cortex for gluconeogenesis.
2. Epinephrine is secreted by the adrenal medulla for glycogenolysis in the muscle.
3. Growth hormone secreted by pituitary gland and thyroxine secreted by thyroid gland and insulin antagonists.
4. Insulin facilitates entry of glucose into cells.
Metabolic Processes of Blood Glucose Control
1. Glycogenesis is synthesis of glycogen from glucose that takes place in the liver or muscle. Liver stores about 100g; muscles store about
400g.
2. Glycogenolysis refers to the breakdown of glycogen to form glucose; sustains energy needs after 1 day fast.
3. Gluconeogenesis pertains to the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like glycerol from fat, amino acid, and lactate.
4. Cori cycle is the conversion of glycogen to lactate that occurs in the muscle.
5. Lipogenesis pertains to the synthesis of fats in the abundance of carbohydrate.
6. Lipolysis is the breakdown of fats to glycerol and fatty acids to provide substrate for energy.
7. Hexose Monophosphate Shunt refers to the pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize fatty acids and reducing substances.

RECOMMENDED INTAKETotal carbohydrates must comprise 55-70% of total dietary energy, 70 % of which should come from complex CHOs,
and not more than 10% should come from simple sugars. Following the IOM-FNB (2002) and FAO/WHO (2002) recommendations, a daily intake
of 20-25g of dietary fiber for adults is also recommended. (RENI, 2002).

FOOD SOURCES

Chemical Class Name Class Members Sources

Polysaccharides Starch Grains and grain products -cereals, breads, crackers, pasta,
(multiple sugars, rice, corn, bulgur, legumes, potatoes and other vegetables
complex carbohydrates)
Glycogen Animal Tissues, Liver and Muscle Mass

Dietary Fiber Whole grains, Fruits, Vegetables, Seeds, Nuts, Skin

Disaccharides Sucrose Table sugar, Sugar cane, Sugar beets, Molasses

Lactose Milk

Maltose Starch Digestion, Sweetener in food products

Monosaccharides Glucose (dextrose) Corn syrup

Fructose Fruits, Honey

Galactose Lactose (Milk)

HEALTH EFFECTS
1. Dental Carries. Most concentrated sweets are cariogenic and cause bacterial overgrowth and tooth decay.
2. Obesity. For carbohydrate-sensitive people, increased carbohydrate intake provides glycerol 3-PO 4, a pre-cursor for fat synthesis.
3. High-Blood Triglyceride Levels. For carbohydrate-sensitive patients, carbohydrate may cause excessive fat synthesis.
4. Hyperactivity
5. Flatus. Indigestible carbohydrate or lactose intolerance promotes gas formation and colic.
6. Marasmus. This refers to a form of severe undernutrition (wasting) referred to alternatively as non-edematous malnutrition or has the
appearance of skin and bones.
7. Cancer. Diet adequate in green and leafy vegetables may be protective of cancer because of phytochemicals and fiber.
8. Diabetes. High fiber diet delays glucose absorption. High sugar intake for carbohydrate-sensitive people promotes obesity, which subsequently
leads to diabetes.
9. Nutrient Deficiencies. Diet high in carbohydrate displaces other nutritious foods.

ISSUES

Artificial Sweeteners
1. Compounds used to substitute carbohydrates in the diet. Saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, and sucralose are the only approved
sweeteners.
2. Aspartame is not associated with any adverse effects except for being a source of phenylalanine, a hazard for phenylketonurics. Saccharin and
acesulfame potassium have been associated with cancer, but studies have shown that they are safe to use.

Glycemic Index
1. GI is the glucose response to food.
2. GI is classified as high if it increases absorption, and low if it slows down absorption and stimulates smooth return to normal range.
3. Health implications are complex and need further studies.