Influence of biochar in combination with different

rates of Nitrogen on the bioavailability of phosphorus,

potassium and sulfur in Bajoa soil series

COURSE TITLE: PROJECT THESIS

COURSE NO: SS-4106

Biswajit Mondal

Student ID: 101316

Soil Science Discipline

Khulna University
Khulna, Bangladesh
December, 2014
 Influence of biochar in combination with different
rates of Nitrogen on the bioavailability of phosphorus,
potassium and sulfur in Bajoa soil series

COURSE TITLE: PROJECT THESIS

COURSE NO: SS-4106

This project thesis paper has been prepared and submitted to Soil Science Discipline
Khulna University for the partial fulfillment of the four years professional B.Sc. (Hons)
degree in Soil Science

Submitted by
Biswajit Mondal
Student ID: 101316
Session: 2012-2013

Soil Science Discipline

Khulna University
Khulna, Bangladesh
 Influence of biochar in combination with different
rates of Nitrogen on the bioavailability of phosphorus,
potassium and sulfur in Bajoa soil series

Approved as to style and content by

..
Md. Sanaul Islam
Associate Professor
Soil Science Discipline
Khulna University, Khulna
Bangladesh

______________________________________

Soil Science Discipline

Khulna University
Khulna
December, 2014
Influence of biochar in combination with different rates of
Nitrogen on the bioavailability of phosphorus, potassium
and sulfur in Bajoa soil series

Declaration

This thesis paper is entirely the candidates own investigation

Supervisor

Md. Sadiqul Amin

Associate Professor
czn_bd@yahoo.com
Soil Science Discipline
Khulna University, Khulna

Candidate

Biswajit Mondal

Student ID: 101316

____________________________________

Soil Science Discipline

Khulna University
Khulna
December, 2014
 Dedicate to
My beloved Mother
 Acknowledgement
All praise goes to the omnipotent, omniscient Allah who has enabled me to accomplish
this research work and to complete this project thesis paper successfully in due time.

I would like to express my heartfelt respect and ever indebtedness to my honorable

teacher Md. Sadiqul Amin, Associate Professor, Soil Science Discipline, Khulna
University, for his keen interest, scholastic guidance and supervision, inspiration and
valuable suggestions throughout the
whole period of project work. I express my deepest sense of gratitude to Afroza Begum,
head and chairman of the examination committee, Soil Science Discipline, Khulna
University, for her sympathetic consideration, generous help and valuable suggestion
throughout the study period.

Appreciation is also accorded to my friends and intimate. Thanks to all my classmates

and well-wishers specially Samira, Ela, Sujon, Emon, Ani, Arpita, Banasree, Faisal for
their co-operation and encouragement during this research work and compiling this thesis
paper. Im also thankful to Tapu da and academic stuff specially Mahfuj Vai and
Abdullah Vai of the Soil Science Discipline, Khulna University.

Last but not the least, Im indebted to my beloved parents for their patients and
encouragement towards my studies and help to complete my graduation.

Khulna University Author

December, 2014. Biswajit

Mondal
Contents page no.

Chapter One..1
1. Introduction ...1
1.1. Objective of the study. ...3
1.2. Scope of the study....3
1.3. Limitation.....3
Chapter Two .3
2. Literature Review...4
2.1. Biochar..4
2.2. Properties of Biochar....4
2.3. Processes of Biochar formation5

2.3.1. The pyrolysis process ..5

2.3.2. Stoves...6

2.3.3. Deforestation7

2.3.4. 55 gallon retort kiln...8

2.4. Biochar as a material and its component8

2.4.1. Moisture.8

2.4.2. Ash.9

2.4.3. Unstable matter .9

2.4.4. Stable matter .10

2.5. Impact of Biochar on soil properties11

2.5.1. Soil Enhancement.11

2.5.2. pH Effects.11

2.5.3. Nutrient Availability.12

 2.5.4. Sodium..12

2.5.5. Potassium..13

2.5.6. Calcium.14

2.5.7. Magnesium.15

2.5.8. Ca:Mg Ratio15

2.5.9. Cation Exchange Capacity..16

2.5.10. Cation Interactions16

2.6. Effect of biochar on Phosphorus availability16

2.7. Effect of biochar on Potassum availability17

2.8. Effect of biochar on Sulfar availability..19

Chapter Three20
3. Materials and Methods20
3.1. Materials ..20

3.1.1. Description of Bajoa Series 20

3.1.2. Collection and Preparation of Soil Samples...20

3.1.3. Sampling site ...20

3.1.4. Treatment..20

3.2. Methods ...21

3.2.1. Soil pH ...21

3.2.2. Electrical conductivity (EC) .21

3.2.3. Available Phosphorus.21

3.2.4. Available Potassium ..21

3.2.5. Determination of Available Sulfur .21

3.2.6. Particle size analysis 21

Chapter Four..22

4. Results and discussion..22

4.1. Influence on Available Potassium..22

4.2. Influence on Available Phosphorous..23

4.3. Influence on Available Sulfur.23

4.4. Influence on pH Effect24

Chapter Five..26

5. Summary and Conclusion.26

6. Reference.27
 List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.

Fig 4.1 Changes in K content with time with different treatments 22

Fig 4.2 Changes in P content with time with different treatment

23
Fig 4.3 Changes in S content with time with different treatments
24
Fig 4.4 Changes of pH with time with different treatments
25
 Chapter One

1. Introduction

Biochar has been used along the Amazon basin by natives as a soil amendment for soil
with poor nutrient retention before 2000 years ago. This soil is known as terra preta or
dark earth and is commonly sold as potting soil in Brazilian markets due to its high
nutrient content. Some believe terra preta was a result of cooking fires and intentional
placement of charcoal in the soil. Biochar is classified as a fine-grained, highly porous
charcoal formed from biomass. The internal structure is composed primarily of an
amorphous carbon phase with a small percentage of grapheme sheets interspersed within
the material. These two structural components in biochar allow for innovative
applications in soil science and sustainability efforts. Biochar has a huge effect to
increase nutrient availability in many types of soil, particularly when used in combination
with compost. Upland soils in the humid tropics such as the Amazon basin are often
highly weathered and therefore possess low plant-available nutrient contents (Van
Wambeke, 1992). This is a result of both high rainfall and low nutrient retention capacity.
In these soils the cation exchange capacity is very low due to the dominance of iron and
aluminum oxides and kaolinite as well as generally low soil organic matter contents and
pH values. Applied nutrients are rapidly leached below the rootzone of annual crops
(Cahn et al., 1993; Melgar et al.,1992) and large amounts of nitrate (NO 3 ) were found to
accumulate in acid subsoils (Cahn et al., 1992). In order to increase nutrient use
efficiency, techniques must be developed to keep applied nutrients in the topsoil and
therefore in the main root zone of the crop. Two basic approaches can be used to reduce
nutrient leaching; applying slow-release nutrient forms such as organic fertilizers and
increasing adsorption sites thereby retaining applied inorganic nutrients. Animal manures
and composts have shown in several trials to increase nutrient availability and to partly
substitute mineral fertilizers (Goyal et al., 1999). How well organic amendments are
effective for supplying sufficient nutrients for plant growth and for reducing leaching of
applied mineral nutrients under high leaching conditions is far less clear. Additionally,
organic fertilizers may mineralize rapidly and therefore have to be applied repeatedly to
maintain sufficient available nutrients and exchange capacity. In Central Amaznia, soils
have been found with high organic matter contents of up to 150 g kg1 which were
created by pre-Columbian populations from 500 to 2500 years B.P. (Petersen et al., 2001;
Smith, 1980; Woods et al., 2000). Their distribution stretches mainly along waterways
from Eastern Amaznia to the central Amazon basin with sizes ranging from less than 1
ha to more than 100 ha (Smith, 1980). It is presently not entirely clear which types of
organic applications are responsible for the observed increase in soil organic matter.
These relict Anthrosols (so-called Terra Preta de Indio) have persisted over many
centuries despite the prevailing humid tropical conditions and rapid mineralization rates.
They are highly valued by farmers for their sustainable fertility and production potential.
Despite the observed high cation exchange capacity and nutrient availability of the
Anthrosols (Kern and Kmpf, 1989; Kern et al., 1999; Smith, 1980; Sombroek, 1966) no
systematic research has been conducted to quantify crop nutrient uptake, production
potential or nutrient movement in these soils. The question also remains how these soils
maintain their fertility over long periods of time. Applications of organic matter may be a
feasible way to create sustainably fertile soils similar to the prehistoric Anthrosols. An
additional option to manure and composts could be the application of Biochar to soil.
Testing the addition of charred organic matter was stimulated by the fact that the describe
drelict anthropogenic soils in the Amazon contain large amounts of pyrogenic C (Glaser
et al., 2001) and Biochar may have been one of the amendments used by Amerindian
populations. Burning is a common practice in tropical smallholder agriculture, and the
main land use system in the Amazon region is shifting cultivation often following
logging (Laurance, 1998). The aboveground biomass is usually slashed and afterwards
burned to clear the agricultural field but also to add nutrients to soil resulting in increased
nutrient availability during the first cropping seasons (Sanchez et al., 1983). The same
land-clearing technique may be used to produce charcoal instead of largely burning the
woody biomass. In laboratory experiments, charcoal was shown to increase the cation
exchange capacity of sandy soils from temperate regions (Tryon, 1948). The effect of
charcoal additions on nutrient availability is not entirely clear and both increasing
(Iswaran et al., 1980) as well as decreasing (Kishimoto and Sugiura, 1985) nutrient
uptake and biomass production have been reported. No information is available about the
effect of biochar applications on nutrient retention and soil fertility of highly weathered
soils in the humid tropics, and whether biochar additions among other organic
applications could produce similarly fertile soils as the relict Anthrosols found in the
Amazon basin.

1.1. Objectives of the study

The objective of the study is to investigate the changes of availability in P, K, S due to

the application of Biochar in combination with three different rates of Nitrogen.

1.2. Scope of the study

Biochar has been employed at least since 1697, where the oldest published mention of
rice husk biochar use in soil is made (Ogawa and Okimori, 2010). Biochar has been used
since then in agriculture and horticulture, including for improving the vigor of ancient
pine trees near shrines (Ogawa and Okimori, 2010). R.L. Allens 1846 A Brief Compend
of American Agriculture makes several mentions of biochar use in agriculture, including
as a soil amendment and feed additive. In Spain, the construction of structures similar to
Biochar kilns was historically used to fertilize soil, and this technique is still used in
India, Bhutan and Bangladesh today (Olarieta etal., 2010).

1.3. Limitation

The experiment should continue for a long time and then the gradual changes of soil can
be observed. Based on these changes any recommendation may be considered more
appropriate.
 Chapter Two

2. Literature Review

2.1. Biochar

Biochar can be made from any biomass feedstock includeing crop, forestry and yard
wastes, and animal manures. The feedstock undergoes a process called pyrolysis, which
results in a rearrangement of the biomasses molecules, yielding black biochar and other
products. Charcoal, which is a fuel made from biomass, is also produced by pyrolysis.
However, charcoal has specific properties which make it a good fuel, and while to date
no classification and standardization system exists for biochar, scientists believe that
characteristics which will make a good biochar soil amendment will differ from those
which make a good fuel. Biochar characteristics are explored further below. Biochar is
very different from mineral coal. Mineral coal originated as biomass, but was formed by
geological processes over geological time scales. Biochar always contains some ash,
because biomass always contains elements other than carbon (C), hydrogen and oxygen.
But biochar contains stable C in various amounts, whereas actual ash does not.

2.2. Properties of Biochar

Biochar is produced by thermal decomposition of organic material under a limited supply

of oxygen at relatively low temperatures (<700C). This process mirrors the production of
charcoal. Biochar distinguishes itself from charcoal in that it is produced with the intent
to be applied to soil to improve soil productivity, carbon (C) storage, or water filtration.
Burning biomass in a fire creates ash, which mainly contains minerals such as calcium
(Ca) or magnesium (Mg) and inorganic carbonates. A small portion of vegetation is only
partially burned in areas of limited oxygen supply, which becomes char. The defining
property of biochar is the organic portion with a high carbon content, which mainly
comprises so-called aromatic compounds characterized by rings of 6 carbon atoms linked
together without oxygen or hydrogen. If these rings were arranged in perfect stacks, the
structure would be referred to as graphite. Under temperatures used for biochar
production, graphite does not form to any significant extent. Instead, much more irregular
arrangements of carbon form, containing oxygen, hydrogen and minerals, depending on
the feedstock. Biochar has avoided intense characterization up to this point due to its
complexity and extreme variability. Efforts to characterize biochar began in the 1920s
by John D. Bernal and are ongoing to this day. Activated charcoal is a term used for
biochar-type substances, as well as for coal, that have been activated in various ways
using, for example, steam or chemicals, often at high temperatures (>700C). This process
is intended to increase the surface area for use in industrial processes such as filtration. In
1927, Morley writes in the first issue of The National Groundskeeper that biochar acts as
a sponge in the soil, absorbing and retaining water, gases and solutions. As a purifier of
the soil and an absorber of moisture, biochar has no equal.. Paring and burning, where
soil is heaped onto organic matter (often peat) after setting it on fire, produces significant
increases in farm revenue. A common practice in China involves waste biomass being
mixed and covered with soil, and set on fire to burn over several days until a black earth
is produced, which reportedly improved plant vigor. Despite early descriptions and
research, global interest in biochar only began in the past few years. Research found that
biochar-type substances are the explanation for high amounts of organic carbon and
sustained fertility in the Amazonian Dark Earths known as Terra Preta de Indio.
Unequivocal proof has become available showing that biochar is not only more stable
than any other amendment to soil and increases nutrient availability beyond a fertilizer
effect, but that these basic properties of stability and capacity to hold nutrients are more
effective than those of other organic matter in soil. This ability is rooted in specific
chemical and physical properties, such as the negative surface charge that allows cations
to attach to biochars surface, resulting in much greater nutrient retention.

2.3. Processes of Biochar formation

2.3.1. The pyrolysis process

Biochar is made by baking biomass in the presence of little or no oxygen. This differs
from actually burning biomass because in an open fire, plenty of oxygen is available to
fully oxidize the C in the biomass to CO 2 , thus practically all the C leaves as CO 2 and
only ashes and small amounts of C are left behind. Restricting oxygen availability results
in a greater retention of C in the biomass, however the efficiency of the process in terms
of C is usually 50% or less (Lehmann, 2007), i.e. only half the C in the feedstock or less
remains in the biochar. This is because not only biochar results from the pyrolysis
process: combustible gases and volatile compounds also escape from the pyrolyzing
biomass. When biomass is heated up from ambient temperatures, it begins to dry. First,
moisture in the biomass must be driven off and this requires the supply of energy because
the heat capacity of water is high: large amounts of energy are required to vaporize water
(Taylor and Mason, 2010). This has consequences for the use of wet feedstocks to make
biochar: they should ideally be passively dried to 10-15% moisture before being
subjected to pyrolysis. Once the biomass is dry, the torrefaction process begins. During
torrefaction, the biomass is roasted, and becomes darker in color as chemical changes
occur and some gases and volatile compounds exit the biomass. As the biomass is further
heated and reaches ~ 300C, true pyrolysis begins and the process becomes exothermic.
The biomass completely rearranges itself into solid biochar, combustible gases and
volatile compounds (Taylor and Mason, 2010). Overall, pyrolysis produces heat as well
as fuels which can be burned at once to produce more energy in the form of heat and
potentially electricity, or gases and volatiles can be refined and used as fuels in other
applications. Thus, the pyrolysis process by which biochar is made produces renewable
energy which can be used to displace fossil fuels. Pyrolysis can further be subdivided into
fast and slow pyrolysis, and the gasification process can also generate biochar, under
certain conditions. Differences between these general pyrolysis types include the time
over which pyrolysis occurs, but many other conditions of the pyrolysis process can be
varied and have an impact on the characteristics of the resulting biochar. These include
but are not limited to the maximum temperature reached and the pressure in the pyrolysis
chamber. Also, the type of feedstock used to make biochar has an impact on the qualities
of the resulting biochar.

2.3.2. Stoves

To those who live in the developed world, it may come as a surprise to learn that more
than two billion people still cook and heat their homes with primitive stoves or open fires.
These inefficient technologies emit air pollution that can exacerbate global warming.
People struggle to gather enough biomass fuels to meet their needs. And in many cases,
the demand for wood accelerates deforestation. For nearly two decades a small group of
researchers and development advocates has worked to improve household biomass
energy technologies. Now concerns over global warming have added a new reason to
accelerate the transition to cleaner biomassenergy use in the developing world. New
stove technologies can produce both heat for cooking and Biochar for carbon
sequestration and soil building. Limited testing indicates that these stoves are much more
efficient and emit less pollution. The UN Environment Program now recognizes that
Atmospheric Brown Clouds (ABCs) are a major contributor to climate change. ABCs are
caused by particulate emissions from combustion of biomass and fossil fuels such as
black particles (soot) that heat the atmosphere by absorbing sunlight, and white particles
that reflect sunlight and contribute to cooling. Black carbon has a significant effect on
global warming, second only to carbon dioxide. However, the atmospheric residence time
of black carbon is only a few weeks, while CO 2 emissions stay in the atmosphere
anywhere from 30-95 years. This means that we have an opportunity for immediate
action to decrease environmental breakdown by reducing black carbon emissions.
Biochar-producing stoves are not yet a mature technology, and indeed, the emissions
from the few designs that have been developed have not yet been systematically tested.
However, there are good reasons to believe that they will be as clean as or cleaner than
other gasifier stoves that do not retain the biochar, but combust it. The two main stove
types used for pyrolysis are the TLUD stove and the anila stove. The TLUD operates as a
gasifier by creating four basic zones within the stove: raw biomass, flaming pyrolysis,
charcoal and gas combustion. Fan-forced TLUD stoves retain the charcoal layer without
burning it more easily, but charcoal can also be retained by a naturally draft TLUD if it is
properly timed and quenched Anila-type stoves use two concentric cylinders of different
diameters. Biomass fuel is placed between the two cylinders and a fire is lit in the center.
Heat from the central fire pyrolizes the concentric ring of fuel. The gasses escape to the
center where they add to the cooking flame as the ring of biomass turns to char.

2.3.3. Deforestation

The current method used in deforestation is called slash and burn, in which trees are cut
down and then burn to make way for fields. Only 3% of the carbon from organic material
is left in the soil using the slash and burn technique. Switching from slash and burn to
slash and char techniques in rainforests can decrease both deforestation and carbon
dioxide emission, as well as increase the crop yield. Switching to slash and char can
sequester up to 50% of the carbon that would be released into the atmosphere due to
decomposition. Additionally, the many benefits of biochar to the soil would allow for
sustainable agriculture production, compared to non-amended soils, which become
quickly depleted and unusable. Additionally, the biochar produced can be applied by the
currently used tillage machinery or equipment used to apply fertilizer.

2.3.4. 55 gallon retort kiln

This unit may be appropriate for small farmers and gardeners. Its construction does
require metal working skills, but it can be made from widely available materials. A 55
gallon drum is fitted with a chimney which redirects the smoke (i.e. gases and volatile
matter exiting the charring biomass) under the drum where a fire was lit to start the
process. This ensures that the process is clean, i.e. no smoke is produced since it is
burned clean to CO 2 and H 2 O. The unit as shown is not designed to make use of the heat
generated in the process. This is also an example of a batch pyrolysis unit. Many different
pyrolysis unit designs make use of 55 gallon drums.

2.4. Biochar as a material and its componant

A notable characteristic of biochar is its high porosity. The bulk density of biochars made
from plant biomass is lower than that of the corresponding feedstock (Downie et al.,
2009). Biochar generally retains the cell wall structure of the biomass feedstock, as
observed in scanning electron micrographs. At a smaller scale, biochar consists largely of
amorphous graphene sheets, which give rise to large amounts of reactive surfaces where a
wide variety of organic (both polar and non-polar) molecules and inorganic ions can sorb
(Levine, 2009). Indeed the pore space of biochar is many orders of magnitude greater
than that of uncharred biomass (Downie et al., 2009). Generally speaking, biochar can be
understood to contain four important fractions: moisture, ash, stable and unstable matter
(McLaughlin et al., 2009). The words stable and unstable have not been widely
adopted.

2.4.1. Moisture

The moisture content of biochar does not have an impact on its usefulness as a soil
amendment, but does have serious implications for the purchasing, handling and
application of biochar to soil. When it exits the pyrolysis unit, the reaction of air with
biochar can cause it to spontaneously ignite (Blackwell et al., 2009). Trucks transporting
biochar have caught fire in transit, and it is considered a dangerous material for shipping.
A simple way of avoiding spontaneous combustion is to spray the biochar with water as
soon as it exits the pyrolysis unit, however this is undesirable to the extent that it make
the biochar more heavy for transportation. Biochar can hold up to three times its weight
in moisture (McLaughlin et al., 2009.), and it can contain a large percentage of moisture
without looking like it does. It is also important to report biochar application rates on a
dry basis, to facilitate comparisons between experiments.

2.4.2. Ash

The different feed stocks used to make biochar contain various amounts of ash, and this
ash it mostly maintained in the biochar. However, it represents a greater proportion of the
overall material since some C, hydrogen and oxygen are lost during pyrolysis. Wood
contains less ash (< 1%) than straws and other crop residues (up to 24%), which also
contain more silica (Raveendran et al., 1995), thus for example wood biochar contains
less ash than straw biochar made under similar conditions. Manures produce what are
known as high-ash biochar, with ash contents up to 45% (Koutcheiko et al., 2007). The
ash content of biochar is measured by heating it to high temperatures in the presence of
air: all of the non-mineral matter is combusted and the ash left behind. Standard methods
developed for determining the ash content of fuel charcoal can be used for biochar, e.g.
ASTM D1762. Biochar ash consists mainly of calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg),
sodium (Na), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), silica (Si) and aluminum (Al) (Amonette
and Joseph, 2009). The ash of biochar made from plant parts generally contains very
small amounts of nitrogen (N). With the exception of Al these elements are plant
nutrients, thus applying them to soil with biochar may alleviate deficiencies and improve
crop growth. This effect is explored further in the section on agronomic benefits of
biochar. However, it is possible to cause salt stress in plants, if large amounts of high-ash
biochar are applied to soil. Revell et al. (2010) found that lettuce seed germination was
inhibited due to salt stress when chicken litter biochar containing 60% ash was added at
to soil at 34 t/h.

2.4.3. Unstable matter

Conceptually, unstable matter refers to the fraction of biochar which is decomposed by

soil microorganisms in the days and months following soil application. This fraction is
important because its decomposition has the potential to lead to N immobilization, if
insufficient N is available in the soil during decomposition. Indeed some authors
observed reductions in biomass yield with biochar application, and attributed this effect
to potential N immobilization by biochar (Asai et al., 2009; Blackwell et al., 2010;
Rondon et al., 2007). Also, since it decomposes on a short time frame, it is important to
know the size of this fraction of biochar in order to assess the C sequestration potential of
a biochar material. Total C analysis alone does not fully indicate the C sequestration
potential of biochar, it is necessary to know the amounts of unstable and stable matter
(and C) it contains. In practice, it is difficult to directly measure the size of this fraction.
Long-term soil incubation studies are underway, but large data sets will be required to
fully understand how different biochar materials decompose in different soils, and under
different abiotic conditions. Long-term field studies are an even better tool to assess the
longevity of biochar in soil, but these are costly and logistically difficult to maintain.
Finding rapid and cheap laboratory tests that provide data relating to the fractions of
biochar which decompose in soil in the short to medium term would be ideal. To date,
members of workgroups on biochar characterization around the world have proposed
heating the biochar to temperatures around 450C, under an oxygen-free atmosphere, and
quantifying the amount of unstable matter as the difference in mass before and after
heating (e.g. McLaughlin et al., 2009). This is economical and quick, but more data is
needed in order to relate information provided by this test to biochar decomposition in
soil by biotic and abiotic factors.

2.4.4. Stable matter

The recalcitrant fraction of biochar, which persists in soil over the long term, can be
termed stable matter. This fraction of biochar includes domains which are chemically
recalcitrant to biotic and abiotic decomposition in soil Finally, biochar is very friable and
always contains small particles. Especially fast pyrolysis biochars, which are made from
finely divided feed stocks, can be extremely dusty. This is an important issue when
handling and applying biochar to the field. In a biochar field trial in Qubec, it was
estimated that 30% of the biochar to be applied was lost during handling, transport to the
field and application (Husk and Major, 2010). This is a problem not only because users
need biochar to be in their soil and not elsewhere, but also because it is harmful to
breathe small biochar particles. A best management practice when working with biochar
is to ensure the control of dust, either by moistening it with water or mixing it with
another soil amendment, for example compost or manure.

2.5. Impact of biochar on soil properties

2.5.1. Soil Enhancement

Biochar as a soil amendment increases the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of the soil,
which represents the soils ability to retain nutrients in the soil to be taken up by plants.
This increased CEC allows for more active microbes and nutrients, leading to improved
soil fertility. This increase in microbial growth also allows for better moderation of soil
acidity, which can prevent toxic effects to the plants. The porous surface of biochar
enables the soil to retain water more efficiently and reduce the release of nitrogen into the
ground water, improving water quality. Soil aeration is also drastically improved due to
macro porosity of biochar. Utilizing biochar can improve nearly any type of soil,
particularly soils with low nutrient levels and low rainfall. In fact, based on recent
research, biochar is more stable than any other soil amendment and its ability to retain
nutrients is more effective than that of any other organic matter used in soil. The
composition of biochar depends on the feedstock used and the duration and temperature
of pyrolysis. As an example, biochar produced from feed stocks with high potassium
levels often have higher potassium contents than those with lower potassium levels in the
original feedstock. However, pyrolysis conditions greatly affect nutrient properties
contents and so it is crucial to test small portions of biochar to check for ideal properties
based on soil needs.

2.5.2. pH Effects

The pH scale ranges from 0-14, with values greater than 7 considered basic (or alkaline),
and values less than 7 considered acidic. A pH of 7 is considered neutral and is neither
acidic not alkaline. An acid is defined as a proton donor that increases the concentration
of positively charged ions, forming acidic soil with a pH value less than 7. A base is a
proton acceptor, which reduces the concentration of positively charged ions in the soil,
which causes a pH above 7. In terms of soil quality, there is little intrinsic value of pH to
soil. Many plants can adapt to a large range of pH values with no negative effect on plant
growth. However, pH is commonly used as a proxy to evaluate nutrient availability and
potential toxicity of various ions, as these soil characteristics strongly alter soil pH levels.
Soil pH also strongly affects both plant availability of most nutrients and the potential
toxicity of various ions in the soil. Previous biochar research reveals a trend of increasing
pH with biochar application. This is due to organic matter such as biochar having a
negative charge on the surface, increasing the alkaline composition in the soil. This also
implies that compost, another form of organic matter, will also increase soil pH. Evidence
suggests that raising soil pH may be biochar's most important documented contribution to
improved soil quality. Soil pH mostly influences the relative availability of nutrients.
Aluminum toxicity is a common problem at low pH levels that causes damage to plant
growth. Aluminum toxicity is widespread problem in soil, and biochar can be an easily
available solution to combat it. pH can measure only the concentration of hydrogen ions
in the soil solution, or active hydrogen ions. Acidic soils contain only a small fraction
of the total hydrogen in the soil solution at any one time. Most of the hydrogen ions are
adsorbed to the surface of the clay and organic matter within the soil, and is referred to as
non-active or reserve hydrogen ions.
2.5.3. Nutrient Availability

Nutrient availability will differ depending on the soil type and environmental conditions
present in the soil. There are 3 levels of nutrient availability in all soil types. Unavailable
nutrients are found in crystalline structures of feldspars, clay minerals and micas, which
are part of the soil. Plants cannot use nutrients in these insoluble forms. However, these
minerals eventually break down with time, and small quantities of nutrients are released
to the soil solution through this process. Fixed Nutrients become slowly available to
plants over the growing season. During wetting and drying of the soil, nutrients become
trapped between mineral layers. Once the soil gets wet, some of the trapped ions are
released to the soil solution. The slowly available nutrients are not usually measured in
regular soil testing and this testing does not include fixed nutrients. Exchangeable
nutrients are readily available nutrients, which plants can easily absorb. These nutrients
are held on the surface of clay particles and organic matter in soil and are easily released
when plants absorb nutrients from the soil solution.

2.5.4. Sodium

Sodium is critical to healthy soil and plant growth, but only in small amounts. The
presence of excessive amounts of exchangeable sodium causes soil aggregates to disperse
into their constituent individual soil particles. This is known as deflocculation and occurs
in sodic soil (soil above 6% exchangeable sodium). Deflocculation occurs because unlike
the polyvalent cations of calcium and aluminum, sodium is monovalent. When sodium is
adsorbed onto negatively charged particles, it cannot form a bridge between the particle it
is attached to and any nearby particles. This means the two particles will repel each other
and create a dispersed soil condition. Sodium imbalances in soil attribute mostly to the
physical properties of soil and result in poor soil structure, causing issues with both
germination and plant growth. Poor soil structure also leads to slow water uptake in the
soil as well as poor soil drainage. A sodic soil contains a high level of sodium relative to
the other exchangeable cations (i.e. calcium, magnesium and potassium). A soil is
considered "sodic" when the Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) is 6% or greater.
The ideal exchangeability range for sodium is between 1-6%. ESP above 6% is
considered sodic and can lead to poor soil structure and many physical issues in the soil
structure.

2.5.5. Potassium

Potassium is an essential plant nutrient and is required for proper growth and
reproduction of plants. Potassium is considered second only to nitrogen, when it comes to
nutrients needed by plants. It affects the plant shape, size, color, taste and other
measurements attributed to healthy produce. In Photosynthesis, potassium regulates the
opening and closing of stomata, and therefore regulates CO 2 uptake. It triggers activation
of enzymes and is essential for production of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), an
important energy source for many chemical processes within plants. Potassium also plays
a large role in the regulation of water in plants and is known to improve drought
resistance. Potassium assists in the activation of many growth-related enzymes in plants,
and therefore aids in proper plant growth. Any potassium deficiency in soils can cause
abnormalities in plants (usually related to plant growth). The first symptom of potassium
deficiency is commonly Chlorosis, shown in plants as scorching of plant leaves with
yellowing of the margins of the leaf. Slow or stunted growth can also occur, as potassium
is an important growth catalyst in plants. Poor potassium uptake will also result in less
water circulation in the plant, making it more susceptible to drought and temperature
changes. Defoliation can also occur in potassium-deficient soils. This results in plants
losing their leaves sooner than they should .Several factors can affect the ability of plant
to absorb potassium from soil, such as oxygen level, which is necessary for proper root
function and uptake of potassium. High moisture levels also ease the ability for plants to
absorb potassium. Although the ideal range for exchangeable potassium is low (2-5%),
potassium is considered non-toxic even when much higher than the ideal range of
potassium exchangeability. Although, soils rarely contain greater than 10% potassium
because it is slow to weather out of soil minerals and 90-98% of soil potassium is locked
up in minerals and is not exchangeable in the soil.

2.5.6. Calcium

Calcium plays a crucial role in proper soil nutrition and plant development. Appropriate
Calcium levels are necessary for decent root integrity. Without good root integrity, plants
can have a difficult time reaching nutrients and water vital for healthy plant growth.
Calcium also promotes proper cell elongation. This strengthens cell walls, giving stability
and binding cells together. Strong cell walls also help protect the plant against diseases
that impair plant cell walls. Plants with sufficient Calcium levels also benefit from
protection against heat stress because it improves stomata function and assists with
induction of heat shock proteins.

Calcium also helps to stabilize soil structure. Adsorbed sodium might cause the soil to
crack when dry and swell up when wet, but replacing sodium ions with calcium prevents
this problem. Calcium plays a balancing act with other positively charged ions, such as
sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and magnesium (Mg+2). Applying too much of these other
positively charged ions may decrease calcium uptake by plants. Sodium ions can also
replace the adsorbed calcium, damaging soil structure and decreasing calcium
availability. Another common issue occurs when free calcium accumulates in the soil
solution (e.g. when soil pH is high), in which calcium can form insoluble compounds
with phosphorous, causing a decrease in both calcium and phosphorous availability in
soil. The optimal range for exchangeable calcium in soil is 65-85%. The percentage of
exchangeable calcium represents ratio of exchangeable calcium compared with all other
nutrients in the soil. The exchangeable percentage of all nutrients together will total
100%. Calcium deficiency in soil can lead to curling of young leaves or shoots scorching
or spotting on young leaves, poor growth, leaf tip burnes, stunted roots, and damage to
fruit. Calcium deficiency is commonly remedied by adding gypsum or a calcium fertilizer
to acid soils, aiming at a pH of 6.5, unless the subject plants specifically prefer acidic
soil. Organic matter should be added to the soil to improve its moisture-retaining
capacity. However, due to the root cause of deficiency being poor transport of calcium
within plants, the problem cannot generally be cured by directly applying calcium to
roots.

2.5.7. Magnesium

Magnesium is essential for many critical plant functions, such as photosynthesis (Mg is
the central element of chlorophyll), enzyme activation, sugar synthesis, nutrient uptake
control, and many others. Magnesium also aids in carrying phosphorous in the plant and
forming plant oil and fat. Soil pH is a strong indicator of exchangeable magnesium in
soil, as low soil pH decreases magnesium availability and high soil pH increases
availability. Low CEC soils (soils that do not retain exchangeable nutrients well) hold
less magnesium, while high CEC soils can hold much more magnesium. However, if a
high CEC soil does not happen to have strong levels of magnesium, it will tend to release
less of the magnesium that it holds to the crop. Manganese has also proven to directly
reduce magnesium levels in soil. Cation competition plays a large role in the magnesium
levels in soil. High levels of potassium or calcium in soil tend to provide less magnesium
for plants. High application rates of other cations, especially potassium, can reduce the
uptake of magnesium by soil. This is most common on grasses, and corn seems to be the
most sensitive to this process. Soil has an ideal range of 6-12% exchangeable
magnesium; however exchangeability of magnesium can increase to 40% without adverse
effect on crop production.

2.5.8. Ca:Mg Ratio

Evidence suggests that proper Ca:Mg ratios will improve soil structure, reduce weed
populations, and improve forage quality. Most importantly, an appropriate Ca:Mg ratio
can reduce leaching of other plant nutrients and improve the balance of most soil
nutrients. This ratio has proven to be important to nutrient balances within soil because
both calcium and magnesium have a strong effect on the exchangeability of many other
ions in the soil. The Ca:Mg ratio should be much greater than 1:1, and the ideal Ca:Mg
ratio is considered to be 5:1. Many California soils have serpentinite, which leads to high
Magnesium levels and lowers the Ca:Mg ratio. For soils with low Ca:Mg ratios, the best
method of remediation is adding gypsum or calcium fertilizers to increase calcium levels
and counteract the excessive magnesium levels.

2.5.9. Cation Exchange Capacity

The Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) represents the total amount in meq/100 g soil of
positively charged exchangeable ions that the soil can hold. The unit meq/100 g soil is the
standard unit used to measure CEC and measures all nutrients based on their atomic
weight to give a more accurate measurement of the true volume of nutrients in the soil. A
higher CEC indicates a higher capacity of the soil to adsorb and hold nutrients, and
therefore higher nutrient availability. Biochar is expected to increase CEC due to its
ability to raise nutrient levels and nutrient availability in soil (3). Many local soils contain
high clay and organic matter, leading to CEC of >30meq/100 g soil. Sandy soils near the
coast are low in clay and organic matter <10meq/100 g soil.

2.5.10. Cation Interactions

Many of the major cations such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, ammonium,
iron, and aluminum are in competition with each other. In other words, if any of these
cations are found in large quantities in the soil, the exchangeability of other cations will
be reduced and can lead to an imbalance of ions in the soil. For example, potassium is a
strong competitor with magnesium and whenever the soil potassium level is higher than
desired, plant magnesium levels are often reduced. This effect occurs sooner and more
severely in grasses, especially corn, than in other crops. For many years, there have been
a few people who claim that there is an "Ideal" ratio of the three principal soil cation
nutrients (K, Ca, and Mg). This concept probably originated from New Jersey work by
Bear in 1945, stating the ideal ratio of principal cations is 65% Ca, 10% Mg, and 5% K.

2.6. Effect of biochar on Phosphorus availability

Biochar application can potentially combat climate change by carbon sequestration

(Lehmann, 2007a,b; Woolf et al., 2010; Liuet et al., 2012) as well as improve soil
properties such as nutrient availabilities (Glaser et al., 2002; Sohi et al., 2010). Addition
of biochar into soils has reportedly enhanced P bioavailability and plant growth
(Lehmann et al., 2003; DeLuca et al., 2009). Biochar application to soils has also
increased the extractable P within the soil solution regardless of the temperature used for
biochar production. Tryon (1948) reported a significant improvement in available P after
biochar application to sandy or loamy soils. However, biochar addition did not always
increase soil P availability. In a soil column experiment, biochar application significantly
increased P retention in soils and decreased P levels in leachate solutions (Novak et al.,
2009). Biochar addition also temporarily reduced the available P in two soil types: P
availability improved in one soil and did not significantly affect P availability in the other
soil with extra P added (Nelson et al., 2011; Sandeep et al., 2013). Thus, the effect of
biochar on P availability is generally inconsistent. Notably, the mechanisms underlying
the altered P availability with biochar application to soil remain poorly under-stood
(Lehmann, 2007a, b). DeLuca et al. (2009) reviewed a number of possible mechanisms
by which biochar may directly or indirectly influence the biotic and abiotic components
of the P cycle (DeLuca et al., 2009). Biochar contains a large amount of P; thus, direct
release of soluble P may be necessary to enhance P availability, especially for short term
uses (Chan et al., 2007; Atkinson et al., 2010). In addition, biochar application reduces
soil acidity and subsequently alters P complexing with metals (Al3+, Fe3+, and Ca2+),
which is important for determining P availability by P sorption and desorption reactions
in soils (Wang et al., 2012; Yuan et al., 2011a,b). Biochar can also directly adsorb
cations such as Al3+, Fe3+,and Ca2+, resulting in delayed P adsorption or precipitation in
soil.Sorption of organic molecules on biochar surfaces can reduce their ability to chelate
Al3+, Fe3+, and Ca2+in soil. The direct or indirect influence of biochar on the P cycle in
soil has rarely been reported, especially P sorption and desorption after biochar addition
to soils (Nelson et al., 2011; Sohi et al., 2009). The nature of interactions between the
biochar and soil, as well as the mechanism of the increase in P availability, must be
elucidated (Atkinson et al., 2010).This study proposes that biochar application increases
P availability by decreasing P sorption or increasing P desorption in soil by increasing
soil pH and changing the activity or availability of cations (Al3+, Fe3+, and Ca2+) that
interact with P.

2.7. Effect of biochar on Potassium availability

Potassium (K) is an essential nutrient for plant growth and cannot be replaced by other
elements. The function of K is associated with increased root growth and tolerance to
drought, cellulose formation, enzyme activity, photosynthesis, transportation of sugar and
starch, increase protein content of plants, maintain turgor, reduce water loss, and to
protect plants against diseases and nematodes (Thomson, 2008). The high mobility of K
results in its loss through leaching due to heavy rainfall. Cooke (1985) showed that high
amounts of K are lost (172 kg ha-1) followed by N (260 kg ha-1) and P (46 kg ha-1) in
maize cultivation. Nutrition content in maize plant yielding maize at 9.45 Mg ha-1 were
3.9 kg ha-1 (seed) and 157 kg ha-1 (cob) (Cooke, 1985).Fertilization is an effort to
improve crop yield. The use of inorganic and organic fertilizers can increase soil fertility.
In tropical regions with high rainfall, the soils are low in K due to the rapid
mineralization of organic matter (Jenkinson & Ayanaba, 1977). The weakness of
inorganic fertilizer is the accessibility for poor farmers is low (Garrity, 2004) and
fertilization efficiency is low (Baligar & Bennett, 1986). One of cause the low
fertilization efficiency is not all fertilizer put into the soil can be absorbed by the plant.
The plant absorb potassium at 50 to 70% (Tisdale& Nelson, 1975). According to study
conducted by Brady (1992), most potassium added to the soil will be fixed in the spaces
between clay lattice and plants can utilize only 1-2%. Meanwhile, organic fertilizers can
increase fertilization efficiency. However, in tropics organic fertilizers are decomposed
rapidly. In contrast, black carbon (C) or biochar is much more stable. One way to
overcome problems of soil fertility and K availability is by adding biochar. Biochar is
produced from biomass pyrolysis. Biochar is a material containing hydrocarbon aromatic
polycyclic carbon with functional groups (Schmidt & Noack, 2000; Preston & Schmidt,
2006; Krull et al., 2009; Chintala et al., 2013). Biochar has surface area and porosity
which are significant in improving water holding capacity, adsorption, and nutrient
retention (Downie et al., 2009; Sohi et al., 2010; Chintala et al., 2013). Biochar can affect
soil structure, texture, porosity, particle size distribution, and density so it can improve
aerase, water storage capacity and microbes, and nutrient availability in the root zone of
plants (Amonette & Joseph, 2009). Application of biochar leads to changes in pH,
electrical conductivity (EC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), and nutrient availability
(Liang et al., 2006; Gundale & DeLuca, 2007; Warnock et al., 2007). Biochar can reduce
N leaching and improve N use efficiency (Chintala et al., 2013; Steiner et al., 2008;
Widowati et al., 2012). The problem is whether biochar can reduce or replace KCl
fertilizer so it can streamline potassium fertilization on maize plants. Based on the
problem mentioned, a research was conducted to study the effect of biochar and
potassium rate application, toward the efficiency and effectivity of fertilization, and also
economic feasibility of maize cultivation business. It is hoped that biochar can reduce or
replace the usage of KCl fertilizer that the need of potassium fertilizer can be reduced,
therefore increasing the revenue of the cultivation business.
2.8. Effect of Biochar on Sulfur availability

Sulfur (S), along with nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), is responsible for the synthesis of
proteins and for a number of essential vitamins and cofactors (Kertesz and Mirleau,
2004). It is not only an often growth-limiting plant nutrient but also indirectly affects the
use efficiency of other plant nutrients, such as N (De Bona and Monteiro, 2010). In fact
more recently, S deficiency to plants has been reported in several parts of the world (Kost
et al., 2008; Scherer, 2009) mainly of organic S to inorganic sulfate (mineralization) and
the reverse procese (incorporation of sulfate into soil organic compounds or
immobilization) play important roles in the cycling of S within the soil and are
microbiologically mediated (Kertesz and Mirleau, 2004). Sulfur mineralization in the soil
is typically attributed to either biological or biochemical processes (McGill and Cole,
1981). The biological route is governed by the search for energy and the S is released as a
by-product. The biochemical process is defined as the release of S from ester sulfates,
through extracellular enzymatic hydrolysis (McGill and Cole, 1981). Therefore, the
objectives of this study were to investigate S mineralization and immobilization in soils
affected by plant residues with different S forms. Such studies will provide valuable
information for modeling of S transformations in soil and for management of crop
residues to address S deficiency.
 Chapter Three

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Materials

A pot experiment with Bajoa soil series was carried out to determine the combined effect
of biochar and different rates of urea fertilizer treatments on the availability of P, K, and
S.

3.1.1. Description of Bajoa Series

Bajoa soils are developed in tidal floodplain basins. They are seasonally shallowly to
moderately deeply flooded, poorly drained soils developed in tidal deposits. It contains a
grey to olive grey silty clay loam subsoil with moderate to strong blocky structure in the
B horizon. They have five phases: Highland; medium high land, non-saline; medium
lowland; and medium lowland, flood hazard.

3.1.2. Collection and Preparation of Soil Samples

The soil samples were collected from specific locations and were processed for the
subsequent experiment and analysis. All the soils were collected at a depth of 0-15 cm on
the basis of composite sampling. The collected soil samples were air dried ground and
sieved through a 2 mm sieve. The samples were then preserved for analysis.

3.1.3. Sampling site

The sampling site was situated at Mailmara village in Batiaghata thana under Khulna
district. The sampling area was approximately 8 kilometer south from Batiaghata thana
and 15 kilometer away from Khulna district.

3.1.4. Treatment

One hundred gm of soil was placed in a 250-ml plastic container. The biochar was added
to the container at a rate of 17.9 Mg/ha. After the biochar and soil had been thoroughly
mixed, a urea solution was mixed by hand to bring the soils to their water holding
capacity with the correct amount of N (equivalent to 0, 7, 14, and 28 Mg N/ha). Each
combination of soil, biochar, and urea was replicated three times, which occurred
immediately after treatment application and at 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 weeks. The immediate
sampling time occurred 2 days after the biochar, soil and urea solution were mixed to
give the mixture time to equilibrate.

3.2. Methods

3.2.1. Soil pH

Soil pH was determined electrochemically with the help of glass electrode pH meter as
suggested Jackson (1973).

3.2.2. Electric conductivity (EC)

The electric conductivity of the soil (1:5) was measured with the help of EC meter
(USDA, 2004).

3.2.3. Available Phosphorus

The soil was extracted with Olsen extractant (0.5M NaHCO 3 at pH 8.5) where
soil:extractant = 1:10. The available phosphorus determined from this extraction
colorimetrically using a visible spectrophotometer at 882 nm wave length after
developing the blue color with molybdate as described by Jackson (1962).

3.2.4. Available Potassium

The available potassium of the soil was determined with 1N NH4Oac at pH =7.0 using a
flame photometer (Jackson, 1962).

3.2.5. Determination of Available Sulfur

Available sulfur was determined by turbidity method as described by (Jackson, 1967).

3.2.6. Particle size analysis

Particle size analysis of the soils was done by hydrometer method as described by Day
(1965). Textural classes were determined by Marshalls Triangular co-ordinate system.

Chapter Four

4. Results and discussion

Available P, K, S and pH of the Bajoa soils of Batiaghata were influenced by the

different biochar and N fertilizer (urea) treatments with time. In this study, as the biochar
decomposed over time, extractable P and K were released. The amount of available S
increased from the initial time to the end of the study by the influence of biochar.

4.1. Influence on available potassium

The concentration of available K decreased from the initial sampling time until week 3,
but between week 4 and week 6 there was an increase in potassium concentration. The
increase continued to the end of the study as shown in the Fig. 4.1 and Appendix-V. One
possible explanation for this occurrence is the K was physically sequestered by the
biochar. As the biochar decomposed, K was released. Each week, except week 6, there
was a significant difference among the different N rates. Treatments were averaged
across all biochar treatments because the interaction of the biochar and N fertilizer was
not significant. 28 kg/ha urea with biochar was found the highest significant treatment for
S availability while, 0 kg/ha urea was found the least significant (p <0.003).

640
630
620
610
600 0 Mg N/ha
K ppm

590
7 Mg N/ha
580
14 Mg N/ha
570
28 Mg N/ha
560
550
0 2 4 6 8

Time in week

Fig.4.1. Changes in K content with time with different treatments

4.2. Influence on Available Phosphorous

The concentration of available P decreased until sometime between week 1 and week 3
(Fig. 4.2 and Appendix-VI). From week 4 to the end of the study, there was an increase
in the amount of extractable P. This could be explained by the increase in microbial
immobilization of N and P. As the system returned to equilibrium and there was
microbial decomposition of the biochar over time, P was mineralized. This is supported
by the nitrate N results. Week 4 was only sampling time where the differences in
extractable P and N rates were significant. Treatments were averaged across all biochar
treatments because the interaction of the biochar and N fertilizer was not significant. 28
kg/ha urea with biochar was found the highest significant treatment for S availability
while, 0 kg/ha urea was found the least significant.
 16
14
12
10

P ppm
8 0 Mg N/ha
7 Mg N/ha
6
14 Mg N/ha
4
28 Mg N/ha
2
0
0 2 4 6 8

Time in week

Fig.4.2. Changes in P content with time with different treatments

4.3. Influence on Available Sulfur

The amount of available S increased from the initial time to the end of the study as shown
in Fig. 4.3 and Appendix-VII. One possible explanation for this occurrence is the S was
mineralized by microorganisms over time. As the biochar decomposed over time, there
was an increase in microbial population. This microorganisms, including S mineralizing
bacteria mineralize S. So with passing of time, more S is mineralized. Three different
biochar treatments along with urea make an increase in available form of S. 28 kg/ha urea
with biochar was found the highest significant treatment for S availability while, 0 kg/ha
urea was found the least significant ( p <0.00).
 350

300

250

S ppm
200
0 Mg N/ha
150 7 Mg N/ha
100 14 Mg N/ha
28 Mg N/ha
50

0
0 2 4 6 8

Time in week

Fig.4.3. Changes in S content with time with different treatments

4.4. Influence on pH

The pH of the soil that had 0 kg N/ha treatments changed the least over the study, while
the soils that had 7 kg N/ha, 14 kg N/ha and 28 kg N/ha treatments added resulted in huge
change (Fig. 4.4 and Appendix-VIII). There was a statistically significant difference
among the different N rates at each sampling time except week 6 in the soil, though
weeks 3, 4, and 5 have statistically significant differences among the different N and
Biochar treatments. The actual differences in pH at those sampling times are 0.43, 1.04,
and 0.26 for 7kg N/ha treatment, 0.17, 1.15, and 0.2 for 14 kg N/ha treatment and 0.27,
1.09, and 0.32 for 28 kg N/ha treatment. Immediately after the application of fertilizer
and the first week of sampling, there was a statistically significant difference between
each of the amounts of the fertilizer applied to the soil. The differences decreased over
the course of the study. This is probably due to hydrolysis; the more Urea that was
applied to the soil, the larger the effect on the soil. The immediate sampling time along
with weeks 1 and 6 had statistically significant differences (p <0.00). The variability in
the soil was probably due to random variability in the study.
 10
9
8
7
6
5 0 Mg N/ha
pH 4 7 Mg N/ha
3 14 Mg N/ha
2 28 Mg N/ha
1
0
0 2 4 6 8

Time in week

Fig.4.4. Changes of pH with time with different treatments

 Chapter Five

5. Summary and Conclusion

Available P, K, S and pH of the Bajoa soils of Batiaghata were influenced by the

different biochar and N fertilizer (urea) treatments with time. The amount of urea used
influenced K and pH. There was a statistically significant difference in pH between each
of the amounts of the fertilizer applied to the soil. The differences decreased over the
course of the study. This is probably due to hydrolysis; the more Urea that was applied to
the soil, the larger the effect on the soil. In this study, as the biochar decomposed over
time, extractable P and K were released. The concentration of available K decreased from
the initial sampling time until some weeks, then there was an increase in potassium
concentration. One possible explanation for this occurrence is the K was physically
sequestered by the biochar. As the biochar decomposed, K was released. The
concentration of extractable P decreased until sometime between week 1 and week 3,
from week 4 to the end of the study, there was an increase in the amount of extractable P
due to the decomposition of biochar over time. The amount of available S increased
significantly from initial time to the end of the study due to the mineralization of S
containing minerals.
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Appendices

Appendix I. ANOVA table of available K

Analysis of Variance for value

Source DF SS MS F P

Treatment 3 1499.7 499.9 7.63 0.003

Week 5 4712.2 942.4 14.39 0.000

Error 15 982.3 65.5

Total 23 7194.2

Appendix II. ANOVA table of available P

Analysis of Variance for value

Source DF SS MS F P

Treatment 3 6.45 2.15 2.08 0.145

Week 5 126.88 25.38 24.59 0.000

Error 15 15.48 1.03

Total 23 148.81

Appendix III. ANOVA table of available S

Analysis of Variance for value

Source DF SS MS F P

Treatment 3 59133 19711 26.92 0.000

Week 5 26581 5316 7.26 0.001

Error 15 10984 732

Total 23 96698
Appendix IV: ANOVA table of pH

Analysis of Variance for value

Source DF SS MS F P

Treatment 3 12.263 4.088 26.17 0.000

week 5 6.995 1.399 8.96 0.000

Error 15 2.343 0.156

Total 23 21.600

Appendix V. Change in available K under different treatments with time

Treatment
0 kg/ha 7 kg/ha 14 kg/ha 28 kg/ha
Time

week1 575.4 576.5 576.9 581.6

week2 578.1 596.1 602.9 597.8
week3 561.3 560.4 584.1 592.3
week4 571.9 569.2 591.6 592.2
week5 591.9 616.2 601.7 610.3
week6 602.1 599.7 617.3 627.8

Appendix VI. Change in available P under different treatments with time

0 kg/ha 7 kg/ha 14 kg/ha 28 kg/ha

week 1 7.68 7.6 7.63 8.1
week 2 7.21 7.01 7.62 7.3
week 3 6.54 6.02 7.68 7.61
week 4 10.29 7.59 10.81 9.89
week 5 12.57 13.01 10.31 12.91
 week 6 13.21 10.51 12.39 14.57

Appendix VII. Change in available S under different treatments with time

0 kg/ha 7 kg/ha 14 kg/ha 28 kg/ha

week1 147.21 157.12 154.9 159.31
week2 148.11 227.43 253.83 285.21
week3 150.18 230.48 248.75 302.02
week4 143.23 227.9 259 307
week5 149.9 239.9 286.25 315.81
week6 151.01 251.1 297.9 327.1

Appendix VIII. Change in available pH under different treatments with time

0 kg/ha 7 kg/ha 14 kg/ha 28 kg/ha

week1 6.293 8.6 8.75 8.95
week2 6.33 8.57 8.71 8.88
week3 6.31 8.32 8.54 8.61
week4 6.35 7.28 7.31 7.32
week5 6.27 7.22 7.19 7.18
week6 6.26 7.22 7.25 7.17