EvaluatingtheEnvironmentalImplicationsofHydraulic

FracturinginShaleGasReservoirs
Authors:J.DanielArthur,P.E.,ALLConsulting;BrianBohm,P.G.,ALLConsulting;
BobbiJoCoughlin,EIT,ALLConsulting;MarkLayne,Ph.D.,P.E.,ALLConsulting

LeadAuthorBiographicalSketch
DanArthurisafoundingmemberandtheManagingPartnerofALLConsulting(www.allllc.com).
Mr.ArthurearnedhisbachelorsdegreeinPetroleumEngineeringfromtheUniversityofMissouri
Rolla.Heisarecognizedauthorityonenvironmentalissuespertainingtounconventionalresource
developmentandproduction.Mr.Arthurhasservedoriscurrentlyservingastheleadresearcher
on several significant projects involving unconventional resources; environmental considerations
pertainingtoshalegasdevelopment;producedwatermanagementandrecycling;accesstofederal
lands;andlowimpactnaturalgasandoildevelopment.HaspreviouslymanagedU.S.Department
ofEnergy(DOE)fundedresearchprojectsinvolvingthedevelopmentofbestmanagementpractices
utilizing GIS technologies for efficient environmental protection during unconventional resource
DevelopmentandProduction;researchtodevelopanationalprimeroncoalbedmethane;research
to develop a Handbook on the preparation and review of environmental documents for CBM
development;andresearchwiththeGroundWaterProtectionResearchFoundation(GWPRF)and
funded by DOE and BLM involving analysis of produced water management alternatives and
beneficial uses of coal bed methane produced water. Mr. Arthur has published many articles and
reportsandhasmadenumerouspresentationsonenvironmental,energy,andtechnologyissues.

Abstract
Exploration, drilling and production of shale gas plays such as the Barnett, Fayetteville, and
Haynesville have transformed the unconventional gas industry. These and other existing and
developing plays have had unimaginable economic impacts to many regions, created tens of
thousandsofjobs,andhavegeneratedroyaltypaymentstoavarietyofstateandlocalgovernments
as well as many individuals. At the core of shale gas development are two key technologies:
horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Techniques used to hydraulically fracture horizontal
wellscompletedinshalereservoirsoftenrequirelargervolumesoffracturingfluidthanmightbe
commonforconventional,verticalwellstimulations.Therapiddevelopmentofshalegasacrossthe
country has created concerns on issues such as the use of infrastructure and environmental
impacts. Specifically, the common practice of hydraulic fracturing of these shales has attracted
critical interest regarding risks potentially posed to groundwater and surface water. This paper
willpresentasummaryandevaluationoftheenvironmentalimplicationsofhydraulicfracturingin
shalegasreservoirs,withexamplesfrommultiplebasins.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 1

Introduction
Naturalgasproductionfromtightshaleformations,knownasshalegas,isoneofthemostrapidly
expandingtrendsinonshore,domesticnaturalgasexplorationandproduction.Insomeareas,
developmentofshalegasresourcesisbringingdrillingandproductiontoregionsofthecountry
thathaspreviouslyseenlittletonooilandgasdevelopmentactivity.InplaysliketheBarnettShale
ofTexas,developmentisoccurringinurbanandsuburbanareaswherebothoperatorsand
regulatorsareadaptingtothisnewenvironment.Shalesarethemostabundantsedimentaryrock
intheEarthscrustandarepresentacrosstheU.S.(Exhibit1).

Shaleshavebeensourcesofnaturalgasinsmallbutcontinuousvolumessincetheearliestyearsof
gasdevelopment.ThefirstproducinggaswellintheU.S.wascompletedin1821inDevonianaged
shalenearthetownofFredonia,NewYork 1 .Earlysourcesofnaturalgaswereshallowgaswells
thatwerefromdugwellsandnaturalgasseeps 2 .Shallowwellsandseepswerecapableof
producingsmallamountsofnaturalgaswhichwereusedforilluminatingcitystreetsand
households 3 .Theseearlygaswellsplayedakeypartinbringingilluminationtothecitiesand
townsoftheeasternU.S.1.Incontrast,modernshalegasdevelopmenthasbecomeatechnological
play,inwhichdevelopmentisfacilitatedbythetechnologicaladvancestheoilandgasindustryhas
madeinhydraulic
fracturingand Exhibit1:GasShaleBasinsoftheUnitedStateswithEstimatedGasReserves
horizontaldrilling
overthelasttwo
decades.

Inthe1980sdevelop
oftheBarnettShale
playkickedoffinthe
areaaroundFort
Worth,Texas1.The
BarnettShaleplay
hasquicklybecome
themostactive
naturalgasplayin
theU.S.,thesuccess
ofwhichhasgrabbed
thegasindustrys
attention.Through ModifiedfromSchlumberger,2005

1
Harper, J. 2008. The Marcellus Shale An Old New Gas Reservoir in Pennsylvania. Published by the Bureau of Topographic
and Geologic Survey, Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Pennsylvania Geology. v 28. no 1.
Spring 2008.
2
NY DEC. 1992. Final Generic Environmental Impact Statement on the Oil, Gas and Solution Mining Regulatory Program.
Division of Mineral Resources.
3
Frantz, J.K. and Jochen, V. 2005. Shale Gas White Paper. 05-OF299. Schlumberger Marketing Communications. October
2005.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 2

continuedimprovementsinhydraulicfracturingtechniquesandtechnology,developmentofthe
BarnettShalehascontinuedatanacceleratingpace 4 .Inthetwodecadessinceinitialdevelopment
oftheBarnett,thescienceofshalegasextractionhasmaturedintoasophisticatedprocesswhich
utilizeshorizontaldrillingandsequencedmultistagehydraulicfracturingtechnologies.Asthe
BarnettShaleplayhasmatured,naturalgasproducershavebeenextrapolatingthelessonslearned
intheBarnetttotheothershalegasformationspresentacrosstheU.S.(Exhibit1)andCanada4.

InadditiontotheBarnett,asecondplayhasalsobeenthesourceoftechnologicaladvancesin
hydraulicfracturingandhorizontaldrilling.TheBakkenShaleoftheWillistonBasinofMontana
andNorthDakotahasgreateroilthangasproduction 5 ,buthasseenasimilaracceleratedrateof
developmentastheBarnett.TheBakkenisanothertechnicalplayinwhichthedevelopmentofthis
unconventionalresourcehasbenefittedfromthetechnologicaladvancesinhorizontalwellsand
hydraulicfracturing 6 .

Eachgasshalebasinisdifferentwithauniquesetofexplorationcriteriaandoperationalchallenges.
Yet,thecombinationofsequencedhydraulicfracturetreatmentsandhorizontalwellcompletions
hasbeencrucialinfacilitatingtheexpansionofmodernshalegasdevelopmenttoothershaleplays.
PriortothesuccessfulapplicationofthesetwotechnologiesintheBarnettShale;gasshale
resourcesinmanybasinswerebypassedinfavorofotherreservoirswhichweremore
economicallyfavorable1.Thelownaturalpermeabilityofshalehashistoricallybeenthelimiting
factortotheproductionofgasshaleresources.Lownaturalpermeabilitymeansonlyminor
volumesofgasarecapableofflowingtoawellbore 7 andwithouttodayshydraulicfracturing
technologytoincreasethepermeability,thiswouldstillbetruetoday.

ShaleGasGeology
Shalegasisnaturalgasproducedfromshaleformationsandtheseshalesfunctionasbothreservoir
andsourcerockforthenaturalgas.Intermsofitschemicalcomposition,shalegasistypicallydry
gascomposedprimarilyofmethane(90%ormoremethane).Whiletherearesomeshalegas
formationsthatdoproducegasandwater,theAntrimandNewAlbanyShalesbeingthelargest
examples(Exhibit1),theyaretheexceptionbasedondatafromthoseplayswithactive
development 8 .

Shaleisasedimentaryrockpredominantlycomprisedofconsolidatedclaysizedparticlesthatwere
depositedasmudsinlowenergydepositionalenvironments.Lowenergydepositional
environmentsincludetidalflatsanddeepwaterbasinswherethefinegrainedparticlesfalloutof
suspensioninquietwaters4.Depositedwiththeseveryfinegrainedsedimentsisorganicmatterin

4
Arthur, J.D., Bohm, B., and Layne, M. 2008. Hydraulic Fracturing Considerations for Natural Gas Wells of the Marcellus
Shale. ALL Consulting. Presented at the GWPC Annual Forum in Cincinnati, OH. September 2008.
5
ALL Consulting and Ground Water Protection Council, in development, Shale Gas Development in the United States: A
Primer. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory.
6
Cohen, D. 2008. An Unconventional Play in the Bakken. Energy Bulletin. April 2008.
7
Ameri, S., Aminian, K., Miller, J.A., Doricich, D., and Yost, A.B. A Systematic Approach for Economic Development of the
Devonian Shale Gas Resources. SPE 14504.
8
Boyer, C., Kieschnick, J., Suarez-rivera, R., Lewis, R., and Walter, G. 2006. Producing Gas from Its Source. Schlumberger.
Oilfield Review. Autumn 2006.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 3

theformofalgae,plant,andanimalderivedorganicdebris 9 .Thenaturallytabularclaygrainstend
tolayflatasthesedimentsaccumulateandsubsequentlybecomecompactedasadditional
sedimentsaredeposited.Thesemudslithifyintothinlaminarbeddingthatformsthinlylayered
shalerock(Exhibit2).Thenaturallayeringandfracturingofshalesistypicallyseeninoutcrop.
Exhibit2showsashaleoutcropwhichrevealsthenaturalbeddingplanes,orlayersoftheshale,
andnearverticaljointsthatcrosscutthenaturalhorizontalbeddingplanes.

Whilethevariousshalesweredepositedinsimilarenvironments,postdepositionchangeshave
resultedinconsiderabledifferencesinthecurrentconditionoftheseshales.Differencesinheritto
thegasshalescanbeseenby
Exhibit2:MarcellusShaleOutcrop comparingthedatapresentedin
Exhibit3.

Exhibit3summarizesthekey
characteristicsofselectshalegas
playsacrosstheU.S.Thetable
providesdatarelatedtothe
characteroftheselectgasshales,
providingameanstocompare
characteristicsofthedifferentgas
shaleplays.Forexample,theAntrim
Shaleinthenorthernportionsofthe
lowerpeninsulaofMichiganand
NewAlbanyShalearemuch
shallowershalesthanthefiveother
gasshalescharacterizedinthetable.
Thesetwoshalesarealsotheonly
shalespresentedinthetableto
Source:ALLConsulting,2008
produceformationwaterin
considerablevolumes.Spatial
distributionisanothercharacteristicwhichvariesconsiderably,theBarnettShaleisestimatedto
occurwithina5,000squaremileareaofurbantosuburbanareasnearForthWorth,Texas.In
contrast,theMarcellusShaleisexpectedtobedevelopedover95,000squaremilesofmixedrural
andurbanareascoveringpartsofNewYork,Pennsylvania,Ohio,Kentucky,andWestVirginia
(Exhibit1).

Othercharacteristicdifferencesincludethethicknessofshales,thethicknessoftheintervening
formationsornaturalbarriersprovidedbygeologicmaterialspresentbetweenproducinggas
shalesandgroundwatersources.IntheareasoftheHaynesvilleandWoodfordShales,thenatural

9
Davis Jr, R. 1992. Depositional Systems: An Introduction to Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Prentice Hall. 2nd Edition. 1992.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 4

 EXHIBIT3.COMPARISONOFDATAFORTHEGASSHALESINTHEUNITEDSTATES
GasShaleBasin Barnett Fayetteville Haynesville Marcellus Woodford Antrim NewAlbany
EstimatedBasin
5,000 9,000 9,000 95,000 11,000 12,000 43,500
Area,squaremiles
6,500 1,000 10,500 4,000 6,000 600 500
Depth,ft
8,500 10 7,00010 13,500 11 8,5001 11,00010 2,20010 2,00010
100
NetThickness,ft 2020010 20010300 50200 12 120220 13 701210 5010010
60010
DepthtoBaseof
~1200 ~500 14 ~400 ~850 ~400 ~300 ~400
TreatableWater,ft
RockColumn
betweenPayand 5,300 10,100 2,125 5,600 300
5006,500 1001,600
BaseofTreatable 7,300 13,100 7,650 10,600 1,900
Water
TotalOrganic
4.510 4.09.810 0.54.011 312 15 114 16 12010 12510
Carbon,%
TotalPorosity,% 4510 2810 8911 10 17 39 18 910 101410
GasContent, 300
6022010 100330 19 6010017 200300 20 4010010 408010
scf/ton 35010
WaterProduction,
010 0 0 0 550010 550010
Barrelswater/day
Wellspacing,Acres 6016010 80160 40560 21 4016021 64021 4016010 8010
OriginalGasIn
327 52 717 1,500 52 76 160
Place,Tcf 22
363 23 ,
Reserves,Tcf22 44 41.6 251 11.4 20 19.2
50024
Est.Production, 625
338 24 53024 3,100 26 41524 12520024
mcf/day/well 1,800 25
mcf=thousandsofcubicfeetofgas.
NOTE:Dataderivedfromvarioussourcesandresearchanalysis.Informationfromsomebasinswasunabletobeidentifiedandconfirmedatthe
timeofthispaperandhasbeenleftblank.
#fortheDepthtobaseoftreatablewaterdata,thedatawasbasedondepthdatafromstateoilandgasagenciesandstategeologicalsurveydata.

10
Hayden,J.,andPursell,D.TheBarnettShale.VisitorsGuidetotheHottestGasPlayintheUS.Oct.2005.
11
Berman,A.2008.TheHaynesvilleShaleSizzleswiththeBarnettCools.WorldOilMagazine.Vol.229No.9.Sept.2008.
12DrillingContractor.2000.AlabamaLawsuitPosesThreattoHydraulicFracturingAcrossU.S.pp4243.January/February2000.
13Haines,L.2006.SupplementtoOil&GasInvestor.Shalegas:ActivityBuildsintheWoodfordShale.p17.January2006.
14ArkansasOilandGasCommission.2008.FieldRulesandRuleB15.
15Nyahay,R.,Leone,J.,Smith,L.,Martin,J.,andJarvie,D.2007.UpdateonRegionalAssessmentofGasPotentialintheDevonian

MarcellusandOrdovicianUticaShalesofNewYork.October1,2007.
16Cardott,B.2004.OklahomaGeologicalSurvey.OverviewofUnconventionalEnergyResourcesofOklahoma.March9,2004.
17Soeder,D.J.1986.PorosityandPermeabilityofEasternDevonianGasShale.SPEFormationEvaluation.v3.Issue1.January1,

1986.
18Vulgamore,T.,Clawson,T.,Pope,C.,Wolhart,S.,Mayerhofer,M.,Machovoe,S.,andWaltman,C.2007.ApplyingHydraulicFracture

DiagnosticstoOptimizeStimulationsintheWoodfordShale.SPE110029.2007.
19PetroleumListingServices.2008.OtherPlayersReportingHaynesvilleSuccess.August15,2008.
20Jochen,V.Schlumberger.2006.NewTechologyNeedstoProduceUnconventionalGas.November29,2006.
21Sumi,L.2008.OilandGasAccountabilityProject(OGAP).ShaleGas:FocusontheMarcellusShale.May2008.
22NavigantConsulting.2008.NorthAmericanNaturalGasSupplyAssessment.PreparedforAmericanCleanSkiesFoundation.July4,

2008.
23
Mary Esch, 2008. Estimated Gas Yield from Marcellus Shale Goes Up. The Philadelphia Inquirer. November 4, 2008.
24Williams,P.2008.AmericanCleanSkies.AVastOceanofNaturalGas.p4450.Summer2008.
25GasLeases.2008.ChesapeakeEnergyCEO:HaynesvilleShaleisFourthLargestintheWorld.July6,2008.
26Engelder,TandLash,G.G.2008.MarcellusShalePlaysVastResourcePotentialCreatingStirinAppalachia.TheAmericanOil&

GasReporter.May2008.
Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 5
barriersarethousandsoffeetto10,000feetthick.IncontrastshalesliketheNewAlbanyand
Antrimareonlyhundredsoffeettoapproximately2,200feetthick(Exhibit3).Gasshalesalso
showawiderangeintheestimatedquantitiesofgasinplace,fromlowestimatesof52Tcfforthe
FayettevilleandWoodfordtohighestimatesof1,500TcffortheMarcellus(Exhibit3).

Gasshaleswere
EXHIBIT4:STRATIGRAPHYOFTHEU.S.GASSHALES depositedfromthe
Period ShaleFormation Location CambriantotheTertiary.
Miocene McClure/Monterey California
Exhibit4presentsa
Tertiary
Eocene GreenRiver Colorado,Utah summarytabledepicting
Gammon Montana theageoftheknown
Mowry Wyoming
Cretaceaous Late shalegasplaysinthe
LewisMancos NewMexico,Utah
Niobrara Colorado UnitedStates.The
Jurassic Late Haynesville Louisiana CambrianConasauga
Excello Kansas,Oklahoma ShaleofAlabamais
Pennsylvanian
Hovenweep Colorado,Utah geologicallyoldest
Barnett Texas knowngasshaleplayand
Fayetteville Arkansas theMioceneMcClure
Late
Mississippian Floyd/Neal Alabama,Mississippi ShaleofCaliforniathe
Moorefield Arkansas youngestgasshale
Early Caney Oklahoma (Exhibit4).The
Mississippian NewAlbany Illinois,Indiana
depositionofgasrich
/Devonian Woodford Oklahoma,Texas
Alabama,Arkansas, blackshalesinNorth
Chattanooga
Kentucky,Tennessee Americathrivedfromthe
AntrimShale Michigan MiddleDevonianto
Ellsworth Michigan Mississippian.Asseenin
Devonian Late Ohio,Virginia,West Exhibit4,thereare13
Huron
Virginia,Kentucky gasshaleplayswhich
Kentucky,Ohio,West
Ohio
Virginia weredepositedfromthe
NewYork, MiddleDevonianto
Marcellus Pennsylvania,West
Mississippian.Included
Virginia
Ordovician Utica NewYork inthese13shalesarethe
Cambrian Conasauga Alabama fourshaleplayswiththe
Source:Cardott,2008. 27 largestaerialextent:the
Huron,Ohio,Marcellus,
Chattanooga,andtheirequivalents.

Whiledepositedindifferentgeologictimes,theseshalessharesimilardepositionalenvironments.
Blackshalesaccumulateindepositionsettingsinwhichthereislittletonooxygenpresentinthe
water(anaerobicenvironments)9.ShalesoftheDevonianandMississippianweredepositedata
timewhenaninteriorseawaywaspresentacrossmuchofthecontinentalU.S.fromthe

Brian J. Cardott, 2008, Understanding gains on newreservoir: Shales Closing Conventional Gap. In AAPG Explorer ,
27

November 2008.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 6

AppalachianMountainswestwardtothepresentdayRockyMountains26.Theseshaleswere
depositedindeeptroughbasinsbelowthepycnocline,alayerinwaterbodiesbelowwhicha
densitydifferencepreventswaterfromoverturningandbringingoxygentothelowerportionsof
thewater,shallowsilledbasinsinwhichfreshwaterrechargewaslimitedoronshallowmarine
shelvesinwhichoxygenwasdepleted 28 .Allthreedepositionalenvironmentsarecharacterizedby
minimalclasticsedimentdeposition(fromriversandstreams),andhighorganicmatter
preservationfromthelackofoxygenatdepth.SimilardepositionisobservedinthemodernBlack
SeaandfjordsofnorthernEurope,wherealayeroflowsalinityfreshwatertrapsnormalsalinity
wateroutofcontactwithsuppliesofoxygenatedwaterandtheatmosphere 29 .Thedepositionof
largequantitiesoforganicmatterbelowthepycnoclineandtectonicactivityresultedintherapid
burialandaccumulationoftheorganicmatterintheseblackshales26.Thesedepositional
environmentsalsosupporttheaccumulationofUraniumwhichalongwithitsdaughterproduct
RadiumisusuallyfoundinBlackShalesatwhatcansometimesbeatconcentrationshigherthan
othersubsurfacegeologicformations 30 .

Gasshalesareorganicrichshaleformationsthathavetraditionallybeenviewedassourcerocks
andsealsforgasaccumulatinginthestratigraphicallyproximalsandstoneandcarbonatereservoirs
oftraditionalonshoregasdevelopment 31 .Gasthatwasaccumulatedintheshaleswasnot
historicallyconsideredaresourcethatcouldbeeconomicallyrecoveredutilizingconventionalgas
developmentmethods1.Shaleisasedimentaryrockthatispredominantlycomprisedof
consolidatedclayandsiltsizedparticles.Thecompactionofclayparticlesthatoccursduringpost
depositionasadditionalmaterialsaccumulateabovetheseparticlesresultsintheformationthin
laminaelayers.Thinlaminaeforminpartbecausetheclaygrainsrotatetolieflatasaresultof
pressurefromcompaction.Thethinlayersthatmakeupshaleresultinarockwithlimited
horizontalpermeabilityandminimalverticalpermeability.Unfracturedshalestypicallyhave
permeabilitiesontheorderof0.01to0.00001millidarcies 32 .Thelownaturalpermeabilityofshale
hasbeenalimitingfactortotheproductionofshalegasresources 33 .

Thenaturalmatrixpermeabilityofshalesissometimesovercomebytheformationofnatural
fracturenetworkswhichdevelopmentwhenoverburdenpressureisreducedasaresultoferosion
ofoverlyingrockformations.Othertectonicactivitycanalsocauseachangeinthepressure
creatingadditionalfractures.Thesenaturalfracturesareusuallyveryapparentinoutcropasseen
inExhibit2.Fracturesareoftenkeysourcesofpermeabilityfacilitatingthemigrationoffluids
throughfinegrainedrockssuchasshales.

28
R. Wicander, and J.S. Monroe. 1989. Historical Geology: Evolution of the Earth and Life through Time. West Publishing
Company. 578 pgs.
29
James I. Drever, 1988, Geochemistry of Natural Waters, Prentice Hall. 437 pgs.
30
Barbara J. Graves; 1987 Radon in Ground Water. Lewis Publishers. 546 pgs.
31
Schlumberger 2005. Shale Gas White Paper. 05-OF299. October 2005, Schlumberger Marketing Communications.
32
R.A. Freeze and J.A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice Hall. 604pgs.
33
S. Ameri, K. Aminian, J.A. Miller, D. Doricich, and A.B. Yost II. 1985. A Systematic Approach for Economic Development of
the Devonian Shale Gas Resources. SPE 14504.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 7

HydraulicFracturingBasics
Hydraulicfracturingisaformationstimulationpracticeusedtocreateadditionalpermeabilityina
producingformation.Bycreatingadditionalpermeability,hydraulicfracturingfacilitatesthe
migrationoffluidstothewellboreforpurposesofproduction 34 .Hydraulicfracturingcanbeused
toovercomebarrierstotheflowoffluids,oneoftheprimaryreasonsdevelopmentofgasshaleshas
traditionallybeenlimited.Barriersmayincludenaturallylowpermeabilitycommoninshale
formationsorreducedpermeabilityresultingfromnearwellborepermeabilityimpairmentcaused
duringdrillingactivities34.Whileaspectsofhydraulicfracturinghavebeenchangingandmaturing,
thistechnologyhasbeenutilizedbyindustrytoincreaseproductiontosupporttheincreasing
demandforenergyforover60years4.

Theprocessofhydraulicfracturingastypicallyusedforshalegasdevelopmentinvolvesthe
pumpingoftensofthousandsofbarrelsofsandladenwaterintothetargetshalezone.Fluids
pumpedintotheshalecreatesfracturesoropeningsthroughwhichthesandflows,atthesametime
thesandactstopropopenthefracturesthathavebeencreated.Oncethepumpingoffluidshas
stoppedthesandremainsinplaceallowingfluids(bothgasandwater)toflowbacktothe
wellbore.Thefollowingsectionsdiscusstheprocessofhydraulicfracturingbeginningwiththe
designingofstimulationsandendingwithadiscussionofhowproducedandflowbackwateris
handled.

FractureStimulationDesign
Modernformationstimulationpracticesarecomplexsophisticatedprocesseswhichcancost
millionsofdollars.Hydraulicfracturesimulationsareengineeredmodelswhichproduction
companiesusetodesignahydraulicfracturingtreatmenttoemplacefracturenetworksinspecific
areas 35 .Hydraulicfracturetreatmentsaredesignedformationstimulationsinwhichspecific
characteristicsofthetarget
formation(thicknessofshale, Exhibit5:ExampleOutputofaHydraulicFractureSimulation
rockfracturingcharacteristics,
stressregimes,etc.)areusedto
developanetworkoffractures4.

Thedesignprocessfora
hydraulicfracturetreatment
startswithprestimulation
reservoirevaluationwhich
typicallyinvolvestheprocessof
collectingfielddata.
Understandingthecharacterof
thereservoirandthedynamics

34
Veatch, Ralph W. Jr.; Zissis A. Moschovidis; and C. Robert Fast, An Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing. in Recent Advances
in Hydraulic Fracturing, Edited by John L Gidley, Stephen A. Holditch, Dale E. Nierode, and Ralph W, Veatch Jr. Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Henry L Doherty Series Monograph Volume 12.
35
C. Boyer, J. Kieshchnick, and R Lewis. 2006. Producing Gas from Its Source. In Oilfield Review Autumn 2006. pgs 36-49.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 8

ofexistingstressrelationshiparetwoofthecriticalcomponentsengineersuseindesigningfracture
stimulation.Datarelatedtothereservoirmaybecollectedfromsurfacegeophysicalloggingprior
todrilling,coreanalysis,openorcasedholelogging,andoffsetproductionperformanceanalysis 36 .
Datacollectedincludesporosity,permeability,andlithologyoftheproducingformation,fluid
saturationdata,naturalfracturecharacterandpresentdaystressregimeswhichidentifythe
maximumandleastprincipalhorizontalstresses.Naturalfracturedataincludingorientation,
height,halflength,fracturewidthandpermeabilityisusedtodeterminewherenewfracturesare
neededandtoassesshownewfracturesmaydevelopintheformation 37,38 .Hydraulicfracturing
designsareconstantlybeingrefinedtooptimizefracturenetworkingandtomaximizegas
production,whileensuringthatfracturedevelopmentisconfinedtothetargetformation35.

Onemethodusedtooptimizefracturestimulationdesignistheuseofcomputersimulators.
Computersimulatorsareprogramsdesignedtousecollecteddata(asdescribedabove)forthe
producingformationandcreateamodel,usingmathematicalformulasoffracturepropagation,to
predictpossiblefracturepropagations.Simulatorsallowengineerstoalterthestimulation
programs(volumesandtypesofproppants,fluids,andadditives)toevaluatehowfracturescould
developwithinthereservoir.Simulatorsallowengineerstoevaluatehydraulicfracturetreatment
designinacontrolledsettingandassesstheresultantfracturesthatarepredictedtodevelop 39 .
Thereareavarietyofmodelsthatcanbeused,witheachrespectivemodelhavingdifferentoptions.
Asimulatormaybeusedtopredictedthreedimensionalfracturegeometry(Exhibit5),integrated
acidfracturingsolutions,ortoreverseengineerdesignstagesforspecificcharacteristics35.

Modelingprogramsalsoallowdesignerstomodifyplans
asadditionaldataarecollectedrelativetothespecific
targetformation39.Theuseofmodelsallowsdesignersto
makeadvancesinthedesignofhydraulicfracturing
operationstodevelopmoreefficientwaystocreate
additionalflowpathstothewellbores,withoutrisking
actualwells.

Whendesigningfracturestimulationtreatments,
operatorstakeintoconsiderationformationstressesto
predictprobablefracturepropagation.Useofasingle
fractureeventandmicrosiesmicmonitoringonavertical
wellintheformationofinterestpriortodrilling
horizontallateralsonthatwellcanbeusedtodesign
StressFieldsonaFormationatDepth lateralorientationtothepreferreddirection.Thereare
Source:ALLConsulting,2008
threeprincipalcategoriesofstressesthatexistina
formation:verticalstress,maximumhorizontalstress,

36
Proptester/Styfan Engineering Alliance, Hydraulic Fracturing and Stimulation Services for the Global Oil and Gas Industry.
November 7, 2008. www.proptester.com
37
Chesapeake Energy Corporation, Components of Hydraulic Fracturing, Presented to the NY DEC, October 2008.
38
Pekarek, Gary and F. Pichard, Fracture Solutions Unlock US Gas Shale Plays, March 2008. E&P.
39
Meyer & Associates, Inc. Users Guide for the Meyer Fracturing Simulators. Sixth Edition.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 9

andminimumhorizontalstress 40 .Thestressesvarythroughoutthereservoir,primarilyinthe
verticaldirectionduetothedifferentpropertiesofsubsurfaceformations.Themagnitudeand
directionofthesestressesareimportantbecausetheydictatetherequiredpressuretocreateand
propagatefracturesandthefractureorientation.Verticalstressinmostproductiveformationsis
typicallythemaximumstressduetothedepthoftheformationsandduetothisverticalfractures
arepropagatedwhenfracturingoccurs.Inaddition,fracturestendtoparallelthemaximum
horizontalstressinreservoirrock(perpendiculartothedirectionoftheminimumprincipal
stress) 41 .Fractureorientationinfluenceshorizontal
wellborelateraldirection,preferredperforation
orientation,drainageareaandeffectivewellspacingand
floodsweepefficiencies.Whenhorizontalwellboresare
drilledinthedirectionofthemaximumhorizontal
stress(i.e.,perpendiculartominimumhorizontalstress)
longitudinalfracturesarecreated.Whenwellboresare
drilledinthedirectionoftheminimumhorizontalstress
transversefracturesarecreated.Inadditiontolateral
placementtheorientationofperforationsinthe
wellboreinfluencemanyfactorsduringfracturingand EffectofWellTrajectoryon
FormationBreakdownPressure
thelifeofthewell.Whenperforationsareoriented Source:HelixRDS
properly,thewellmayhavehigherproductionratesand
duringthefracturestimulationtreatmentmoreproppantcanbeeffectivelyplacedprovidingfora
moreeffectivefracturetreatmentandlesssandproduction 42 .

Anotherconsiderationwhendesigningafracturetreatmentthathastobeconsideredistortuosity.
Tortuosityreferstoagradualorsharpredirectionoffracturestothepreferredplane 43 .This
processcancreatesignificanthydraulicfracturingchallenges,includingprematurescreenoutsand
nearwellborefriction,whichresultsinpressuredropswhichmaymeanhighersurfacepressure
requirementstopropagatethefracture.Tortuosityhasbeenobservedtooccurinhighdifferential
stressfields,indeviatedwells,inlongperforatedintervalsandphasedperforations,andin
reservoirswithnaturalfractures.Screenoutoccurswhenfracturefluidsarenolongercapableof
carryingtheproppantsandortheconcentrationofsandbecomestogreat,causingthesandto
settleoutinthepipingandnotbecarriedintothefractures.Iftortuosityisexpectedtobea
consideration,itsmediationshouldbeimplementedtoensurerequiredratesandtreating
pressuresaremaintainedduringthefracturetreatment.

40
Department of Energy. Hydraulic Fracturing White Paper.
41
PTTC Technology Connections. Hydraulic Fracturing Measurement, Characterization, and Analysis. Retrieved November
10, 2008 from http://www.pttc.org/workshop_summaries/sol_2004/533.htm.
42
Zaki bin Awang, Mohd. Hydraulic Fracturing. Presentation retrieved November 10, 2008 from
http://www.ccop.or.th/PPM/document/CHEXV4/CHEXV4DOC03_awang.pdf.
43
Papanastasiou, Panos. Hydraulic Fracturing: Basic Concepts and Numerical Modeling. Presentation retrieved November 10,
2008 from http://alert.epfl.ch/Archive/ALERT2006/pdf/7%20Papanastasiou%20P%20Hydraulic%20fracturing.pdf

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 10

FractureMonitoring
Additionaladvancesinhydraulicfracturingdesigntargetanalysisofhydraulicfracturetreatments
throughmonitoringtechnologies.Monitoringtechnologiesareusedtomapwherefracturing
occursduringastimulationtreatmentandincludessuchtechniquesasmicroseismicfracture
mapping,andtiltmetermeasurements4.Thesetechnologiescanbeusedtodefinethesuccessand
orientationofthefracturescreatedduringastimulationprocess.

Microseismicmonitoringistheprocess
Exhibit6:MappingofMicroseismicEvents bywhichtheseismicwavesgenerated
duringthefracturingofarock
formationaremonitoredandusedto
mapthelocationsofthefractures
generated(Exhibit6) 44 .Monitoringis
doneusingasimilartechnologytothat
usedtomonitorlargernaturally
occurringseismiceventsassociated
withearthquakesandothernatural
processes.Microseismicmonitoringis
anactivemonitoringprocess
performedduringahydraulicfracture
Source:OilfieldServiceCompany
treatment44.Asanactivemonitoring
processmicroseismicmonitoringcan
beusedtodeveloprealtimechangestoafractureprogram.Microseismicmonitoringprovides
engineerstheabilitytomanagetheresourcethroughintelligentplacementofadditionalwellsto
takeadvantageofthenaturalconditionsofthereservoirandexpectedfractureresultsinnew
wells44.

Tiltmetersarepassivemonitoringtechnologieswhichrecordthedeformationofrocksthatare
inducedbythehydraulicfractureprocess 45 .Tiltmeterscanbeplacedatthegroundsurfaceaway
fromawellordownholeinanearbywellboretightlyintotherock.Tiltmetersmeasurechangesin
inclinationintwoorthogonaldirections,whichcanthenbetranslatedintothestrainrotationthat
resultsfromhydraulicfracturing45.Engineerscanthendeterminebasedonthestrainrotationthe
locationofthehydraulicfracturingeventthatcausedthestrainrotation.

HydraulicFracturingProcessandEquipmentUsed
Hydraulicfracturingofthehorizontalshalegaswellsisperformedinstages.Laterallengthsin
typicalshalegasdevelopmentwellsarefrom1,000feettomorethan5,000feetinlength.Because
ofthelengthofexposedwellbore,itisusuallynotpossibletomaintainadownholepressure
sufficienttostimulatetheentirelengthofalateralinasinglestimulationevent 46 .Assuch,

44
C. Kessler, Fracture Monitoring Technology allows Operators to Optimize Treatments in the Field in Real Time, Halliburton
Energy Services, May 2007.
45
Hydraulic Fracturing Club, Tiltmeter Fracture Mapping, 2008. www.hydraulicfracturing.org
46
W.K. Overbey, A.B. Yost, and D.A. Wilkins, 1988, Inducing Multiple Hydraulic Fractures from a Horizontal Wellbore. SPE
Paper 18249.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 11

hydraulicfracturetreatmentsofshalegas
wellsareperformedbyisolatingportionsof
thelateralandperformingmultiple
treatmentstostimulatetheentirelengthof
thelateralportionofthewell37.

Exhibit7presentsaprocessflowdiagram
showingtheorderofeventsthatoccurfor
onestageofahydraulicfracturetreatment.
Ahydraulicfracturetreatmentstartswith
bringingequipmentonsite.Onceonsite,the
equipmentisriggedup.Rigupinvolves
makingalloftheironconnections
necessarybetweenthefracheadonthe
well,fracpumps,manifoldtrailers,and
additiveequipmentwhichfeedfluidsand
additivesintothefracpumps.Iron
connectionsaretypicallysecuredwith ABallandBallPacker(PennsylvaniaMarcellusShale)
Source:ALLConsulting2008
restraintstoensuresafetyincaseofiron
failure.

Eachfracturestageisperformedwithinanisolatedinterval(forexample,a500ftinterval)within
whichaclusterofperforationsiscreatedusingaperforatingtool.Perforationsallowfluidstoflow
throughthecasingtotheformationduringthefracturetreatmentandalsoallowgastoflowinto
thewellboreduringtheproductionphaseofoperations37.Inordertoisolateeachfracturestageof
afracturetreatment,apackerisusedtoisolateeachfracturinginterval.Onetypeofpackerused
forcreatingzonalisolationisaballpackerwhichworksbyhavingasteelballpumpedintoaseat
pointtypicallylocatedwherethelastfracturestagewascompleted.Theballactsasasealingagent
tothepreviouslytreatedzoneisolatingthenexttreatmentinterval.

Forgasshalesindividualfracturetreatmentstagestypicallyincludemultiplesubstages,during
whichdifferentfluidsandconcentrationsofproppantsarepumpedintothewell.Initialsubstages
aretypicallyperformedasaflushandoftenmaysimplyincludepumpingfreshwaterintothe
wellbore.Followingthefreshwaterflushisanacidflushtocleancementfromtheperforationsand
nearthewellboreareatofacilitatetheflowoffluidsduringthefracturingprocess.

Followingtheacidflushistypicallyaspacerwhichpushestheacidintotheformationandbegins
thepropagationoffracturing.Afterthespacerispumped,thenextsubstageistypicallyawell
shutinduringwhichthefracturegradientfortheformationiscalculated.Whenthewellisopened
again,acleanfracturefluidpadisinjectedtolubricatewelltubingandformationfracturesaidingin
thedeliveryoftheproppantsubstages.Thenextsubstagesareaseriesinwhichproppantisused
tocreateandmaintainfractures.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 12

Exhibit7:ProcessFlowDiagramforaHydraulicFractureTreatment

Drilling & Data Collection: Model Simulations: Bring Hydraulic Fracturing Bring Fluids
Equipment On-site: On-site:

Acid Treatment: Flush and Initiate Formation Perforate Production Tubing Rig-Up Piping:
Breakdown:

Pump Slickwater Pad Pump Proppant Stages: More Proppant Stages: Well Flush:

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 13

Insomefracturetreatments,twoormoreproppantsareusedtooptimizetheproppingoffractures
atvariousdistancesfromthewellbore34.FracturetreatmentsoftheBarnettShaletypicallyinclude
theuseofmultipleproppantswhichmayincludeuptofourdifferentproppantsstartingwitha100
meshsand,thena40/70meshsand,thena30/50meshsandandfinallyaresincoated30/50mesh
sandproppant.Initialproppantplacementsubstagesstartwithlowconcentrationstypically
around0.1poundsofsandpergallon(ppg)offluid 47 .Ateachsubsequentsubstage,anincreasein
proppantconcentrationisperformedataregularrate,incrementsof0.2ppgpersubstageare
typical.

Thenumberofsubstagesisdeterminedbyvolumesofproppantandfracturefluidthatare
designedforthefracturetreatment.Foramultipleproppanttreatmentschedule,proppant
concentrationistypicallymaintainedwhenatransitionfromoneproppanttoanotheroccurssuch
thatthefinalslurrydensitywouldbethesameastheinitialslurrydensityofthenextstage.Once
theprescribedvolumeoffluidsandproppanthasbeenpumped,afinalflushisperformedtoclean
thewellboreandtubingofproppant.

Forahydraulicfracturingtreatment,
specializedequipmentisnecessaryto
performthestepsrequiredtostimulate
theformation.Thisequipmentincludes
storagetanks,pumps,chemicaltrucks
andavarietyofpipesandfittingsto
connecteverythingtogether.The
followingisabriefdescriptionofsome
itemsthataretypicallyutilizedduringa
horizontalshalegaswellfracture
treatment.Fractureorfractanksare
largetrailertankswhicharedesignedto
holdseveralhundredbarrelsoffresh
waterwhichisusedasthebasefluidfor
slickwaterfracturetreatments.
WaterStorageFracTanks(FayettevilleShale)
Source:ALLConsulting2008 Chemicaltrucksareflatbedtrucksused
totransportchemicalsfromsitetosite.
Chemicaladditivetrucksmayalsobeusedtotransportsomeoftheadditivestothesite,butthese
trucksalsocontainpumpswhichareusedtopumpadditivestotheblenders.Acidistypically
transportedtothejobsitebyanacidtransporttruck,whichcanholdupto5,000gallonsofacid.
Acidtransporttrucksmayhavemultiplecompartmentstoallowtransportofseveraldifferentacids
oradditives.Acidcanalsobetransportedwithanacidfracturingorbacksidepump,whichisaunit
thatpumpsandholdspressureonthecasingortopumpacidjobs.Sandstorageunitsarelarge
tankswhichareusedtoholdtheproppant(typicallysand),theseunitsfeedsandtotheblendervia

47
Data collected by ALL Consulting from Weatherford Fracturing Technologies on a treatment schedule of a Fayetteville Shale
gas well, September 2008.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 14

alargeconveyerbelt.Asandstorageunitmaycontainasmuchas350,000to450,000poundsof
proppant 48 .

Ablendertakesfreshfluidsfromthefractanksusingsuctionpumpsandcombinesthewaterwith
theproppantinahopper.Fluidsandproppantareblendedwithotheradditivesatthe
programmedconcentrations;theslurryisthenpressurizedandtransferredtofracpumps.Frac
pumpsarehighpressurepumpsthatpullfracturingfluidsfromablenderandpressurizethefluid
viaapositivedisplacementpumppriortodischargingthefluidintothemanifoldtrailer48.The
manifoldtrailerisalargemanifoldsystemwhichactsasatransferstationforallfluids,mixedfluids
fromtheblenderpumpsmovethroughthemanifoldonthewaytothepumptrucks.Similarly,
pressurizedfluidsfromthefracpumpsarepumpedthroughthemanifoldintothegroundlines
whichtransferthefluidstothefrachead.

Atechnicalmonitoringvehicle
(TMV)datavanistheworkarea
forthefracturingservice
supervisor,engineers,pump
operatorsandcompany
representative.Thisvaniswhere
activitiesassociatedwiththe
fracturetreatmentaremonitored
andcoordinatedthisincludes
monitoringalltreatment
pressures,chemicals,proppant
density,fluidvelocity,pressures,
andwherealldataisrecorded
andreviewed.WithintheTMV
theentirefracturestimulationis
trackedforeachstagethatis
preformed.
TechnicalMonitoringVan(MarcellusShale)
Hydraulicfracturingstimulations Source:ALLConsulting2008
aremonitoredcontinuouslyby
operatorsandservicecompaniestoevaluateanddocumenttheeventsofthehydraulicfracturing
treatments.Monitoringoffracturetreatmentsincludestrackingtheprocesswithwellheadand
downholepressures,pumpingrates,fracturingfluidslurrydensitymeasurements,tracking
volumesforadditives,trackingvolumesofwater,andensuringthatequipmentisfunctioning
properly.Duringatypicalhydraulicfracturingeventforahorizontalwell,theremaybemorethan
30servicecompanyrepresentativesonsiteperformingandmonitoringthestimulationaswellas
additionalstafffromtheoperatorandperhapsthestateoil&gasagency.Thislevelofmanpower
alsoservesasanemergencyresponseteamshouldanunforeseenincidentoccur.

48
Weatherford, Hydraulic Fracturing 101, Presentation provided to new employees to familiarize employees with Fracturing
equipment. Revised 1-18-07.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 15

Refinementofthehydraulicfracturingprocessoccursasoperatorscollectmoreresourcespecific
data.Thisprocessgenerallyhelpstocreateamoreoptimizedfracturepatternswithinthetarget
formationforpurposesofincreasinggasproductionaswellasfurtherensuringthatfracturesdo
notgrowoutofthetargetformation 49 .Therefinementofthehydraulicfracturingprocesswasa
necessarystepinthesuccessoftheBarnettShaleasdevelopmentmovedawayfromthecorearea
oftheBarnett 50 .HydraulicfracturinginsomeareasoftheBarnettresultedinfracturesextending
intotheunderlyingEllenbergerFormation.WellsinwhichfracturesextendedintotheEllenberger
FormationhadincreasedwaterproductionaswaterfromthemorewaterladenEllenbergerflowed
intothesewellbores50.Thisresultedinhighercostsandundesiredwaterhandlingissues.Asa

Exhibit8:CompositionofaProppantLaden
FractureFluid

Source:CompiledfromDatacollectedataFayettevilleShale
FractureStimulationbyALLConsulting2008.

result,fracturingprocesseshavebeenrefinedandunintentionalfracturingofadjacentzoneshas
becomealesserissuesasthetechnologyhasevolved.

FracturingFluidsandAdditives
Wateristheprimarycomponentfortheslickwaterfracturingtreatmentsusedinmostshalegas
plays(Exhibit8).Availabilityofwaterisadistinguishingfactorbetweenvariousshalegasplays
acrossthecountry.Withfracturetreatmentsrequiringtensofthousandsofbarrelsofwaterper
stage4tostimulatefracturesoperatorswithinshalegasplaysarecompelledtoidentifyanumberof
uniquewaysofacquiringfreshwater.Forexample,attheDallasFortWorth(DFW)Airportproject
oftheBarnettshalegasplay,ChesapeakeEnergyhasconstructedtapsintotheDFWairportsfresh
watersystem.Waterispumpedintolinedstorageimpoundmentsandstoreduntilitistransported
bytemporaryabovegroundpipingtothewellpadlocationsforafracturetreatment.Chesapeake
hasstrategicallylocatedimpoundmentsthroughouttheprojectarea.Locationswerechosenbased

49
Schlumberger Fracturing Services PowerSTIM webpage. www.slb.com September 2, 2008.
50
Joel Parshall. Barnett Shale Showcases Tight-gas Development. Journal of Petroleum Technology

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 16

onconsiderationsrelativetothelocationofthenewlyconstructedwatervaultsandwellclustersto
provideoptimalaccessandreuse.

TheurbannatureoftheBarnettPlayhas
allowedoperatorsdevelopingotherareas
aroundtheDallasFortWorthareatotapinto
cityfirehydrantsandutilizedlocalsurface
reservoirsongolfcoursestostoreandsupply
water.IntheruralareaoftheFayetteville
Shaledevelopment,Chesapeakeisinthe
processofconstructingtheLittleRedRiver
Reservoir.The500acreftreservoirwillbe
suppliedbywaterdivertedfromtheLittleRed
FreshWaterVaultTapatDFWProject Riverduringperiodsofhighflow 51 .The
Source:ALLConsulting,2008 currentpermitallowsupto1,550acreftof
watertobecollectedlyannuallyandstoredforfutureuseinfracturinganddrilling51.Wateris
transportedfromtheLittleRedRiverReservoirviaabovegroundtemporarypipelinesandwater
haulingtruckstothewellpadlocationswhennecessary.

Afterwater,thelargestcompoundofafracturefluidutilizedtotreatashalegaswellsisproppant.
Proppantisagranularmaterial,usuallysand,whichismixedwiththefracturefluidstoholdor
propopenthecreatedfracturesthatallowgastoflowtothewell 52 .Othercommonlyused
proppantsincluderesincoatedsand,intermediatestrengthproppant(ISP)ceramics,andhigh
strengthproppantssuchassinteredbauxiteandzirconiumoxide 53 .Resincoatedsandsareutilized
regularlyintheshalegasplaysduringthefinalstagesofafracture.Resincoatingmaybeappliedto
improveproppantstrengthormaybedesigntoreactandactasagluetoholdsomeofthecoated
grainstogether.Resinsaregenerallyusedintheendstagesofthejobtoholdbacktheother
proppantsandmaintainnearwellborepermeability53.

Theviscosityoffreshwatertendstobelow,whichlimitswatersabilitytotransporttheproppant
necessaryforasuccessfulfracturestimulationtreatment.Asaresult,somehydraulicfracturing
fluidshaveageladditivetoincreasetheviscosityoffracturefluids.Typically,eitheralinearora
crosslinkedgelisutilized 54 .Gellantselectionisbasedonreservoirformationcharacteristics,such
asthickness,porosity,permeability,temperature,andpressure 55 .Guargum,apowder,isaddedto
thewater,andtheguarparticlesswell,creatingagel.Astemperaturesincrease,thesesolutions
tendtothindramatically.Inordertopreventthelossofviscosity,polymerconcentrationcanbe
increased(polymerloading)orinstead,crosslinkingagentscanbeaddedtoincreasethemolecular
weight,thusincreasingtheviscosityofthesolution.

51
Chesapeake Energy Corporation, Little Red River Project. Presentation to Trout Unlimited, May 6, 2008.
52
Daulton, Dan & Steve Szymczak. 2008 Treat production problems before they occur. E & P Magazine. July 2, 2008.
53
Economides, Michael J, & Kenneth G. Nolte. 1989 Reservoir Stimulation. Second Edition. 1989.
54
AKZO NOBEL. 2008Acid Corrosion Inhibitors for Oilfield Stimulation Retrieved November 7, 2008
55EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.2004.EvaluationofImpactstoUndergroundSourcesofDrinkingWaterbyHydraulic

FracturingofCoalbedMethaneReservoirs;NationalStudyFinalReport.June2004.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 17

Inadditiontowaterandproppant,manyotheradditivesareessentialtosuccessfulshalegas
reservoirfracturestimulation.Acidisutilizedinthebeginningofthefractureprocesstocleanup
cementthatislodgedintheperforationsandprovideanaccessiblepathtotheformationonce
fracturingfluidispumped.Acommontypeofacidutilizedinfractureoperationsishydrochloric
acid,whichisutilizedineverydayhouseholdcleanersandswimmingpooltreatments.HClismost
commonlyusedinconcentrationof15%HCl(15%HCland85%water),althoughitcaneffectively
beutilizedinconcentrationsrangingfrom3%to28%.Acidsaretypicallydilutedtodesired
concentrationspriortotransportingtothejoblocation.Onceitisaddedtothefracfluids,itis
furtherdilutedbyafactorof1,000ormorepriortosubsurfaceinjection.

Instimulationsthatutilizeanacidbreakdown,acorrosioninhibitorisusedtohinderthecorrosion
ofsteeltubing,wellcasing,toolsandtanks.Theadditionof0.1%to2%ofacorrosioninhibitorcan
decreasecorrosionbyupto95%54.Concentrationsofcorrosioninhibitordependondownhole
temperaturesandcasingandtubingtypes.Attemperaturesexceeding250degreesFahrenheit,
higherconcentrationsofcorrosioninhibitor,abooster,oranintensifiermayalsobenecessary.A
typicalcorrosioninhibitorutilizedinshalegasplaysisN,n,dimethylformamide37.Thisadditiveis
alsoutilizedregularlyasacrystallizationmediuminthepharmaceuticalindustry.Itistransported
tothejobsiteviaachemicaladditivestruck.Priortoinitiationoftheacidizingstageofthefracture
treatment,thecorrosioninhibitoristransferredfromthechemicaltrucktotheblenderorCASunit
andmixedbeforepressurizedandtransferredtothefracpumps.

Biocidesareadditivesthatareusedtominimizethedangerofbacterialcorrosioninthewellbore52.
Fracturefluidstypicallycontaingelsthatareorganic,whichprovidesanidealmediumforbacterial
growth,reducingviscosityandtheabilityofthefluidtoeffectivelycarryproppant.Biocides,such
asGluteraldehyde(samechemicalthatisutilizedasasterilantinthehealthcareindustry),are
liquidadditivesthataredilutedinthefracfluidinamannerismsimilartotheadditionofthe
corrosioninhibitor.Transportedtothelocationinthechemicaladditivestruck,itisaddedtothe
blenderorCASunitpriortotransferringtothefracpumps.Inadditiontogluteraldehyde,biocides
canalsocontainbleach,DAZOMET,or2,2dibromo3nitrilopropionamide.

Whenaformationcontainsclay,permeabilitycanbesignificantlyreducedwhenexposedtowater
thatislesssalinethantheformationwater.Asaresult,treatmentwithsolutionscontaining1%to
3%saltisgenerallyutilizedasabaseliquidwhenclayswellingisprobable.PotassiumChloride
(KCl)isthemostcommonchemicalutilizedasaclaystabilizerduetoitsabilitytostabilizeclay
againsttheinvasionofwatertopreventswelling.PotassiumChlorideisusuallytransportedtoa
fraclocationinadrypowderformandmixedwiththefracwaterintheblenderorCASunit.

Thermalbreakingofthepolymergeloccurswhentemperaturesexceed225degreesFahrenheit5.
However,inwellsthathavelowertemperatures,suchastheshalegaswellsintheBarnettand
Fayettevilleplays,abreakerisaddedtothefracfluidinlaterstagesoftheprocesstobreakdown
theviscosityofthegellingagenttoaidinreleasingtheproppantandenhancethevolumeof
flowbackwaterreceivedafterthecompletion3.Themostcommontypeofbreakeris
peroxydisulfates.Breakersaretypicallyaddedasthegelisbeingpumpedbecauseifgivenenough
time,itcouldreducetheviscositypriortopumping.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 18

WaterTransportandDisposal

Waterproductionassociatedwithshalegasvariesbetweentheshalegasplaysandalsovaries
significantlywithinregionsofeachoftheplays.Forexample,intheBarnettplayinTexas,water
productionisgreateronthewesternedgeoftheplayanddecreasestonearlyzeroontheeastern
edgeoftheplay.TheFayettevilleplayhasverylittleassociatedwaterproduction.Mostofthe
concernsofwatertransportanddisposalarisefromflowbackwater,orthepartialrecoveryofthe
fluidsthatareutilizedtofracturestimulationawell.

Waterdisposalcreatesadditionalchallengesforoperatorsintheshalegasplayareas.Land
applicationfacilities,bothcommercialandsingleuseapplications,arethemaindisposalmethod
utilizedintheFayettevilleplay4.TheseactivitiesareregulatedbytheArkansasDepartmentof
EnvironmentalQuality.TwelvecommerciallandfarmfacilitiesareinoperationinArkansasand3
additionalapplicationsarebeingdrafted.Over100singletimeusepermitshavebeenissuedfor
landfarmingoperations4.IntheBarnettarea,disposalinClassIIinjectionwellsistheprimary
disposalmethod.MethodsforClassIIinjectionandmunicipalandindustrialwatertreatment
facilitiesintheMarcellusshaleplayarebeingexplored.ChesapeakeEnergycurrentlyhasover60
UICpermitapplicationthatarebeingdraftedinNewYork4.However,inordertomakeinjectionan
acceptabledisposalmethodforthelongterminalloftheshalegasplays,additionalresearchonthe
receivingformationswillbenecessarytoaccommodatethenumberofwellsthatwillbenecessary.
Asmorewellsarebroughtontoproduction,operatorswillbetaskedwithfindingnewandleading
edgetechnologiesformanagingthewater.

Anotheroptionformanagementofthelargevolumesofflowbackwaterfromfracturestimulation
optionsisrecycling.Whilestillintheveryearlyphases,manyoperatorshaveappliedtothe
RailroadCommissionofTexasforpilotprojectsintheBarnettshalewithvaryingresults 56 .
FountainQuailWaterManagementusesarecyclingprocessthat
allowsreuseofapproximately80%ofthefracturedfluidusedinthe
Barnettshaleplay.Distillingunitsareutilizedonthelocationthat
heatandseparatethebrinefromthewater.Thetreatedwateris
thenutilizedinfuturefracturingtreatments,reducingthestresson
wateravailabilityandtheburdenofwaterdisposal.AsofApril26,
2008,FountainQuailhasprocessedover5.7millionbarrelsof
flowbackwatertorecoverover4.5millionbarrelsofwaterthatwas
reusedinadditionalfracturestimulations56.DTEGasResources,
Inc.performedapilotstudyfortwowellsutilizingonsiteseparation
andfiltration,butfoundtheprocesstobeuneconomic.Devon
EnergyProductionCompany,LPalsoperformedapilotprojecton
MobileEvaporatortreating fivetotenBarnettshalegaswellssimilartotheprocessapproved
Barnettfractureflowbackwater
forrecycling
byDTEGasResources56.Asadditionaloperatorsconduct
Source:OnsiteWaterTreatment,2006. successfulpilotprojectsandprovethetechnologiesavailable,

56
Railroad Commission of Texas. Water Use in the Barnett Shale. Recovered from
http://www.rrc.state.tx.us/barnettshale/wateruse_barnettshale.php. October 30, 2008.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 19

recyclingmaybecomeamoreprominentdisposalmethodandmoreoperatorswillbeencouraged
toutilizethenewtechniques.

NaturallyOccurringRadioactiveMaterials

Naturallyoccurringradioactivematerial(NORM)referstothelowlevelofradioactivematerial
fromnaturalsourcesthatarefoundinsoils,water,air,andfood.Whileeveryoneisexposedto
levelsofradiationineverydaylifefromactivitiessuchassunexposure,xrays,porcelaindental
work,orevenbooksandwristwatches 57 .IntermsofshalegasdevelopmentNORMmaybefoundin
drillcuttings,naturalgasandproducedwaterassociatedwiththeproductionofnaturalgasfrom
shaleformations.TheNORMfromtheseitemstypicallyoriginatesinthesubsurfaceformations
whicharedrilledanddevelopedtoproducenaturalgas.Thedepositionalsettingswhichresultin
theaccumulationoftheorganicmatterwhichhasbeenconvertedintothehydrocarbons(anaerobic
basins)alsosupportsthenaturalaccumulationofUranium30.Uraniumismobileinanoxygenrich
(aerobic)environmentandwillremaininsolutionorsuspensionuntilitreachesanenvironmentin
whichislackingoxygen(anaerobic).AnanaerobicenvironmentcausesUraniumtobedepositedin
precipitatesofUraniumoxides,andcarbonates29.WhileUraniumismorecommonlydepositin
blackshales,theconcentrationsarestilllowwithmostshalesaveragingbetween0.0003%or
0.0004%,blackshalesaveragecloserto0.0008%to0.0020% 58 .

InnaturalgasdevelopmentNORMconcentrationsarenoticeableinareaswheresedimentstendto
accumulateorwhereprecipitatesaccumulateasscaleonpipes,storagetanks,andothersurface
equipmentorinsedimentaccumulationsinsidetanksandprocessvessels 59 .Becauseofwhere
NORMaccumulatesinnaturalgasoperations,exposuretypicallyonlyoccurswhenrepairworkis
performed.Thedensesteelusedinnaturalgasproductionequipmentactstoblockalphaandbeta
radiationandreducestheamountofgammaradiationthatistransmitted.Typicallyexposureonly
occurswhenequipmentisopenedandexposedtotheatmosphere,assuchitisunlikelythatanoil
fieldworkerwouldbeexposedtoadosageexceedingoneremperyear,andanaveragecitizen
wouldbeexposedtoevenless57.Therisktoaveragecitizenisreducedincomparisonbecause
distanceplaysakeyrollinreducingexposuretoradioactivityassuchthelevelofradioactivityis
reducedbyacompoundingfactorsuchthatexposureis4timeslower2feetfromthesourceand16
timeslower4feetaway,comparedtoonefootaway57.

AlthoughmethodsformanagingNORMinoilfieldoperationsvaries,anumberofstateshave
enactedregulationsspecifictoNORMwhileothershandlethisissuethroughstandardoilfieldwaste
rulesaswellaspermitstipulationsinsomecases.Standardsforcleanuptypicallyrequireaverage
concentrationsoflessthan5pCi/gintheupper15cmofsoilandanaverageoflessthan15pCi/gin
deepersoils.However,managementandcleanuppracticesvarybasedonverylowperceivedrisks
tohumanhealthandtheenvironment.

57
Chesapeake Energy, 2008 Norm Fact Sheet, 2 pgs.
58
Vernon E. Swanson and E.R. Landis. 1962. Geology of a Uranium-Bearing Black Shale of Late Devonian Age in North-
Central Arkansas. USGS Information Circular No. 22.
59
United States Geological Survey. Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) in Produced Water and Oil-Field
Equipment An Issue for the Energy Industry. Fact Sheet FS-142-99. September 1999.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 20

Summary
Horizontaldrillinginconjunctionwithhydraulicfracturinghasmadedevelopmentoftheshalegas
resourceaneconomicviableventure.Estimatesofshalegasreserveshaveindicatedthatthereis
over1,000TcfofgasreservesinU.S.shaleformations.Asadditionalwellsaredrilledandmore
informationisgatheredonreservoircharacteristics,additionaladvancesmayberealizedinthe
fieldsofhorizontaldrillingandhydraulicfracturingwhichcouldfurtherenhancedevelopmentof
othershalegasresources.DevelopmentoftheBarnettShalehasproventobetheprototypeto
developmentofothergasshalesintheU.S.ContinueddevelopmentoftheBarnettandother
unconventionalshalegasresourcesshouldhelptodecreasetheU.S.dependenceofforeignimports
offossilfuels.

Developmentoftheshalegasincludesmanyuniquechallenges,includingwateravailabilityand
waterdisposal.Fordeveloperstobesuccessful,theymustcreateinnovatesolutionsto
developmentalchallengesassociatedwithsupplyingthenecessaryvolumesofwaterforhydraulic
fracturing.Forexample,ChesapeakeEnergyisconstructinga500acrefootreservoirtoholdwater
fromtheLittleRedRiverforFayettevilledevelopment.Currently,hydraulicfracturingflowback
waterisbeingtransportedtoapermittedlanddisposalfacility,adisposalwellorrecycledforother
hydraulicfracturingtreatments.Asmorewellsaredrilledanddevelopmentincreases,itis
anticipatedthatcompanieswillcontinuedesigningleadingedgetechnologicalsolutionstowater
availabilityanddisposalincludingexpandingthevolumeofwaterthatisreused.

Copyright , ALL Consulting, 2008 21