The History of Television

Motion Pictures
France
US CATV
Fee Based TV

Thomas Edison
patents motion Talking
picture camera Films Content
Filtering

TV Sales
20 million We in US
start in US

Stroboscopic
Elf Oa &ask TV
Disc
London Argentina TV

let'sexploreabriefhistoryoftelevisionaswecanseeherein1872andstartedaseriesof
photographscalledStroboscopicsoitswereTVaguessinasensestartedasyouseein1887
ThomasEdisonhasacouplepadshereformotionpicturecamerathe1stpublicdemonstration
ofmotionpictureswas18951927talkingfilmsIstartedtobeginwithLJolson19361st
televisionbroadcastmadeavailableinLondon,1945gimbaldepartmentstorewasreadytosell
1stlargescaletelevisions25,000peoplecameover3weeksforitshehastowatchNBC
programsfromNewYorksentoutbythePhilcoPhiladelphiastationin1948theEdSullivanshow
appearedandvarietyofshowscontinuetoaironchannelslikeCBSwellinto1971spurring
advancementsinthe2differentshowsinandshowbusinesscareersin1948theearliestcable
systemswerebornareasofPennsylvaniaandOregonoftheUnitedStatesin1934wasearly
communicationactforfornotbroadcasters,wheretheFCCadoptsitsfairnessdoctrinein1949a
1951orjusttelltheArgentinaandSouthAmericabeganitsbroadcastingand1952inresponse
toprotestssomepeoplethoughtTVwasaimmoralisveryinterestingandbytheendof1952
therewasover20millionTVhouseholdssothatwasquitequitesomegrowthfrom1945

1
 525 Cable TV Systems
4S0,.000 Subs
Satellite
Vasi Programming
Tonight Wasteland or
Show Greatest
Achievement WA ''S'11

Batman Cablevislon
Comic

CAN Service Record TV Ratings

f Hint TV
Junin, Cable
Buenos Ahes ReguldtiOn Music TV

co(P co\ e.)

\ \1 \c)

1953colorbroadcastingarrivessothisisagoodmilestoneinthehistoryoftelevisionof1954
NBClaunchestheTonightShowsowehavethe1sttimeacomedianwillbeontelevisionin1958
thereare525cableTVsystemserving450,000subscribersasofthingsarecertainpickupinthe
cableindustryinthe60scableTVstartedinSouthAmericaabout5.5millionhomesinLatin
AmericaandbuenasarasArgentinaisthe2ndlargestmarketintheworld1960and51wecan
seethattherearesomemorecontroversyaroundtelevisionthereisaspeechgivenbyNewton
meknowifitsaysthattheTVsarevastwastelandbutthenthevicepresident.Herbert
Humphrey:TVoneofthegreatestsingleachievementsincommunicationare64FCCissueshim
cableregulation66liveactionrepresentedonacomicstripBatmanappearsontelevision75
timeinitiatestheconceptoflinkingsatelliteprogrammingtocablesystemssothatwecan
launchserviceslikeHomeBoxOfficeandseeheavyweightboxingchampionshipslikeJoeFrazier
andMohammedalibroadcastfromManilaand79CablevisionstartsinSouthAmericacable
operatorandmanycableoperatorsarestartingacrosslikeforinstanceComcasthasitsrootsin
from19481980whoshotJRanotherbighitTVshow1980MTVcomesonthescene83final
episodeofM*A*S*H125millionhomestunedintowatchthis30minuteshowwhichhadafinal
finaleof21/2hours89paperviewbecomesfamiliarpartoftelevisionservicein1992rebuildof
cablesystemsbegintoformwhatwecalltodayistheHFCincreasingthebanwiththe700MHz
94fieldtestingofHDTVandthenwesee95theFCCofficiallysetsthestandardforHDTV96
digitalsatellitedishesarenowonly18inchesindiameteratthemarkettobecomethebiggest
sellingelectroniciteminhistorynexttoVCRsin98cablesystemsbeginwidescaletestingand
deploymentofdigitalcabletocompetewithsatellitetelevisionin2008somemovementdown
inSouthAmericaasfarAScableoperatorsconsumingothercableoperators2009TVstations
acrosstheUSseestransmissionofalogovertheyearand2010weseesomesome3D
televisionhappeningin2012102013weretalkingabouta4Ktelevision

cableoperatorsusedigitalsignalstoincreasethequalityandquantityofsubscriberservices
offeredatsiglook

cabletelevisionstartedasawayforcommunitiesisolatedfromovertheairbroadcastsby

2
geographicfeaturesordistancetoreceivetelevisionvideosignalsthesystemwasreferredtoas
communityantennatelevisionorCATVcablesystemshavesinceexpandedservicesbeyondover
theyeartodaylargecableoperatorscalledmultisystemoperatorshaveexpandedtheircable
networksacrossmultiplestatesatrendincablenetworkstointerconnectthemanyheadends
hubsandopticaltransfernodeswithafibertransportnetworktosharedigitalvideocontent
providersusingInternetprotocolandmovingpicturesexpertgroupareabletotransportvideo
signalsoverthefiberoptictransporttheuseofIPMPEGandopticalprovidesareductioninthe
equipmentateachheadendtomaintainvideoservicesitalsosimplifiesdeliveryordelivering
constantqualityofserviceforallcablecustomers

therearemanytypesofdigitalvideocontentavailabletothecablesubscribertodaywhetherit's
HDbroadcastdigitalvideoSDbroadcastdigitaldigitalvideowhichwouldbehighdefinitionand
standarddefinitionornarrowcastserviceslikevideoondemandwealsohavepaperview
enhancetelevisioninteractivetelevisionandthemediathatyouwouldgetonthisweathersDVD
orCDROMwealsohaveothertypesofvideoemergingcalledoverthetoptheriseovertopof
anIPnetworkandthatwehaveInternetprotocoltelevisionwhichismoreofamanagedvideo
serviceandswitcheddigitalvideo

Analog Video Services &

Digital VoD/SDV/HSD Tier
FCC Mu s t Ca ny

111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 I

54 240 550 750 860 1

MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz GHz
5-42
Downtream
MHz (all digital starts) (6 MHz)
Upstream
(1.6/3.2/6.4 MHz)

Analog Digital Digital Digital Digital

MI
Digital Digital Digital
6MHz

inthemidtolate1990scableoperatorbegantodeploydigitaltierofcabletheareainmaroon
shownhereonthescreendigitalwasnecessarytocompeteandtofreeuppreciousRFspectrum
spaceintheHFCoroutsideplanttodayoperatorscanconvergeallthesubscriberservicesdigital
voicedigitaldatadigitalvideotogetheronthesamedigitalnetworkdigitaloffersspeedof
manipulationandstorageretrievalforvirtualerrorfreerecreationfromtheoriginalcontentfor
theoperatorintheanalogworldonlyoneanalogvideosignalcouldbesentina6MHzchannel
andyoucanseethisacrossthebottomonesinglechannelfor6MHzbutwhenthevideosignal
isdigitizedandcompressedwithMPEG8standard2highdefinitionsor23Doroneolder
definitionsignalmaybepossiblemeaningthateach6MHzanalogcanbeconvertedto8
standarddefinitionortoHDor3D2ofthosewereoneultrasohereweseeasingle6MHz

3
analogcanbeconvertedto7digitalvideosignals

digitalisdefinedasanonorandoffalsoknownas01calledbinarythestreamofmeaningful
zerosandonescanbesenttoadestinationdeviceorinourcaseadigitalsettopboxwitha
destinationdeviceisabletoreadthelanguageofzerosandonesanddowhatisrequestedin
thetransmissionlanguageusedbycableoperatorsiscommonlyknownasMPEGMPEGallows
analogvideoandaudiotobedigitizedsentasatransportstreamusingMPEGintheworldof
analogvideosomethingmorethanacollectionofstillpicturescalledframeswhentheframes
arepresentedinquicksuccessiononavideodisplayedappearstobefluidmotionvideos
typicallycapturedat29.97framesper2ndtheworldofdigitalworksmuchthesamewayas
analogstreamsastreamofonesandzeroscalledbitsofdataaresenttoadecoderinourcase
thesettopboxandthiswillreassemblethosebinarydigitstocreatethe29.97framesper2nd
thedifferenceinthevideoisthatthedataisinbitsthesmallestaddressableelementofthe
videodisplayinourcaseatelevisioniscalledapixelandmustberepresentedbythesedigital
bitsdigitizationorencodingistheconversionofanalogdataintodigitaldatadigitaldataisa
sequenceofdiscretediscdiscontinuousvoltagepulsesdigitaldatatakeslessspaceontheageof
thespectrumtotransportandlessspaceonserverstostore

acoderisadeviceusedtoconvertanaloginformationintodigitalinformationsoherewesee
theanaloginformationbeencodedintozerosandonesandthendecodedonyoursidea
decoderisadeviceusedtoconvertdigitalinformationbacktoanaloginformationacodec
performsbothencodinganddecoding

pixelsareindividualluminescentdotsthatweredisplayedcorrectlycreateimagesbrightness
intensityandcolorinformationisencodedintoastringofdataforeachpixel

digitalchannelsarestill6MHzintheUnitedStatesandmaybe8MHzwideoutsideUnitedStates
6MHzwidechannelmaycontain6to8digitalservices6megahertzdigitalchannelsare
sometimesreferredtoasQAM

ininterlacedscanningandimagesproducedbyilluminatingindividualhorizontallinesbeginning
withlines135etc.andthenilluminatinglines246etc.theprocessisfromlefttorightstarting
atthetopandworkingtowardsthebottomofthescreenshownherestandardanalogtelevision
setsutilize480visiblehorizontallinestocreateasingleframeofvideohighdefinitiondigital
televisionorHDTVthesesetsmayutilize1080interlacedhorizontallinesor1080inowmany
programmersmayuseattendingtheIformathowevercontentismovinginthedirectionof
1080Pand2160P

anotherTVvideoformatisprogressivescanningprogressivescanningproducesaframeofpixels
sequentiallyforexamplelines1234etc.workingleftorrightandfromtoptobottomthe720P
formatisoneofexampleofthisformatinthisformat720linesareproducedsequentiallyto
createafullframesomeprogrammersusethe720Pformatitshouldbenotedthatsome
televisionsetshaveapreferredformatforinstanceofthepreferredformatis720Pthingsthat
willconvertanyreceived1080Isignaltothe720Pformatbesidesa720Pprogressivescanning
format1080P480Pand2160Pformatexiststhe480PisnotanHDformatitwasusedforDVD
videoBlurayisexampleofthe1080PwhileultrahighdefinitionoryouUHDisanexampleof
2160Pina6MHzchannel2to3720Pvideostreamsmaycoexist2to31080Pvideostreams

4
maybepossibleand22160Pvideostreamsmayexist

Constant and Variable Bit Rate

Stream 1
6Mhz Stream Channel
btre arm
Bandwidth
CBR Stream
18 MHz cre are

CBR Streams

Extra Bandwidth
1Mbps to Channel
12Mbps il"-411Ed..111.11.....1.
rlIllrilliM-llirIIIIIIIIIII Bandwidth
VBR Stream
VBR 6Mhz

VBR Streams

thereare2typesofbitratesusedbycableoperatorsconstantbitrateandvariablebitratein
constantbitratetherateofthetransportstreamconsumptioniscontainedinthedecoderthe
constantbitrateusuallyiscreatedbystuffingnullMPEGframesintothetransportstreamto
constantisalwaysthesamenoticesonthescreenherewehaveaCBR6MHzwhencombined
withotherCBRstreamsitbecomes18MHz

invariablebitratethevideoencodervariestheamountofoutputdatapertimesegmentmore
bitsareallocatedtomorecomplexcontentvariablebitrateuseslessoverallbandwidthas
shownherewehaveavariablebitratestreamthatgoesanywherebetween1and12butina
single6MHzchannelwecouldhaveseveralvariablebitratestreams

digitalsignalsusethebinarysystemwerebase2abinarycodeisawayofrepresentingnumeric
valuesusing2symbolsorstatesonesandzerosthesedigitalsignalsarethesametypesof
signalsusedforcomputersandthesearethetypesofsignalsusedfordigitalvideoandacable
operatorsnetworklet'stakealook.

5
 Binary uses positional weighting, the same as with
decimal number.
Let's tthe a look at decimal positional weighting:
205 =
20102 = 2 x 100= 200
00101= x 10= 0
50100 =5 x1 =5
Let's tthe a look at binary positional weighting
1 1001 101 =1027 + 1025 + 0025 + 0024 +1023
+1022 + 002 1 +1020
27=2 x2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x2 x2= 128
215=2 x2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x2 =04
25=2 x2 x 2 x 2 x 2 =32
24=2 x2 x 2 x 2= 16
23=2 x2 x 2= 8
22=2x2=4
21=2
20=1
123 + 54+8 + 4+ 1= 205

Decimal positional weighting:

205 = 2x102 (100) + 0x101(10)+ 5x100(1)
200+0+5 = 205

decimalpositionalwaitingletssaywehaveadecimalvalueof205205ifwebreakitoutintothe
powersof10sincedecimalof0through9base10210tothe2ndsince10the2ndis100would
yield200010tothe1stversesof10to0100510zerosanythingtothe0powerisalwaysone
to51is5andthenweaddamong200+0+5is205

Binary positional weighting:

11001101 =
1x27 + 1x2
+
0x25
+ Ox 24 + 1x23 + ix 2 2 +
0x21 + 1x2

letstakealookatbinarypositionalwaitingtohearIhaveaseries8bitssoabitinbinarycan
eitherbea1or0andbithim8ofcitizenswehave8reallytalkingaboutabecauseofoctetand
octetisisthisthedifferentsectionsofthatIPaddressineachsectionisworthabitsostickwith
howthisplaysoutsowehavethe1stbinaryvalueisonesothatinthe7thpositionsoifyoulook

6
alwaystherightofthisbinarynumberisthe0positionalwaystheleftofbinarynumberwould
bethe7th8positionssosortingfromtheleftonetimestothe7thisaonetimethroughthe7th
isreallyyielda1281timesthroughthe6yield64+0sothe0timesaday0wasanother00times
anythingisoneofthe0thenwehavea1timesthroughthe3rdbooktoDr.Stuartis388andwe
haveonetimesthroughthe2nd3secondsforwehaveanother00diving0thenthere'sattitude
ofthe0andsothatwasonceonetimes1iswhenyougiveusonesohowdoesthisalloutout
whatisthismewalkbythebinarynumberherewereconvertedtodecimalthisisthecharttodo
soorlookatamagicbox,not

Binary positional weighting:

11001101 =
1x27 + 1x 26 + Ox 25 + Ox 24 + 1x2: + 1x22 + Ox 21 + 1x 2 0

128+ 64+ 8+ 4+ 1= 205

sohere'swhatweget2tothe7thvalues128throughthe6value642tothe4thvalueis82to
3rdvaluetotothe3rdvalueis8tothe2ndvaluewas4andthentothe0valueis1andwasat
thatupSR205

128 64 32 16 4 2 1

27 26 25 24

192 I 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Values available from the chart above:

0 to 255 in decimai or 0000 0000 to 1111 1111 in binary
sinceeachoctetis8bitswecanusethefollowingbasetocharta.k.a.themagicboxtoconvert
decimaltobinaryandminordecimalthisboxrepresentseverypossiblenumberinasingleIP
addressbiteoroctetanywhereinthe32bitIPnumberofalsoproduce0to255anddecimalor
80'sto8onesinbinarysobeallpossiblevaluesinourexampleour1stexampletotake123in
decimalandgodowntheboxandseehowmanyofeachbookcolumnweneedtomakeup123
sointhisexampleIneed164so64and32is96andthenwetakea16sothat's96is106and6is
112andIneeded8whichis112and8whichis120neededtowhatis122andaonewhichis
123soessentiallyallyoudoisgodowntheboxandpickoutthenumbersthatmakeupyour

7
decimalvaluedecimalvaluecanonlybetobebetween0to35istotothe8thproduced256
possibilitieswere0through255asIpreviouslymentionedthat'sallitisisistakeadecimal
numberofpickitoutwhileyouneed0oroneineachcolumnandnowwehavetheequivalent
of123andbinarywithanexampletoexample2aweektotake192andandinthiswillrework
thebinaryvalueandwhatwefindoutis192isa128andthere'satleastone1128in192we
subtractedIwantedtofor128Lisa64isaleast164and64andthat'sitreallyalso0thereis
nothingleftofthedecimalnumberand12864=192RRbinaryequivalentinthiscaseis
11000000thisistheprimarytoolthatmakestheprocesssoeasyandnomathisinvolvedsoif
you'renotgoodwithexponentsthismightbetheweightedtotoconvertyourdecimaland
convertyourbinaryyoucanalsousethecalculatoravailableonyourPCandusethebinaryand
decimaloptionkeytoswitchbetweennumberingsystemsnoteasmalltrickreallytheRosa
binarytotheboxwoodjazzefficiencyduringconversionisthatthecalmtotherightisalways
halfthepreviouscompinthiscasethebowtotherightof128is604/2ofhalfofa128isalways
thirstyforahalfis8430tohalfof32is16andhecouldseethepatternallthewaydownasmall
trickofthecalmtotherightofthecalmisfilledwithwithonesitwillbeonelessonthatcolumn
meaningifitweremyarrowisonthe64ifall32168421wereallfilledwithonesthatwould
equal63anothersmalltricksoforexamplewheneverythingtotherightis64isonesandthen
thetotaldecimalvalue63whichIjustmentioned

Subnet Chart
(a.k.a. Magic Box #2)
left to rielt

12$ 64 32 16 $ 1

27 26 25 24 23 21

12$ 192 224 240 248 252 f 254 255

1000 0000= 128 1111 1000= 248

1100 !MOO= 192 1111 1100= 252
1110 0000= 224 1111 1110= 254
1111 0000= 240 11111111= 255

ifyouhaveasubnetmaskaddresstheboxproducesthefollowingresultssoyou'reworkingwith
subnetmaskwecanusethesameboxtocomputethebinaryequivalenttowhatIseehereisifI

8
haveabinarymaskof128and128sitsinthat1stpositionsothatbecomes130'sand4zeros
yourdescendent1stpositionifyouhavea192isforthe1st2boxesbecomebinaryvaluesifyou
havea255thenwhathappensyouwillproduce8onesyoucanalsousethemagicboxa
computeoutthedecimalandbinaryequivalentsresolvethatmasshowyouwillnowquicklyout
ofthenumbersacrossthetopandleftandthat'syourworkfromlefttorightonthisandthisis
calledaddinghighorderbitsintheRFC

Binary
27 = 26= 25 = 24 = 23= 22 = 21 = 20 = Decimal
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1. 0 0 0 0 16
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 32

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 64
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 128

herewehaveabinarychartshowingconversionsofeachofthecolumnsfrom1to128our1st
column2the0equalsonewefollowthatdownontoour1strowineveryelse's0outthenitjust
theonethatwouldequal1ifitisusingthe2the1stthingthatisavalueof2ifwefollowthat
downandyoufollowthispatternover2the2ndwhichisgoingtoequal4ifallthatdownand
crawlinacrosssectionthereisathat'san82the4thwhichis16in2the5thwhichis32and2
tothe6witha64and2to7June128andIcouldseeeachoneofthesedecimalvalueswhichis
mixedupthechartatthetopbutyoucanalsoseetheminthebinaryrepresentation

9
 27 . 26 = 24 = 22 = 20 Deci ma I
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 10
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 172
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 192
1 1 1 1 1 1 255

anotherbinarychartshowingtheconversionofRFC1918prefixesofthesearetheprefixesthat
arenotusedontheInternettheyaresetasideforprivatenetworkstheyaresetasidefor
networkaddresstranslationsohopefullyyouremembertheimportanceoftheRFC1918
prefixesforthe1stonewhichisthegatewayoflastresortwhichisa0attheprettyeasy
conversion10isIneedan8anda2or2to3rdand2the1stcolumnanditlookslikeabinary172
that'swhatthatlookslikeanbinary10101100192wesawthatearlierinoneofourexamples
wherejustthe11infallby6zeros255whichisthebroadcastforeverybodyandanyonethisis
notadirectbroadcastisaregularbroadcastnoticethatit'sallones

nowit'stimetopausethetraininggivenexercisetoconvertdecimalandbinaryvaluesonthe
leftIhave5bulletsthe1st2boltsarebinaryvalueswhicharetoconvertthemintodecimal
GenghisPaulisthetrainingthebottomthescreenyoucanvisitthepausebuttongetsome
papercalculateoutwhatwouldbethedecimalvaluesforthe1st2binarythatIgaveyou3
decimalvaluesandwhatyoucancomputethebinaryequivalenttothosesotakeamoment
figureallthisoutandwhenyou'rereadyyoucancompareyouranswertothenotesthathe
doesgointothenotesofthetrainingseehowyoudid
Convert the following numbers:
1010 1000
0011 1111
189
74
257

Answers:
1 01 0 1000 = 168
0011 1111 = 63
189 =1011 1101
74 = 01 00 1 010
257 = invalid octet or 0001 0000 0001

inthissessionwillexplorehowdigitalsignalsaremultiplexedtogethertoformasinglechannel

10
anda6MHzbandwidthdigitalchannelsarecreatedwhendatafromseveralvideosourcesis
modulatedontoadigitalcarriersignalthatoccupies6MHzofRFbandwidththisisreferredtoas
multiplexingamultiplexofdigitalvideochannelsiscalledamultiprogramtransportstreamor
MPTSifasystemoffers48digitalchannelsineach6MHzdigitalcarriercanhandle8digital
videosourcesthen66MHzchannelsarerequiredforthismultiplextodevicesknowwhichdata
belongstowhichservicewhenacustomerchoosesspecificprogramtowatchtheprocessor
withinadigitalsettopboxdirectstheunittotheappropriatefrequencyprogramidentification
orPIDsareinformationthat'sencodedwithinthedataforeachchannelsbitstreamthesettop
boxdevicelooksfordatathiscontainsthespecificprogramidentifiers

Multiplexing
Analog Video Services Si.
Digital VoD/SDV/HSD Tier
FCC Must Carly

111111111111111111111111111 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111N1111111111111111111
54 550 MHz
- MHz
5 - 42
MHz
-110-

MPEG Stream
6 MHz DAM (MPTS)

multiplexingcombinesseveralsignalsintoasinglesignalallowingeasytransmissionoverthe
cablenetworktheforwardpathusesafrequencydivisionmultipleaccessFDMtobreakupthe
bandwidththe6MHzchunkshownhereeverywherefrom54MHzallthewayto1GHzat
everythingisa6MHzchunkchanneltimedivisionmultipleaccessTDMAisusingreturnpaths
separateupstreamsignalsusingtimeslotsATDMASCDMAandOFDMorotheroptionsforreturn
pathsmultiplexingmoreinformationonmultiplexingtechniquesiscomingupinafuturemodule
justunderstandfornowthattheforwardandreversepathusestechnologytomultiplexsignals
overtheoutsideplantintheforwardpatheach6MHzchannelisfurthermultiplexedusing
movingpicturesexpertsgrouporMPEGandinMPEGweusedifferenttransportstreamssoyou
couldhaveasingledigitalprogramwhichwouldbeasingleprogramtransportstreamSPTSper
6MHzormorecommonamultipleprogramtransportstreamMPTSper6MHzchannel

11
 I 27 MHz clock PCR
PTS/DTS
I
Video
Video ES Video PES
Packetize r
Encoder

PI Ds
Audio
Audio ES Audio PES Transport ..- MPEG SPTS
s- s- Packetize r Strea m ,-
Encoder
Multiplesier
U DP IP Ethernet 1 MPEG jo I

ES Data
Data PES
7- I,
17
1 ri
irl
rl

anMPEGsingleprogramtransportstreamerSPTSiscreatedfromelementarystreamsoranES
anESisthemostbasiccomponentofMPEGiscreatedbyencodingvideoandaudioasshown
hereapacketizerisusedtoconverteachrawvideoandaudioESintoapocketizedESorwhat
wecallaPESorPESthatmaybetransmittedoveracableIPordocsisnetworkeachPESpacketI
willbeavariablenumberofbytesinlengthupthe65,536bytesperblockanditalsoincludea6
byteprotocolheadereachPESpacketheaderincludesan8bitstreamIDidentifyingthesource
ofthepayloadwhichwejusttalkedaboutcallingthePIDinadditiontothecreationofthe
packetizedvideoandaudioadatapacketthatinsomeexamplesacontroldatamaybeaddedto
thepacketizedstage.soweseedownthereinbluewehaveasmalldataboxaddingsomesome
datatothetothesingleprogramtransportstreameachpacketsizeelementarystreamorPESis
thensynchronizedforacommon27MHzprogramclockreferenceitasisforreliable
transmissionofthecablenetworkthePCRisaddedtothepresentationanddecodingtimestamp
feelsaswellintheMPEGframethePTSwillbeuseofthetimewhichadecodedaudioorvideo
accessunitistobepresentedbythedecoderaDTSisthetimeatwhichanaccessunitis
decodedbyanotherdecodereachPESismultiplexedintoasingleprogramtransportstreamor
SPTSandthatasSPTSispackagedintoMPEGtransportstreamwithaPMTtableorprogram
maptablebecauseasindicatorsonhowtopullouttheindividualA/Vdatapiecesatransport
streamwithmorethanoneprogramiscalledamultiprogramtransportstreamthePMT
containsasetofprogramIDsorpidvaluesofeachPESwhichisthevideoaudiodatawhich
comprisesatelevisionprogramorSPTS

12
 ,ffo.A.44.). Lug*
UDP IP Ethernet MPEG
L
SPTS

LigAiALLAgla
UDP IP Ethernet MPEG

S PTS

61AiiiimaLki MU X
UDP IP I Ethernet MPEG

S FTS

LigAAAALialai
UDP IP Et h e rn et I MPEG
MPTS
SPTS 224.10.5.7
or
FFxx:10
UDP I IP Ethem et MPEG

S PTS

multiplesingleprogramtransportstreamswillbecombinedandthatwillbecombinedintoa
multipleprogramtransportstreamMPTSshownhereeachasSPTSmustbeencapsulatedin
ethernetwithauniqueIPaddressinthecaseofofourexampleaIPaddressofmulticasttype
willbeusedandthat'stypicallya224addressorintheIPv6andFFaddressandalsowillusethe
datagramuserdatagramprotocolUDPtoassignaportspecificallyforthisvideotransportso
thereareseverallayersinvolvedinthemultiprogramtransportstreaminthesingleprogram
transportstreamethernetIPandUDP

13
 II*
Satellite
Digital Video
Fiber Trunks qt1
(161*
Delivery
Master
Headend

CITA

nowlet'sfocusourattentionondigitalsignalsovertheHFCoroutsideplanthere'sanexample
ofthemoderncableoperatordigitalvideodeliverynetworkfibertrunksareusedtoconnect
majornetworkstothemasterheadendorcontentdeliverynetworkCDNshownupintheleft
upperlefthandcornerovertheyearand10ismountedontowersareusereceivedigitalvideo
signalsatthemasterheadendforovertheairsignalscachingserversuseoftheheadendhub
sitestocashdigitalvideocontentforthesubscribervideosignalsaretransmittedovertheHFC
useandMPEGtransportanddocsisduringthedistributingofdigitalvideosignalstheyare
susceptibletothesamedegradationasanalogswehavearedigitalsignalscominginthe
networkatthehubandasthosesignalsmoveoutofthehubtheretobebackinanalogmode
becausehergoingoverfiberopticdigitalvideodatatravelsthroughvariousdevicesandthe
cablenetworkthatincreasethesignallevelsoyoucanseewegettotheamplifierhowthat
signalbecomeschangedabit

adigitalsignalstransmitusingthesamefibercollectscablesasanalogsignalsthedigitalsignals
areseparatedbyfrequencyknownastheCEA542CthehybridfibercoagsurroundsIplan
hardwareisananalogtransmissionpathtreatinganaloganddigitalsignalsthesame

digitalandanalogsignalsneedacarriertobetransmittedovertheHFCareoutsideplantthe
carrierprovidesconstantenergyatspecificfrequencyfortransmissionovertheHFCoroutside
plantmodulationistheprocessofapplyingcableinformationontothecarrier'sspecific
bandwidthsaying6MHzinourcase,digitalsignalsthatusetheHFCoroutsideplantarehigh
speeddatavoiceoverIPvideoondemandswitcheswillvideostandardhighdefinition3Dand
ultradefinitionvideochannels

digitalsignalsinHFCoroutsideplanthavespecificmetricstodeterminethehealthofthesignals

14
astheyaretransmittedovertheHFCafewcommonmeasurementsaremodulationerrorratio
orMERerrorvectormagnitudeareEVMandbiterrorratioBER

digitalsignalsovertheHFCareoutsideplantproduceandareimpairedbydistortionsnoiseand
interferencewhendigitalsignalsleakpoweroutsidetheallocatedbandwidthitcanproducea
noiseknownasdistortioninterferingwithothersignalsintheHFCoroutsideplantthereare
distortionsthatareinchannelandoutofchannelnoisecanbeanetworkdistortionrandom
signalenergyaddedtothedigitalsignalbyactivedevicesinHFCoutsideplant

ingressorinterferenceisnoiseordistortionthemandmaketheirwayintothealsoplanfrom
sourcesoutsidethesystemanalogsignalsmaystillconveyvideoinformationwhentheyare
extremelydistortedindigitalthisisnotthecasedigitalmaintainsahigherlevelofqualitythan
analogandwhenexposedtothesamedistortionsofdigitalsignalsfailcompletelyasshownhere

thereareseveraltechnologiesoftheassistwillsignalsfromcompletefailuredigitalsignal
processingtheprocessofencodinganalogintodigitalthesignalcompressionanderror
correctiontohelpconcealthedigitalsignaladaptiveequalizationthatmaybeusedtostepdown
thequalityofadigitalsignalforexampleinadigitalvideodigitalsignalthereareseveral
bandwidthstepsavailabletobackdownthequalityofthesignalwhenbeingwithhistight

ahighlevellookatdigitalsignalmodulationadeeperdiveofmodulationisinafuturemodule

thereare2categoriesofmodulationavailableanaloganddigitalcableoperatormovingaway
fromanalogmodulationtechniquesshownontheleftacarriersignalorcontinuouswave
containsnoinformationofitsownwejustlearnedthattheprovidedenergyatspecificstable
frequencytotransportdigitalsignalsthisenablesreliablesignaltransmissiontheprocessof
addingintelligenceorinformationfromabasebandsignaltothecarrierbychangingthecarrier
signalfrequencyamplitudephaseorsomecombinationofthesecharacteristicsiscalled
modulationthefrequencybandsurroundingeachcarryisalsoknownasthetransmission
bandwidththecarrierofmodulationmustremainwithintheallocatedbandwidthoftheirare
goodtokeepfrombeingcorruptedorcausinginterferencetoothersignals

usingmodulationtotransmitinformationfallsunder4mainstepsthe1ststepinoperatorwill
doisageneratedpureRFcarrierattheheadendtransmitterataparticularfrequencythe2nd
thepureRFcarrierismodulatedwithinwiththeinformationwithothersvideodatavoiceetc.to
betransmittedtothecustomerandthere'sexamplesonhowsignalsarechangedandwecando
itwithamplitudefrequencyphaseorcombinationofamplitudeandphasecalledQamthe
modulatedsignalinstep3iscombinedwithothersignalsattheheadendandfedintothelaser
transmitterandandandlastatthereceiverinthefieldthemodulatedsignalisdetectedand
demodulatedrecovertheinformation

amoreadvancedphaseshiftkeyingismultibitmodulationquadraturephaseshiftkeyingQPSK
employeesperiodicallyshiftingthephaseoftoinphasecarriersIandQat600Bdor90shift
plusencodingtechniqueQPSKcallsfor4definephasechangesoranglestorepresentdata
symbolsshowedhere090180into270isa90separationbetweenthephaseanglesandone
phaseshiftperperiodofthewavemeansthateach.Canrepresents2binarydatabitsper
symbolsincethisispossiblethatmakesQPSK2bitspersymbolinQPSKbasicallyit'sistoraise

15
thepoweroftogiveyou4differentsymbolsshownhereinthenoteshallfindadifferentsymbol
valuesforQPSKinlegacymoreinformationandmoredetailscominguponmodulationinthe
futureinthenearfuturemodulebutQPScasetypicallyuseanyupstreambycableoperatorsfor
slowerdataservicessuchasoutofbandsignalingtosettopboxesisalsoaveryresilientfor
satellitesignalsintheheadendorhubsitebecauseitproducesanithasalowersignalnoisebut
producesagoodcleansignalQPSKoperateswellinanoisyupstreamofferslowdatarateas
comparedtoQam

hereistheQAMsignalyou'reprobablyallfamiliarwithorcalledthehaystackandthisishowit
wouldappearonaspectrumanalyzerthehorizontalaxisshowsfrequencyandtheverticalaxis
showsamplitudemanydifferentRFmodulationschemescancoexistonacoaxorHFCnetworka
formofa.m.isusedforanalogvideochannelsFMmaybeusedforbroadcastifbroadcastingitis
carriedoverthesamenetworksomeoldersettopconvertersmayusetheBPSKfordata
communicationQPSKissometimesusedfortelephonyservicesQamisusedfordataservices
anddigitalvideoservicesthechoiceofmodulationschemedependsonthetypeofsignaltobe
transmittedandthecostandtheRFbandwidthbeingwithrequiredsizewestartusingQAM
palmswillprovidemorebandwidththanQPSKandhereisthe1stQAMiscalled16QAMand
wererepresentingitin2differentwaysonebytheconstellationdiagramontheleftandoneby
thespectrumviewontheright16QAMis4bitsperhertzor2bitsontheiChaton2bitsonthe
Qwere4bitspersymbolshownhereinagivesyouatotalof16totalstatesor2raisethepower
f416QAMistypicallyuseanyupstreamreturnPathfordataservicesandnewersettopboxes
boxesspecifiesthattheoperatorcanselectanupstreammodulationofusingQPSKwhichis
betterinnoisebecauseitoffersmuchbandwidthoryoucanuseaQamonthescreenistheI
andQconstellationplotshowing4levelsofIand4thlevelsofQ

toincreaseatarateoperatorcanchooseahigherordermodulationtechniquesuchas64,64
QAM'sweresymbolsareequalto6hertzor3becauseofIand3bitsofQ6bitspersymbolyield
0to63possibilitiesor64totalstatesor2raiseofthepowerof664Qamistypicallyusedinthe
upstreamreturnPathfordataservicesandnewsettopboxessomereally64QAMwasselected
forthedownstreamwereForwardpathbackinthedaybutnow256QAMismorecommon
boxesspecifiesthatoperatorcanselectupstreammodulationsofQPSKorQAMtocontinueto
furtherincreasethedatarateover64QAMinoperatorcanchoose256QAMrequirestheleast
amountofRFbandwidthforagivenamountofdata256QAM'sweresymbolsareequalto8bits
perhertz4bitsoftheIand4bitsoftheQ8bitspersymbolyields0to255possibilitiesare256
totalstatesor2raisethepowerof8256QAM'stypicallyusedinthedownstreamwereforward
pathlinearvideoanddataservicesanoperatorcanselectdifferentQAMdownstreamchannels

fortheforwardpath1024QAMhasbeenshownfeasibleinacleanspectrumsothisprovide
evengreaterbandwidthforvideosignalsalsotocleanspectrum4096QAMhasalsobeenshown
feasibleinEuropeusingdigitalvideobroadcastovercable2whichistheDVBC2tointheservice
asa50%increaseinthecapacityover256QAMasignaltonoiseof46dborgreaterisrequired
toachieve4096

2.
Ithe1stsectionwillexplainthefundamentalsofanalogsignalsnationaltelevisionsystems

16
committeeorNTSCistheanalogtelevisionsysteminuseinUnitedStatesCanadaJapanMexico
thePhilippinesSouthKoreaTaiwanandothercountriesitisnamedUnitedStates
standardizationbodythatadopteditthe1stblackandwhitemonochromeNTSCstandardfor
broadcastwasdevelopedpriortothesecondworldwarandhadnoprovisionforcolor
transmissionthestandardcalledfor525linesofpictureinformationofwhich480reusablein
eachframeand29.97framespersecondtheframeratewaslaterslightlyadjustedforthecolor
standardandthat'sthis29.97civiliandevelopmentofcommercialtelevisionwashaltedwiththe
entryofUnitedStatesinthewarin1953asecondstandardwaswasissuedwhichallowforcolor
broadcastingtobecompatiblewiththeexistingstockofblackandwhitereceiverswhile
maintainingthebroadcastchannelbandwidthalreadyinusethiswasanimportantcommercial
advantageoverincompatiblecolorsystemsthathadnoatthathavebeenproposedatthistime
NTSCwasthe1stwidelyadoptedbroadcastcolorsystemafteroverahalfacenturyofuseover
theairNTSCtransmissionsarenowbeingreplacedwithadvancedtelevisionsystemscommittee
ATSCovertheairdigitaltransmissionsintheUnitedStatesanalogtransmissionswerehaltedin
2009

NTSCmeans4unitsby3unitsdimensionsoriginallychosentomatch35mmmotionpicturefilm
or1.33to1aspectratiowideraspectmaterialmustbecompressedforviewingon4x3sets
usingapanandscanaletterboxvideooranamorphicsqueezingthefullresolutionofNTSCis
720x525

Analog Regulation
Countries have a frequency allocation map which assigns
specific RF frequencies to VHF and UHF channels
VHF - 30 MHz to 300 MHz
UHF - 300 MHz to 3 GHz
Cable operators required to follow a frequency map
PAL and NTSC

Channel Number Off-Air Frequency Cable Frequency

_
2 55,25 55.25

3 61,25 61.25

22 519.25 169.25

23 525.25 217.25

overtheyearstheFCCiscreatedafrequencyallocationmapwhichassignspecificRF
frequenciestotheinternationaltelecommunicationUnion'sveryhighfrequencyor30MHzto
300MHzandultrahighfrequencyUHFor300MHzto3GHzchannelsthemapisa

17
nonnegotiableandallbroadcastersandmanufacturersmustfollowtoensurecompatibilityand
toavoidinterferencefromchanneltochannelonallequipmentatdifferentpointsthroughout
theyearsafederalauthoritiessuchastheFCChasalsoallocatedfrequencyfrequencymapto
cableoperatorsandmultisystemoperatorsbecausethismapwasimplementedthrough
differentperiodsandbecauselowerfrequenciescarrybetteroncoaxthecablemapdoesnot
matchtheoffairmapforallchannelsinthechannelcablechannelfrequenciesarenotalwaysin
orderachannelisdefinedas6MHzofspaceor8MHzinEuropeittakesafull6MHzto
broadcastoneanalogvideoammodulationwithsynchronizedaudiofmmodulationthenational
televisionstandardscommitteeorNTSCintheUnitedStatesorphasealternatinglinesin
Argentinasetthecolororsetthechannelsize

theNTSCsystemuseahorizontalscanrateof15.75kHzhorizontalscanrateistherateatwhich
eachlineofvideoisscannedfromanimageandisreproducedonatelevisionreceiverinthe
monochromesystemthefieldrateis60Hzresultinginaframeratearound30Hzisinitiallythis
initialselectionoffieldratewaschoseninordertolocktheframerateofearlytelevisionstothe
60HzpowermeanstheNTSCsystemwasinterlacedscanningeachframeofvideocontains525
linesthereareequallydividedbetweenfieldoneandfield2eachfieldhaving262.5linesofthe
525linesonly480linesareusedforactivevideoinformationtheotherlinesareusedfor
syncronizationandotherpurposesconsequentlyNTSCisoftenreferredtoas480IweretheIis
standingforinterlacedthemonochromesystemwassubsequentlymodifiedtocreatethe
compatiblecolorsystemsometimesreferredtoasNTSC2tofrequencieswereadjustedslightly
tominimizeinteractionbetweenluminancesignalandthechrominancesignalinthissystemthe
horizontalscanrateis15.734kHzandthefieldrateis59.94Hzandthecolorcarrierfrequencyis
approximately3.58MHzthesechoicesofscanningfieldratesaresufficientlychosentothe
monochromefrequenciestobecompatiblewithmonochromereceiversoccasionallyavideo
signalmaycomefromasourcesuchasavideotaperecorderthatdoesnotproducefrequencies
perfectlycomplywiththeNTSCstandardadeviceknownasatimebasedcorrectormaybeused
todigitallycorrecttheseerrorsmakethetimingofthesignalpracticallycompatiblewiththe
NTSCsignaltherearetimebasedcorrectorsforallvideostandardsaswell

18
 NTSC SMPTE 170M
AM Video
55.25 Mhz Color
55 53 MHz

1 26MHz.
I FM Aucli:0
59.75 1199-1z

4.5 MHz

5.31,Alri;

,1h
1J1,41.11 1 1 1i1111 II I

111 1
,./

54 telhlz 60 MHz
(edg E.)

nationaltelevisionsystemscommittee6MHzRFstandardizechannelshownhereasanexample
channel2existwithinthebandwidthof54MHzto60MHzthesignalcomponentsarevideoat
55.25MHzwhichis1.25MHzfromtheedgecolorat58.83MHzwhichis3.58MHzfromthe
videoandaudioat59.75MHzwhichis4.5MHzfromthevideothisSMPTEsocietymotion
picturesandtelevisionengineerstheyhaveastandardNTSCcompositeanalogtelevisionsignal
knownas170mtheoveralllevelofcompositeNTSCvideosignalisa1Vpeaktopeak

19
 NTSC Horizontal Synchronization
Color
burst

VOLTS

horizonta
sync
pulse

Horizontal scan rate 15.734 kHz means each line of video

lasts for 63.557 microseconds
Horizontal sync pulse lasts for 4.7 microseconds
The color burst consists of 9 cycles of the 3.58 MHz color
carrier

NTSCcolortelevisionconsistsofhorizontalscansofinformationthatoccurat15.734kHzrate
whichwetalkedaboutthismeansthateachlinethevideolastforabout63.557smicroseconds
thatperiodconsistsofapproximately52sofactivevideoinformationtherestishorizontal
syncronizationinformationthishorizontalsyncronizationinformationisusedtotellatelevision
receivertobeginthedisplayofeachlineofvideothehorizontalsyncronizationinformation
occursduringapartofthevideowaveformknownasthehorizontalblankingintervalasthe
nameimpliestheheartofthewaveformisblankedfromdisplayonthescreen

shownhereare2samplesofanNTSCvideoeachtracedisplaysapproximately11/2linesof
videothatthehorizontalresolutionis10sperdivisionintheverticalresolutionis.2Vper
divisionhorizontalsyncpulsecanbeseenonthelowerleftandagainapproximatetwothirdsof
thewayacrossthescreenboththehorizontalsyncpulsesthefrontporcharefollowedbythe
backporchcontainingthecolorbursttheleftraceisvideoforaseriesofcolorbarsthe
chrominancesignalridingoneachleveloftheluminanceindicatingthecolorinformationfor
eachbarthewaveformfortherightisarandomsampleoflinesofactivevideotheNTSC
horizontalsync50%pointisusedtosynchronizedigitalsampling

wejusttalkedabouthorizontalsynchronizinglet'stalkaboutverticalsynchronizingvertical
synchronizinginformationiscontainedattheendorbeginningofeachfieldofvideooccurs
duringtheverticalblankingintervalorVBItheverticalblankingintervalbeginswhenaseriesof
negativegoingpulsesthatarehalfthewidthofthenormalhorizontalsyncpulsesthatoccurata

20
rateof2perlineofvideothesenarrowpulsesarereferredtoasequalizingpulsesthe1stgroup
ofequalizingpulsesisfollowedbyaseriesof3lineswerethesignalisatsinklevelforallexcept
4.7satthebeginningandthemiddleofeachlinethesewidepulsesarereferredtoasvertical
syncpulsesfollowingtheverticalsyncpulsesareasecondseriesofequalizingpulsesexcact
numberofandpositionofequalizingpulsesidentifywhichfieldisabouttobetransmittedthe
1stverticalblankingintervalbeginswithahalflineandendswiththehalflineshownhereisa
verticalblankingintervalfollowedby7linesofvideonotethatthehorizontaltimebaseis100s
perdivisionnotetheseriesofequalizingpulsesfollowedbytheverticalsyncpulsesintern
followedbythesecondseriesofequalizingpulses

thetimebasedcorrectorvideoprocessorallowsforcolorcorrectionandframesynchronization
inNTSCasseeninapreviousillustrationlines10through20arenormallineswithhorizontal
syncpulsesandcolorburstsbutdonotcontainactivevideoinformationtheselinesoccur
outsidethevisiblepictureareainaproperlyadjustedtelevisionreceiverlines17and18are
typicallyusedforverticalintervaltestsignalorVITSline19maybeusedforverticalinterval
referencesignalorVIRSline21maycontainactivevideoormaycontainclosecaptioningdata
CEA608andEIA608

A/79ATSCconversiontoNTSCprovidesguidancetobroadcastersandothercreatorsofATSC
highdefinitionandstandarddefinitioncontentandtooperatorsofmultichannelvideo
programmingdistributorsystemsa798ATSCconversiontoNTSCrecommendstheequipment
hasgivenabilitiesneededtoprovidethehighestqualityprogrammingtoviewerswhoonly
receiveNTSCservices

thephasealternatinglineorPALsystemwasdevelopedaftertheNTSCsysteminthissystemthe
phaseofthechrominancesignalincludingthecolorburstschangesby90onalternatinglines
thischangeismadetoaddressissueswithcolorhueandsaturationresultingfromgainand
phaseerrorsinthetransmissionsystemthePALtelevisionsetstypicallydonotrequireahue
adjustmentthePALaspectratiolikeNTSCis4x3thePALsystemuses25interlacedframesas
opposedto29.97inNTSC25interlacedframesisalso50fieldspersecondor50Hzeachframeis
madeupof625linesofwhich576areusedforactivepictureinformationsystemisoften
referredtoas576IweretheIstandsforinterlacedseveralversionsofPALsystemsexisteach
wasadifferentcolororcolorcarrierfrequencyandoralcarrierfrequencythePALsystemisused
inmuchofEuropeAsiaAustraliaandSouthAmerica

theFrenchsystemsequentialcoloraimandmoreorSECAMisintendedtoeliminatesomeofthe
pictureartifactsthatresultfromtopsimultaneoustransmissionoftheluminancesignalandtheI
andQcolorsignalsoneoftheseartifactsistypicallyreferredtoasdotcrawltheSECAMsystem
alternatelytransmitstheIandQcolorsignalonalternatelinescolorinformationisfrequency
modulatedontoacolorcarriermemoryandthereceiverstorestheinformationfromthe
previouslinetoacombinedandpresentlinetorecreatethecolorinformationasa
consequencetheSECAMhasonlyonehalfoftheverticalcallresolutionoftheNTSCsystem
SECAMwhitePALisa576Isystemthereare625linesperframeand25interlacedframesper
secondor50fieldspersecondproviding50Hz

21
 Analog to Digital

Encode/
Quantize 01010101
Coder

Analog signal Sampled data Discrete time Digital Signal

(continuous in signal (discrete and discrete (binary)
both time and in time and amplitude
amplitude) continuous in signal.
amplitude)

analogtodigitalorAtoDoranalogtodigitalconverterADCtheequipmentusedisknownasa
coderdecoderorcodeccoderconvertsanalogsignalstodigitalbinarybitsthedecoderconverts
digitalbinarytoitsanalogsignalsorsinewavestheprocesstheA/Dprocessismadeupof
samplingquantizationandencodingthenthatdeterminesthequalityofthedigitizedsignal
transmissionofbitswithequalgapsiscalledisochronictransmissionwecannothaveuneven
gapsbetweenframessoanalogtodigitalconversionweseeonthescreenherewe'veananalog
signalonthelefthandsidetocontinuousinboththetimeandamplitudewesamplethedata
discreteintimeandcontinuousamplitudeandwequantizethatwereducethesamplesandthat
becomesadiscretetimeinadiscreteamplitudesignalandthenwetakethequantizevaluesand
encodethemandwenowwewegetisbinarydataoradigitalsignal

aBellLabsscientistHarryNyquistproducedamathematicalproofofthe1920stheproofthat
thefullinformationcontentofanycontinuousanalogbasebandsignalcanberecoveredatthe
siganlmeasuredencodedataratethatistwicethefrequency2timesFMaxofthehighest
sinusoidalcomponentcontainedintheanalogsignalnyquistsamplingisthe1ststepinthe
conversionprocesstheNyquistsamplingrateisidealforlowpassanalogbasebandsignalsthe
samplingmayoccurbeforemodulationandmultiplexandorafterDemultiplexingand
modulationthecompositevideosignalcreatedbydevicessuchasgameconsolesandDVD
playerscommonlyusebasebandsignals

Nyquisttheoremexamplesletussampleasimplesinewaveat3samplingrateyouhavethe
frequencysamplewhichisFSequals2timesthefrequencywhichistheNyquistrateyoualso
havefrequencyoversamplingwhichisFSequals4timesafrequencyor2timesaNyquistrateor
youhavefrequencyundersamplingFSequalsfrequencyhalftoNyquistrateyoucanclearlysee
thatwehaveredundancybuiltinthe4timesfrequencywedon'thaveenoughinthehalf
frequencysoitcanbeseenthatsamplingattheNyquistratecanbecancreateagood
approximationoftheoriginalsinewaveoversamplingcancreatethesameapproximationis

22
redundantandprovidesextradatathattheoperatorsdon'tneedsamplebelowtheNyquistrate
doesnotproduceasignalthatlooksliketheoriginalsinewaveexampleofadigitizationprocess
forvoicesignalsandspeechforCablephonebyassumingamaximumfrequencyof4000Hzor4
kHzthesamplingratefordigitalphoneFSequal2timesafrequencythereforeweshouldtake
8000samplespersecondtoencodethedigitalvoicesignals

consideredtherevolutionsofahandonaclockthesecondhandofaclockhasappearedas60
secondsaccordingtotheNyquisttheoremweneedtosamplethehandevery30secondsthisis
calledtimesampleboardTsubSwhichequalstimetimeshalfthereceiverofthesamples
cannottelltheclockismovingforwardorbackward

inthisexampleweoversampleatdoubletheNyquistrateorevery15secondsTtimesaquarter
thesamplingare12369and12thechallengewiththiswaythatthesampleshowsaclock
movingforward

hereweundersampleathalftheNyquistrateorevery45secondsTtimes3threequartersthe
samplepointsare12963in12althoughtheclockismovingforwardthereceiverthinksofthe
clockismovingbackwardrelatedexampleistheseeminglybackwardrotationofwheelsofa
forwardmovingcarinamoviethiscanbeexplainedbyundersamplingamovieisfilmedat24
framespersecondifawheelrotationismorethan12timespersecondtheundersamplingof12
framesincreasetheimpressionofabackwardrotationinthevideo

acomplexbasebandsignalhasabandwidthof200kHzwhatistheminimumNyQuilsampling
rateforthesignalandyoucouldpauseyourtrainingheretheanswerisinthenotes

23
 Sampling Time
(Interval or PAM)
Interval Time:
t = 1/2 f (200Khz)
t = 1 / 400KHz
t = 2.5us sample time

interval lime 2_5us

noticethatthetimetotakethesampleissignificantlylessthantheintervaltimeifthesample
timeequalstheintervaltimethiswouldbe100%sampleatregularintervalsthereforea
snapshotofthesignalbeingtakenisdonethesamplesignalsarecalledpulseamplitude
modulationorPamsignalsthePamsignalhasamplitudeoftheanalogsignalatthemomentof
measurementmodulationisadigitaloranalogsignalinsideanothertobetransmittedover
transportmediumaPammessagesencodedintheamplitudeofaseriesofpulsesamicrosecond
isabbreviatedUSor10times6andhereisourexampleagainforintervaltime

24
 Quantization
Pulses are quantized (mapped) to some finite number
of quantization levels (known values),

max

Tiff ,1111
X

pulses are quantized

111111111111111111,,
pulses

oncewehaveoursamplesquantizingthePamsignalisthenextstepestablishingadiscrete
uniquevalueforeachsamplebasedonanestimatedsetofvaluesquantizationisdefinedasthe
processofconvertingananalogsignaltoadigitalrepresentationquantizationisperformedby
ananalogtodigitalconvertersamplingtimebasedonthetimeresultsinaseriesofpulsesof
varyingamplitudevaluesrangebetween2limitsaminandaMaxshownhereontheleftsideof
thescreeninordertomanipulatethesignalwithamicroprocessorormicrocontrollerthese
pulseshavetobeconvertedtoabinaryordigitalcodebeforethisconversionthepulsesare
quantizedmaptosomefinitenumberofquantizationlevelsnoticevaluesthissamplehasa
valueamplitudewhichmustberecordedandkepttrackofsothattheoriginalsignalcanbe
recovered

25
 Quantization
= (Max amplitude Mini amplitude) / discrete values
division height
10.00
8.75 111 A
1G bit more accurate
111
7.50
101
6.25'
10(1 .625
5.00
011
13- 3.75 bft
010
2.50 -
1.25 opi
000
o 100 150
4111k D lime (lam)
eight divisions Sampling Interval
(discrete levels)
10/23 = 1.25V

astepquantizerorisusedinconvertinganalogtodigitalhereisadigitalimageofa5kHzsine
waveobtainedbya3bitanalogtodigitalconvertera3bitanalogdigitalconverterdevidea
distancebetweentheminandMaxbyusingbinary2tothe3rdtothe3rdproduces8different
divisionsifweweredoinga4bitanalogtodigitalconverteritbe2tothe4thor16divisions
thesedivisionsarediscretelevelsorLzoneseachdivisionhasaheighttheheightequalsaMax
minusmindividedbythelevelorinourcase100dividedbythe8or1.25jumpsandare
indicatedontheamplitudelevelandthelefthandsideincreasingtheresolutionis16bitsto
increasetheanalogtodigitalconverternumberofdivisionsfrom8to16bitswhichyoube
65,536levelsallowsa16bitanalogvisibleconvertertoobtainanextremelyaccurate
representationofanalogsignalbutyouhavealargersignalattheendtheideayouweretrying
toreduceofthesizeaswegothroughthisprocesstobutsotheoperatorsoftheplaybetween
qualityversussizethemidpointofeachzoneisassignedavaluefrom0toL1resultinginLvalues
Esamplefollowinginazoneisapproximatedtoavalueofamidpointinthiscase1.252or.625
andnoticedthatthosemidpointsequateovertoabinaryvalue

26
 Quantization Zones
(discrete levels)
Vr,
-20 to -15
-15 to -10
-10 to -5
-5 to 0
0 to +5
+5 to +10
+10 to +15
+15 to +20

assumewehaveavoltagesignalwithamplitudesofVmaxandVminsotheminis20Vandthe
Maxispositive20Vwewanttousealevelthatequals8or2tothe3rdquantizationlevelsthe
zonewidthisaDeltawhichequals20minus20divideby8or40by8or5asthezonewidthas
indicatedonrightsidethezonesaredescribedherethemidpointsofeachzoneiswhenwe
dividethoseinhalfsothemidpointzonefor20and15is17.5soishalfof5whichis2.5
subtractedoffthe20areaddedtothe15

27
 Assigning Codes to Zones
quantization
code v .20V
40
193
7 111 3D
16.2
6 110 / 11.0
20
5 101 7,5
D
4 100
0
3 011
- 5.5
6.0 IJ
2 010
-9.4

1 001
-3D
0 000 40
Ver, =-20V
Encoded words 010 101 111 i0 oi 001 010 '

nowtheywerecomfortablewiththezonesinthemidpointsthePamsignalisthengivenafixed
valueeachzoneisassignedabinaryquantizationcodeindecimalfrom0to7andencodedword
from0002111fora3bitanalogtodigitalconverterthenumberofbitsrequiredtoencodethe
zonesorthenumberofbitspersampleasitis,referredtoisobtainasfollowstogiveour
examplearenumberofbitsequals3wehave2tothe3rdwhichis8zonessothereforecodesgo
anywherefrom000whichisadecimaloneallatthe111whichisadecimal7assigningCodes
thezones000willrefertozone2215and001tozone15to10andwillkeepmovingupfor
eachoneofthesteps

wenowhavebinaryfromthequantizationmappingprocessthePamsignalwillroundupor
downapproximationoftheactualamplitudevaluethefixvaluesdependingonthesetofraws
thatareprogrammedintheheadendequipmentwiththeroundingtakeseffecttherearecertain
amountofincidentagainerrorsintroduceintotheprocessthisisknownasquantizingerroror
distortionsthequantizationerrordependsonthenumberofbitsintheconverteralongwithits
errorsnoiseandnonlinearitiesnotinastreamlinethedifferencebetweentheactualandcoded
valuethemidpointisreferredtoasaquantizationerrororquantizationdistortionthemore
zonesthesmallertheDeltawhichresultsinsmallererrorsbutthemorezonesthemorebits
requiredtoencodethesamplesandthehigherthebitratesoforexamplethequantization
levelsare0123etcapulsewidthmagnitudebetween1or2willbequantizedtoeithera1or2
thisisafactinthisfactintroducenoiseintothesamplesignalsuchnoiseisknownas
quantizationnoisehowisproblemovercomebysettingupvaluesandthealgorithmtheraw
suchasthethattheerrorisnotdetectabletothereceivingequipmentorhumansinotherwords
theamountofquantizationerroristoosmalltomakeadifference

youmaypausethetraininghereandgotsomequestionsforyouthinkyourselfwhatisaPam

28
signalwhatisquantizingerrorandwhydoesthishappenandwhenyouseetheanswerdoes
takealookatthenotes

Quantization Error and SNR

Si Rna I Po w er
SisTRa =10 iogio
Noise Power

signaltonoiseratioofasystemisaratiobetweenthesignalpowerandthenoiseexpressedin
decibelorDBsignalnoiseistheaveragesignalpowerdividedbytheaveragequantizationnoise
ornoisepowerindicatedheresignalswithloweramplivalueswillsuffermorefromquantization
errorastheerrorrangethemidpointwhichequalstheDeltadividedby2isfixedforallsignals
nonlinearquantizationcompressedsignalisusedtoalleviatetheproblemofquantizationaffects
thegoalistokeepsignalnoisefixedforallsamplevaluesincreasethequantizationbitvalueof
thedecoderthe2approachesthequantizationlevelsfollylogarithmiccurvesmallerdeltasat
thelowerabletodolargerdeltasatthehigherAppletubesyouhavecompandingalgorithmthe
samplevaluesarecompressedatthecenterintologarithmiczonesandthenexpandedthatthe
receiverzonesarefixedinheight

duringquantizationofthetimetomeanwecouldalmostcompletelypreservethewaveform
informationbyincreasingthesamplingintervalthatwetalkedaboutbutthatcreatesahigher
bitrateintheamplitudedomainwecanpreservemostofthewaveforminformationby
ditheringditheringinvolvesthedeliberateadditionofnoisetoourinputsignalithelpsby
smearingoutthelittledifferencesinamplituderesolutionthekeyistoaddrandomnoiseina
waythatmakesasignalbouncebackandforthbetweensuccessivelevelsofcoursethisisthisin
itselfjustmakesitsignalnoisierbutthesignalsmoothisoutbyaveragingthenoisedigitally
oncethesignalisacquiredmathematicallyaveragingthedigitalsignalswithoutditheringdoes
notremovethequantizationstepsitsimplyroundsthemoutalittleasshownabove

29
thebitrateofapulsecodemodulatedpcmsignalcanbecacklingfromthenumberofbitsper
sampleandthesamplingrateforthebitrateequalsanumberofeventstimesthefrequency
samplessufferingforexampleifwehave3bitspersampleinthefrequencywas8000HzthenI
wouldbe24,000bitspersecondthebandwidthrequiredtotransmitthesignaldependsonthe
typeoflineencodinguseddigitizedsignalwillalwaysneedmorebandwidththantheoriginal
analogsignalisthepricewepayforrobustnessandotherfeaturesofdigitaltransmission

let'stryoneunitagainpositthetraininghereandtheanswerisinthenotesthatweregivena
telephoneaudiolevelswheretherefrom300to3400Hzwereaskingwhatisthesample
frequencyneededandifthesamplesare8bitspersamplewhatisthebandwidth

atthispointallthebitshavebeenencodedintodigitaldataandsentdowntoadecoderto
recoveranalogsignalsfromadigitizedsignalwefollowthefollowingstepsweseethedigital
datainthisdiagrammovingintoaholdcircuitweuseaholdcircuitthatholdstheamplitude
valueorpulsetothenextpulsearrivesthewholecircuitthenpassestheinformationthrougha
lowpassfilterwithacutofffrequencythatisequaltothehigherfrequencyinthepresample
signalthehigherthelevelsthelessdistortedarecoveredsignal

Advanced Television
Systems Committee
ATSC is the HD standard
supporting aspect ratio of
16:9
Resolutions 1920 x 1080,
six times the display
resolution of NTSC
ATSC defines 18 standards
Supports theater quality
audio

thisnextsectionwilltouchontheimportantdigitalvideostandardstobeawareofwhen
workingincable

theATSCoradvancedtelevisionsystemscommitteeisadigitaltelevisionstandardwhichreplace
theanalogNTSCtelevisionstandardasoperatorsmovedalldigitalisdevelopedbytheadvanced
televisionsystemscommitteethehighdefinitiontelevisionstandardsdefinedbytheaTSC
produceswidescreen16x9imagesupto1920x1080pixelsinsizemorethan6timesthe
displayresolutionoftheearlierstandardntschoweverandahostofdifferentimagesizesare
alsosupportedsothatupto10standarddefinitioncanbebroadcastona6MHzTVchannel
throughaTSCaTSCalsoboaststheaterqualityaudiobecauseitusesDolbyDigitalAC3formatto

30
provide5.1channelsurroundsoundandnumerousauxiliarydatacastingservicescanalsobe
providedthroughaTSC

intheworldofanalogvideoisnothingmorethanacollectionofstillpictureswhichwhen
representedinquicksuccessionontelevisionandappearstobefluidmotionvideoscapturedat
30picturescalledframespersecondpresentedatthesceneframeratethedigitalworksmuch
thesamewaystreamofzerosandonesofdataaresenttoadecoderwhichitcanreassemble
themtoagaincreatethe30framesor29.97tobeexactthedifferencesthebitseachpointor
pixelinthepicturemustberepresentedbythesebitswhichhappenswhentheinitialpicturesor
codedmoviesviewedinthemovietheaterareonlybroadcasted24framespersecond

nthemidtolate1990scableoperatorsbegantodeployadigitaltierofcabletocompetewith
satelliteforyourpreciousrfspectrumspacedigitalisdefinedasanonoffstatealsoknownas0
1decimal100equals01100100astreamofmeaningfulzerosandonescanbesenttoa
destinationcomputerorinourcaseisasettopboxwithadestinationdeviceabletoreadthe
languageofzerosandonesanddowhatisrequestedinthetransmissionthelanguageisusedby
cableoperatorsisknownasMPEG2orH262whichallowsanalogvideoandaudiotobe
digitizedsentasatransportstreamanddecodedbackintoanalogaudiovideotheoftheredin
theanalogworldonlyonevideocanbesentina6MHzchannelofthevideosdigitizingthepress
withMPEG210SDormoreservicescanbesentusingthesame6MHzchannelusing256qam

digitalwillalwayshaveanendofrunadvantageoveranalogprovidedthedigitaltilingthreshold
ofthedigitalsignalhasnotbeencrossedlowsignalnoisesnrlowcarriertonoisecnrcross
modulationandothercommonartifactswillbenoticeableonanalogservicehereontheright
withdigitalequipmentwillstillproducethesamepicturethatisfoundatheadend

CEA708isastandardforclosedcaptioningforaTSCdigitaltelevision

carriageofverticalblankingintervalVBIdatainNorthAmericadigitaltelevisionbitstreamsfalls
under127SCTEBVIdatatransferthroughtheSCTE127mechanismisintendedtobetranscoded
intotheVBIofacompanionvideochannelwithinanMPEG2transportstream

thisATSCa99standarddescribeshowtotransportlegacyTVdataservicesthataresentbysome
broadcasterstheseTVdataservicesmaybesentoverNTSCusinglinesinornearthevertical
blankingintervalorindigitalvideousingVANCverticalancillarythemethodforencapsulating
sometheserviceshavebeendefinedinSCT127

digitalvideosignalshave3componentstheluminanceknownisytheamountoflightadmitted
orbrightnessfromaparticularareaacolorvalueconsistingoftheluminancedeductedfromthe
colorredorredminusLumaandacolorvalueconsistingoftheluminancedeductedfromthe
colorblueorblueblueminusLumaduringthedigitizationprocessthe3parametersofthe
componentvideosignalareassignedanumericsamplingvalue

nowwehave2typesofanaloganddigitalsignalsherewehaveyPBPRandwhichisanalogin
theyPBPRdescribesanalogcomponentvideowhichislikeDVDplayersandissimilartoyR
minusYandBYwhitePBPRistheanalogcounterpartofYCBCRwhitePBPRsignalsareYCBCR
signalspriortoscalingandoffset2placessignalsinadigitalformandarecreatedfromthe

31
correspondinggammaadjustedRGBredgreenbluesourceituses3cablesforconnectionandis
commoninterfaceforHDtelevisionsetsYCBCRisdigitaloneofthe2primarycolorspacesused
torepresentdigitalcomponentvideotheotherisRGBthedifferencebetweenYCBCRandRGB
isthatYCBCRrepresentscolorsandbrightnessandtocolordifferentsignalswhichwejust
talkedaboutwhileRGBrepresentscolorsredgreenandblueYCBCRthewhyisthebrightness
theCVisblueminusluminanceandtheandtheCRistheredminusluminanceastandard
definitiondigitalrepresentationofacomponentanalogsignalsetisdefinedinITURDT601and
sentthe1205M

amotionvectordefinesaregionofa16x16pixelblocksinthetelevisionshowthereader
containsluminancesamplesthatareusedforpredictioninvideocompressionmoreonthistopic
comingupinfuturemodelstheaTSCstandarddocumenta53supportstoHDTVstandards1920
x1080andthe1280x720thatwereallcustomtoandalsoallowSDTVformatsincluding601
formatthedocumentcanbeobtainedatWWaTSCdoorandhere'sanicelittletableshows
thoseverticallinesofresolutionthepixelsthatwewouldexpectaspectratioandpictureframe
ratesthearedifferentresolutionsthatImentionedtherewasa1080Pthe10EDI720P480P
andthe4EDIPBaprogressiveandIVandinterlacedoftheITURDT709inthescentthe20
72906Mor4or280x720Pdigitalvideowas72704Misfor19201080Pdigitalvideo
standardsattendedrepeatedtotalpixelsis2millionaswecanseeherethecaveatisaTeddyIis
a1920diedby1080imageinterlacedformatreallythetotalpixelsareonlyabout1millionand
thenyouseethetotalpixelsfor720Pareveryclosetowhatyouwouldseeina10EDIsignal
thereisaslightexampleofwhatSTdigitalvideoandtheleftwouldlooklikecomparedeasy
digitalvideoHDTVimagesalwaysmeasure16unitswideby9unitshighora16x9aspectratio
dimensionswerechosentomatchawiderangeof35mmmotionpicturefilmstandardsboththe
1.78:1andthe125:1aspectratioprogramscanbeshownwithlittleornocompressionthe
2:35:1or2to35:1widescreenmoviescanbeshownwitha25%imagereduction16x9was
chosenbecauseonesizefitsallsohere'sanothershotofthe16x9with1.78or1.78:1aspect
ratio

pillarboxeswherewearefillingininformationontherightandleftinsidesweretaken4by3
andandtrytofillitoutwith16x9istobecorrectedwithanonlinearstretchbutthisoneisthe
youshowyouthetermpillarboxwhatthatmeansaftera

4x3youwidescreenisletterboxingorweaswefillinthetopiswhereyoujusttrytoviewHD
programsona4x3televisiontocorrectapicturecropisneededhoweveritcanbecorrected
withalinearzoomwindowboxingiscommonwhenviewingletterboxeddigitaltelevision
programs

inthissectionrelookatthecharacteristicsofdigitalaudioUnitedStates

theDolbyAC3systemisusedforthetransmissionofaudioanddigitalbroadcasttelevisionand
digitaltelevisionforcabletelevisionsystemsDVDandBlurayformatsalsousetheDolbyAC3for
most60HzvideosystemstheAC3formatproducesa5.1channelsofaudioafrontleftafront
rightcentersurroundlaughsaroundrightandalowfrequencyenhancementbasebandanalog
audiois1stdigitizedat48kHzsampleratethesampleisintheprocessbymodifieddiscrete
cosinetransformthisprocessisourproducesafrequencydomainrepresentationoftheaudio

32
theaudioisthencompressedusingapsychoacousticmodeltheoptimumdataratefortheAC3
compressedaudiois384kbpersecondothergeneratesaresupportedviewingvariouslevelsof
audioqualityatthereceiver

sometimesanaudiosignalmayrequireadjustmenttocorrectinequalityinthelevelsofvarious
frequenciesandaudioequalizerprovidesameansforindividualadjustmentofamplitudesofthe
audiosignalasafunctionoffrequencytypicallyanaudioequalizerdividestheaudiospectrum
intoaseriesofbandsthatareevenlyspaceonalogarithmicscalethisisdonetoaccommodate
thehumanearwhichhearsfrequencylogarithmicallytheamplitudeofeachbandmaybe
individuallyadjustedcompensatingaforlossoffidelitythatmayoccurinanaudiodistribution
chainsuchasahighendrolloffduetoparasiticcapacity

thetransmissionsystemforaudiosignalsandcabletelevisionandHFCnetworkshasalimited
dynamicrangethatmeansthatthereisalimitedrangeofaudioamplitudesitcanbesentover
thenetworkaudiolevelsthataretoolowbecausethedeviceisthenoiseresultinginapoor
signaltonoiseratioattheoutputofreceiversontheendofthenetworksignalthataretoohigh
mayresultindistortionofitallyouvoltagewaveformisexcessiveexcessivelylargethepeaksof
thewaveformtobeclippedoffinthetransmissionisreferredtoasclippingdistortionandis
illustratedintheillustrationinthelowerfigureontherighthandsidewhereyouseeit'sclipped
therebetweentheaveragelevelofaudiosignalandthepeaklevelofaudiosignalisknownas
headroomandistypicallymeasuredinDBseveralDBofheadroomisdesiredtoavoiddistortion
excessiveheadroomcanresultinpoorreceiversignaltonoiseratio

audiolevelismeasuredinunitsofDBU0DBUcorrespondencewillvoltageof.774Vrmsvolts
rootmeansquarewithavoltageisappliedto600ohmsitproducesaonemillivoltthenominal
inputlevelforprofessionalaudioequipmentwithabalance600ohminputimpedanceisaround
0DBUmostaudiolevelmetersarecalibratedinunitsofyouadbu

Congresscontainedinthecommercialadvertisementloudnessmitigationactalsoknownasthe
calmactrequiresacommercialadvertisementsmusthaveaudiothatisaveragelevelthatisno
greaterthantheleveloftheaudiointheprogrammingthatitoccupiesthisrequirementis
reflectedintheFCCregulationsorderlevelsmustbemonitoredtomaintainattheproperlevel
thisisparticularimportantinthecaseoflocaladinsertionorcommercialcontentmaybe
derivedfromaseparatesourceandtheprogrammingcontent

33
 .44444*

Nio
4

11*.

.114-6114

Using a lower sampling

increases quantization leading
to lower quantization noise
meaning more dynamic range.

lowersamplingishigherquantizationwetalkedaboutsamplingitcametovideotheNyquist
theorumrighteachdotinthefigureaboverepresentsoneaudiosamplethesamplerateand
audioCDhadasamplerateof44kHzor44,100Hzoftenwrittenas44kHzforshorthigher
samplingratesallowadigitalrecordingtoactuallyrecordhigherfrequenciesofsoundthe
Nyquistrateshouldbeatleasttwicethehighestfrequencyyouwanttorepresenthumanscan
hearfrequenciesabove20kHzso44kHzwaschosenastherateforaudioCDsjustincludeall
humanfrequenciessampleratesof96and192kHzarebecomemorecommonparticularlyDVD
audiomanypeoplehonestlycan'thearthedifferencehighersamplingsizesallowformore
dynamicrangelouderloudsandsoftersoftsdynamicrangeandaudioCDistheoreticallyabout
90DBusingalowersamplingincreasesquantizationleadingtolowerquantizationnoise
meetingmoredynamicrange

3.

thebandwidthreferstotherawbitratesanddataratesbandwidthforcommunicationchannels
derivedfromtheproductofthesymbolrateandthebitsusedinasymbolbeforeitforla
bandwidth'srawbitrateequalsymbolratetimesthisforsymbolpleaseseethenotesforclarity
itwasofcommonrawbitratesanddataratesareonthescreenisbrokenupbymodulation
symbolratethisforsymbolrawbitratedatarate

34
 Bandwidth
Coding schemes like
trellis reduce the per
bits symbol.
FECand Encryption
are overhead.

Modulation Symbol Rate

8-VSB 10.76 MS/s 32.28Mbps 19.34Mbps
Q PSK 1 . 28 MS/rs 2.56Mbps 2.30Mbps
Q PSK 2.56 MS/s 2 5.12Mbps 4.60Mbps
16 QAM 1.28MS/rs 4 5.12Mbps 4.50Mbps
16 QAM 2.56 MS/s 4 10.24Mbps 9.0Mbps
64 QAM 5.057 MS/s 30.34Mbr s 27.
256 QAM 5.36 MS/s (1
7
2.88Mbp7----) 38.88Mbps

Eight times the baud

rate.

The bandwidth refers to the raw bit rates and

data rates. Bandwidth for a communication
channel is derived from the product of symbol
rate and bits used in a symbol.
The formula for bandwidth is: Raw Bit Rate =
symbol rate (baud rate) bits I symbol.

A list of common raw bit rates and data rates are

on the screen, and below.

Modulation Symbol Rate Bits I Symbol Raw Bit

Rate Data Rate
8-VSB 10.76 MSIs 3 32.28Mbps 19.34Mbps
QPSK 1.28MSis 2 2.56Mbps 2.30Mbps
QPSK 2.561y1Sis 2 5.12Mbps 4.60Mbps
16 QAM 1.28MSis 4 5.12Mbps 4.50Mbps
16 QAM 2.S6MSIs 4 10.24Mbps 9.0Mbps
64 QAM 5.057MS/s 6 30.34Mlops 27.0Mbps
256 QAM 5.36MSIs 8 42.88Mbps 38.88Mbps

foroneexampleofyoutakealookat64QAMthesymbolrateis5.057millionsofsymbolsper
second6bitsareusedpersymbolwetimesthose2togethertogettheproduct30.34bitsper
secondfortherawbitratehoweverduetothingslikeFECforwarderrorcorrectionwhichisone
exampleofhowtherawbitrateisreducedthedatarateisonly27Mbpersecondotherfactors
thatmayreducethedatarateareencryptionandoverheadrequirementsoftheoperatordueto
codingschemesliketrelliscodinglessbitspersymbolmaybepossibleforinstanceinofVSB
Vestidualsidebandonly2bitsforsymbolarepossibleinsteadofthe3bitspersymbolreducing
thedatarateto21.52persecondoverheadisalsorequiredandreducestherawbitratetothe
datarateasImentionedforinsensitivity256QAMtherawbitrateis42.88Mbpersecond

35
howeverthedatarateisonly38.88MbpersecondanothernoteisaQPSKbitrateistwicethe
baudrate64QAMbitrateis4timesthebaudrateandto256QAMbitrateis8timesthebaud
rate

FECorforwarderrorcorrectionisoneexampleofhowtherawbitrateisreducedotherfactors
thatmayreducethedatarateareencryptionandoverheadrequirementsoftheoperatorno
oneduetothecodingschemesliketrelliscodinglessbitspersymbolmaybepossiblefor
instanceinVSBonly2bitsforsymbolarepossibleinsteadof3bitspersymbolreducingthedata
rateto21.52Mbpersecondfurthermorein256QAMtherawbitrateis42.88Mbpersecond
howeverthedatarateis38.88Mbpersecondduetoforwarderrorcorrectionnote2QPSKbit
rateistwicethebaudrate64QAMbitrateis4timesthebaudrateintobuddy6QAMbitrateis
8timesthebaudrate

cabledigitalvideosignalsrequireveryhighdataratetotransportvideosignalsoverthecable
networkdigitalvideosignalsarespatiotemporalsignalshavingbothspatialandtemporal
qualitiesinotherwordsthedigitalvideoisasequenceoftimevaryingimagesthatsimulate
motiontoreducethehighdatarateavideooperatorsusecompressiontechniquesto
significantlyreducevideobandwidthandthesizeofthevideotransmissionoverthecable
network4typesofredundanciesandvideoareusedtocompressvideotheyinclude1horizontal
resolutiontoverticalresolution3spatialinformation4temporalinformationsamplingofthe
horizontalandverticalresolutionisusedtoreduceredundanciesandvideoandinMPEG
compressionmpeg4musttakeadvantageofthespatialandtemporalredundanciesbetween
framestoachievehighercompressionratioremovalofspatialredundancyoccursonasingle
MPEGframeandtemporalredundancyisacrossmultipleMPEGframes

36
Cable digital video signals require a very high data
rate to transport video signals over the cable
network. Digital video signals are spatiotemporal
signals, having both spatial and temporal qualities.
In other words, digital video is a sequence of time
varying images that simulate motion. To reduce
the high data rate of video, operators use
compression techniques to significantly reduce
video bandwidth and the size of the video
transmission over the cable network. Four (4)
types of redundancies in video are used to
compress video, they include:

1. Horizontal Resolution
2. Vertical Resolution
3. Spatial or intra-frame coding
4. Temporal or inter-frame coding

Sampling of the horizontal and vertical resolution

is used to reduce redundancies in video and in
MPEG compression.

MPEG formats take advantage of spatial and

temporal redundancies between frames to
achieve higher compression ratios. Removal of
spatial redundancy occurs on a single MPEG
frame while temporal redundancy involves
multiple tylPEG frames or group of pictures (GOP).

anotheroptiontoincreasechanneldatarateisincreasingthechannelwidthtypicallyreturn
pathoptionsare1.63.2and6.4MHzincreasingthechannelwidthorusingaspectrallymore
efficientmodulationincreasestherequiredsignaltonoiseratioadditionalbandwidthisadded
byprovisioningadditionalhighspeeddataRFchannelonabroadbandcablesystemincreasing
capacitywhenproperlyimplementedBonnieforwardpath6MHzchannelstogetherorreturn
path6.4MHzchannelsoffersadditionalbandwidthforexampleforbondedforwardpath
channelsoffers24MHzofbandwidthwereproximallyhundred32Mbpersecondmessbecause
it's38Mbpersecond4channelsyou'vecompletedthelessoninthislessonyoulearnthe
relationshipofsymbolratebandwidthandchannelsizethecablesystempressenterwhen
you'rereadytostartthenextlessonplacinginformationonacarrierandcablewhetheritisdata
orvideoiscalledmodulationmodulationofinformationisrequiredtotransportsignalsoverthe
Fordandreturnpathcommunicationchannelsforexamplethe6MHzintheforwardpath3.2
MHzor6.4MHzandreturnpaththisistothecustomerthechoiceofmodulationtechniquesfor
operatorsisonethatoptimizesbandwidththatisitimprovesthedataratethemegabitsper
secondversusthebandwidthusedinontheoperatorspectrumandoffersresiliencytonoisein
otherwordsdecreasesthecostperbidtransmittedkeepingupwiththeexponentialbandwidth
demandgrowththatweseeincabletherearemanychoicesformodulatingsignalsandthis
sectionwillexplorethetypesofmodulationuponcompletionofthislessonyou'llbeableto
recognizetheanaloganddigitalmodulationordersusedinthecableaccessnetworkacarrier
signalorcontinuouswaveCWcontainsnoinformationofitsownprovidesenergyataspecified

37
stablefrequencytotransportbothanaloganddigitalsignalsthisensuresreliablesignal
transmissiontheprocessofaddingintelligenceorinformationfromabasebandsignaltothe
carrierbychangethecarriersignal'sfrequencyamplitudephaseorsomecombinationofthese
characteristicsiscalledmodulationthefrequencybandsurroundingeachcarrierisalsoknown
asthetransmissionbandwidththecarrierofmodulationmustremainwithintheallocated
bandwidththeretokeepfrombeingcorruptedorcausinginterferencetoothersignalssofor
examplethecarrierbandwidthoftheforwardpathis6MHzusingmodulationtotransmit
informationfallsunder4mainstepsthe1ststepoperatorwilldoisgeneratedpureRFcarrierat
theheadandtransmitterataparticularfrequencytheRFcarriercanbeasignweevenanalogor
squarewaveanddigitalshownherethepureRFsignalismodulatedwiththeinformationit
couldbevideodatavoiceorsomeothertypeofdataandthat'stobetransmittedtothe
customerthechangeinasignalscharacteristicsallowsittocarrythisinformationexamplesof
howsignalsarechangedarebyamplitudefrequencyphaseorcombinationsuchasabletodoin
phasethemodelandinstep3themodulatedsignalscombinedwithothersignalsofthehead
andandfedintoalasertransmitterandfileexceptforareceiverinthefieldsuchasasettop
boxorcablemodemIwilltakethemodulatedsignaldetectedanddemodulatedtorecoverthe
informationthereare2categoriesofmodulationavailableanaloganddigitalanalogmodulation
techniquesarenotverycommonincablebutstillmayexistinoddmodulationincludes
amplitudemodulationa.m.nowthistechniqueisbearingtheamplitudeofthecarrierbasedon
thecharacteristicsofthebasebandsignalthenextanalogmodulationtechniqueisfrequency
modulationorFMthetechniqueofbearingthefrequencyofacarrierbasedonthe
characteristicsofabasebandsignalanda3rdtypeofmodulationofferanalogisphase
modulationorp.m.thetechniqueofbearingthephaseofacarrierbasedonthecharacteristics
ofthebasebandsignalother6differenttypesofdigitalmodulationanddigitalmodulation
allowsoperatorstoimprovethedatarateovertheanalogmodulationandalsodecreasingthe
costperbitarefocusingcableisQAMhoweverwewilldiscusssomeotheroptionsdigital
modulationincludesthefollowingwehaveamplitudeshiftkeyingoraskaisthesameasa.m.
butlimitedtoapredeterminedamplitudeshiftswehavefrequencyshiftkeyingorFSKissimply
FMbutlimitedtopredeterminedshipsandfrequencyasopposedtoFMwhichallowsforinfinite
degreesoffrequencydeviationwehavephaseshiftkeyingorPSKisthesameasPMorphase
modulationbutlimitedtoapredeterminedphaseshiftswealsohavebinaryphaseshiftkeying
orbePSKthisisthesimplestformofphaseshiftkeyinganddigitaltransmissionutilizingonebid
persymbolandfordefinedphaseanglestotakealookatshortlyquadraturephaseshiftkeying
somorecomplexversionoffrequencyshiftkeyingorphaseshiftkeyingindigitaltransmission
anditusesa2bitpersymbolandfinallyQAMquadratureamplitudemodulation2ofthe3
propertiesofacontinuouswavecarriercanbeusedatthesametimetopackmorebitsper
baudandmorebitspersymbolincreasingthebitsforHertzdigitalmodulationincludesampleto
JeffKingora.s.Kisthesameasa.m.butlimitedtopredeterminedabletoshiftsfrequencyshift
caneorFSKissimplyFMbutlimitedtopredeterminedshipsandfrequencyasopposedtoFM
whichallowstheforinfinitedegreesoffrequencydeviationphaseshiftkeyingorPSKisthesame
asphasemodulationbutlimitedtopredeterminedphasestatesbinaryphaseshiftkeyingorbe
PSKisasimplestformofphaseshiftkeyingindigitaltransmissionutilizingonebidpersymbol
andfordefinedphaseanglestoPSKyourquadraturephaseshiftkeyingisamorecomplex
versionofphaseshiftkeyinganddigitaltransmissionutilizing2bitspersymbolsometimescalled
forQAMandthenquadratureabletomodulationorQAM2ofthe3propertiesofacarrierwave

38
canbeusedatthesametimetopackmorebitsperbaudandmoreaspersymbolincreasingthe
bitsforHertzanationaltelevisionsystemscommitteeNTSCanalogmodulatorismadeupof3
fundamentalcomponentsthe1stoneisavideobasebandthesecondoneisintermediate
frequencyandthe3rdisradiofrequencytheNTSCdemodulationprocessyieldsacomposite
basebandvideosignalwhilethedigitalmodulationprocessyieldsaQAMvideosignalthedeath
ofmodulationismeasuredasthepercentageofthetotalamplitudechangeofthecarrieror
videovoltagerelativetothehorizontalsyncpulselevelandthisisasthesignalprogressesfrom
sinktiptopeakwhiteACATVmodulationrequires87.5%ofthetotalrangeofthecarrier
envelopefromfullcarriertoknowcarrierforproperperformancethecarriermodulationistoo
deepitwillbecutofforexhibitreducedcolorandcontrastduringsinktipsthecarrieris100%of
thefullcarrierpowerawhiteportionofthepictureorpeakwhitelevelthecarrieramplitudeis
reducedto12.5%ofthefullcarrierpowerandNTSseevideosignaluses3analogmodulation
techniquestogenerateatelevisionchannelweuseamplitudeforluminancefrequencyforaudio
andphaseforchrominancesignalprocessorsareusedtotransfersignalsfromveryhigh
frequencyVHFovertheairordedicatedfeedscomingintotheheadandovertheyearsalso
referredtoasOTAprocessorsdothefollowingtheychangethefrequencyofthesignal
convertingitordownconvertingittheyregulatethesignallevelusingaautomaticgaincontrol
featureAGCtheyamplifysignalwithrespecttothevideotheymodifyaudiolevelswithrespect
tothevideoprocessorsmaybefrequencyagilededicatedtoaparticularfrequencywerenon
agilesignalsareoftendownconvertedtoanintermediatefrequencythatwejustmentionedan
industrystandardtobesupportedtoortransportedtootherhiddendevicestheusualif
frequencyorintermediatefrequencybandforNTSCsignalis41to47MHzallconvertersare
usedtomoveasignaltoadesiredfrequencyoroutputchannelamplitudemodulationisa
simplerobotsmodulationwiththeadvantageofcapturingnuancesofchangehoweveranalog
signalsaresubjecttointerferencenoiseanddegradationaffectingtheamplitudeofthecarrier
a.m.isananalogmodulationtechniquewereonechangestheheightNDBthevoltagestrength
ofacontinuouswaveformCWinthiscaseasinewaveandwecanseethatontherighthand
sideofthescreennameisusedataparticularfrequencysay55.25MHzforCEAchannelto
smallercarrierscalledsidebandsthesumanddifferencecarriersareproducedduringamplitude
modulationasshownhereonthescreenthecentercarrieroftenrepresentsvideosoundor
colorcarrierandanaloga55.25MHzRFcarriermodulatedwitha1MHzbasebandvideocarrier
produces3amplitudemodulatedcarrierswanted54.25MHzwanted55.25MHzandoneat
56.25MHzusedbyearlymodemtypestoconvertdigitalsignalstoanalogbytransmittinglarge
amplitudesinewaveinplaceofa1a0orlowamplitudefor0andthatisusinginamodulation
fortransmittingdataduring100%modulationthecarrierat32DBwilldropabout60Bto2060
Bandproducesidebandsthatare6TVdownforthecarrierisshownhereonthescreenthe
videoinformationofitNTSCsignalismodulatedusingempathymodulationamplitudeshift
keyingarrayisKisadigitalversionofa.m.wherethesignalsamplitudeislimitedtoasetusually
2orpredeterminedpredeterminedspecificvoltagesandtypicallytohisdumbbecauseofbinary
typicallyreferredtoisahighandlowora1and0orsometimesevenonandoffhavingmore
possibleamplitudeswillresultinmoreinformationbeingtransmittedperchangeinamplitude I
pulsereoccurrencetimeorPRTdescribestherateatwhichthedigitalvoltagechangesare
allowedtooccurbaudindicateshowfasttheanalogsignalschangingwheretherateofchange
inthechannelorbandwidththespeedofchangingmodulationislimitedbythebandwidth
whichisadisadvantageofa.m.meaningthatthebandwidthofana.m.signalissentinis6MHz

39
andtheforwardpathabletoshiftkeyingisadigitalversionofamplitudemodulationasasignals
amplitudeislimitedtoasetusuallytoforbinaryofpredeterminedspecificvoltagestorefertois
highandlowor1and0oronandoffhavingmorepossibleamplitudeswillresultinmore
informationbeingtransmittedperchangeinamplitudepulsereoccurrencetimeorPRT
describestherateatwhichthedigitalvoltagechangesareallowedtooccurbaudindicateshow
fasttheanalogsignalischangingwheretherateofchangeinachannelorbandwidththespeed
ofthechangingmodulationislimitedbythebandwidthwhichisadisadvantageofamplitude
modulationthedigitalTVorDTVstandardchosenbytheFCCformodulatingovertheyearoroff
airsignalsUnitedStatesis8symbolthisdigitalsidebandor8VSBmodulationthe8symbols
represent3bitsofdatathebitsarenottransmittedlikeQAMandsaidthevisceraaddedthen
transmittedinanalog8VSBmodulationoffersasimilarperformanceandspectralefficiencyto
64QAMbutdoesnotofferthequadraturecomponentthe64QAMusesspectralefficiencyis
howwellafrequencyspectrumisutilizedsuchasa6MHzbandwithchannelinourcasewithin
theforwardpathsincecableuses6MHzchannelsafullymodulatedVSBsignalwithbothlower
anduppersidebandswecanseeheredoesnotfitina6MHzchannelbecausethelower
sidebandisformegahertztheuppersidebandisalsoformegahertzandcouldseethekidsound
carrier,sitsouttheretobealmostatotalof81/2MHzwhitethat'safullymodulatedVSBsignal
8VSBisusedtotransmitdigitaladvancedtelevisionsystemscommitteeaTSCvideosignalsuch
asyourstandarddeathdigitalsignalsandanmostcommontheHDRhighdefinitionvideosignals
andpaytoisalsoutilizedtohelplowerthebandwidthutilizedbythesignalsMPEG2isthevideo
compressionorpatronizationformatusedinovertheairthelistgoseehowVSPfitsintoa6
MHzchanneltoconservebandwidthandincreasespectralefficiencysinglesidebandSSBwould
bedesiredforovertheyearasremovingpartoftheVSBsignalhoweverduetothenatureof
videosignalsandcableandthequalitythatwerequireSSBisnotanoption8VSBusesafull
uppersidebandandisasuppressedlowersidebandasshownontherighthandsidenoticehow
thatdiffersfromtheSSBsignalinthelefthandsidethatdoesnotcontainalowersidebandand
doingthisallowsustotransmitthesignalina6MHzspaceofVSBfilterisusedtoremoveallbut
thevestigeofthelowersidebandQAMontheotherhandtransmitsasignalusingthefullupper
sidebandandafulllowersideband8VSBtransmitsdatausingasinglephaseontheeyechannel
accessonlyandnotontheQchannelquadratureaxisforthisreasonthereisnoreasonin8VSB
toseparatethechannelslikeQAMattheheadandthesinglephaseismodulatedandfiltered
usingthe8VSBfilter8VSBmodulationisalsoabletotransmittwicethesymbolrightinthe
samebandwidthis64QAMsaysalowersidebandissuppressedfrequencymodulationFMis
anotheranalogmodulationtechniquethatislesssusceptibletoenvironmentalnoiseburststhan
a.m.caseinpointistheradiothatwehaveinourcarFMsignalsalittlebitimprovequalityFMis
measuredincyclespersecondorCPSorfrequencyofsinewaveCPSistherateofchangethat
theaurasignalundergoespersecondofagivenwavealsoreferredtoasbaudratelikea.m.the
disadvantageoffrequencymodulationisattherateoffrequencychangesarelimitedbythe
bandwidththeaudioinformationofitNTSCsignalismodulatedusingFMthedigitalversionof
FMisfrequencyshiftkeyingorFSKFSKconveysdatabyperiodicallychangingthefrequencyof
thecarriertorepresentatransmitted0oronestateonesandzerosarerepresentedbya
switchingfrequencyforexampleindigitalFSKandobsolete300Bdmodemusedtoused
thousand70Hzforabinary0while1270Hzmeantabinaryoneisalittle54UnitedStatesthe
FMbroadcastbandis87.7MHzto108MHzandthatoverlaysarecablespectrumandanalog
phasemodulationthephaseofauniformfrequencyandamplitudesinewaveisaspecifictime

40
intervalsmodulatingthecarrierthemanyphasesoranglesandIsawslopesofthesitewaycan
bemeasuredandgivenreferencevaluesbasedmodulationrepresentstheonandofftheones
andzerosbyusingthedifferentangleshownherevariationsofthephasemodulationallow
codingofmultiplebitstoherforBetzonasinglecarrierchangepatientcameisadigitalversion
ofphasemodulationanalogcarriermayswitchbetween2phases19to70torepresentsones
andzerosbinaryphaseshiftkeyingandquadratureBishopKingareformsofphaseshiftkeying
thecolorinformationofanNTSCsignalismodulatedusingphasemodulationherewehavean
exampleofanNTSCsignalyoumaypauseatrainingandtakealookinmoredetailbinaryphase
shiftkeyingorBPSKisasimplestformofphaseshiftkeyingindigitaltransmissionreferredto
theBPSKdiagramhereonthescreen2phasesareusedseparatedby180andinphaseandout
ofphaseorreversedtheamplituderemainsconstantforbothinphaseandoutofphasesignals
thereisa1bitpersymbolintheBPSKdiagramthereforethebitrateandBPSKisonetimesa
symbolratepersecondBPSK'sextremelyrobustandoperateswellinanoisyupstreamoffersa
lowdatarateandmuchlowerthanQPSKquadraturephaseshiftkeyingandquadrature
amplitudemodulationorQAMamoreadvancedfeeshiftkeyingorPSKismultibitmodulation
quadraturephaseshiftkeyingorQPSKQPSKemployeesperiodicallyshiftinthephaseof2in
phasecarriersIenqueueata600Bdrateor90shiftplusandencodingtechniqueQPSKcallsfor
fortifyingphasechangesoranglestorepresentdatasymbols90ofseparationbetweenphase
angles09180and270areusedonceashipper.Ofthewavemeansthateach.Canrepresents2
binarydatabitspersymboltothebarnareaonlyrepresentsa0or1itisbasedtoabitisthe
smallestunitofdatacommunicatedbyadigitaldevicethebitspersymbolinQPSKor2bitsper
symbolinQPSKtoraceofthepowerof2equals4possiblesymbolsQPSK'sequivalentofa4
QAMisthereonlytobitssquaredorforor4pointssometimesreferredtoassymbolsmost
oftenreferredtoassymbolsbutsometimesreferredtoasdatapointsonontheeachaxisis
shownherethecivilbitvalueshownintheQPSKconsolationestatediagramare00andhe
upperrightquadrant01intheupperleft10inthelowerrightandthen11inthelowerleft
quadrantQPSKistypicallyusedintheupstreambycableoperatorsforslowerdataservices
suchasanoutofbandsignalingtosettopboxesorOOBisalsousedtoreceivesatellitesignals
intheheadandorhubsitethesignaltonoiseratioofQPSKshouldbe25DBorgreaterQPSK
operateswellinanoisyupstreambutoffersalowerlowerdatarateandQAMinquiriestravelto
modulationorQAMto3propertiesofthecarriercanbeusedatthesametimetopackmore
bitsperboughtPalmalsocalledphaseamplitudedigitalmodulationisamethodforencoding
digitaldataonananalogsignalorcarrierwavebothphaseshiftkeyingandamplitudeshift
keyingorvariedtotransmitinformationusingQAMQAMismodulatedschemethatismost
suitablewhenbandwidthefficiencyandhighdataratesaredesiredinthecablenetworkQAM
allows2channelsandIinaqueuetobecarriedatessentiallythesamefrequencyeffectively
doublingthebandwidthordataratethatcanbecarriedwhilemodulatestocarriesitatexactly
thesamefrequencyandisshiftedby90inthePsalmsthecarriersbacktogetherincreasingthe
bandwidthofforwardorreturnpathchannelisachievedbyusingahigherordermodulation
suchasaQAMoveraQPSKincreasingthesymbolrateorboughtusinghigherordermodulation
techniquesuchasQAMyoucanAshleyusethemhighersymbolratesandofobviouslyadding
symbolstatesmovingintoa201024QAMor4096QAMMooresymbolsmorebitsasheorder
modulationincreasessomethingyouneedtobeaneedtopayattentiontoahighercarrierto
noiseratiomustexistahighersignaltonoiseratioofatleast30DBorgreaterandmodulation
errorrateorerrorratiomustbemaintainedtoofferthesamebidderratioorBERcarriernoise

41
mustalsoormayalsobereferredtoasC&RcarriedanoiseQAMisthemostefficient
modulationtechniqueandthereforeisoftenusedincabletransmissionsindigitalmodulation
schemessuchasQAMthedatabitsaresentasaconsolationpointcalledsymbolsorstates
thesepointsrepresentaspecificvalueintheinphasein90phaseandquadraturecomponents
oftheQAMsignalanyQis90outofphasefromIandtheIenqueuerepresentphaseand
amplitudeontheconsolationhigherorderQAMsignalshavemoreconsolationpointsymbols
andstatesthatlowerorderQAMsignalsandsaucetransmitmoreinformationperunitmorebits
perhertzInc.provesspectralefficiencyandthisisinthesametimethesameRFchannel
bandwidththenumberofsymbolstransmittedisproportionaltothenumberofpossibleI
enqueuevaluesascableoperatorsincreasemodulationorderstheconsolationbecomesdenser
ishereallyreallygoodexampleofthisonthescreenwereislessdenseinthe64QAMnot
sendingasmanysymbolsasthemoredense256QAMontherighthandsidetotheconsolation
ontherighthandsideisdenserthedistancebetweenthestatesissmallerandmoresusceptible
tonoiseandtransmissionpathdistortionsanincreaseinstatesweresymbolsinagivenperiod
oftimewillexhibithigheraverageofundetectedpowerlevelsnoteconsolationdiagrammaybe
referredtoasavectordiagramdigitalcommunicationsmodulationisoftenexpressedinterms
oftheinphaseIinthequadraturecomponentsapolardiagramontheleftshowsasymbols
placementisamagnitudeinthephasethepolardiagramshowstheIaccessandthe0phase
referenceandtheQaccessisrotatedby90thereisa90phaseshiftbetweentheIenqueue
carriersontherightistherectangularrepresentationofthepolardiagramthesignalsvector
projectionontotheIaxisorIvalueisitseyecomponentintheprojectionontheQaxisorQ
valueisitsQcomponentthesearethe4quadrantsofaconstellationtheconsolationisagreat
toolseethehealthoftheQAMchannelyour4examplesofanunhealthyQAMnumber1inthe
quadrantoneexampleacontinuouswaveisinterferingwithQAMandthesymbolsbecominga
circleinquadrant2here'sanexampleofphasenoisecausingthesymboltorotateinquadrant3
examplewehaverandomnoisecausingphaseandamplitudedisturbanceinthesymbolis
startingtospreadinquadrantforexamplewehaveseereflectionsorghostingarecausingthe
symboltoreplicatehereweseethepointsinaQAMconsolationforseveralsymbolsthatwere
transmittedcorrespondingtothatparticularpointintheconsolationnotethatinthepresence
ofnoiseanddistortioneachsubsequentsymbolthatwastransmittedfallsinaslightlydifferent
locationintheconstellationifthemagnitudeofthenoiseanddistortionissufficientsufficiently
largethereceivedsignalwillfalloutsidetheboundarythedemodulatorwhilepottedincorrect
valueforthedigitaldatawhenthishappenssuchanincorrectoutputisreferredtoasabiterror
foragivenlevelofnoiseanddistortionthelikelihoodofabidderincreasesastheorderofmy
modulationisincreasedortheorderofQAMequipmentwayhigherorderQAMrequiresless
distortionandnoisethanlowerorderQAMthetestequipmentthatisdesignedtodisplayQAM
consolationstypicallydisplaysmultiplesymbolstoshowhereinthefigurehowcloselythese
pointsaregroupedaroundtheideallocationforasymbolisameasureofthemagnitudeof
noiseanddistortioninthesystemmodulationerrorratioormyrrhisadirectmeasurementof
themagnitudeoftheerrorortheaverageerrorofthesignalfromtheidealconsolationlocation
onemeasureofqualityofachannelcarryingdigitaldataisthepercentageoferrorfreeseconds
orEFSabitattheoutputofthesystemthatisdifferentfromthebitthatwastransmittedis
referredtoasabiterroroneormorebetterisinasecondconstitutes10secondnoerrorsinthe
secondconstitutesanerrorfreesecondratioofthenumberoferrorfreesecondsothetotal
numberofsecondsmeasuredtimes100%istheerrorfreesecondpercentageitisaitis

42
desirabletomakethisquantityiscloseto100%aspossibleto56QAMhas8bitspersymbolin
theconstellationinthisdiagramwestartontheleftwitha90phaseshiftbetweentheI
enqueuecarriersthatmeansthat8bitspersymbolissplitbetweentheIandQcarrierforbits
eachtheIenqueuecarriersaremodulatedusingamplitudeIismodulatedtoraisethepowerof
4timesor16levelsofampleamplificationthesameisdonefortheQcarrierthedatais
transmittedoverthenetworkinourcasetheHFCthedemodulatorattheotherandthetextof
90phaseshiftrecoverstheIenqueuecarriersthedemodulatorwillthendetectthevarious
levelsofamplitudeusingthedatafromphaseandtheamplitudetheconsolationiscreatednote
thattheNTSCdemodulationprocessyieldsacompositebasebandvideosignalwhiletheDthe
digitaldemodulationprocessyieldsaQAMvideosignalhere'sadifferencefromlookingata
QAMonaspectrumanalyzeronthelefthandsideversuslookingaQAMaconsolationdiagram
orstatediagramQAMaspectrumanalyzersometimesreferredtoasthehaystackremember
QAMisananalogcarriercreatedbyabletoshiftkeyingandphaseshiftkeyingusedtorepresent
digitalcontentontheaccessnetworkhereweseeaQAMsignalasitwouldappeara
spectrum_haystackthehorizontalaccessshowsfrequencyandverticalaccessshowsamplitude
manydifferentRFmodulationschemescancoexistoronacollectivenetworkoragencynetwork
aswetalkedabout4ofAMisusedforanalogvideochannelsFMAbeusedforbroadcastFM
bandtobecarriedovernetworkmotorsettopboxesuseBPSKforthemitigationbutmost
dentalQPSKandanolder12telephonyservicesmayusehimtobeaskatermosteverything's
beentransitioningtoQAMfordataservicesvoiceservicesanddigitaltelevisionitwasa
modulationschemedependsonthetypeofsignalbeingtransmittedandthecostoftheRF
bandwidthrequired16QAM'sweresymbolsareequalto4bitsperhertztobitsontheIchannel
intobitsontheQchannelorcarrierforbitspersymbolyield0to15possibilities164x4total
statesortoraisetothepowerof460QAMistypicallyusedintheupstreamorreturnpathfor
dataservicesandnewersettopboxesDr.specifiesthattheoperatorcanselectanupstream
modulationofQPSKorQAMonthescreenistheIenqueueconsolationplotshowingforlevelIV
levelsofIcarriersand4levelsofQcarrierstoincreasethedatarateandoperatorcanusehigher
ordermodulationtechniquessuchas64QAMshownheretoseeforQAM'sweresymbolsare
equalto6bitsperhertz3bitsontheIchannel3bitsontheQchannel6bitspersymbolyield0
to63plotstatesorpossibilitiesthat'san8x8or64totalstatesortoraisetothepowerofa64
QAMistypicallyusedintheupstreamorreturnpathforDickdataservicesandnewersettop
boxessimilarly64wasselectedforthedownstreamorforwardpathNativitysaysQAMismore
commondotsorspecifiesanoperatorcanselectanupstreammodulationofQPSKorQAM
here'sacomparisonofthespectralefficiencyofaVSPand64QAMasyoucanseetherevery
similarnatureoftherawbitratebeing32.28MbpersecondgradeBSB30.34Mbpersecond
154QAMthesignaltonoiseratiosarepracticallyequivalenttocontinuetoincreasethedata
rateoversafetyforQAMandoperatorcanchooseto36QAMactivity6QAMrequiresatleast
theleastamountofRFbandwidthforagivenamountofdatadutiesisQAM'sweresymbolsare
equalto8bitsperhertzforbitsontheIchannelandforbitsontheQchannelorcarrier8bits
persymbolyield0255possibilitiesorstates236isa16x16gridortotalstatesortoraisethe
power16256to86QAMistypicallyusethedownstreamorforwardpathforlittervideodata
servicesandoperatorcanselectdifferentQAMdownstreamchannelsandmodulationordersfor
theforwardpath1024QAMhasbeenshownfeasibleinacleanspectrumpresidencywerejust
goingtokeepincreasingQAMtotoincreasethebandwidthtothecustomerbutIcanseehelp
dance21024QAMiscomparedto36QAMtoyougodenserinacleanspectrumofthe4096

43
QAMhasbeenshownfeasibleinEuropeusingdigitalvideobroadcastovercablepart2orDVC2
forexampleandthisrepresentsa50%increaseincapacityover286QAMasignaltonoiseratio
of46DBorgreaterisrequiredtoachieve4096QAMhereweseeasummaryoftheQAM
consolationsusedbyoperatorstodayfeelfreetopausethetrainingtotoreviewthemost
effectivewaytoanalyzeoursignaltransportorsinglesortransportdigitaldataforexample
SusieforQAMintheupstreamisaconsolationanalysiswedospendtalkingaboutconsolation
analysisisthemeasurementoftheQAMtransmissionpossiblymeasuredatthecustomerhad
invocationtheconsolationrepresentedgoodqualitysignalshouldresultingoodmodulation
errorratioandgoodbiterrorratiogoodMurrayBurrcorrespondedgooddatathroughput
characteristicsfeworimperceptibleimpairmentssquaredisplaypointscenteredwithinthe
decisionboundariesclusterofnearlyidenticalpointsconsolationanalysisstartswiththesignal
levelmeterinSLMwithabuiltinQAMdemodulatortheQAMconsolationanalysisofsignallevel
metertypicallyprovidesBurrmurderRFpowerlevelsintheconsolationdiagramthediagramof
theconsolationwillindicatenotonlyifimpairmentsexistonthesinglebutoftenwillenable
broadbandpremisesprofessionaltodeterminetherootcauseoftheimpairmentwecanseeon
thelefthandsidewehaveanearidealconsolationininthemiddlewecanseethosepoints
earnedspreadswiththemoderateandhonestlyontherighthandsidetoreallyspreadingand
goingoutsideadecisionboundariestonoticebecomesanunacceptabletohertoseepoor
murderduetothenoisethat'sevidenceherebythereceiptQAMconsolationdiagramherewe
seethedecisionboundariesforseveralQAMtypestheupperleftquadrantofthisconsolation
showsadecisionboundariesfor16QAManytimethesignalfallsinsidetheareaindicatedand
blowitwillbedemodulatedasadigitalwordcorrespondingtothatpartoftheconsolationnoise
ordistortioninthesignalmaycausetheexactvalueofthesignaltomovearoundinsidea
decisionareabutthatisacorrectableerrorbutsolongasasinremainsinsideablueareawillbe
abletoproperlydemodulatedthelowerleftquadrantofconsolationshowsdecisionboundary
for16or6report1tothedecisionboundaryfor64QAMisone4ththesizeofthe16QAM
physicalmustfallwithinasmallerareaintheinordertobedemodulatedproperlythismeansa
64QAMismuchlesstolerantofnoiseanddistortion16QAM086.duty6QAMisevenless
tolerantofnoiseanddistortionbecauseofthesmallerdecisionboundaryandthatiscompared
to64QAMasindicatedbythesmalldecisionboundaryinthelowerrightquadrantofififwe
havesymbolslandingoutsidethedecisionboundariesthesearecalleduncorrectable'soryour
postFECdemodulationisthereverseprocessofmodulationextractingthedatabearingsignal
fromthemodulatedcarrierwaveforexamplegiveoperatorsuseademodulatornoticessettop
boxthesettopboxremovestheQAMinformationrecoverthevideosignalslet'stalkalittlebit
aboutthedemodulationprocess1stthecarrierfrequencyisrecoveredsowecalledcarrierlock
thatwehavesymbolclockrecoverywhichissymbollockisstep3sealthecompositiontoI
enqueuecomponentsoftheQAMwedeterminetheIQvaluesforeachsymbolwhichiscalled
slicingthatwegotodecodingofthesignalandtheinterweavingthatweexpandtotheoriginal
Bitstreamandfinallydigitaltoanalogconversionofhisrequiredbutthesymbolclockfrequency
andphasertimingmustbecorrectinorderforthereceivertodemodulatedbidsuccessfullyand
recoverthetransmittedinformationtheerrordetectionprocessusuallybeginsby1st
modulatingthatthedigitalsignalcarrierfrequencyrecoverysymbolclockrecoverysignal
decompositiondeterminingIenqueuevaluesdecodingandDNAlivingcanimpacttheerror
detectioncorrectionofthedatastreamyouhavecompletedthelessoninthislessonyoulearn
theanaloganddigitalmodulationordersusedinthecableaccessnetworkpressentertostart

44
thenextlessonsoeditionsof236QAMorotherversionsofcalmusedtrelliscodemodulationto
improvesignaltonoiseliketheideaofForderrorcorrectionwastakealookuponcompletionof
thislessonyou'llbeabletorecognizecelltrelliscodemodulationisusedtoimproveRFsignal
qualitytrelliscodingisatechniqueofencodingdatasuchthattheerrorsthatoccurinthe
transmissionchannelcanbecorrectedatthereceiverextrabitsareaddedinordertopermit
errordetectionandcorrectiontrelliscodingisoneofagroupofcodesknownasKongdelusional
codesaswithmostdigitalcommunicationsystemsmultiplebitsaregroupedtogetherinthe
symbols,delusionalcodesarecreatedbyperformingmathematicaloperationsonthisisonthe
symbolsinformationthatissentoverthechannelrelatestothetransitionbetweensymbols
ratherthanthesymbolsthemselvesconsiderasimpleexampleoftrelliscodinginthisexample
thebitsaregroupedinto2bitsymbolsthesymbolsreferredtoassymbolsABCandD
respectivelyasillustratedinthetableor2tothesecondpowergivesyou4optionsthebitsare
sequentiallyappliedtotheencodershownonthebottomencoderconsistsof3bitdigitalshift
registerandapairofmodulo2addersthebestfromall3stagesoftheshiftregisterareapplied
tothetopattoreducetheIchannelbitsthebitsinthe1ststageandlaststagesoftheshift
registerareappliedtothebottomathertoproducetheQchannelbitsnotethattheIenqueue
channelscontaininformationnotonlyaboutthe2bitsofthecurrentsymbolbutalsoabitofthe
nextsymbolthetransmittedinformationspansmorethanonesymbolthetableatthebottom
illustrateshowtheencoderdropratesontheleftortheforpossiblestartingsymbolsforeach
startingsymbolthenextbidtobetransmittedmaybeeithera1ora0asshowninthesecond
columnthevaluesintheshiftregisterforeachcaseareshowninthe3rdcolumntheIenqueue
outputbitsfromtheencoderareshowninthe4thand5thcolumnsrespectivelythelastcolumn
showstheendingsymbolthebestwaytoillustratetheencoderoperationiswiththediagram
thediagramillustratestheoperationoftheencoderover3symbolsthehorizontalaxisindicates
timeintheverticalaxisindicatestheforpossiblesymbolseachsubsequentsymbolrepresents
theclockinginofoneadditionalbitforexampleiftheinitialbidis00orsymbolaanda0is
clockedinthe0ontherightofthesymbolait'sdiscardedanda0isaddedtotheleftthenew
symbolisstill00howeverthebidthatisclockeditisa1andtheresultingsymbolisa10or
symbolbethe2possibleoutcomeswhenstartingat00R00or10thesetransitionsareindicated
bytheredarrowstherenthoursareknownastrajectoriesinthisexampleeachsymbolhas2
possibletrajectoriesnexttoeachtrajectoryaretheIenqueuebitsthataretheoutputfromthe
trellisencoderthepossibletrajectoriesfromotherstartingsymbolsareshownindifferentcolors
werecorrespondingtothestartingsymbolcolorthistypeofencodingisreferredtoastrellis
codingisadiagramdiagramresemblesagardentrelliswasnotasimpleexamplethesequence
ofbitstobetransmittedis001100theinitialsymboliscomprisedofthe1st2bits00the
correspondstoNAthenextbitisa1thoughtsthenextsymbolis10oraBthetrajectoryfrom
00210isshowninredandcorrespondstoanIandQvaluesof11knowthatisthebits
correspondingtothetrajectoryorchangeinsymbolsthataretransmittednotthesymbols
themselvesthenextbidisaoneresultinginasymbolof11orDthetrajectoryfromBtoDis
showninblueandcorrespondstoanIandaQof01asbeforeitistrajectorythatistransmitted
notthesymbolthenextbidisa0resultinginasymbolC01andthetrajectoryshowninorange
thefinalbidisa0resultinginasymbola00thetrajectoryisindicatedingreenisatrajectoryor
transitionfromsymboltosymbolthatissentthroughthechannelinthisexamplethatwouldbe
110101and11eachtrajectorycontainsinformationaboutthecurrentsymbolintheprevious
symbolnotethatthetrajectoriesformacontinuouspaththroughthetrellisdiagramatthe

45
receiversideadecoderlooksatthetrajectorybitsandcatalasethecorrespondingdatabitsnow
considerwhathappensintheexampleifthereisabiterrorinthesecondtrajectoryandinthe
receivedtrajectoriesare111101111the1sttrajectorymovesusfromsymbola00tosymbolB10
howeverthereisnovalidtrajectoryfromsymbolBcorrespondingto11theremustbeabetter
thepossiblevalidtrajectoriesare10and01wecouldtesttoseewhichisthecorrecttrajectoryif
weassumethatthesecondtrajectoryshouldhavebeen10thanthatwouldleadustosymbol
C01whereverthereisnovalidtrajectoryfromsymbolCcorrespondingtothe3rdreceived
trajectoryof01offerifweassumethatthatseconddirectordirectoryshouldhavebeen01that
wouldleadustosymbolD11the3rdreceivedtrajectoryis01correspondingtoavalidtrajectory
fromsymbolDthatmustbethecorrectsymbolinthepastthroughthetrellisthesimplified2bit
symbolexamplecanbedirectlyextendedtosymbolscontainingmorebitsandhigher
modulationordersyouhavecompletedthelessoninthislessonyoulearnedhowtrelliscode
modulationisusedtoimproveRFsignalqualitypressentertostartthenextlessonand
afforwardpathheading2ormorechannelsofdifferentfrequenciestoasinglepieceofcoaxial
cableiscalledcombininghermultiplexingthesechannelsmustnotaffectoneanotherasatravel
overtheaccessnetworktosubscriberandreturnPathsignalsarecombinedinadifferent
techniquethantheforwardpathusingvariousmultiplexingmethodstherearemanychoicesfor
multiplexingsignalsandthesectionwillexplorethetypesofmultiplexingusedincableupon
completionofthislessonyou'llbeabletorecognizethemanychoicesformultiplexingRFsignals
thedifferencesandfeaturesbetweenthemtimeslotstimedivisionmultiplexingTDMcanbe
handledentirelybydidelectronicsmakeitmorepopularversatileandacceptableforvarious
uses.Deviseatimeonanongoingchannelintofixednumberofintervalscalledframeswithin
eachframeoracertainnumberoffixedlengthtimeslotsthesametimeslotineachframeis
designatedforspecificchanneleachchannelcontributesitsgroupofdatainturnwecansee
thatwehavesourceasourceBsourceEgettingmuckstogetherandthereare6slotspercycle
andthecycleweseethatahassomuchofthebandwidthforthatcycleBandCtheoutputis
denseandsequencedinwhicheachchannelisactivetoequalizethetransmissionratewiththe
masterclockintheTDMpulsestuffingisusedwemustmaintaintimebetweenthesourceand
destinationforexamplewehaveeachindividualcontributorofaconstantbitratedigitizedvoice
circuitandithasarateof64kbpersecondisourourcircuitifthereare24ofthesecontributors
multiplexedwhatistheresultingoutputlinedataratenecessarytoguaranteethateachsource
willachieve64kbattheotherendwedosomesimplemathandyoucangotointoyournotes
thatthefollowalongbutis604Ktimes24lineswhichthe24linesinthisexamplerepresenting
thea0whichequals.536MbpersecondthatisaT1orDS1lineandthis24multiplexing4kb
CBRvoicechannelswealsohavesomeoverheadabout8kbpersecondandare8000kbper
secondratherandisabout8MbandisoutofT1orDS1makingita1.544Mbpersecondtime
divisionmultipleaccessorTDMAusedtobeusedbymodemsatthisandsettopboxestoshare
asingleradiofrequencyorRFchannelintheupstreamfromacentralcontrollersuchasaCMTS
VAbroadbandmediaiswherealldevicesreceiveallinformationandbroadbandthisdata
containsthetimeallocationcalledbandwidthallocationmapandOxusforCMTSandhighspeed
datatransmissiontimestandardizationmustbeestablishedinTDMAsystemsfortooperate
correctlythecontrollingdeviceforhighspeeddataisaCMTSwhichprovidesatiming
informationallocationoftimeslotsandthat'stoallowtheedgedevicessuchasacablemodem
orMTAtotransmitaburstofdataoveracommonmediasuchastheHFCinourexampleandas
noneoftheedgedevicescanreceivefromeachotheronlytocontrolandCMTSwillreceivewe

46
alsoaddguardtimeandisusedtoallowforerrorsinthetransmissionovertheHFCisthe
upstreamisburstyallocationmappingoftheupstreamchannelsrequiredmappingofthe
permittedusesofthespectrumchannelisassignedtospecificunitsofmanysponsortimeslots
arecontrolledbytheCMTSmapmessageshownheremapmessagesaresentfromtheCMTSto
cablemodemsandadownstreameachminisiteisnumberedinreferencetoamastertiming
referencewhichismaintainedanddistributedtothecablemodemsbythecontrollerinourcase
aCMTSagivenstreamofmanysponsormultipleslotscanbeassignedtoaspecificcablemodem
inresponsetoagrantrequesttoallcamelsrequestingbandwidthonthecontentionbasisoron
initiativeoftheCMTSasanunsolicitedgrantmaintenancerangingorsomeothertypeof
transmissionopportunitythemapprotocoldataunitsorPDUsdefinetheallowedusageofeach
minislotthroughuseofvarioustypesofinformationelementscalledIE'saminislotisaninteger
multipleof6.25scertainthe6incrementsanotemapmessagesarebandwidthina
downstreammapsormapmessagesaresentevery2mswouldbe500mapspersecondamap
withabandwitha64bytesis32kBpersecondandbentdependingontherobustreportsyou
haveyoucouldhave6reportstimes32kBwouldgiveyounot192kbandmapmessagesin
TDMAoneachfrequencyisdevicesallocatingassignedtimeslotsinwhichtotransmitthe
upstreamMacmessagingisusedtoconfigureTDMAmodeinTDMAdevicesallocatingassigned
timeslotsoneachfrequencytotransmitintheupstreaminFDMAdiscussesdeviceforinstancea
CMTSisallocatedaspecificfrequencybandtotransmitduringthedurationofthesession
advancedtimedivisionmultipleaccessoraTDMAdevelopedindataovercableserviceinterface
specificationdocsis2.0isadirectevolutionofthe1.XphysicallayerwhichusesTDMA
multiplexingprovidesalargerupstreamchannelofupto6.4MHzat5.120millionsofsymbols
persecondandprovideshighermodulationschemessuchasquadstrampletomodulation32
QAM64QAMaTDMAalsoprovidesmorephysicallayerrobustnessintheformof16bytesof
errorcorrectionupstreamburstofinterleavingandincreased24tabequalizersynchronouscode
divisionmultipleaccessorSCDMAwasaddedinDOSis2.0andasaburstnoiseadvantageover
18EMAwithnoiseandinchannelimpairmentsbelow20MHzaCDMAuseslongersymboltimes
inaTDMAreducingthenumberofaridsymbolswhileaTDMAisseverelyimpactedbylong
durationimpulsesontheupstreamasCDMAbyhisverynatureisabletosurvivethesimple
evenwhenhigherordermodulationsareuseupto64QAMasCDMAisusedbycablesandEMT
AsaSherrysingleradiofrequencychannelandaTDMA'stimeslotusingupthe128symbolsthat
aretransmittedsimultaneouslyvia128talktoorevenaspreadingnoninterferingcodesbefore
thedataistransmittedisrandomlyarandomizedinauniquemethodsothateachburstor
dispersivedataisspreadoutusingoneofthe128codewordsbysettingthemondifferentcodes
thatcouldbeseparatedinthereceiverwithoutinterferencejustassigningdifferentdataatthis
differenttimesordifferentfrequenciesalsokeepsthedatasignalsfrominterferingwithone
anotherbymakingtheentireupstreamusablefordatatransmissionsasCDMAcanincreasethe
upstreamcapacitywithnoplantmodificationsrequiredinthecurrentversionofaCDMAalso
includestheabilitytogivesinglemodemsahighersignaltonoiseratioresinareper
transmissionsothatsignaltonoiseratiopertransmissionwithoutdegradingtheoverallchannel
capacitythismeansthatmodemsaresettopboxesinthecustomerpremiseswillhighly
attenuatedofstreamswillsuchasmultirollingunitswillstilloperateininthefaceofsuch
upstreamattenuationsothisisagoodthingusingtheaCDMAespeciallywithnoisyupstream's
wereshowinghereonthisonthescreenasCDMAhasallthefeaturesofaTDMAplusaCDMA
wasaddedandOxus2.0todealwithimpulsenoisebelow20MHzasCDMAisablesurvivelong

47
durationofimpulsenoiseusingspreadingasCDMAFramermapsmanyslotsintocoderesources
providinginterleavingofdatasymbolsasSCDMAuses128symbolsinaspreaderthatspreads
framesymbolsfortransmissionhighlyattenuatedupstreampastmaystilloperateusingaCDMA
themaxchannelwidthis6.4MHzmaxmodulationrateis5.12millionsofsymptomspersecond
usingtrelliscodedmodulationorTCMencodeddatasymbolsMacmessagingisusedto
configureasCDMAmodewecanachievemuchgreatercapacityovertheageofCVtheuseof
lowdensityparitycheckLDPCerrorcorrectingcoatingandorthogonalfrequencydivision
multiplexandROSDMasamultiplexingschemeandtherearelotsofreasonsforgoingtoOFD
M1stischannelsynthesisiseasierduetothegranularsubcarriernatureofOFTMshownonthe
screensecondMaclayerbondingoflargenumberofchannelsismuchlesscomplexwithOFDM
infrequencydivisionmultiplexingFTMwithsinglecarrierQAMwhichiswhatiscurrentlyusedin
cabledownstream'ssidebandsofthecarriersmearoutthespectrumofthesignalandthaw
scoredbandsarerequiredbetweencarrierswasDMeliminatesthesecorebandsin2ways1st
andOFDMthecarriersaregeneratedanddemodulatedablockandcanbekeptstrictly
orthogonaltoeachotherbymaintainingaprecisefrequencyandphaserelationshipbetween
eachcarrierpeaksofthesubcarrier'slineupexactlywithknollsofothersubcarriersasshownin
thefigureabovetheresultsisthatthecarrierscouldbesqueezemuchtighterwithout
interferencewouldtoeachothersoinextremelywidebandwaveformupto200MHzwidecan
begeneratedfromOFDMsubcarrierswitheachsubcarrierpackedupagainsttheothersandno
wastedRFspectruminbetweenthespectrumoftheOFDMwaveformalsodropsoffmuch
fasterattheedgesthansinglecarrierQAMshownherethisisduetothenarrowbandnatureof
theofftheMsubcarriersandfeltthemselvesandnotduetothecomplexfilteringrequiredas
hersingleQAMorsinglecarrierQAMsowidemiddleoftheMwaveformscanbepackedclose
morecloselytogethernotjustquiteasclosecloselysubcarrierssincethedifferentFDNYband
waveformswouldgenerateorwoulditoriginatefromseparatetransmittersthespectrumof
OFDMwaveformalsodropsoffmuchfasterattheedgesthanasinglecarrierQAMthisisdueto
thenarrowbandnatureofOFDMsubcarriersthemselvesandnotduetothecomplexfiltering
requiredasitisforsinglecarrierQAMsowidebandOFDMwaveformscanbepackedmore
closelytogetherjustnotquiteascloselyassubcarriersisadifferentOFDMwaveformsor
widebandwaveformswouldoriginatefromseparatetransmittersyouhavecompletedthe
lessoninthislessonyoulearnhowtorecognizethemanychoicesformultiplexingsignalsthe
differencesandfeaturesbetweenthempressentertostartthenextlessoninthissectionwill
lookatsomeofthedevicesusedbycableoperatorstoprocessvideosignalsfortransmission
overtheagencynetworkuponcompletionofthislessonyou'llbeabletoexplainthecable
operatordevicesusedtoformatvideosignalsfortransmissionovertheHFCnetworkherewe
seeasinglechannelencoderreceivingananalogsignalattheheadandencoderwillusethe
analogtodigitalconverterprocesstoencodetheanalogbasebandaudioandvideochannelinto
adigitalsingleprogramtransportstreamRSPDSandthiswetransmittedovertheHFCorcable
networktoprovideadigitalsignalatthetelevisionsetaslongastheindividualbitscanbe
differentiatedaseithera1or0anearperfectreproductionoftheoriginalinformationcanbe
regeneratedatthesubscriberhereweseea6channeldecoderreceiving6channelsinMPEG2
andPTSwhichisamultiprogramtransportstreamiscomingfromtherouterintheheadand
shownherewhatthedecoderdoesitconvertstheMPEGandPTStobasebandaudioandvideo
andthisistotransmitovertheHFCandweretransmittinganalogsignalstothesubscriberthe
nextdevicethat'susedtoprocessvideosignalsfortransmissionovertheHFCisthestepmarks

48
ororthestatisticalmultiplexerandthatisusagetrendslaterealtimecontentintovariablebit
rateprogramsstatisticalmultiplexingisutilizedtoachievebetterpicturequalityandmore
efficientuseofthebandwidthoftheoutputmultiplextransratingorrateshapingisbeneficial
becauseitallowsmoredigitalprogramstobesqueezeintothesameamountofchannelspace
freeingupadditionalbandwidthforthedeliveryofmoreservicesoperatorsaidtheclaimantrate
say3.75MbpersecondforstandarddefinitionandallMPEGstandarddefinitionvideostreams
willbeshapedtothisamountimprovingefficiencyintheQAMreshapingallowsnonrealtime
modificationofencodeddigitalMPEG2videostreamsandotherdeviceusedtheprocessvideo
istheedgeQAMshownhereontherightinredandareusedtomodulateoffairsignalsor
standarddefinitionorhighdefinitionfortransportovertheHFCnetworktheedgebombs
typicallyusea256QAMtomodulatea6MHzchannelfordeliverytosettopboxestheseare
digitalsettopboxesyoucompletedthelessoninthislessonyoulearnhowthecableoperator
usesdevicestoformatvideosignalsfortransmissionovertheHFC

4.
IInternetbandwidthconstraintsandmanagementmoduletostart1stintheoutsideplant
bandwidthsectioninthis1stsectionthelearnerwillunderstandhowoutsideplantbandwidthis
determinedforparticulararchitecturethentakealookatthesizeoftheRFchannelsinboththe
spectrumandthedatarateintheoutsideplant

theoutsideplanthasafiniteamountofRFchannelsinspectrumperchannelintheforwardpath
themostcommonorifchannelsizesare6MHzfortheNorthAmericanand8MHzforEurope

thenumberofourchannelstheoutsideplantdependonthesizeofthespectrumofferedbythe
forwardpaththearchitectureoftheoutsideplantdeterminesthequalityofchannelsofferedto
thesubscriberandarchitecturewillconsistofactiveandpassivedevicesforinstancenodes
amplifiersextendersintheirdesignforafixedspectrumtypicaloutsideplantarchitecturesare
650MHz750MHz860MHzand1GHzor1000othersizesmayalsoexistbuttheselistedhere
arethecommonarchitectures

49
 Anal og Video Services
FCC Must Carry Digital Services

Ifili1111111111111111111111111M11111111111111111111111111111111111111111r" 1"1"1111111

54 144 200 300 400 500 600 650 750 860 1000
MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz
5 -42
MHz
Upstream Downstream
1.6 / 3.2 / 6 MHz
6.4 MHz

Node (Active) Amplifier/ Line Extender (Active)

eachofthearchitecturedesignsusereturnpathapproximately50MHzwhenusingasubsplit
systemthemostcommonNorthAmericais5to42MHzunder5MHzisabitnoisyforoperators
toworkinothersystemsforexampleEuropemayuseahighersplitsuchas65MHzbasedon
thedocsis3designspecificationonceDocsis3.1becomesarealityamidsplitsystemat104MHz
willbedesiredoperatorsmustsubtractreturnpathspectrumtodeterminethetotalamountof
forwardpathspectrumthefollowingsimpleequationyieldsanapproximateforwardpath
spectrumtheforwardpathspectrumequalstotaloutsideplantarchitecturespectrumminusthe
returnpathsoweapplytheequationtothefollowingspectrumsso650MHzbecomes600MHz
trucking50750MHzbecome700650MHzbecomesa1,000MHzbecomes950

100 116 135 158

Channels Channels Channels Channels

Analog Video Services

FCC Must Carry

171 OtIiiimoommommoninommil 1111111111 1111111

%--y--1 54 144 20(1 300 400 500 600 /00 1',0 860
111111
1000
MFI.., MHz MHz MHz MHz MHz MH.7 MIL, MHz MHz
5-42 MHz
MHz
Upstream Downstream
1.6 / 3.2 / 6 MHz
6.4 MHz

nowthatweunderstandhowmuchbeingwithisallocatedtotheforwardpathwetofigureout

50
thetotalnumberofforwardpathRFchannelsthataresenttothecablesubscriberremember
eachRFchannels6MHzwidewewilldividetheforwardpathfrequenciesorspectrumby6MHz
tounderstandtheamountofRFchannelsofferedbyeacharchitecturesoa600MHzthatweare
leftwithoutofa650MHzsystemwedivideupby6weendupwith100channelsa700MHz
systemdividedby6116channelsand810MHzsystemby6135channelsand950MHzsystem
dividedby6is158channelsdependingonsizeyoursystemyougetmorechannelsthesearethe
finiteamountofRFchannelsofferedbythesearchitectures

thatweunderstandhowmanyRFchannelsareofferedweneedtodeterminethedataratein
megabitspersecondthatisofferedperchannelare2factorsdeterminethedatarateofRF
channelfortheforwardpathandtheyarethemodulationtypeusedforthechannelandthe
formatofchannelisitadigitalchanneloranalogchannelthemodulationtypeusedfora
forwardpathchanneldeterminesthenumberofbinaryzerosandonesthatcanbestuffedintoa
RF6MHzor8MHzchanneltherearevarietyofmodulationtypesavailabletodayforpeople
operatorsusethisintheforwardpathoftheoutsideplanthowever256QAMoffersthemost
amountofrawdatatodaythisiswhyitisapopularchoicefortheforwardpathnoteother
modulationtypesuchas1024QAMand4096QAMmaybeonthehorizonrememberwhatwe
havelearnedpreviouslythehigherthemodulationorderthemoresusceptibletheRFchannel
willbecomewhenitencountersnoisethismeansvideoartifacts

Modulation Type Bits / Symbol Symbol Rate Raw Throughput

QPSK 2 1.28 MS/s 5.12 Mbps
16 QAM 4 2.56 MS/s 10.24 Mbps
64 QAM 6 5.057 MS/s 30.34 Mbps
256 QAM 8 5.36 MS/s 42.88 Mbps

1024 QAM 10 TBD TBD

4096 QAM 12 TBD TBD

owwhatarethecommonrawdatarateslet'stakealookquadraturephaseshiftkeyingorQPSK
supports2bitspersymbolinasymbolrateof1.28millionsofsymbolspersecondwhichis
aboutarawdatarateof5.12Mbpersecondwehavequadratureamplitudemodulation16with
4bitspersymbolandasymbolrateof2.56millionsofsymbolsforsecondwhichyieldsa10.24
Mbpersecondrawdataratewehavequadratureamplitudemodulation64with6bitsper
symbolandasymbolrateof5.057millionsofsymbolsforsecondwhichisabout30.34Mbper
secondrawdataratewealsoverycommononethatthatwejustmentionedwasthequadrature
amplitudemodulation256thatsupports8bitspersymbolistherateof5.36millionsymbolsper
secondporting42.88Mbpersecondandrawdataformthereareafewofthefuture
modulationtypesthatImentionedaquadratureamplitude1024with10bitspersymboland
drivingitatsymbolrateisequalto256producesQAMhumantobeabletodrivethatinthe50
Mbpersecondandifyoulookatquadratureamplitude4096with12bitspersymbolagain
drivingthatat5.36milsymbolswillgiveyouaround60butthesymbolratesfortheseIwillbe

51
muchfasterthanthanwhat'sin256QAMofthislittlenotetheremillionsofsymbolspersecond
isMS/s

weshouldhaveasolidunderstandingoftheamountofbitsthatcanbeproducedusingdifferent
modulationorderswhat'stakealookaboutthesecondfactordeterminesthedataratethe
formatofthechannelmaybedigitaloranalogeachanalogvideotakesanentire6MHzof
bandwidthtodeliverapieceofvideotosubscriberfor750MHzarchitecturehundred116
analogvideochannelsmaybeofferedtosubscriberhoweversubscriberswantmoreusingdigital
videochannelsoperatorabletomultiplexercombinemultipledigitalvideochannelsintoasingle
6MHzchannelthisiswhycableoperatorsareveryinterestedindigitalsignalsintheoutside
plantinthemid1990sdigitalTVstartedtobecomearealityforcableoperatorsandforcable
cancustomersanalogsignalsweredigitizedcalledalldigitalsimulcastsorADSADSallowsmore
channelsperQAM

ADSshownherehasmultiplecopiesofachannelperhapsoneasanHDoneisanSDinthe
maroonareaandmaybeoneinHDinthemaroonareaandthenoneanalogintheblueareathe
nextstepafterADSisanalogreclamationandthat'swhenallowyoutopullbacktheanalogof
thespectrumandprovideadditionalbandwidth

Analog vs. Digital RF Channels

10 SD/ VoD 2 - 3 3D/FID/VoD

Narrowcast channels Narrowcast channels

2 UHD channels 35 music channels

52
 1. Standard definition (SD) has a data rate of
approximately 3.5 Mbps.
2. High definition (HD) has a data rate of
approximately 12 to 15 Mbps.
3. Ultra High definition (UHD) has a data rate of
approximately 5 to 8 Mbps.
4. 3D has a data rate of approximately 12 to 15
Mbps.
5. Narrowcast Video on Demand (VoD) has a
data rate of approximately 3.5 Mbps for SD and
approximately 12 to 15 Mbps for HD.
6. Music channels have a data rate close to 1
Mbps.

Now that we understand the data rates, how

much data can an outs OSP or HFC support?

digitalvideosofferedinseveralformatsformatsdrivethedatarateshownthedataratesare
basedonforwardpaththatusesa256QAMachievedbywellknowncompressionstandard
calledmovingpicturesexpertsgrouporjustMPEGthemostcommonversionisMPEG2without
MPEG2andHDchannelwouldbeapproximately900Mbpersecondisveryveryimportantthat
operatorsareimplementingsometypeofvideocompressionsousingMPEGherethefollowing
digitalvideoservicesofferedbyatypicalcableoperatorstandarddefinitionwhichhasadata
rateofapproximately3.5MbpersecondhighdefinitionwhichhasaGatoradeproximate12to
15minutesforsecondsomethingnewthatthatisveryismoreofatestbutwillbemorereality
intheinthecomingmonthsisultrahighandhasadatarateapproximate5to8Mbpersecond
3Disadatarateveryclosetowhat'sinHDbecauseofthemultiplecamerashavenarrowcast
VODwhichhasthedatarateapproximate3.5forSDandapproximate12to15butwasfor
secondforHD

sonowthatweunderstandthedatarateshowmanydatachannelscanwefitintheoutside
plantorhowmuchcantheHFCsupportustolookalittlemapfor750MHzarchitecturehundred
and16digitalchannelsmayexistifeachdigitalchannel6MHzofbandwidthinadatarateof
42.88Mbandthetotaloutsideplantbandwidthis11642.88Mbpersecondor400974.08Mb
persecondisalotofbandwidththat'satthesideofthesubscriber'shomeifwesubtract
overheadlikeforwarderrorcorrectionandencryptionthanthetotalusableoutsidebandwidth
becomes11636or4176Mavispersecondorabout4.2Gbpersecondwhatisthatmeanwhat
isa1000one1193standarddefinitionchannelsand3.5Mavispersecondor278highdefinition
ACchannelsat50Mavisforsecondor522overhighdefinitionchannelsatamegabitpersecond
andnotallchannelsintheoutsideplantwillcarryvideotrafficthisiswherethe1stbandwidth
constraintisfacedbycableoperatorsthatyouhavetosharethespectrumwithotherservices
let'smoveintothenextsectionofthemodulethissectionwilllookatoptionsoperatorshaveto
managepainwithconstraintsfacedbyMSO'snotallRFchannelswillcarrydigitalvideo
informationintheforwardpathgoingbacktoour750MHzplantwith116channelsthatwill
delivermorethanjustliteraryvideotheplatewilldeliverhighspeeddataalongwithvideoon

53
demandandlinearbroadcastchannelsdigitalvoicechannelsareusuallypartofthehighspeed
datachannelsandinsomecasesanalogchannelsstillexistisbecomingmorecommontodayto
offer16bondedRFchannelsofhighspeeddatamovingto32qualmswithdocsis3.1isfully
deployedanother8RFQAMchannelsareVODmovingto12and16qualmsinthefuturetoday
highspeeddataandVODreducethenumberofRFQAMchannelsby20%ifanoperatorisusing
a650MHzarchitecturethenthisis24%ofthetotalforpastspectruminsomecasesoperators
arestillusingafewanalogchannelsandthiswillfurtherimpactthebandwidthconstraintthey
arefacingintheenditwillimpacttheofferingstosubscriberthefollowingoptionsexistto
createmoreforwardpastspectrumwecoulduselessVODormaybeevenuselessHSThigh
speeddatawereaccommodationtobothuselessVODandagencyqualmswecouldjustgoand
updatetheentireoutsideplantto1000MHzwecoulduseMPEG4placeofMPEG2to
compressdigitalvideosinceMPEG4offersabettercompressionratiowecouldalsoswitchthe
lineardigitalbroadcastchannelsastherearealwaysonforthesubscriberandthenwhen
subscriberstuneinandoutofthevirtualchannelswillswitchthembutseewhichoptionof
MSO'swillfavorthetrendforsubscriberstodomoreanytimeanywherevideocontentviewing
increaseinthepopularityofVODservicesandIPTVcompetitionandIPvideoasthepressureon
cableoperatorstodeliverincreasehighspeeddatabandwidthwithspeedtearsreaching600
MbpersecondusingQAMchannelbondingnow1000Mbpersecondandbeyondwillsoonbe
possiblewiththenewdocsis3.1physicalandmediaaccesscontrollayers.sys31willeliminate
thebandwidthconstraintofhighspeeddatahowevernotinitiallyhelplinearbroadcastvideo
constraintstouselessVODandhighspeeddataqualmsistypicallynotanoptionforcable
operatorsasthiswillcontinuetoincreaseSherryhighspeeddataqualmswithseveralnodes
calledlashofdesignisalsonotaviableoptiontogreetadditionalforwardpathbandwidth
operatorsuseloadbalancingdesignedtosplithighspeeddatacustomersbetweendownstream
qualmswhentrafficisincreasedtoexpandoutsideplantto1000MHzisexpensivewomenis
requiredlashingandcableisalsorequiredthisisnotaviableoptionforcableoperators
operatorscoulduseMPEG4inplaceofMPEG2tocompressdigitalvideotoproduceabetter
compressiongameMPEG4supportsupto100to1andMPEGhighefficiencyvideocodecHEVC
supports201thequestionherewouldbethusasettopboxinthehomesupportMPEG4oran
IPTVtechnologythesearehereisthatwearenotquitereadyforafullMPEG4orIPTVsolution
howeveroperatorsaremovinginthisdirectionthisisnotanotherviableoptionjustyetthelast
optionisswitchingthelineardigitalbroadcastchannelsasasubscriberstuneinandtuneouta
virtualchannelsontheirsettopboxcurrentlyisthemostcosteffectivesolutionforoperators
thetechnologiescalledswitchdigitalvideoandisthefocusinourlastsectionwastakealookin
thefinalsectionlearnerswilldiscoverhowatechnologycalledswitchdigitalvideowhereSDV
mayhelpcableoperatorsalleviatethepressuresofbeingwithconstraintsintheforwardpath
switchdigitalvideoSDVallowsacableoperatorcreateapollofdigitalchannelsforexample
takingqualmsthatsupportvideobroadcastingherdefinitionchannelsandconvertingthemto
STBQAMchannelsthesequalmsarenotdedicatedlinearbroadcastchannelstheyallowthe
operatortoswitchchannelswithintheQAMoperatorswillselectchannelsfortheSTBQAM
basedonpopularitytheleastpopularareswitchchannelsthethinkingbehindthisapproachis
thatallchannelswillnotbeviewedreducingdigitalvideoconsumptionforSDVtogainthe
maximumbenefitforcableoperatorsvideosubscribersaresettopboxtunerspernodemustbe
reducedmovingcloserto250subscribersortunerspernodeatypicalservicegrouphas4notes
thatwouldallow1000videosubscribersortunersperservicegroupSDVrequiresreturn

54
signalingthesettopboxassubscriberswilltunetochannelandthisinformationistransmitted
backtotheoperatoratthehobbyorheadendlocationherewehaveSDVlikewementioned
previouslySDVrequiresreturnsignalingfromthesettopboxeachtimeprescriberstunetoa
virtualchanneltuninginformationistransmittedbacktotheoperatortoswitchtherequested
channeltheguydataforthesettopboxesdynamicallyupdatedforothersubscribersthat
requestedthesamechannelsthatarealreadybeingviewedonthenoteoperatortypically
createaqualmsofSTBshownhereswitching80rarelywatchedasthechannelsHDcouldbe
switchbutmostlikelythesearethepopularchannelstheSDVdesignwillyieldqualmsthatcan
berepurposedintheoutsideplantforneworotherservicespopularchannelswillnotbegood
candidatesforSDVandwillcontinuetoremainpartofthelinearbroadcastlineupshownhere
andIprovidesanoverviewofSDVinthismodulewediscussedthebandwidthofanoutside
plant

5.

Moduleuponcompletionofthismoduletheparticipantwillbeabletodemonstrateworking
knowledgeofdigitalcarriermeasurementsincludingtheequipmentandmethodsusedsuchas
signallevelmetersandhandhelddigitalsignalanalyzersqamanalysisspectrumanalysisaverage
powermeasurementmodulationerrorratiobiterrorratioprepanelistforwarderrorcorrection
codeworderrorrateandreverseingressinthissectionwilllookatsignallevelmetersand
handhelddigitalsignalanalyzersHDSA'sarepowerfulnetworkedcomputingdevicesthatalso
includeanintegratedcablemodemprettymodulatingandanalyzingcablemodemsignalstothe
currentlyavailableHDSA'swiththeappropriatemodulesmayincludebutarenotlimitedtothe
abilitiestocharacterizeRFsignallevelintheentiresuiteoftraditionalanalogsignallevelmeter
SLMmeasurementsdescribedinthenextsectionsuchasHantiltscanCTPCSOandCNN
spectrumanalysisisusuallyalsowithMaxhauledand0spanmedsRFimpairmentssuchas
narrowbandingressandimpulseburstnoisesignalleakagequalmconstellationandmodulation
errorratioMERHDSA'salsohavetheabilitytocharacterizebiterrorratioBERofbothpreand
postforwarderrorcorrectionprocessingthismayincludenumberratioofuncorrectableReed
Solomoncodewordsversustheallocatedwordsaswellasairedseverelyarid6secondsDr.
speedthroughputandupstreamtransmitpowerlevelandhowmostnetworksanddevices
includingethernetcollectsbridgefunctionalityethernetWiFiIPpremiseslocalareanetworks
landspremiseswiringtopolityfaultdetectionanddistancedefaultdevicesVoitperformance
suchaslatencyjitterpacketlossandmeanopinionscoreandaskeddigitalvideoquality
measurementsandIPvideoperformancesomeHDSA'salsoincludeoptionalprobesorclient
devicesthatcanbeplacedoneveryoutletinthehomeforcertificationofanentirepremises
networkforallpotentialservicesandcangeneratecomprehensivereportsontheentire
premisesnetworkandviabilityforadvancedandtripleplayservicessignallevelmeterSLMhas
beentraditionallyusedtomeasuretheamountofRFsignallevelintheDMVatspecific
consumerelectronicsAssociationCEAfrequenciesarechannelsgivenintheCEA5402C
standarddocumentistypicallychannels2to117for750MHzHFCsystemintheappendixfor
moreinformationSLM'scanalsomeasureavarietyofotherRFmetricsthatcharacterizethe
performanceofthecablenetworksuchashowtiltchannelscansCTPCSOandCNNhoweverlike
ageHDSA'smodernSLM'softenalsoincludeotherfunctionssuchasqualmsignalanalysisMER
preandpostFECBERlinevoltagespectrumanalysisingresstestandthereturnnoiseinphase
analysiscarrierwaveorCWinterferencereflectionsmicroreflectionsandreturnnoisethemost

55
advancedSLM'scanalsoincludeanintegratedcablemodemhencemanyoftheinstructions
belowforcaresetupcalibrationandtesttobeperformedcanbeappliedeitheroneofthese
devicetypesasofthiswritingtheadditionalmeasurementcapabilitiesthatdifferentiateHDSA's
fromSLMincludethoseinvolvingmochaethernetLANHPNAandcertificationoftheentire
customerpremisesforalladvancedservicesdeliveredovercablespecificHDessayandSLM
operatinginstructionscanbefoundintheusermanualprovidedbythemanufacturermost
manufacturershavethemangledonlineorinthemeteritselffreetheactcalibrationand
checkupsfortheHDSA'sandSLM'stomeasurethesignallevelsaccuratelytheequipmentmust
becalibratedandoperatedaccordingtothemanufacturerspecificationsandoperating
proceduresmanymanufacturersofferregulardedicatedintervalstocheckandverifythe
calibrationofeachunitsworkwithyoursupervisortoscheduleregularequipmentcheckups
ensurethebatteryisfullychargedbeforeyoubegintheday'sworksetofHDSA'sandSLM'swith
achannelplantheproperchannelplanforthecablesystemneedstobeloadedonHDSARSLM
thechannelplanallowsthemetertolookatthecorrectparametersoneachindividualchannel
sothatitcanaccuratelyreadthesignalscomingofftheHFCnetworkasanexamplethechannel
planwillneedtobeconfiguredforCEA5402Cchannels2to117for750MHzHFCsystemorthe
highestdownstreamchannelfrequencyusedinthenetworkchannelmathcableoperatorsapply
ormapfrequencytoeachchannelnumberthatonlytheirSTB'scanunderstandthereforethe
channeldisplayedonCPEmaynotbethesameasthechanneltunetotestforexamplethe
weatherchannelmightbelistedaschannel10inaspecificcablesystemandthat'showit
displaysontheSTBthestandardfrequencyrangeforchannel10is100Nanny90to298MHz
howeveritmightactuallybeonRFchannel23thetableaboveshowschannels2to6fromthe
CEA5402Cchannelplanyoursupervisorforthechannelmapforyourareathefollowing
measurementscanbeperformedwitheitherNHTSAorandSLMconsultthemanufacturer's
instructionmanualoryourcableoperatorforspecificoperationsontheunitsyouwillusefor
eachmeasurementRFsignalpowerareatsignallevelmeasurementforwardanaloganddigital
RFlevelsotherRFsignallevelmeshmeasurementsHantiltnonflatnessinthecablespectrum
CTPCSOmeasurementdocsasreferencedmodemtestaswellascarriertonoiseratioand
modulationerrorratioMERsignaltonoiseratioSNRgeneralizedconstellationanalysisthermal
orGaussiannoiseaswellasingresstestandreturnbiterrorratecodeworderrorrateandhem
certificationisimportanttounderstandhowtomakedigitalcarriermeasurementsthissection
willexplorethistopicinordertomakethefollowingmeasurementsonthecollectsportionof
thenetworktheHDSARSLMisconnectedtotheaccessorcustomerpremisesnetworksinone
ormoreofthefollowinglocationaccessnetworkmeasurementlocationstaboutputtheendof
thedroplinepriortothegroundingblockpremisesnetnetworkmeasurementlocationinputto
thefirsttimesplitteroutputsofhomesplittersandamplifiersandwallcoactsoutletsinaddition
NHTSAwithethernetIPtestfunctionalitymaybeconnectedtoothernetworksandthe
customerpremisesasfollowstheoutputofcablemodemRJ45portanyotherRJ45portof
ethernetbasedCPEanyRJ45wallportalconnectorinthepremisesLANwiringfinallyifNHTSA
supportsWiFimeasurementstheHDessaymaybemovedaroundthecustomerpremisesand
WiFisignallevelsandperformancemeasurementsmaybemadeifdirectedbyyoursupervisor
inthissectionwilllookathowKwanzaameasuredbycableoperatorsthemosteffectivewayto
analyzeRFsignalstransportingdigitaldataforexample256qualmdownstreamdocsaschannel
isaconstellationanalysisaconstellationdiagramisarepresentationofaqualmsignaldecision
pointsarethedotsplottedbythemodemthesepointswillfallintotheboundaryofadecision

56
areawhichcorrespondstoasequenceofzerosandonesthisiscalledaqualmconstellation
constellationanalysisstartswithanHDessayorSLMwiththebuiltinqualmdemodulatorthe
qualmconstellationanalysisoftheHDSARSLMtypicallyprovidesMERpowerlevelsina
constellationdiagramthediagramoftheconstellationwillindicatenotonlyofimpairmentsexist
onthesignalbutoftenwillenablethebroadbandpremisesprofessionaltodeterminetheroot
causeoftheimpairmentsthereare3typicaltypesofimpairmentsthatoccurinanHFCnetwork
randomnoiseprimarilyduetothermalorgossipinnoiseoroccasionallyalsoduetophasenoise
coherentinterferencefromcarrierwaveingressCTPorCSOandcompressionintermittentthe
followingdescriptionsandpicturesillustratehowtheseimpairmentswillbeindicatedona
constellationdiagramfigure8showsanidealconstellationdiagramwithlittletonoimpairments
ofanyformwhereeachreceivedsymbolscoresabull'seyeandthatitplansexactlyinthebox
intendedforsinceasmallamountofnoiseinterferenceandnonlinearityisgenerallyacceptable
figureBshowsamoretypicalconstellationdiagramwherereceivedsymbolsdon'thittheexact
centerofeachboxbutfallinsidetheboxwellenoughtobetonotbemisinterpretedasthe
wrongsymbolfinallyfigureCshowsachannelthathastoomuchnoiseinterferenceor
nonlinearityandthustheconstellationpointshereintonearbyregionswhichleadstoexcessive
errorsconstellationdiagramanalysisprovidestheearliestviewofdigitaltransmissionquality
problemsresultingfromnoiseingressandnonlineardistortiontheconstellationdiagramisthus
ameasureofhowthetransmissiontransmissionsymbolsinphaserIinquadratureorQalso
sometimescalledphaseanglestateorphaseamplitudestateareactuallyplacedcomparedto
idealplacementdotsshouldbemostlyroundaroundeachconstellationpointforGossinnoise
themoreblurrytheplotofreceivedsymbolsintheconstellationdiagramtheworstthatislower
theMERscoreissignificantphasenoiseisalsopresenttheconstellationdiagramwillappearas
ifitisrotatinginacircularpatternasshowninfigureDifontheotherhandtheQuansignalis
experiencingcoherentinterferencethedotswillhaveadoughnutformasshowninthisfigure
thiscanresultfromacarrierwaveingresssignalthatisinbandorfromintermodulation
productssuchasCTPorCSOorcarrierspursiftheoutermostclustersofdotsintheconstellation
diagramaremovedinwardtowardthecenteroftheentirediagramitindicatesgain
compressionineithertheRFamplifiersRFfiltersupordownconvertersorbyequalizersinthe
HFCaccessnetworkorhomeamplifiersthistypeofimpairmentistypicallyanindicationofa
problemoutsidethecustomerpremisessuchasinthecableplantorintheheadandhavethis
problemshouldbereportedtothesupervisorasapotentialissuethatmayrequireescalationto
plantandhadintechnicianfinallyiftheimpairmentisintermittentsayduetofirstorderimpulse
noiseorfromlaserclippingtheconstellationdiagramalooknormalexceptforanumberof
pointsthatareunusuallydistantfromtherestoftheclusterofconstellationpointsasshownin
thisfiguretheseimpairmentsarefoundandresolvedbyfollowingthetroubleshooting
techniquesdepictedinmodule13troubleshootingandrepairyou'llfindtheconstellation
analysisgreattroubleshootingtoolwhentrackingdownRFimpairmentsintheHFCnetwork
manyofthenewerqualmanalyzershaveauniquefeaturecalledqualmarrowsectorspectrum
EVSthatallowscableoperatorstoseedigitalingressorotherinterferenceunder64or256
qualmdigitallymodulatedsignalwithoutturningtheQuancarrieroffqualmarrowsector
spectrumEVSmaybeusedtotroubleshootandchannelingressornoisetypicallyinchannel
ingressornoisesourcesincludelaserclippinglooseconnectorsorupconverterproblemsatthe
headendinthisexamplethequalmanalyzerspeakmarkerisautoplacedonabemy30.1DB
whichislocated.251MHzabovethedigitallymodulatedsignalcenterfrequencyinthissection

57
willlookathowthespectrumismeasuredbycableoperatorsanotherdigitalquality
measurementusedtodeterminethehealthofthedigitalcarrierisaspectrumanalysisasignal
levelmeterorhandhelddigitalsignalanalyzerwillofferthespectrumanalysistestconnectthe
signallevelmetertoanRFportatthesubscriber'spremisestotakethisreadingintheforward
passreturnPathmeasurementistypicallydoneattheheadendsoinstallerwilluseareverse
ingresstestatthesubscriberlocationinsteadthereverseingresstestiscomingupshortlythis
sectionwillexploreaveragepowermeasurementadigitalqualitymeasurementusedto
determinethehealthofthedigitalcarrieristheaveragepowermeasurementsignallevelmeter
orhandhelddigitalsignalanalyzerwilloffertheaveragepowermeasurementtestconnectthe
signallevelmetertoanRFporttotakethisreadingthereadingisexpressedinDVMVandan
idealreadingmodemorsettopboxis0DVMVthissectionwillexploremodulationerrorratio
orMERmeasurementstobetterunderstandmodulationerrorratioorMERweshould1st
reviewsignaltonoiseorSNRsignaltonoiseratioorSNRreferstotheratiooftheDmodulated
signaltothedemodulatednoiseattheoutputofthenetworkMERiscloselyrelatedtoSNRfor
qualmchannelsinbothSNRandMERhighervaluesindicatebetterqualityandperformancein
factsomeinstrumentsmayrefertoMERSSNReventhoughtheyarecalculatedquitedifferently
indigitalmodulationschemessuchasqualmthedatabitsaresentasconstellationpointsthese
pointsrepresentaspecificvalueoftheinphaseandquadraturecomponentsofthequalmsignal
higherorderqualmsignalshavemoreconstellationpointsthanlowerorderqualmsignalsand
thustransmitmoreinformationperunitoftimeinthesameRFchannelbandwidthMERisthe
averageamountbywhichthereceivedconstellationpointsdeviatefromtheideallocationsona
constellationdiagrammodulationerrorratioMERandsignaltonoiseratioSNRmodulation
errorratioisthequalmequivalentofsignaltonoiseratioinbothcaseshighervaluesindicate
betterqualityandperformanceinfactsomeinstrumentsmayrefertoMERSNReventhough
theyarecalculatedquitedifferentlyindigitalmodulationschemessuchasqualmthedatabits
aresentasconstellationpointsthesepointsrepresentaspecificvalueoftheinphaseand
quadraturecomponentsofthequalmsignalhigherorderqualmsignalshavemoreconstellation
pointsthanlowerorderqualmsignalsanddoestransmitmoreinformationperunitoftimein
thesameRFchannelbandwidthmodulationerrorratioisthetypicalamountbywhichthe
receivedconstellationpointsdeviatefromtheideallocationsonaconstellationdiagram
constellationdiagramsandtestusingthemaredescribedinthefollowingslidestheideal
locationforthesymbolsinthequalmconstellationshownhereasthesmallcrossestheactual
receivedsignalwilldeviateslightlyfromtheideallocationthemodulationerroristhedifference
betweentheideallocationandthelocationofthereceivedsymbolthemagnitudeofthiserror
whenaveragedovermanysymbolsisthemodulationerrortheratiooftheaverage
demodulatedsignalpowertothataverageerrorpoweristhemodulationerrorratioorMERa
typicalminimumMERfor256qualmattheoutputtotheCPEforsignalsthathaveamoderate
amountofforwarderrorcorrectionFECaddedtothemaneventequalizedshouldbenoless
than33DBwithanidealreadingof36DBorgreatertheactualminimumlevelrequireddepends
ontheactualmodulationorderofthesignalinotherwords1664or256qualmtheamountof
FECothersignalprocessingsuchasTrelliscodedmodulationTCMetc.butaroughguidelineis
thatforeveryfactorof2reductioninmodulationorder3DBlastMERisrequiredhenceif33DB
MERisrequiredfor256qualmthan30DBwouldberequiredforhundredand28qualm27DB
for64qualmandsoonpleasecheckwithyoursupervisortoverifyrecommendedlevelsofMER
thissectionwillexplorebiterrorratioformeasurementserrorratioorperistheratioofthe

58
numberofaridbitsreceivedtothetotalnumberofbitssentinadigitalcommunicationsystem
isextremelyimportanttodigitalcommunicationsandthusinthissectionafairlycomprehensive
descriptionofitwillbegivenanidealcommunicationsystemhasaburrof0butmostpractical
systemshavegoneoutofmillionsorevenoneoutofbillionsofbitsinerroranddoeshaveafor
ofoneDmynegative601E9respectivelybiterrorsandlikewisecodewordandpacketerrors
aredeterminedinavarietyofwaysindigitalcommunicationsandsomebiterrorsareactually
correctedbythereceiverprocessingusingaprocessknownasforwarderrorcorrectionFEC
whenforwarderrorcorrectionisunabletocorrectthebiterrorsagroupofbitscalledFEC
codewordisanerrorinthosebitsareaddedtothetotalnumberofaridbitstheHDessayorSLM
maydisplaytotalpernumberofcorrectedFECcodeworderrorsnumberofuncorrectable
codeworderrorspacketerrorrateaconstellationdiagramofthereceivedsignalpreandpost
FECburneroranycombinationofthesequalityquantitiesbiterrorswhichmaybecorrectableor
uncorrectableinaconstellationdiagramcanbeseenbyconstellationpointsthataresofaraway
fromtheideallocationthatthey'reerroneouslyclassifiedasothersymbolsbythereceiverthe
topfigureillustratesanexampleburrmeasurementoutputofanHDessayorSLMwhilethe
bottomfigureshowsaconstellationdiagramwithtoomanyuncorrectableFECerasthattype
thatwouldleadtoanoverallburrthatistoohighburrisdegradedorincreasedbyourvarietyof
issuesthatcanoccurintheHFCnetworkandcustomerlocationamongwhichareexcessive
attenuationinthepathwhichleadstolowcarrierJeanettenoiseratioand/orlowerlowMERin
bandinterferencefromradiosignalssuchasHammerCBradiosbursterimpulseinterference
frompowersuppliesandmotorsnonlinearamplificationeffectsintheHFCplantfromCTBCSO
andnonlinearconnectorbehaviorsuchascommonpathdistortionsCPDsincelowlevelsofbit
errorscanoftenbecorrectedbyerrorcorrectionprocessingandcabledevicesbirdtestshelp
locateintermittentproblemsaswellasfindpotentialproblemsbeforetheyareseenbythe
customershoweverifonlyasingleerrorisdetectedinthebirdtestitcouldbeaverylongtime
orshorttimebeforethenexterrorisseenhencetogetahighcompetenceinthemeasurement
a95%confidenceintervalabout50erasmustbedetectedthismeansthatifthetargetburris
onehe81errorper100millionbitstransmittedandthedatarateofthesignalis38Mbps
appropriatefor6MHz256qualmsignalthen50Epositive8bitsmustbesentover38Mbps
channelorthesignalmustbetestedforabout138secondsasaresultmostHDessaythanSLM
willhavetheoptiontoruna202ndbirdtestforanaccuratereadingofthequalityofthe6parts
256qualmchannelintermsofbiterrorratenotethatismoredocsis3.0devicesareemployed
andcablenetworksthedataratecanexceedhundredmegabitsper2ndviabondedchannelsis
thedatarateisalmost3timesasfastthismeansthesame95%confidenceburrtestcouldbe
performedinone3rdofthetimeorabout76secondswhileonlythenewestHDessayorSLM
devicesmayincludetheabilitytomeasurebondeddocsis3.0channelsthiscapabilitywilllikely
besupportedinthefutureandallsuchdevicestheHDessayorSLMwilltypicallyallowthebird
tobereadaspreburrandpostburrpreburristherawchannelbitsreceivedinerrorasaratio
tothetotalnumberofbitssentandsinceFECcanoftencorrecttheseerrorsitmaynot
accuratelyreflecttruecustomerexperiencepreburrisexpressedinscientificnotationfor
additionalinformationrefertothemetricsprefixintheappendixattheendofthismodulebutif
therepresignificantpreburrerrorsevenifthereallcorrectablebyFECacanmeanachannel
thatisbarelynominalinperformanceandonethatwarrantsfurthertroubleshootingto
determinethesourceofthebiterrorspostspuristhenumberofbitsreceivedinerrorthat
couldnotbecorrectedbyFECinthesearchtruetransmissionerrorsthatmayaffectCPE

59
performancethesearealsocalleduncorrectableFECcodewordpostburrisalsoexpressedin
scientificnotationwhilepostburrerrorsmaystillnotbenoticeablebycustomersdueto
InternetprotocolssuchasTCP/IPwhichrequestretransmissionofaridpacketsorMPEG
decoderswhichmaskerrorsinreceivedvideopacketstherenonethelessrealandcanequateto
CPEserviceinterruptionsoroutageswhenhighenoughthisfigureshouldalsoshowtheexample
outputfromanHDessayorSLMshowingbothpreandpostFECburrmeasurementstoensure
extremelyhighqualitysignalingincablenetworkstheminimumRFsignalmeasurementforburr
attheinputtotheCPEexpressedinscientificnotation1E9or1biterrorin1billionbitspast
withanidealsignalmeasurementof0he0whentheselevelsarenotpresentfollowthe
guidelinesandmodule13troubleshootingandrepairifyou'reunabletosolvetheproblem
followyourcompany'sproceduresareratioorpermeasureshowoftensymbolsarepushedinto
neighboringsymbolsterritoriescausingthesymbolstobemisinterpretedburrisexpressedas
theratioofaridbitspersomenumberofbitssentgivenusthepowerof10sincethenumberof
errorsareverysmallcomparedtothenumberofbitstransmittedthetestmeasurementis
typicallyexpressedinscientificnotationforexample1erroroutof1millionbitswouldbe
expressedas1over1,000,000or1millionor1.0leadtothe6powerherewehaveachart
showingdifferentformeasurementsinscientificnotationlet'sdiscusspreandpostforward
errorcorrectionFECmeasurementsqualmcommunicationsystemsincludethemeanstopatch
upsomeofthebitsthatbecomecorruptedintransitovertheoutsideplantorOSTforwarderror
correctionisincludedwiththequalmdatatransmissionsforwarderrorcorrectionorFECifthe
informationthequalmreceiverusestofixthemisinterpretedbetsbecausepreandpostbit
errorratioburrdataqualitymadedebtdifferentgreatlybiterrorratiomeasurementsare
typicallyspecifiedasbeingeitherprebiterrorratioorpostbiterrorratiotoindicatewhether
thedatahasalreadybeenrepairedbyFEConthisscreenisanexampleofapoorprebiterror
ratiomeasurementwere6errorsforevery1millionbitsisoccurringusingforwarderror
correctiontheplantcanhealasshowninthepostbiterrorratiomeasurementthepostbiterror
ratiomeasurementshowslessthan1errorforevery1billionbitssenttheimportanttakeaway
hereisthatthisplanissufferingfrombiterrorsthatneedtobeaddressedevenwhenthepost
forwarderrorcorrectionorFECisgoodit'susefultoknowhowhardtheforwarderror
correctionisworkingtocorrecterrorswecanmeasurethepreforwarderrorcorrection
performancein2waysthe1stisusingabiterrorratiomeasurementwithforwarderror
correctionturnedoffhoweverthisisimpracticalinoperatingcablesystemsorwecanexamine
thecorrectedcodeworderrorrateorCWERwecanalsomonitortheuncorrectedcodeword
errorrateisdescribedinthedocsspecificationmoroncodeworderrorrateCWERinournext
sectionthissectionwillexplorecodeworderrorrateorCWERmeasurementsmanyofthedocs
is3XCPEandOxustoXEMTA'sofferanadditionalmetricrelatedtotheERpertomeasureRF
qualitycalledcodeworderrorrateor'swereasmentionedearlierthisisrelatedtotheforward
errorcorrectionFECsignalprocessingandindicateserrorsthatmaynotshowupinthepostFEC
measurementthecodewordformulaistotaluncorrectablecodewordovertotalcorrectable
codewordplustotalonairedcodewordplustotaluncorrectablecodewordusinganexample
screenshotofcodeworderrorrateorCWERfromamodemusingInternetbrowseropena
connectiontoHTTP://192.168.100.one2ndtableshowsenergypersymboltonoisedensityfor
256and64qualmrespectivelya64or256qualmsignalshouldhaveacodeworderrorrate
readingoflessthanorequalto10tothe7thissectionwillfocusonreverseingress
measurementsandingresstestinreturnusedspectrumanalyzerfunctionofNHTSAorSLMto

60
scanforupstreamorreturnPathinterferencethatcancauseexcessivebiterrorsinthe
upstreamsignalingfromthecustomerpremisesexamplesofupstreaminterferenceinclude
impulseorburstnoisefrommotorsswitchingpowersuppliesareevendimmerswitches
narrowbandRFinterferencefromHananCBradiosHFbroadcastsourcessuchasthevoiceof
AmericaandnonlinearsignalimpairmentssuchascommonpathtodistortionCPDmost
upstreaminterferenceontheHSCnetworkcomesfromthedropsystemandthehomenetwork
asmuchas90%ofinterferencecanarisefromthese2portionsofthenetworkaligntheuseof
lowtechvalueslike48and11makesiteasierforingressandnoisefromthehomeanddrop
systemtoentertheHSCnetworkdefectivefittingssplitterscablejumperswallplatesandpoorly
shieldedCPEtherelocatednexttomotorsorothernoisesourcescouldallcontributetothe
interferencethateventuallymakesitswaybackontotheHSCnetworkifnoteliminatedor
reducedbysignalprocessingupstreaminterferencecancauseproblemswithtwowayservices
suchasVODIPPBHSIandvoidthefigureshowsanexamplespectrumanalyzermodeoutputon
HDSAorSLMthatindicatesthepresenceofnarrowbandingressinthechannelofdocsis
upstreamsignaltheingressisclearlyseenwhenthedoctorsignalisnotactivesincethevast
majorityofupstreaminterferencecomesfromthehomeweredroplinetestingthenoiseat
everycustomerpremisesisjustascriticalasensuringpropersignalpowerlevelsMERandBER
scoresforthehealthoftheHFCnetworkthisisanidealwaytoverifythequalityofthedrop
systemandprovidesagoodindicatoroftheintegrityandqualityofinsidewiringandthereby
permittingtheidentificationofpoorlyshieldedordamagedcableinthecustomerpremisesfor
examplespectrumanalyzermodeofthesedevicestheidealtooltoviewreturnPath
interferenceotherHDSA'sorSLMexisttomeasurecarriertonoiseandingressratioand
upstreamtransmitpowerrequiredforCPEtomeasurethereturnPathnoiseofacustomer's
dropconfiguretheNHTSAorSLMspectrumanalyzermodetoupstreamspecificationsprovided
byyoursystemtypicalRFspectrumsettingsintheUSarebetween5MHzand42MHztakea
readingofthespectrumanalyzernoisefloorpriortoconnectingNHTSAorSLMtoRFadda75
ohmterminationtotheendofthejumperrecordthepeaknoisefloorforforexample405D
BMVunplugfromcommercialpoweranyCPEdevicesthatareconnectedtothecablenetwork
thiswillpreventadevicefromtransmittingandraisingthenoisemeasurementfollowingbest
engineeringpracticesterminateanyunusedwallportsandsplitterportsorasdirectedbyyour
companyconnectthecablefromthegroundblockleadingintothecustomershometotheRF
inputportontheNHTSAorSLMsoit'sdisplayingtheinterferencecomingfromthecustomer's
hometakeapeaklevelreadingwhilethemeterisconnectedtothecustomersinsidewiringfor
example30DBMVinthisexamplewehave30DBMVminus405DBMVor15DBofadded
interferencecomingfromthiscustomer'spremiseswiringandequipmentknowthatthisisa
totalinterferencepowerlevelmeasurementtheinterferenceinamorelimitedfrequencyrange
usedbyCPEdevicesmaybemuchlowerbutthistotallevelisindicativeofthewiringintegrityor
presenceofspecificinterferenceinthecustomerpremisesalwaysconsultwithyoursystemfor
specificproceduresfortestingreturnPathnoisetocheckforintermittentingressorimpulse
burstnoiseinterferencethespectrumanalyzermodecanusuallybeadjustedtothepeakhold
modetocapturetransitsignalsingressscandisplayscanbesavedforprintinglaterorfor
uploadingifunusualbehaviorisseeninthismodulewedemonstratedworkingknowledgeof
digitalcarriermeasurementsincludingtheequipmentandmethodsusedforthefollowingsignal
levelmetersandhandhelddigitalsignalanalyzersqualmanalysisspectrumanalysisaverage
powermeasurementmodulationerrorratiobiterrorratioprepostforwarderrorcorrection

61
codeworderrorrateandreverseingresswelcometothedigitalcarriermeasurementsmodule
uponcompletionofthismoduletheparticipantwillbeabletodemonstrateworkingknowledge
ofdigitalcarriermeasurementsincludingtheequipmentandmethodsusedsuchassignallevel
metersandhandhelddigitalsignalanalyzersqualmanalysisspectrumanalysisaveragepower
measurementmodulationerrorratiobiterrorratioprepostforwarderrorcorrectioncodeword
errorrateandreverseingressinthissectionwilllookatsignallevelmetersandhandhelddigital
signalanalyzersHDSA'sarepowerfulnetworkedcomputingdevicesthatalsoincludean
integratedcablemodemforDmodulatingandanalyzingcablemodemsignalstothehome
currentlyavailableHDSA'swiththeappropriatemodulesmayincludebutarenotlimitedtothe
abilitiestocharacterizeRFsignallevelsintheentiresuiteoftraditionalanalogsignallevelmeter
SLMmeasurementsdescribedinthenextsectionsuchasHomtiltcanCTbeCS

6.
ITheintroductiontoMPEGcompressionmoduleourspeakerforthemoduleisStephenHarris
SeniorDir.ofadvancednetworktechnologiesattheSCTMr.Harrishasspentover23years
workinginthenetworkingandbroadbandfieldsandhisexpertisespansIProutingandswitching
broadbandcableserviceswirelesscommunicationsandvideoengineeringStevehasthe
distinctionofbeingthe2007inauguralrecipientoftheSCTEexcellenceincable
telecommunicationslearninganddevelopmentawarduponcompletionofthismodulethe
participantwillbeabletodescribewhycableoperatorsareinterestedincompressingdigital
videounderstandthebasicsofcompressionisintheoldnessofencodingexplorehowMPEGis
usedincabletocompressandtransportdigitalvideounderstandtheATSCstandardisforthe
differencesbetweenMPEGstandardsandtheywantMPEGtoMPEG3MPEG4andMPEGH
exploreMPEGdigitalaudiostandardswhyiscableinterestedincompressionlistingtolook1st
wastalkabouthowvideoinformationissentovertheairwavesinoverHFCcableaccess
networksovertheyearstheFederalCommunicationsCommissionorSEChavecreateda
frequencyallocationmapwhichassignspecificRFfrequenciesoftheinternational
telecommunicationUnion'sITUveryhighfrequencyVHFor30MHzto300MHzandalsothe
ultrahighfrequencyorUHFat300MHzto3GHzchannelsthismapisnonnegotiableinall
broadcastersandmanufacturersmustfollowittoensurecompatibilityoneallequipmentand
alsotoavoidinterferencefromchanneltochannelatdifferentpointsthroughouttheyearsthe
federalauthorityforexampletheUS'sFCChasalsoallocatedafrequencymaptocable
operatorsandmultisystemoperatorsamissowesbecausethismapwasimplemented
throughoutdifferentperiodsandbecauselowerfrequenciesarelessattenuatedoncoaxialcable
thecablemapdoesnotmatchtheoffairmapforallchannelsandmoreoverthecablechannel
frequenciesarenotalwaysinorderandRFvideochannelisdefinedas6MHzofspaceinthe
UnitedStatesandmanyothercountriesand8MHzinEuropeittakesafull6or8MHzchannel
tobroadcastasingleanalogvideousingamplitudemodulationwithsynchronizedaudiousing
frequencymodulationthisRFgeneralizationwassetforexamplebythenationaltelevision
standardscommitteeorNTSCinUnitedStatesandphasealternatinglinespickuppowerPALin
othercountriesbutthisapproachofusinganalogsignalsforTVtransmissionisveryinefficientif
thevideosignalisdigitizedtheresultingvideostreamcanbeencodedandcompressedwithout
noticeablelossinvideoqualityandsetmuchmoreefficientinthenetworkinfactmanydigital
videoprogramscannowbesentoverasingle6or8MHzRFchannelinmoderncablenetworks
sointhemidtolate1990sgiveoperatorsbegantodeployadigitalvideotierofcableofthiswas

62
necessarybothtocompetewithsatellitecompetitorswhohadrecentlylaunchedanalldigitalTV
transmissionandmoreimportantlytousethepreciousRFspectrumspacemoreefficientlyso
thatmorevideocontentcouldbesenttothesubscriberdigitalvideosignalingmeansthatvideo
contentissentasafileorrealtimestreamofdataforthedigitalvideoreceivermustknowhow
todecodethedigitalvideofileorstreamsothatrequiresastandardthe1ststandardusedto
deliverdigitalvideousedbycableoperatorsisknownasmovingpicturesexpertsgrouporMPEG
version2alsoknownasH262usinganalogtodigitalinkdigitallyincodewithMPEGallows
analogvideoandaudiotobedigitizedusingtheMPEG2encodinganddecodingportionofthe
standardandsentasmovingpictureexpertsgrouptransmissionstreamorMPEGTSusingthe
transportstreamportionofthestandardtheMPEG2transportstreamorMPEGTSdefineshow
thedigitaldataispacketsizedfortransmissionoverdatanetworksitmustadheretoMPEG2
encodingdecodingandtransmissionstreamstandardsallowingthedigitalvideoreceiverto
decodethedigitalvideostreamandconvertedbackintoanalogforplayingonanalogtelevisions
weretosendthedecodedvideostreamtodigitalmonitorsanddisplaysuchaslaptopstabletsor
smartphonesanotherbenefitofdigitalsignalingforvideotransportisatthevideosignalcould
besentatdifferentresolutionsstandarddefinitiondigitalvideoorSDTVissimilartotheold
analogTVsignalsandresolutionwhilehighdefinitionorHDTVismuchmorevividandhasa
muchhigherresolutionsothepicturelooksmuchmoredetailtotheviewerbutHDTVdigital
videorequiresmorebitsofdigitalinformationtobetransmittedsofewerHDTVsignalscanbe
packedintoa6MHzRFchannelthenSDTVsignalswhileintheanalogworldonlyonevideocan
besentina6MHzchannelusingMPEG210ormorestandarddefinitionservicesmaybesent
usingthesame6MHzcablechannelusingamodulationformatnoticetoV6qualmQuanstands
forquadratureamplitudemodulationishowthedigitalbitsareactuallysentoverRFchannels
ontheHFCaccessnetworklet'sseehowthemathworksouttobe6qualmsignalingisa6MHz
RFchannelwhichgivesadigitalbitrateof42.88Mbper2ndbutabout4Mbper2ndoutofthe
totalareneededforforwarderrorcorrectionorFECtoensureerrorfreereceptionofthedigital
videosowehaveadigitaldataratecapacityofthat6MHzRFchannelofjustover38Mbper
2ndasasingleSTdigitalvideostreaminitiallytalkabout3.5Mbper2ndthatmeans10standard
definitionstreamsrequire35Mbofdataratetosendwhileeasilyfitsintoa6MHz76qualm
channelwithover38Mbper2ndofdataratecapacityweneedsomeextracapacityforvideo
videometadataandinteractedinteractivesignalingforexampletouswhy10wasagood
numberinitiallymodernencodersarebetterthantheoriginaloneshoweversonowSTdigital
videostreamscanbesentatthesamevideoqualitywithalowerbitratesometimesevenless
than3Mbper2ndofthevideoisnotverydynamicsomorethan10STchannelscanbesetina
modernmultiplexofdigitalvideostreamsbuthighdefinitiondigitalvideotakesmuchmore
capacityandHDvideostreamcantake12Mbper2ndinitiallyalthoughagainitdependsonthe
dynamicsofvideobutinthecaseofHDalsoontheresolutionorformatoftheHDvideothe
HDTVformatmaybeforADI1080PwhichistheoriginalDVDsused720P10ADIand1080P
whichisamoremodernBluraydiscplayersandmanyHDTVchannelsoftenuseandthereare
evenmorehigherresolutionformatsthatarebeingdemonstratedsuchasforCayenneand8K
ultrahighdefinitionoryouHDTVaswellasahigherdynamicrangeorHDRTVwhichalsorequire
morebitsthantheoriginalHDTVsignalsmoreonformatswillbecomingupdigitalvideosent
overtheairwaystoHDTV'swithhighergainantennasascomparedtothesimpleextensible
antennarodsofolderanalogtelevisionsometimescalledrabbitearsthe6MHzdigitalTV
broadcastersmissionspectrumutilizesavestigialsidebandorVSPmodulationformatwith3bits

63
whichis8statespersymboltotothe3rdhenceitiscalled8VSPinanalogyto16qualmover
cableithas16uniquestatespersymbol8VSPmodulationhastransitionregionsthatare620
kHzatbothbanedgessothattheadjacentsignalsdonotcauseinterferencewitheachother
hereyouseeatablecomparingthedifferentbitratespossibleinoffairMPEGvideooverversus
overcableclearlycableisthecapacitywinnerevenat64qualmbutforthemoretypical2036
qualmdownstreamsandcableabouttwiceasmanyprogramstobesentinasingle6MHz
channelversuswhatbroadcastersbroadcastersconsentoftheairwavesandjustwaituntilDOS
historyonecomesaroundwith4096qualmandmaybeevenhigherandwhileadigitaloffyour
broadcastconsentupto5SDprogramsthemosttypicalcaseformajorprogrammingnetworks
likeABCCBSNBCartisan1HDversionoftheirmainchanneleventsandSTversionsofalongwith
1to2additionalSDprogrammingchannelssuchasavintageTVprogramminganalogtodigital
oranalogtodigitalconverterisaprocessusedtoconvertanalogvideotodigitalvideo
equipmentuseisknownasacoderdecoderormorecommonlyreferredtoasanencoder
decodertheencoderconvertsanalogsignalsthedigitalbinarybitsthedecoderconvertsdigital
binarytoitsanalogsignalsorsinewavesaKodakperforms4stepsduringtheanalogtodigital
processthe1st3stepsofanalogtodigitalconversionorsamplingquantizationandencoding
thesestepsdeterminethequalityofthedigitizedsignaltransmissionabyssesfixedwithEagle
gapsandisknownasisochronictransmissionwecannothaveunevengasbetweenethernet
framesusedtotransmitMPEGframesinthecablenetworkinthefinalstepoftheanalogto
digitalconversionisknownasdecodingininterlacedscanningoneofthe2scanningmethods
usedbytelevisionsinterlacedbeingthe1standprogressivelyinthe2ndandimagesproduced
byilluminatingindividualhorizontallinesbeginningwithlines135etc.andthenilluminating245
etc.standardanalogtelevisionsetsutilize480visiblehorizontallinestocreateasingleframeof
videohighdefinitiondigitaltelevisionsetsmayutilizea1080interlacedhorizontallinesknown
as10ADIHBOandShowtimeatonetimeusethe10ADIformatandhavenowswitchedoverto
a1080Pformatadigitaldisplayilluminatesindividuallinesofpixelsstartingfromthetopleft
linebylineandmovingtotherightbottomofthescreenonnumberlinesarereproduced1stas
Imentionedthendisplaysthenthedisplayreturnedtothetoptodotheevennumberlines
these2halfimagesareinterlacedtocreatethecompleteimagethe2ndmethodofscanningis
calledprogressivescanningandisconsideredsuperiortotheinterlacedscanningmethod
progressivescanningafeatureofsomeadvancedtelevisionformatsproducestheframe
sequentiallyforexamplelines1234etc.720Pformatisanexampleofthis720winesare
producedsequentiallytocreateafullframe720Pisusedbymanyofourtopprogrammerssuch
asABCWBnetworkFoxESPNbecauseofthesmootherimageisdesirableforfastactionsports
andtelecastsitshouldbenotedthatsometelevisionsetshaveapreferredformatforhissinsof
thepreferredformatis720Pthesetwillconvertanyreceived10ADIsignaltothis720Pformat
somethedifferentresolutionsyou'llfindundertheprogressiveare480P720Pthere's3
differentfordifferentflavorspartanyoucouldcheckthisoutandnotesina1080Pformatat19
20x1080alsoexpecttoseesomeprogressivescanningmethodsaswecouldstarttoseesome
ofthe4Ksetsatthemarketthehorizontalscanrateorhorizontalfrequencyisthenumberof
horizontallinesofinformationavideodisplaycandrawonthescreenorframeinone2ndand
itsvalueisgiveninhertzitcouldalsobeknownassweepingfromtheleftsidetotherightside
onehorizontallineofthetimeastandarddefinitionhorizontalfrequencyis15.734kHzwhichis
for480interlacedSDTV31.470kHzisusedfortheprogressiveSDTVor480P45kHzisthe
horizontalfrequencyforHDTVthatuses720progressivelyscanlinesor720Pand33.750kHzis

64
usedforHDTVat10ADIhorizontalscanrateorfrequencyisalwayshigherthanthevertical
frequencysincetherearemanylinesperframeinthevideoimageverticalscanratevertical
frequencyorframerefreshratereferstothenumberframesavideodisplaycandrawordisplay
inone2ndthestandardrefreshrateforNTSCvideois60Hzthedisplaychangestheentirevideo
frame60timesper2ndverticalscancanalsobeknownassweepingfromthebottomtothetop
ofthescreen1verticallineofthetimeinnonprogressivevideotheverticalfrequency60Hzis
aboutthesameastheframerate59.94framesper2ndininterlacedvideothevertical
frequencyusuallyisonehalfthefieldrateorforthe9.942whichis29.97framesper2ndto
reducetheblurringeffectthatcanoccuronLEDTVstherefreshratewasdoubleto120Hzand
thenagainto240HzHDTVimagesalwaysmeasure16unitswideby9unitshighwere16x9
dimensionschosentomatchwiderangeof35mmmotionpicturefilmstoboth1.78x1and1.85
x1programscanbeshownwithlittleornolossofvideoinformationorreductioninscreensize
whilethe2.35x1widescreenprogramscanbeshownifthevideoimagesshrunkbyabout25%
some16x9SDcontentnowisdownconvertedto4.3usingaletterboxformatasshownhere
letterboxingisunavoidablewhenviewingtheentireimageofHDprogramsona4x3television
howeverthezoomfeatureonsomesettopboxescanofferabetterviewingexperiencehereis
16x9polarboxingsome4x3SDcontentnowisupconvertedtoHDusingpillarboxingbars
barsmaybeblackorgrayperboxingisusedwhenviewing4x3programsona16x9television
althoughsomeHDTV'sincludingreformattingmethodwerebythe4x3imagesstretch
horizontallyintothe16x9formatbystretchingtheouteredgesmorethantheinnerportionof
thescreenandcroppingsomeoftheimageatthetopandthebottomthisstilldistortsthe
imagetosomeextentbuttobelessnoticeablethantheblackorgraybarsandaplasmaorgan
organicLEDTVsaysthisispreferredsothattheblackorgraybaredgesdonotgetburnedinto
theplasmaorohLEDscreencompressionisusedforaudiovideoanddatabitratereductionin
cablecompressionisisbasicallythecenterofdigitalvideoandisusedtodeliverSDHD3Dand
noweventheolderHDtosettopboxesandclearQuamVODcontentisstoredanddeliveredto
thesubscriberinacompressedformatusingMPEGoverthetopvideoImentionedearlieruses
anMPEG4versiontocompressandcombinesitwithatechnologycalledadaptivebitratewith
thesizeofvideofilescompressiontodayisrequiredandoperatorswillcontinuetolookforways
tooptimizevideocontentstorageanddeliverylet'stakealookatcompressionlet'sseewhatin
standarddefinitionchannelwouldlooklikewithoutcompressionsotheuncompresseddatarate
forprogressiveisthecolordepthtimesofverticalresolutiontimesofhorizontalresolutiontimes
offramesper2ndifaredoinginterlacedwecouldtakethatsameformuladividedby2andthe
couldseethatoneinthemiddleoftheslidersoforexamplewehadSDvideowith4ADIwitha7
20x480resolution8bitcolordepthat29.97framesper2ndifwecomputethatformulaweget
about41Mbper2ndtothinkaboutthathowwouldyoutransfer41Mbper2ndoversingle
Quamyoujustcan'tdoitsothatmeansthatoneSDchannelwouldtakeoverasingle236Quam
butusingcompressionandbybytoday'scableoperatorswecangetNSTdowntoabout3.5Mb
per2ndhere'sanotherexampleofHDassametypesofformulasthatwesawthelastonebut
mustlookattheprogressiveformulathistimeinourexamplewehaveHDvideowith1080P
progressiveisa1920x1080resolution8bitcolordepthand59.94framesper2ndat
uncompresseddatarateifweworkouttheformulacomesto994Mbper2ndagainhowmany
Quamstewardessesqualmswouldthatbesoyoucanseethattheseareverylargenumbersand
ifwedidn'thavecompressionwewouldnotbeabletosendHDNSTovertooursubscribersnow
typicalasHDfortodaywecandobikebyusingthecableoperatorcompressionmethodswecan

65
doabout15Mbper2ndthat'sonaveragedependingifyou'reusing1080Por720Phavinga
cellistheneedforreducingthebitrateofdigitaltelevisionthroughcompressionseveral
differentcommercialformatscanbereducedusingcompressionwelookattheuncompressed
HDhighdefinitionwhichwas1000Mbper2ndapproximatelywealsolookedatthe
uncompressedHDstandarddefinitionandwesawthatfloatingaround40Mbper2ndare
currentlytheMPEG2isthedominantformatusedincommercialdigitaltelevisionservicesbut
MPEG4isanotherformatwhichisalsowidelydeployedandthere'sanewoneATVCHDwhich
isalsoveryverypopulartomotionJPEGcompressestheframeofthetelevisionframe
independentlyeachresultingcompressionratioisabout3to1forCCIR601digitalframesnot
verypopularisonly3to1howwealsohaveDV25isusedinmanyconsumercamcamcorders
andofferslightlybettercompressionwitheachframestillinthepenaltycompresstheresulting
bitratesabout25Mbper2ndforHDMPEG1MPEGformatstakeadvantageofspatialwithin
theframeandtemporalcrossthemanyframesandtheideaistoachievehighercompression
ratiosanditdoesMPEG1alsousableisusesalowerpixelresolutionandthebadthingaboutit
isdiscardsthreequartersofthepixelsbeforecompressingtheremainingpixelsandatthat's
calledalossytechniqueandit'sreallossyMPEG2isadominantfirmfordigitalvideo
compressionforSDandHDandtakesVantageoftheinterframeredundancytoachieve
compressionratiosofmorethan50to1butmaintainsavisualqualityoftheoriginalunlike
MPEG1whothrowsoutabunchofandthenwehavetheMPEG4advancedvideocodecABC
part10isalsoVConevideocodeconenotverypopularandotheradvancedcodecsarenew
formatswhichincludemoresophisticatedtoolsandMPEG2toachieveahighercompression
ratiowithoutlosingimagequalitytheyarepopularforoverthetopvideoinIPtelevision
commercialdeploymentsMPEG4AVCoffers100to1andmaintainsthevisualqualityofthe
ritualandIalsomentionedthatMPEGHEVCofthehighefficiencyvideocodecwhichisthe
newestcompressionstandardforreducingthesizeofvideostreamsitoffersclosetotwicea
savingsMPEG4MPEGHEVCofferscloseto200to1andmaintainsavisualqualityofthe
originallastbutnotleastthevideocodecisadeviceorsoftwarethatenablesvideocompression
ordecompressionfordigitalvideooneverysignificantdifferencebetweenanaloganddigital
videoisthefactthatwithdigitalvideothevideoqualitycanbevariedbasedonthebitrateused
toencodetheoriginalvideothevideobitrateisgiveninunitsofbitsper2ndalthoughitis
usuallyinmillionsofbitsper2ndormegabitsper2ndthevideocodersetsthebitratebasedon
thetargetapplicationandchannelbandwidththatisavailablevideocodedunderafixedtarget
bitraterestrictioniscalledconstantbitrateorCBRvideoinconstantbitratevideotheaverage
bitrateoverashortperiodisheldconstantthisisaccomplishedbyensuringthateachpictureis
eitherencodedwiththesamenumberofbitsorifpicturesareencodedwithadifferentnumber
ofbitsbutstilllimitedtothemaximumnumberofbitstheaveragebitrateoverashortperiodas
maycauseanviastuffinganylowbitrateperiodswithnobitstofilloutthebitratetothetarget
constantbitratevaluethusinCBRvideoeachpicturemaybeencodedwithadifferentnumber
ofbitsbuttheaveragebitrateoverashortperiodisstillheldconstantitdoesnotexceeda
targetmaximumbitratepicturesencodedwithvaryingbitratesiscalledVBRorvariablebitrate
andinthiscasetargetedaverageminimumandpeakbitratesmaybespecifiedencodedbitrate
alsodependsonthevideoresolutionthedynamicsofthevideobeencodedinthetypeand
generationofencodersuchasanMPEG2encoderMPEG4orthelatestgenerationHEVCthe
highefficiencyvideocodecwilldiscusstheseencodingstandardsandabitmoredetaillaterin
thismodulenowlet'sdiscusscompressionofdigitalvideorawdigitizationofvideoactually

66
increasesthedatarateorbandwidthrequiredtotransmitthesignalbutitturnsoutthereisa
littleoralotofredundantinformationinthatrawuncompresseddigitalvideosincecable
operatorsneedawayofreducingthesizeofdigitalvideotheyusedigitalvideocompressionof
digitizedvideotoremoveredundantinformationsincedifferentreceiversneedtoknowhowto
decompressthevideotheyreceivetheMPEGpictureexpertsgrouporMPEGwhichisan
internationalstandardsbodywasdevelopedtodevelopastandardforencodingand
compressingvideoimagescalledMPEGthenameMPEGcomesfortheworkinggroupofexperts
thatwasformedbyisoandIECstandardsorganizationsMPEGcompressionformatstake
advantageofspatialandtemporalredundanciesinthevideostreamtoachievehigher
compressionratiosspatialredundancyiswithinavideoframeandtemporalredundanciesare
betweenvideoframesjabberalsotakesadvantageofmotionthereare2termsthatareusedto
describecompressionlosslessandlossythelosslesscompressionhereinlosslesscompression
thedecompresseddigitalvideoisexactlythesameastheoriginalasyoucanseeontheleft
handsideisverycrispandclearnotdiscardingvideodataduringcompressiontheoperatorcan
reversetheprocessandgetthesamedatatheonlyproblemwiththismethodisthatthefilesize
isstillratherlargeandthenwhenwestreamittothecustomerit'sstilllargetowashalllossless
isnotanoptionforcableoperatorsbutitwasontheotherhandyouhavealllikealotlossyor
toolossyasofyetexactoppositeoflossless'slossywordtheregeneratedvideodataisdifferent
fromtheoriginalwecanclearlyseesomelossyinformationwherewelossylostpartsofthe
videobecauseitwasremovedandsubscribersdefinitelyknowthisthedifferencesandiftheydo
thesubscribermaynoticewhatwecallvideoartifactssoitisnecessaryforMPEGtousealossy
techniqueforSDHDandaltarHDbutnottoomuchofitlosslesswouldproducevideobitratesit
wouldbetoolargeliveroverqualmwasIjustmentionedushislossycompressionisusedfor
standarddigitalvideothequalitiesconsideredinferiortoanalogvideocompressionfactorwill
reducethesizeofthedigitalvideocontentwithoutsignificantlyaffectingproceedsvideoquality
butbythesubscribersoasyoucanseethatyoucanseedifferentframeshereandsomeframes
ortheentireframeandsomehisworkcontentisremovedandthecompressionfactorsachieve
withMPEGisalsoreferredtoasthecodinggameMPEGisalossycodingschememanycontent
isremovedfromthestreamwhentoomuchcontentisremovedsubscriberswillnoticethe
artifactsthatImentionedinadigitalvideocontentthereisanexampleinthescreenofaartthat
everythingaboutcompressionTakealookatsomeofthesizesthatwecanachievethrough
compressionthatweknowthatifwehadanHDwouldbeabout1000Mbper2ndonbutthisis
inaslidethatactuallyshowstheestimatedbandwidthfornetworkbasedentertainmentand
giventheserviceweatherisanMPEG2videostreamingitseesabout3to5Mbper2ndHD
about12to2015beintheaverageSTattheHDMPEG4youhaveHDHEVCwhichisabout5
altarHD4Kwhichiscomingwhetherwelikeitornotit'sabout15voiceoverIPisaboutameg
broadbanddateisabout5to10andthat'sgrowinggamingisabout2Mbper2ndandaudio
streamingaboutwantedtogivenallthisdatacomingintothecustomer'shomeMSO'sfeelthat
about75Mbofbandwidthwithinthehomeisnecessaryforservicedeliveryandontheright
handsideweseetheCiscovisualnetworkindexedandwecanseethateachoneoftheseareas
howtheyaregrowingfrom2009to2014soyoucanseethere'sahugegrowthofInternetvideo
andthat'sthatlightblueshaderightthereandinthemiddleisafilesharingpickingupjust
slightlymightIcontinuetoseecableVODslightlygrowingwillbitmorebusinessInternet
growingalittlebitmorealongwithwebdatasothisisonlygoingtocontinuetogrow
compressionreducestheamountofdatarequiredtoproduceadigitalvideoimagebyreusing

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pixelsorotherdatathismeansfewerbitsneededtobetransmittedoverthecablenetworkless
dataequatestolowerbandwidthorbitsper2ndMPEG2andMPEG4andadvancecompression
schemeslikeMPEGhighefficiencyvideocodingareavailabletoolstocompressvideomost
cableoperatorsusesymmetricmodelofcompressionwheretheencodinganddecodingofthe
samecomplexityintheasymmetricmodelMPEGasinglecompressortypicallyencoderfeesa
largenumberofthecompressorsisverycommonwehaveencoderandtheheadendandmany
manysettopboxesonthefieldanotherexampleofasymmetricisaDVDsystemcompression
utilizestheorderinpatternsfoundvideoinformationtoreducethesizethereareseveraltypes
ofcompressiontechniqueswetalkedaboutandsophisticatedcompressionusesmultiple
techniquesoppressionismadeupofseveralbasickeyareascallprocessingblockswehavethe
preprocessingtheDCTordiscretecosinetransformwehavecuesorquantizationwemighteven
havewhatwerefertoisrequiredisAsianisshownfromtheoutputbufferbacktoquantization
wehaverunlengthencodingandthatcombinesthatyoumightuserelatedcodingorvariable
lengthcodingafterquantizationandassistinreducingthosequantizationquantizationvalues
evenfurtherandintheoutputbufferisthecodedframeencodingistheprocessofpreparing
thevideofordigitallet'stakealookthere'sabigpictureofencodingovertheairsatellitedirect
fiberormethodsusedtoreceivevideobythecableoperatorencodersortranscoder'smaybe
usedafterthereceiverisatranscodermaybeusedtoconvertMPEG4AVCpart10video
streamsintheMPEG2videostreamscarouselserversprovidethenecessaryguydatedtheset
topboxesforchannellineupstheAzerisprovidedigitalcommercialstobeinsertedinthevideo
streammultiplexingisusedtocreategroupsofchannelsmultiprogramtransportstreams
multiplexersassignmulticastIPaddressingwithUDPportnumbersforroutingrunningisalso
usedtopullvideostreamsintheheadandformodulationusingedgequalmsthenetworkringis
usedasadeliverytransporttypicallyforfiberopticsthatconnectedthetransportandthatwill
connectalltheareasofthecablenetworktogetherforvideodeliverythatendsinthehopes
hereisasimplifiedblockdiagramofacompositevideoencoderthepreprocessingorvideo
filteringofencoderisusedtoreducenoiseintheinputvideosignalremoveartifactslikeringing
fromapreviousfilterandconvertcolorspacestheencodermayincludeseveralfiltersthatfocus
onremovalvideoartifactsinadditiontothereductionofvideonoisethepreprocessorwilllock
encodinggroupsofpicturesorcopstopreviousencodersifrequiredandformpreanalysisuse
fortheencodingprocessthevideobufferstorescompressdataforprocessingtheredgreen
blueRGBcolorspacesmaybeconvertedatthisstagetoaninputvideocolorspaceofYUVorYC
BCRluminanceandchrominanceartifactsareelementsoftheinputvideothatdonotbelongin
thevideoinformationthediscretecosinetransformwereDCTstagedecomposeseach8pixelby
apixelmacroblockintoaseriesofwaveformswithspecificspatialfrequencythat'stypicalofan
MPEG2theDCTstageoutwasan8pixelby8pixelblockofhorizontalandverticalfrequency
DCTcoefficientsshownherethequantizationorQstageeliminatestheunimportantDC
coefficientsIwasthelossystageRossithrowingoutcoefficientsorallycallthehighfrequency
DCTcoefficientsoneisAsianisconcernedwithlimitingthepermissiblevaluesneededto
representtheDCcoefficientsthisquantizationaddsnoisetothevideostreamtheencoderwill
performacheckonthequantifiedquantizecoefficientsinversequantizationorIQstage
computestheinversequantizationmatrixbymultiplyingthequantizedDCTcoefficientswiththe
quantizedtableattheQstageinverseDCTordiscretecosinetransportistheoriginalinput8
pixelbyapixelmacroblockIDCTerrorsareexpectedduetoquantizationtheframememory
bufferisusedtostoreframesassessingtypically3framesstoredatthisstagethemotion

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estimationorEmmystageusesaschemewithfewersearchlocationsandfewerpixelsto
generatemotionvectorsininindicatingthedirectionsofthemovingimagesthemotion
compensationorMCstageincreasesthecompressionratiobyremovingtheredundancies
betweenframescalledtemporalthevariablelengthcodingorvealseekencodingworkswitha
losslessentropyencodingprocesstoreducethebitraterequiredrepresenttheDCTcoefficients
bysendingshortercodesforcommonpairswatercodesforlesscommonpairsthereare3types
ofentropyencodingusesusedandtheirHoffmanlimpLZivandarithmeticcodingentropy
encodingusesrunlengthencodingorzigzagscanmethodtoremoverepeatedDCcoefficients
assigningeachDCpositionwithapointertoitsoriginalvalueortoitsvaluethemostuseful
portionofthedigitalvideosignalistheentropytheregularorratecontrolthrottlesthebitrate
bychangingthequantizationrawssayFrance's8bitversus10biddingquantizationforexample
usingfewerbitsperTCDCTcoefficientmightbeoneotheroptionusedorloweringthenumber
ofbitsaddmorenoisesoyougotawatchifyougofroma10bitthe80littlebitmorenoise
highernumberbitsaddslessnoisebutisalargerfilesizetheoutputbufferisthedatabufferon
theoutputoftheencoderinasexualtakealookatthestandardizationforcompression
techniquesusingcableinparticularMPEGorthemovingpicturesexpertsgroupstheillusionof
motionisproducedbyrapidlydisplayingaseriesofstillimagesthestillimagescomprisedof
horizontallinesofvideoeliminatedonepixelatatimewhenindividualpixelsorblocksofpixels
canbereusedeitherelsewhereintheimageofthenextframetheydonotneedtobe
retransmittedandthisisthetheorybehindMPEGsoinsteadMPEGcanreusethesepixelson
thiswillhelpMPEGreducethebandwidthrequiredtotransmittheimagesandisalsoreferredto
ascompressionandthiswouldMPEG2todohereinthe70sfewengineersthoughtitwouldbe
possibletotransmitHDduetovideoovera6MHzHSEchannelcompressionofdigitalsignals
madeitpossibletoshrinkthesizeofdigitalsignalslikeHDandothersignalslikeaudiooperators
leveragethemovingpicturesexpertsgrouporMPEGstandardMPEGhasmanyattributesof
analogcompositevideoMPEGisconsideredinsomesensethemoderndigitalequivalentMPEG
offersuperioraudioandvideoqualityatsignificantbandwidthsavingsasshownheredigitizing
contentwithoutthemeansofcompressionwillproduceanHDtransportstreamthataretoo
largetocarryoverandHSEareoutsideplantMPEGencodingcanreducethebitrateofavideo
streamsomeofthecompressionfactorswetalkedaboutphrasesMPEG250to1MPEG401or
MPEGHEVSia201samplingratesareusedtoreduceaudioat41and8to1compressionfactors
MPEGaudiolikeadvancedaudiocodingorAACsupportsupto48channelsatasamplingrateof
96kHzMPEGcompressionlooksforredundancyinthevideocontentviaredundancydoesnot
addanythingtothevideoinformationbeingconsumedbythesubscriberMPEGcompressionis
basedon2mainredundancyalgorithmsarespatialorintracoatingcoatingwithineach
individualMPEGframeortemporalorintercodingredundancyfoundacrossaseriesofMPEG
framescalledagroupofpicturesareGodMPEGalsoallowsanEmmasewercableoperatorto
transmitvideocontentusingMPEG2transportstreamscalledframingMPEGtransportstreams
carryvideoaudioanddatathatismultiplexedtogetherandareidentifiedbyprogramIDscalled
kidstheMPEGtransportstreamisusedtopacketsizevideodataintoa188bytepacketsMPEG
2transportstreamsarealsousedbyMPEG4compresscontentherethesettopboxesacoding
videoandaudioprogramsfounditMPEGtransportstreamwhatitwilldoisI'llmatchthe
programIDsineachoneoftheprogramsandpullthatintothechannelthatthecustomers
watchingMPEGtechnologyhasrevolutionizedthewaycableoperatorsdelivervideoservices
MPEGoffersacableoperatorseveralbenefitssuperiordigitalvideoqualityofsubstantial

69
bandwidthsavingsit'srequiredtoreceivetoday'ssatellitedigitalvideosignalsit'salsoutilizedto
receivesignalsatthecontentdistributionnetworkinanMPEG4formatsoMPEGisthatthereis
wellandisusedinalltypesofserviceswhereasVODorSTBservicesMPEGisbotha
compressionalgorithmandatransportandMPEG2MPEG2supportsatransportofstreams
independentofMPEGcompressionalsocostsavingsforstorageandretrievalofdigitalvideo
programit'sit'scheapertostorelesscontentifit'scompressedandthenthisforsending
contentifIcouldsenditwasbitsisgonnasavememoneyanywayfurthersavingsduetoMPEG
standardizationeveryone'susingthesameMPEGstandardacrosstheworldthatmeansit's
betterforinteroperabilityamongvendorsofunbindMPEGproductfromvendoraitwouldbe
verysimilarorifnotthesameasMPEGBorothersasvendorBcompressionisbasedonspatial
orintracoatingwithoutaframeandtemporalorintercodingcrossframesredundancywaste
wetalkedaboutthatisveryveryimportantMPEGfeatureallowsittocompresstherearemany
digitalvideostandardsnowfromMPEG2toaTVCbuttherearealsodifferentdigitalvideo
formatswhichcanbeeitherhighdefinitionHDTVorstandarddefinitionSDTVusingeither
progressiveorinterlacedpicturescanslet'sexploredigitalvideostandardsformatsand
somethingcalledcomependingnexttheadvancedtelevisionsystemscommitteeoraTSCisa
digitaltelevisionstandardthatdefines18standardstheATSCreplacetheanalogNTSC
televisionstandardiscableoperatorsmovetoalldigitaldevelopbytheadvancedtelevision
systemscommitteethehighdefinitiontelevisionstandardswasdefinedbytheATSCtoproduce
thefollowingwidescreen16x9imagesortheaspectratiothereare2HDTVstandard
resolutions1920x1080and1280x720ahostofdifferentimagesizesarealsosupported
morethan6timesthedisplayresolutionofNTSCaTSCboosttheaterqualityaudiousingdigital
DolbyDigitalAC3formattoprovide5.1channelsurroundsoundandnumerousauxiliarydata
castingservicescanalsobeprovidedtheATSCstandardfitsa19.39Mbper2ndpayloadofa6
MHzchannelwhichisidealfor8VSPoraqualmchannelthatweusingcablevariousSDTV
formatsaresupportedsuchastheinternationaltelecommunicationUnionITURDT6015
formatthevideoscompressedusingMPEG2Dolbyaudiocodec3orAC3waschosenasthe
audiocompressionschemeandusestheSocietyofmotionpictureandtelevisionengineers
standard5.1toacode5audiochannelsandlimitedbandwidthsubwooferancillarydataisalso
includedinthestandardDolbyAC3transmits5audiochannelsforleftfrontrightfrontfront
centerleftsurroundandwritesurroundalongwithanarrowbeamwithchannelAC3isidealfor
monostereoorfullsurroundsoundtheadvancedtelevisionsystemscommitteeATSCstandard
isdefinedindocumentsa53part1topart6describingthesystemcharacteristicsofadvanced
televisionordigitaltelevisionsystemsaguidetotheuseoftheATSCdigitalstandardisprovided
ina50foraandisshownhereintheupperrighthandcornerofmyslidewhiledigitalaudio
compressionlightDolbyAC3standardiscoveredina52thesedocumentsmaybeobtainedin
theSCTportalundercoursematerialssomeofthenamesthatyoumayhereforadvanced
televisionformatsincludedigitalTVorDTVstandardandthisisastandarddefinitiondigitalTV
orSDTVishighdefinitionTVorHDTVultrahighdefinitionTVorUHDTVorevenenhanced
definitionTVoreatingTVNTSCanalogtelevisionisnotadvancedTVformatsinceit'soriginal
analogTVformatwasusedintheUnitedStatesandNorthAmericaandneitherhispalthe
EuropeananalogTVformatthelet'stalkabouthowtheATSCstandardisusedincableaspect
ratiosrelationshipofwiththeheightofatelevisionscreenaTSCusesdifferentimageaspect
ratiosthanthemorecommonnationaltelevisionsystemscommitteeNTSCmeasuresforunits
by3unitsworkwerefertoas4x3theNTSCdimensionsoriginallywerechosentomatch35mm

70
motionpicturefilmthe1.33x1aspectratiowideraTSCaspectmaterialHDTVis1.78byoneor
2.35x1filmsthesemustbereformattedforviewingon4x3setsthetypesofreformattinguse
currentlyincludepaymentscanwhereahumanmanuallymovesa4x3windowarounda16x9
videotofollowthemostimportantactionofthescreennotethatinthiscasesomeofthescreen
informationorviewisinherentlylostintheprocesswehaveletterboxedorblackbarforthe
entire16x9imagesshrunktofitina4x3screenandblackbarsareplacedaroundbelowthe
resultingimagetofillinthegapsleftbehindandwealsohaveanamorphicsqueezingwherethe
videoimagessqueezedinanonuniformwayinordertostoreortransmittedoveramedium
withacedifferentaspectratioandthenreexpanditbeforedisplayingitthisprocesswas
designedtomakemaximaluseofthepixelsinthestoragemediumwhichoriginallywere35mm
filmevenwhenfilmingwidescreenformatvideobutitalsousethestoringoralsousedfor
storingwidescreenformatsonDVDsforexampleweusethisformat:anamorphicsqueezing
thereisaslightdistortionofobjectsfromtheoriginalvideoimageusingthisprocessbutit
retainsmuchmoreoftheoriginalvideoresolutionandqualitythanthepaymentscanor
letterboxapproachesthetermanamorphicisfromGreekanditmeansformsagainthereare
severalstandardsthatareavailableMPEG1234.10VC1andaGVCofMPEG1standardisnot
reallyusedininyournotesyoucangetsomeadditionaldetailsoftheITUstandardofthe
internationaltotalmedicationstandardintheisotheinternationalstandardsorganizationand
somedetailsarebutbutMPEG1wasaVHSandthenandVCDstandardMPEG1foralotof
pixelsawaysoitreallywasn'toptimalforcableoperatorsMPEG2yesthat'sthat'sveryvery
commoninincablesupportoppressionbasedESD3DjuiceonDVDsaswellanditalsohasa
audiostandardwilllookatlittlebitbig3thereisnostandardwasfoundtoberedundantallthe
featuresofMPEG2sowasneverstandardizedsodon'tworryaboutMPEG3MPEG4part10is
whatwerefertoforcableoperatorsissometimescalledforabout10it'salsoalietoyouandiso
standardisknownasadvancedvideocodingsupportoppressionofHD1080PformatsandIPTV
andSCVthere'salsoanotheronecalledVC1that'sa74to4201Mstandardit'susedto
compressabluerainsingaSlingboxvideocontentofanotfoundtoomuchinadigitalvideo
transportordigitalvideocontentwithinthecableoperatorwewesticktoMPEG4part10and
wealsohaveMPEGHIwhichisalsoknownasH265whichisahighefficiencyvideocodingand
thisisdesignedtosupportoppressionofultraHDformatslikeforKandHaKtelevisionwhichis
comingsoitjustalittlebitknowthatstandardstheisoistheinternationalstandards
organizationImentionedtheITUistheinternationaltotalmedicationuniontheIECisthe
internationalelectrotechnicalcommissionoftheseareallthegroupsthatworkalongwith
MPEGtocreatethestandardthereareadditionalextensionswhereaddedtoMPEGbythe
digitalvideobroadcasterDVBstandardsandalsotheadvancedtelevisionsystemscommittee
organizationtheATSCisthestandardwaywereceivevideoovertheyearandsotheyalsohave
standardsoneverythingfromaspectratioandandintheformatsweuse1080P720Pinthe
resolutionsthatsohere'sMPEG1there'salotofdetailsinthenotesbutyouseealotofthe
standardsthatwerecreatedforMPEG1itwasstartedbackinJuly1989asH261itwasdesigned
toproducereasonablequalityimagesbutithasaverylossyat75%ofthevideopixelsisthatis
dumpedit'sverycommonforaVHSandstereoat192kbper2ndMPEG1islossywetalked
aboutthatusesfacialorintracoatingofframesistotakeadvantageoftemporalstyleisa
standard1994MPEG2whichisalsoknownasH262isisthecenterforcompressionforASDHD
andVODandmanyotherformsofvideothecableoperatorsusewecanworkoutwithoutthe
bitratesupto40Mbper2ndsothat'sgreatmostHDisnotgoingtogopass20Mbper2ndso

71
thatIworkjustfinewithseverforKanda.k.a.netswereworkingtogetintoMPEGHandmaybe
someMPEG4aswellMPEG2takesadvantageofthespatialandtemporalpassesbetweenthe
toolmakersofthe50to1ratioagainthere'sadditionalthingsinthenotesherethatyoucan
readthroughaboutMPEG2MPEGfreelyIsaiditnevermaterializedasastandardsoyoucanfill
inthenotesofsomeofthedetailsbutMPEG3wasdesignedH263wasdesignedforforHDTV
butitwasdroppedbecauseMPEG2waswasabletodothatfinalizein1998MPEG4ITU
TH264compressionformatallowsdeepercompressionofdigitalvideousingobjectsusingaudio
tovideoobjectsallowsMPEG4toimprovelossycompressionoverMPEG2videocodecVC1
whichisalsoknownas74201MandotheradvanceKodak'sarenewformatswhichincludeeven
moresophisticatedtoolsandMPEG2toachievehighercompressionratiossuchas100to1
withoutlosingimagequalityMPEG4isnowbeingthecourtbecomingtheindustrywide
commercialappointmentversionofMPEGinthecableindustrythemainfocusofMPEG4wasa
rangeoflowbitratesfrom384kbto8MbunderMPEG4part10whichiswhat'sdeployedin
cablethisisfunctionallyaddedforcableenvironmentsupporting38.4Mbper2ndprofilelevel
andastudio1.2Gbper2ndprofilelevelMPEGIVisbasedontheMPEG1intostandardsand
virtualrealitymoreofmodelinglanguageorVRMLMPEG4asthefollowingtoMPEG1intoan
VRMLsupportfor2Dand3Dcontentsupportforseveraltypesofinteractivitycoatingavery
lowbitratesare84kbper2ndtoveryhighones1.2Gbper2ndithasstandardizedDRMor
digitalrightsmanagementotherwiseknownintheMPEGcommunityasintellectualproperty
managementandprotectionareIPMPhasnativesupportfornaturalcontentinrealtime
streamcontentusingURLsseveralformsofsupportoverIPandothernetworkswithbandwidth
unknownatthetimeofencodingsupportstheadvancedaudiocodecorAACthiswas
standardizedasitisaadjuncttoMPEG2aspart7beforeMPEG4wasissuedwhilethese
advancedfeaturesleadtobettercompressionratioswhilemaintainingvideoqualityMPEG4
doesnotrequiremoreprocessingpowerandadecodersoforexamplethesettopboxorPCor
tabletclientapplicationdoesn'tneedtohaveadditionalprocessingnotethatImentionedMPEG
7andthisisMPEG7wasintendedtoprovidecomplementaryfunctionalitytoMPEGstandards
aboveMPEGageorITUTH265highefficiencyvideocodingstandardismostrecentjoint
venturevideoprojectwiththeITUTvideocodingexpertsgroupVCEEGintheisoIECMPEG
standardizationorganizationsworkingtogetherinapartnershipknownasthejointcollaborative
teamonvideocodingorJCTVCthe1steditionoftheAGVCstanderwastobefinalizedin
January2013resultinginaalignedtaxthatwouldbepublishedbyboththeITUTintheisoIEC
additionalworkisplannedtoextendthestandardtosupportseveraladditionalapplication
scenariosincludingextendedrangeuseswithenhancedprecisionandcolorformatsupport
scalablevideocodingand3DstereomultiviewvideocodinginisoIECtheAGVCstandardwill
becomepartoftheMPEGHpart2isoIEC230082standardanditistheITUTitislikelyto
becomeanITUTrecommendationofage.265theresolutionofMPEGHis3840pixelsby2160
pixelsforthe8Kis8,294,400pixelsor8.2megapixelswhiletheseadvancesleadtobetter
compressionratioswhilemaintainingvideoqualityMPEGHwillrequiremoreprocessingpower
inthedecoderthanMPEG4orMPEG2hereweCSTfullHDandultraHDformatscomparedBST
startingonthebottomleftoffers720buys576or640x480formatsbecauseheisaverysmall
resolutionfullHDoffers1080x1920progressivesomuchbetterpictureandthisiswhatour
customershavebecomeaccustomedtonowwehave4Kstandardwhichisanotherversionof
HDat2160x4096progressivesomuchlargerpicturemuchbetterresolutionthemoverseeing
withHDandwenowareevenhearingaboutsome8KultraHDofferingabove4320pixelsor

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4300pixelsby7680pixelsprogressivetookasagoodcomparisonhereofthedifferentformats
andandwherevideocouldgowastransitionandtalkalittlebitaboutaudiosofthissection
worksforsomeofthemovingpicturesexpertgroupanddigitalaudioyouthinkyousentrecap
videocompressionMPEGcompressionremovesredundantinformationafterdigitizationofthe
originalvideoandthencanfurtherreducethebitratebyfilteringofflessnoticeableinformation
suchashigherspatialfreakfrequencycontentfromthevideoimagewhichistosayreducingthe
levelofdetailinthevideoimagecompressionisusedtoshrinkthesizeofdigitalvideoformats
andresolutiontofitintoa6MHzradiofrequencychannelforovertheair8VSBoraccess
networkQuantransmissiontheMPEGtransportstreamisusedtopackatiesvideodataintothe
188bytepacketsandMPEGtransportstreamwillhaveaheaderthatisusedalongwithuser
datagramprotocolInternetprotocolanddataovercableserviceinterfacespecificationto
transportthevideooverthecableoperatorsnetworkbutwhataboutaudiohowistheaudiobit
ratecompressedorreducedsimilarlytothedigitalvideocompressionaudiocanbecompressed
byremovingredundantinformationbutalsobyfilteringoffhigherfrequenciesorlessnoticeable
frequencyharmonicsbutevenbeforedigitalaudiocompressionweusesomethingcalled
compoundingwhichstandsforcompressionandexpandingasawaytoprocessanalogsignalon
alogarithmicscaleinamannerthatimprovesthesignaltonoiseratioinadifferentsignalofan
analogstereosignalandweusethisconceptindigitalaudiosamplingandcompressionaswell
whichwillexplorenextaudiocouldbesynchronizedwithvideoorcouldbestandalonethe
MPEGpackettieselementarystreamwerePSinasingleprogramtransportstreamcontains
bothaudioandvideoMPEG1audioisa2channelwithsamplingratesof44.1kHz48kHz32kHz
andcompressedbitratesof32to192kbper2ndperchannelMPEG2backwardcompatibleisa
multichannelofthe5.1withadditionallower1622.05and24kHzsamplingratesMPEG2AACor
advancedaudiocodingisaveryhighqualityaudiocodingstandardfor1to48channelsat
samplingratesof8to96kHzwithmultichannelmultilingualandmultiprogramcapabilitieslet's
seehowthisworkshumanhearingislimitedtofrequencieslowerthan20kHzinmostcases
abovethisrangemosthumanearsareinsensitivealthoughotheranimalslikebatscanhear
above100kHzinfactthatisthekeytotheaccuracyoftheirsonarbutsincehumanhearingis
limitedto20kHzthatlimitstheamountofinformationweneedtosampletoaccurately
reproducetheaudiobutthehearingofolderhumansisgenerallylesssensitivetoupper
frequenciesinfactthedegradationstartsaftertheteenageyearssoonewaytoreduce
informationcontentofthesampledaudiostofiltertheaudioevenlessand20kHzsayto18kHz
mostolderadultsprobablycouldn'teventellthedifferencealthoughteenagersmightbeableto
butsaysitdoesn'tapplytoallhumansisnotagenerallygoodwaytoreducetheaudio
informationcontenthoweverhumanhearingalsoturnsouttobeinsensitivetosofterfrequency
componentsinsoundthataccompanylouderfrequencycomponentsinthesamesoundinthis
worksforallhumansregardlessofageremovingthesofterfrequencycomponentsinthe
presenceoflouderfrequencycomponentsdoesn'tsignificantlysignificantlychangethe
perceptionofthesoundbythehumanandremovalofinformationmeanswecanusefewerbids
totransmitthatinformationthisisthebasisoftheMPEGfreeandotherdigitalaudio
compressionalgorithmstoremovefrequencycomponentisadon'treallychangethewaythe
audiosoundshumansthisprocessisdepictedontheslideifyou'resamplingtheoriginalaudio
loweramplitudefrequencycomponentsareremovedthereforethereforereducingthe
informationcontentintheaudioandsaucereducingthenumberofbitsrequiredtostoreandor
transmittheaudioinformationanotherwaytoreducethebitrateofaudioistosamplethe

73
audioonalogarithmicinsteadofalinearscalelogarithmicscalesamplingoffersasimilarlevelof
accuracywithfewerbitsthanwhenyou'resamplingcombiningallthesetechniquestogetherwe
finditcommonlyfoundcompressionratiosforaudioorfortheoneorupto81soundslikealot
comparedtovideowhichcanbecompressedasmuchis50to1duetothegreatamountof
redundancyorredundantinformationandvideocomparedtoaudioplushumansareless
tolerancearelesstolerantofaudioovercompressionsinceithasmuchlessinformationbegin
withessentiallythenarrowbandwidthofaudiomakeshighercompressionratiosperceptuallyin
topintolerableDolbyAC3isnotpartoftheMPEGstandardalthoughitcanbecarriedinMPEG
2transportstreamisaprivatedatastreamDolbyAC3hasbeenadoptedbytheIATSEorfor
HDTVNorthAmericandigitalcableusestheIATSEformataswellandthatallowsustousethe
DolbyAC3formatmostsettopboxesnowsupportMPEG2audioandDolbyAC3audioandis
partoftheDVDaudiospecalongwithMPEG1andtoaudioinlinearPCMthecompression
algorithmisproprietaryinnatureandmustbelicensedfromDolbylabsInc.thecompressorbit
ratesofferedbyDolbyAC3is32to640kbDolbyAC3supportsMonotofull5.1channelsthe5
channelsarementionedearlierleftcenterrightleftsurroundrightsaroundthe.1channelsisa
subwooferlittlefactoidhereinthenotesmostfeesfoundinthecablehadenteroffsatelliteare
encodedAC3witha48kHzsamplingratethebitrateof192or384kHztheATSCisaisagainas
thestandardforovertheaira52standarddefines2waystocreatecodedrepresentationsof
audioinformationhowdescribetheserepresentrepresentationshowtoarrangethesecode
representationsforstorageortransmissionsandhowtodecodethedatatocreateaudiothe
coderepresentationsdefinedareintendedforuseinadigitalaudiotransmissionandstorage
applicationsATSC852ishowAC3andenhanced83areappliedtothedigitalvideobroadcast
digitaltelevisionstandardaudioengineeringSociety3orAES3isastandardusedforthe
transportofdigitalaudiosignalsbetweenprofessionalaudiodevicesfinallynotethathehad
enterhubtechyouprobablywillbechangingtheaudiocompressionratioinencodedcontent
thosedecisionsaretypicallymadenowthecorporatelevelandarebasedonextensivetesting
withencodersandvideoaudioqualityassessmentsbutyouwillbeusingwiringtoconnectaudio
sourcesandreceiverstogethersojustkeepthatinmindthatjustlikethevideoovercollection
hadendswhichuseseither75or50ohmimpedancecableswhotransportedNedandaudio
cablesintheheadandandassociatedequipmentorstandardizeandtypicallyhave600ohms
balancedimpedanceanduseofanonstandardaudiocablecanleadtoproblemsjustlikein
nonstandardRFcollectscableinthismodulewediscussed

7.
IWhatistheoverviewandSTBcomponentsmodulethismoduleisintendedtoprovide
participantswithageneralunderstandingofswitcheswillvideofundamentalsuponcompletion
ofthismoduletheparticipantwillbeabletostatethedifferencebetweenbroadcastsandswitch
broadcastexplainhowdifferentservicesareplacedonthecabletransportidentifyexamplesof
bandwidthconstraintsfacedbyMSO'sdescribehowSTBprovidesasolutiontoMSObandwidth
constraintsalsointhismodeltobeabletoidentifythesystemsizingandbandwidth
requirementsdescribedchannelcandidatesforswitchdigitalbroadcastillustrateswitch
broadcasteconomicsandtimeforplantupgradesdescribeswitchbroadcastoperationasyou
probablyalreadyknowMSO'sareofferingnumerousservicescablecustomersingeneralthey
canbeplacedinto2categoriesbroadcastandswitchservicesbroadcastservicesincludeboth
videoandaudioservicesforanalogandthedigitaltransportsarealwaysavailableforviewing

74
the2ndcategoryincludesswitchservicesthatunlikebroadcastservicesrequireatwoway
downstreamandupstreampaththesubscribercanthenrequesttheserviceoractivationof
sometypetheseservicesincludeVODwiththeviewercanrequestaprogramservicethereby
switchinginadedicatedadjusterintothesettopboxwillalsostartoverwhichtheviewercan
requesttorestartservicesafterprogramhasstartedandisstillinplayandswitchbroadcastor
STBwhichisthethemeofthislearningsessionwhichalsorequiresareturnpathwherethe
viewerrequestthatswitchesinoneoftheinactivebroadcastservicesforactiveviewing
Seymourtoshowwhatyoucurrentlywatchinghere'showyoudoitisthebeginningofthe
programjustpresstheselectbuttonatanytimeduringtheprogramregardlessofwhenyoucan
doaslongasyouseestartoverasanoptiontogobacktothebeginningoftheshowcatchy
themesongforfreeyouthespontaneoustimethatyougobackoneto3daystocatchthe
showsyoumissedwithoutevensettingyourDVRsoyoucanyourscheduleofftheTVschedule
justpresstheselectbuttononyourremote12formoreofthechannelyouwatchscrolltothe
backoptionsinthemenutoviewalistofavailableprogramsandselecttheshowyouwant
anythingfromalsoswitchtotheHDchannelsavailableatthetouchofbetternowandmake
suretocheckoutherotherhelpfulvideostohelpyougetthemostoutofyourTVInternetand
phoneexperienceisreviewthecableindustryatonetimeonlycarriedanalogvideosources
analogtelevisionsthenwereneededandaredesignedtotuneintoservicesbetweenthe52550
MHzrangeforcableTVwhentheviewerselectsaprogramchanneltheTVturnstoacenter
frequencyintheanalogspectrumthatusesa6MHzwidepathfortransportsinceeachanalog
programservicestitle6MHzwidechannelonthespectrumthereisonlyroomfor82channels
thislimitsthenumberofprogramservicesto82programsisterisaonetooneratiobetween
programservicesandchannelsthatistosayeachanalogstandarddefinitionprogramservice
requiresone6MHzwidechannelinadditiontothelimitationoftheonetooneanalogservice
tochannelratiothatlimitstheoverallnumberofavailableprogramsanalogservicesarenot
suitedfordeeptransportsincesignaldegradationoccursovereachhopofthetransport
howeversinceanalogtelevisionsaresimpletouseanddesignedtotuneindirectlytothefixed
centerfrequencyforeachprogramsettopboxesarenotrequiredinthemid90sdigitalTV
becamearealitytoconsumersandwhatservicesweredigitizedandlatercompressedand
uncompressedvideostreamapproximately270Mbcouldthenbecompressedinto
approximately3to4Mbforstandarddefinitionvideostreamingeneral10ormorecompressed
SDstreamscanfitintoaQuan256modulatorprovidingdigitalthroughputofapproximately38
Mbper2ndto86MHzwidechannelonthetransportthereare10ormoredigitalstreamson
each6MHzchannelwhenaviewerselectsaprogramchannelsettopboxesrequiredto
associatethatselectiontoafrequencyonthespectrumsoyoucanpickouttherelevantdigital
streamtotheMPEGdecoderbeforeoutputtingittotheTVHDservicesrequireadditional
bandwidthcompressedHDservicesofferingthe10ADIresolutionwitha16x9'sringratioare
generallycompressedsomewheresbetween8to20Mbper2ndforexampleeachstreamis
clampedat15MbthentoHDstreamscombinefor30Mbper2ndwilleasilyfitthroughaQuan
256modulatorcapableof38magnetsper2ndswitchbroadcastsupportsamixofbothHDand
SDstreamsonatransportsogenerallytoHDstreamsinacoupleofSDstreamswilleasilyfiton
aQuan256frequencyifHDservicesareclampedat12Mbper2ndandonecanexpecttofit3
HDserviceswithinthe38Mbper2ndQuanbandwidthhowevercompressiondownto12Mb
willoftenaffectHDqualityanddefeatthepurposeofHDcontentgenerallywithtoday's
compressionratiosof8to20Mbper2ndis,toclamptheHDstreamsto15magnetsper2ndthis

75
allowsplaceinacombinationof2HDandacoupleofSDstreamspertransportdataservicesare
alsoplacingtheman'sinthecablespectrumgenerallyNorthAmericanMSO'sareusinga6MHz
channel1256fortheirdownstreampathforapproximately252400subscriberswithshowing
assumingthatnotallsubsareconnectedatthesametimeusingthe250to400subscriber
modelontheupstreampathis,touseaQuan16device48Mboftrafficbutitdemandsanother
3.2Mbfromtheprogressivespectrumwithareleaseofchannelbondingthanyourcable
modemswillbeabletoconnecttomultipleQuantoaggravatethedownloaddownwithbison
evenmoredemandonthefrequencyspectrumwasNorthAmericanMSO'shavealready
expandedtheiranalog550transportstosupportdigitalservicesafterthe750MHzrangedigital
simulcastgenerallyeatsup7channelorfrequenciesinthedigitaldomainassumingyoucan
placeabout12digitalprogramsonthe7digitalchannelfrequenciesyoucanreplicateallthe
analogservicesonthatdigitalspectrumtheremainingdigitalfrequenciesaretypicallyusedfor
additionalbroadcastservicesandnarrowcastservicessuchaspegpubliceducationand
governmentchannelsorvideoondemandservicesthereisalsoademandforHDtelevisionon
thedoorstepsofmostMSO'ssothere'sarealneedtofindasolutiontoexpandspaceonthe
transportsystemsnowsomeMSO'shavealreadyoptedtoexpandfromthe552750MHzplants
havedecidedtogoevenwiderwith860MHzoreven1GHzsizeplantsbutthisoptionisvery
costlyinbothtimeandmoneyupgradestothewaterplantsoftenrequirerewiringthecable
infrastructureandnewequipmentisoftenneededtohandlethewaterplantstheneedto
expandservicesonthedigitaltransportbegsthequestionwhetherabetterupgradesolution
existsthereisanalternatesolutionandthatsolutioniswhichswitchbroadcastwillallowyouto
expandservicesinanalreadycongestednetworkinarelativelyshorttimebyswitchingandonly
thoseservicesusedbytheservicegroupsswitchinIsraelandavailablenowfordeployment
turnaroundtimefordeploymentisrapidisbigandhasoftenshownthatitdeploymentfrom
headintoedgecanbedonewithin90daysfromorderaswasmentionedbrieflyintheprevious
sectionbroadcastservicedonotrequireanyreturnpathsfromthetelevisionorsettopboxes
videoandaudioflowsunitdirectlytothesettopboxallprogramservicesarededicatedtofix
frequenciesaprogramselectioncausesatunertoturndirectlytothefrequencyassignedtothe
programVODstartoverandswitchbroadcastservicesallrequireareturnpathtotheheadand
sincetheservicesareallrequestinguniquenonbroadcasttypeofservicestherearenumerous
typesofsettopboxesinthefieldandmostbidirectionalsettopboxesuseakeyPSKreturnpath
howeverboxesreturnpathsviaCMTSsystemshavealsobeenusedsuccessfullyforswitch
servicestheadventoftwowaycablecardalsoshowspromiseinstandardizingareturnpathfor
allsettopboxestheslideshowsthestartoverprocesseachbroadcastprogramisspooltoahard
driveduringthebroadcastlowingsettopboxestorestartservicesanytimeduringthebroadcast
thestartoverservicerequiresareturnpathfromthesettopboxtorestartthebroadcast
sessionasauniquePODsessiontothesettopboxtheslideshowstherelationshipbetweenthe
broadcastandstartoverservicethetopyellowbarshowsthetimelineofthebroadcastservice
from8PMto9PMthepinklinerepresentstherequestfromhissettopboxata10that
establishesauniqueunicastflowfromtheVODservertothesettopboxoncethebroadcastis
complete9PMroughnessbytheyellowlinetheservicewillnolongerbespooltostorageand
startoverprocesscannotbeusedonthatprogramswitchbroadcastservicesalsorequirea
returnpathisillustratedinthisdiagramgenerallylowpasstypelectureisusedtopassthrough
thekeyPSKfrequencytoakeyPSKdemodulatorthedemodulatorthenpassesontherequest
overethernetandIPtotheswitchbroadcastsessionserverthatisoftenreferredtoastheSPSS

76
theswitchbroadcastsessionserverorSPSSindicatestotheswitchinqualmtoensurethatthe
requestedprogramserviceisassignedtoaQuanfrequencynoticethatnotallservicesare
switchedsomeprogramsarededicatedtoaQuanisillustratedinthisdiagrambytheQuan
labelednumber1theswitchinqualmwhilenumber2isdependentontheSPSStoswitch
servicesonandofftheQuanprogramservicesassignedtoQuannumber2aredesignedto
exceedthequalm'scapacitywiththeassumptionthatnotallprogramservicesarebeing
watchedbyusersofagivenservicegroupalthoughtherearemanydifferentwaystolayoutthe
qualmspectrumthistelegramillustrateshowMSOcanmixthearrayofservicesonQuan'susing
switchbroadcastona750MHzplanttoincreasenumberofHDservicesinthisexample82
programservicesaresignedto82Quanfrequenciesintheanalogdomainthesame82services
aredigitizedandreplicatedonanother7Quanfrequenciesfordigitalsimulcastthenwehundred
20STservicesareallocatedto10Quanfrequenciesforexpandeddigitalservicesthenthe
remaining16Quanfrequenciesarereservedforswitchbroadcastserviceswas16Quan
frequencyassignmentstheMSOcanplaceontheswitchbroadcastplatform32activeHDand32
activeSTswitchservicesassuming2HDand2STservicesoneachqualmhoweverattheservice
groupissizedownandwithswitchbroadcastcapabilitytooversubscribedQuan'syoucan
potentiallyhaveunlimitedselectionofswitchprogramservicesasviewerswillonlybewatching
aportionoftheoverallswitchchannelguideatanyonetimeinsummaryswitchbroadcast
allowsyoutofreeupagood50to80%ofyourdigitalspectrumforthepotentialofunlimited
servicesitfitsseamlesslyintoexistingcablearchitectureswithminimalimpactonoperationsa
relativelyshorttimetypically3months.Forthe1sttubtobeupandrunningkeystepsfor
deploymentincludepreparingherheadandcontentforswitchservicesdefiningyourswitch
broadcastservicegroupsizeanddownloadingswitchbroadcastclientsoftwaretothesettop
boxesswitchbroadcasthasalreadybeensuccessfullydeployedover7millionhouseholdsand
readyforyoutousenowthisdiagramshowsyouthedifferencesbetweenstandardbroadcast
andswitchbroadcastbandwidthusageattheedgethestandarddigitalvideosystemwillhaveall
theprogramservicesfromtheheadandtransportedtotheedgeeveryservicesdedicatedtoa
Quanandavailableforthesettopboxtoturntoswitchdigitalsystemsstilltransportallservices
totheedgewithoneexceptionnoservicesareplacedontheedgeformsuntilrequestedbythe
settopboxservicesareonlyactivatedonthequalm'sasasettopboxtostoreprogramservice
unlikeVODtheservicesarebroadcastservicessofor2ndsettopboxesthesameprogramthis
yearthescreenonthequalmandnoextrabandwidthisneededsincetherearetypically
500,000tunersintheservicegrouponlyafractionoftheavailableservicesareactivated
thereforesavingconsiderablebandwidthovertimeonwhatservicescanbeswappedoutwith
newlyrequestedserviceskeepingthequalmusagetoaminimumdespitethelargenumberof
servicesavailabletothesubscriberthischartprovidesasummaryofconcentrationratios
collectedearliertohelpcompareanddeterminethebestservicegroupsizegenerallytotake
advantageofswitchbroadcastservicesyoushouldtargetaconcentrationratioof3to1or
higherconcentrationratioscanbeadjustedbychangingthenumberortypeofserviceanda
servicegrouporadjustingthenumberoftunersontheservicegrouponeotherobservationor
suppositionwedidnoticewasthatsomeoftheprogramchannelswerealwaysbeingwatched
andneverswitchedthenmadesensetomovethosepopularprogramservicesthatwerealways
beingwatchedoutoftheswitchedserviceandintothestandardbroadcastdomainandother
factorsdemographicsthesomeareasmaydifferinprogrampopularitythesetrialsoccurredin
TexasviewswereinclinedtowatchthewesternchannelsuchastheOncorWesternthefamily

77
andactionwasservicesyetthosesameWesternchannelsmaynothavethesamehigh
popularityratinginareassuchasNewYorkorFloridagenerallyifachannelreceivesapopularity
ratingof60%orhigherthatshouldbeconsideredasacandidateforstandardbroadcast
programserviceswithapopularityratingbelow60%shouldbeconsideredascandidatesfor
switchbroadcastinsummarytheswitchbroadcasttrialsucceededbigbandnetworks
expectationsthetrialprovedthatswitchbroadcastcouldofferMSO'sanalternativewhen
deployingadditionalservicesontheirnetworkssincethecostperhouseholdissignificantly
lowerthantheplantupgradesatsignificantlyimprovesqualmdensityandthenumberof
servicesavailabletotheservicegroupsareincreaseddramaticallyfinallyswitchbroadcastisa
proventechnologyandimplementationisnowaturnkeyoperationrequiredabout3monthsto
runswitchservicesfromheadintothe1statChubbthisveryhighlevelblockdiagramillustrates
theheadandinsomeoftheetchedcomponentsbehiddencomponentstypicallyincludesa
digitalmultiplexertogroomandclampincomingservicestoasingleoutputthatswitch
broadcastenvironmentSTservicesaretypicallyclampbestregards75Mbper2ndandHD
servicesclampat15Mbper2ndallswitchservicesarethenIPmulticastoutonacookie
transporttomultiplehubseachhubwillhaveoneormoreswitchandservicetomanageand
switchservicesonoroffthewayofswitchingqualmstheswitchandserverwillalsomanageand
trackactiveandinactiveservicesonmultipleservicegroupsinthismodulewediscussedthe
differencebetweenbroadcastandswitch

8.

Welcometothedigitaltroubleshootingandrepairprocessmodeluponcompletionofthis
moduletheparticipantwillbeabletodescribethedifferenttypesoftestsusedtotroubleshoot
andrepairdigitalcableservicesunderstandweredigitalerrorsoccurinthecablenetworkand
reviewthetroubleshootingprocessbutthedigitaltestsectionwhatarethedigitaltestswehave
ataveragepowermeasurement,usesametricfordigitalsignallevelsinmeasurementsand
cabletelevisionaveragepowermeasurementistheRFpowerexpressedintermsofvoltage
definedasdecibelsrelativetheonemillivoltwhere1mVequals13.3390Wina75ohm
impedancemathematicallytheMDBMVequals20log10VXdividedby1mVwhereVXisthe
voltageinmillivoltsthatisthebeconvertedtoDBMVanothertestwehaveistilttiltisthe
amountbywhichthecablesignalsfrequencycomponentsarenotpassedthroughthecable
networkatequallevelshigherfrequenciesareattenuatedmorebythecoaxialcableinthelower
frequenciesthiseffectiscounteredbyprovidinggreaterimplicationtothechannelsathigher
frequenciesisimportanttomaintainanoperatorstillanothertestisqualmanalysisand
constellationstestequipmentthatcangraphicallydisplayandanalyzeaconstellationpatternsof
adigitalqualmorPSKsignalmorecommonlyknownasdigitalsignalanalyzerorqualmanalyzer
andmodulationairratioorMERindigitaltransmissiontheratiooftheaveragesignal
constellationpowertotheaverageconsolationerrorpowerexpressedindecibelscablemodem
settopboxesandsometimesequipmentcallthisparametersignalnoisewillseethatthenoise
floorinchannelfrequencyresponseincludingabletotiltandripplegroupdelayvariationand
microreflectionsoscilloscopeoroscillatorphasenoisereceiverimperfectionsandallother
impairmentsthataffectthereceivesymbolconsolationcandegreemurderandcontinuingon
withourdigitaltestwehavethebiterrorratioorBERtheusuallypreandposttestthatusesFEC
forwarderrorcorrectionandalsotheBER202ndtestBERistheratioofthenumberofaridbids
receivedtothetotalnumberofbitssentinadigitalcommunicationsystemmaintainingburrs

78
extremelyimportanttodigitalcommunicationsbiderrorsareactuallycorrectedbythereceiver
processingknownashostBERusingaprocessknownasforwarderrorcorrectiononatestof
spectrumanalysissinceboththedownstreamandupstreamcablesignalsaresentinfrequency
divisionmultiplexingorFTMtheRFspectrumanalyzerisarguablyoneofthemostcriticalpieces
oftestequipmentincablefacilitiesandinthefieldfortroubleshootingRFissuesinthenetwork
reverseingressanothertestandingresstestisthereturninthereturnusesthespectrum
analyzerfunctionofasignallevelmetertoscanforupstreamorreturnPathinterferencethat
cancauseexcessivebiderrorsintheupstreamsignalingfromthecustomerpremiseswealso
havethedocsissmacklayerviathereferencecablemodemthecablemodemstatisticstest
providescomprehensiveinformationforalltheupstreamanddownstreamdocsofsignalsinthe
bondedsetsomeofthefinaltestwehavethesettopboxdiagnosticsandcablemodem
diagnosticsorEMT8adiagnosticsmanyoftheCPdevicesissuedbythecableoperatorwill
supportonboarddiagnosticscreensthesediagnosticscreensshouldbeusedasaguideto
troubleshootasaguideduringthetroubleshootingprocessandshouldneverbeusedasthe
onlytooltotroubleshootRFsignalproblemscodeworderrorrateamethodusedofmeasuring
orcacklinganddownstreamupstreamcodeworderrorratebaseduponthetotalwords
correctablecodewordsanduncorrectablecodewordssignalleakageincabletalkindicationsthis
generallyistheundesiredomissionofRFsignalsaresignalleakagefromtheagencynotallsignal
levelmetersarealikesincetheremaybemaintenanceandservicelevelversionsavailablea
maintenancemetermayofferafullqualmconsolationanalysiswhileIservicemeterwilloffera
lightversionofthesametoolwheredodigitalerrorsoccurwhilealotofthemhappenatthe
subscribersolet'stakealookatsomeofthesehasthecustomercreatedtheerrorsone
questionweshouldaskwhyreadthesubscriberuserCPEinstalledcorrectlyhasaofthegunthe
properconfigurationtheearlyusingthepropercablingmadefromthesettopboxofthe
televisionisitallvideodisplaysorasinglevideodisplayhereforhighspeedisitallthevicesin
thehomeorafewofthedevicesarejustasingledeviceIwhatchannelsaffectedfordigitalisit
happeninginparticulartimeofdayourneighborsaffectedistheinteriorwiringusingRDs59
doesheinstallitlikehowdoesadropfromthetaptothegroundblockworkingpedestalthe
robotlookothersignsofdamagewatercorrosionwithinthedropsystemwilldroppassthe
reverseingressmeasurementareallsplittersratedfor1GHzor1000MHzwithafittingsnugly
theproperfittingsisagroundblockinstalledcorrectlyandbondedhowdoesthewiringlookin
theknitnocopperexposedandbindingpostdisconnectedsomethequestionstoaskbecause
thisiswherealotoferrorsdigitalerrorscanoccurwithoutdigitalerrorsintheoutsideplant
transmissionmediumactorsandpassivesyouhavebeencoactsbidtemplatesloosefittings
damagedormissingendoflineterminatorsdamagedormissingchassisterminatorson
directionalcouplersplittersormultioutputamplifierunusedportsloosecenterconductor
seizurescrewsunusedhaveportsnotterminatedthusespeciallycriticaloflowvaluetapsonuse
drophassupportsnotterminateduseofsocalledselfterminatingtapstheseforDB2boardsa
DBforportsand11DVAportandisatthefeederandoflinessuchtapsthatactlikesplittersand
donotterminatethelineunlessallairportsareproperlyterminatedCantordamagecable
includingcrackcablewhichcausesareflectionandingressdefectiveordamagedactivesand
passiveswaterdamagemaybeicehasgottenintothedevicewaterfilledcoldsolderjoints
corrosionloosecircuitboardscrewsetc.sometractionfiltershavebeenfoundtohavepoor
returnlossandintheupstreamespeciallythoseusedfordataonlyserviceerrorsmayalsooccur
toheadaninhubsitethatiscurrentlybeyondthescopeofthismaterialwhatareacceptable

79
metricsfortobe6qualmdigitalhere'salistofmetricsthatmaybeusedconsultyouroperator
forspecificmetricsbutwehaveupstreamsignalingnoiseinallitsupstreamisnotIusedtobutis
isqualmupstreamwillusethe16or64qualmbutwhatisethicalthenoiselooklikeisa31DBa
greaterdownstreamsignalnoiseintopreciseGuam35tobeagreaterupstreamtransmit
greaterthan30DBMVandlessthan50DBMBdownstreamreceivegreaterthannegative8D
BMBandlessthanpositiveaDBMBAmishleave0DBMBistheFCCoptimalupstreamcodeword
errorratelessthan.000003ordownstreamcodeworderrorratelessthan.0000003failedcable
modemterminationsystemrangerequestcallT3requestthatyoubelessonforfieldkeepalive
acknowledgmentsalsonoticedT4thislessononedownstreammodulationorratio35DBare
greateratthesubscriber36DBaregreaterthetap37DBaregreateratthelineextender
amplifierBridger38DBaregreateratthenodeand40DBaregreaterattheheadinherhubbit
errorratio1EEtothe9thorlessasoneerrorin1billionbitscaretonoiseratio30to35DB
meanopinionscoregreaterthan3.6andinourSaviorifyou'retroubleshootingdigitalvoice
servicesthingslikelatencybecomeafactorwasthatlessthan150msjitterlesson40mspacket
losslessthan.1%andsignalleakageis20molpermeteratadistanceof3mobviouslyifwe
haveleakagecomingoutegressoftheplanthatwehaveapotentialforingressandnoisewill
affectourdigitalsignalsimportantaspectunderstandthatleakageisthesourcesignalaswe
movefromanalogchannelstodigitalchannelsisimportanttounderstandhowthiswillimpact
herabilitytodetecttheassociatedleakagethedifferenceisthatdigitalsignalsaregenerally
carriedatalowerpowerlevelcomparedtoanalogdigitallyrunat526DBMVlowerinamplitude
thananalogsinthisexampleshownatypicalreadingfromthestormyouwillverifythisthisisan
importantpointastheresultingdigitalleakswillalsobelongtothelowerpowerascomparedto
analogleaksthismustbefactoredinwhenmeasuringdigitalleakageandcorrelatingitbackto
anequivalentanalogweektheSECsaysanaloglimitsonleakageat20molpermeterata
distanceof3mhereweseeagoodreadingandapoorreadingofsignalleakagethisisan
exampleofhowasingleleaklocationcanactuallybe2separateleakssignalleakagedegradesRF
signalqualityisimportantbecausecustomersbecomefrustratedwhenexperiencingpoor
picturequalityweekoneisahighfrequencyleakthatwasnondetectabletolowfrequencyand
leak2wasalooseconnectorthattheboxescanbeusedtodiscoverdigitalhealthherearethe
MotoroladiagnosticstheapproachoftheMotorolahastowardsdiagnostictroubleshootingisa
simpleandeffectivewayofverifyingwhereproblemsmightexistaccesstothescreeniseasyit
canbedonewitharemoteorwiththe2buttonsonthefrontoftheboxforaMotorolasettop
boxusethesequencestoenterthediagnosticscreensturnedtheboxoffusingthepower
buttonthenpressselectwithin2secondsthediagnosticscreenswillappearinformationtouse
fordigitaltroubleshootingisEP00willshowconnecteddoesn'treplacetheboxthere
modulationchannelisoutputtedonchannel4isthecommonchannelthatiforganofthisup
usingcolorexitswereitwouldbetoprovideoutofbandstatusoutofinfrequencysignalwill
noisealowvaluethatwewanttoseeontheautomaticgaincontrolwillgiveusinbandstatus
willprovidethemodesuchasqualminthestateinthismodea52nderrorcountshowing
uncorrectable'sandcollectibleswillalsoshowthetypeofchannelanalogordigitalthe
encryptionorbitsnotencryptedweatherwasauthorizedtheboxarenotauthorizeditwillalso
provideorofmodemstatisticspowerlevelinteractivestatusIPaddressingandthestatewhich
shouldbeinreceivingmodeorrunningmodeforaScientificAtlantasetupboxusethe
sequencestoenterthediagnosticscreensyoupressandholdthecentercantlethemessesLED
lightingdiodeonthefrontpanelblinksandthenreleasetaxesdiagnosticscreenspresent

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diamondkeyfortheinfokeynowinthenotesyou'llfindoutthecorrelationbetweenthemodel
numbersinthediamondkeyandthemodelnumbersintheinfokeyinhereandnavigatethe
diagnosticscreensrepressingeitherthevoleofvolumeuporvolumedownkeyisadiagnostic
tableislikeyoutoviewtheactualchannelwiththediagnosticscreensisablendedimagethis
allowsforexcellentrealtimetroubleshootingcapabilitiestodisplayblendedimagefor
troubleshootingpurposespressthecenterkeyforthe1stblendedlevelandwillgiveyouadark
blendedlevelcancontinuetopressthecenterkeytoscrollthroughthe3blendingmodesdark
likenontoexitdiagnosticscreenspressthediamondkeyortheexecutingthathereyoucan
monitorpowerlevelsthatwhitegoodamberokayredbeddatageekandyoucanalsomonitor
thatwhatisconnectedandthat'sthebeautyorisreadyforbroadcastonlyameansnotdoing
thebeautywordifthere'sanerrorlikeaslowbootweighterroryoualsohavethe4data
channelwhichistheotherbandchannelthereturneddatachannelwhichisreturnPathtuning
modetobe6qualmiswhatwewouldexpectIPaddressinformationthestatusatthelocked
there'salsoanunlockedmodeandsecondshowlongthetutorhasbeenrunningthere'salso
correctedbitesanduncorrectedblocksandsignalnoisemeasurementsyoucangainfromhereif
thesettopboxcandothissocancablemodemsandMTAsandEDTA'soculushavetheirown
diagnosticscreensthatareavailableonmostmanufacturecablemodemstoxicityscreensonany
givencablemodemyouenterwhenany2168100.1intheInternetbrowserofthecomputer
thatyourmodemisconnectedtomostnotablemodemmanufacturershavethispageaccessible
andyoucanlookatandthoseonwhichmanufacturershavethewhatyoucanaccessthepageit
willgiveyousomepertinentinformationonthestatusofyourdigitalnetworkinformationthat
ismostimportantisadownstreamsignallevelpowerwhichshouldbearoundforcablemodem
they72positive5upstreamtransmitpowerpositive35to50DBanddownstreamsignalnoise
about30DBaregreaterandconsultyouroperatorforexactlevelsandofcoursewelearneda
lotaboutthisarereadyandjusttoreiteratethisthisletyouknowthatisimportanttofollow
goodcraftandshipallthetimeversusmaintainingacenterconductorlengthof1/16or1/8of
aninchpasttheendoftheFconnectororfollowingthebendingradiusofcollapsewhichis10
timestheoveralldiameterbyusingthecorrectfastenersofyourfasteningcollectssomewhere
withinthecustomer'spremisesandinstallproperdriploopsandfittingsyouhereweseeabad
fittingonthescreenwedon'tusehexconnectorsanymoreandagazebotogetsomebad
bendingradiusgoingonthereaswellbutallthesethingsareveryimportanttomaintaindigital
qualityandconsultyourbroadbandtrainingmodulesformoreinformationhereinthissession
wewillreviewthetroubleshootingprocesstriedtofindtheprocessusedfortroubleshooting
servicefailureasshownhereanalyzeisolatedivideandconquerrevolveandconfirmforour
examplewilldiscusstheresolutionofvideoservicefailurehowevertheprocessoutlinedbelow
ortheonthecomingslidetotheprocesswillbeusedtoresolveallcableservicefailuresduring
troubleshootingkeepthecustomerinformedofwhatisbeingdoneandwhyyou'redoingit
pleasebesuretofollowallsafetyprecautionsduringthetroubleshootingprocessphysicalsafety
precautionswhengoingintoatticsandcrawlspacesandthelikeanelectricalprecautionslike
usingyourforeignvoltagedetectorbeforehandlingfaultyequipmentremembersafety1stlook
atstep1analysisofthesymptomsaspreviouslymentionedthe1ststepintroubleshootingisto
gatherintelligencefromworkorderandthecustomertodeterminetheareasofconcernyou'll
beabletoobservetheconditionofthedropinoutletsandcableprepareproblemstoacquire
thecustomer'sperspectiveisimportanttoaskopenendedquestionsaboutthefieldservices
keepinmindthatmostcablecustomersarenotexpertsandmaybeunabletodescribethe

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symptomsaccuratelyusingthecablejargonoracronymsifthisisavideoproblemexampleat
thecustomeroftheissuespresentatalltimesandisaffectingallchannelsusingthisinformation
collectediseasiertodeterminethefailuresasubsetofchattelsinthevideoproblemexample
let'sconsiderthefollowingitmayonlybeHDhighdefinitionchannelsoranalogorjustVOD
contentishavingproblemstrytoisolatewhichareashavethoseissuesanalograisethegeneral
problemsintheabsenceofstandarddefinitiondigitalvideoproblemsmaybethatthearsenic
levelisslightlybelowspecificationswhenVODcontentistheonlyissueisoftenpointtoan
AustrianreturnPathissueisafailureonlyonchannelsthatarepartofasinglemultiplexthat
meansaretheypartofasinglequalmrememberthatwemultiplexedmanychanneledintoa
singlequalmor6MHzchannelfiltersmultiplechannelsatticscouldleadtooneparticular
frequencyhaveanissuewithcertaintimesofthedaythattheproblempresentsitselfdoesthe
problemoccurmorefrequentlyonhotcoldorrainydaysrememberthatthetemperaturedoes
affecttheattenuationofthecollectscableanddropsystemhasacustomerhadthisproblem
thepastisthepresentormorethanoneoutletTVorotherknowingofthepromoccursonmore
thanoneoutletisimportantbutrememberthesameproblemwillpresentitselfdifferentlyon
analogversusdigitalchannelsuchase.g.arresteeandalsoinoutletswithorwithoutdigital
convertersorsettopboxesforexamplelowsignallevelforthetabwillmanifestthesnowon
analogchannelsitmaymanifestinmicrobloggingwerenopictureatallremember
microbloggingcombinedcalltilingyourpixelationondigitalchannelsthisisthisisduefrom
packeterrorsorinextremecasesofthishaveafrozenscreenagainfrompacketlossinthe
customertooriginalequipmentwithissueshavethecustomerdemonstratethevideoproblems
thattheycantrytolocatethefailurewhenthecustomerisunabletoreplicatetheconcernyou
mayrecognizetheproblemimmediatelybasedoninformationpresentedlaterinthismodule
youwillquicklysolveitifnotrecallrecallbacktotheOSIlayerdiscussionabovethatakeypart
ofthe1ststepistodeterminewhatthephysicallayerlookslikeinthiscasetheagencyplan
premisewiringmakesurethatthese2piecesareoperatingcorrectlystartwithverifyingtheRF
signalattheinputoftheDTAdigitalterminaladapterorsettopboxmaybethatthereisnobox
andyoujustverifyatthewallplatewewillmakesurethattheyfallintobecausecompany
specificationscheckthefrequencyspecifiedbyyourcableoperatorrefertotheappendixwith
tablesforexamplesoffrequenciestomeasurethedownstreamRFlevelsarecorrectthe
problemmaybesimpletoDTAorsettopboxesunpluggedorhasapowerissuehasdead
batteriesandremotecontroleveninthecaseofthelatteragoodpracticeistochecktestand
confirmthatallservicesareproperlyoperatinginthecustomersatisfiedpriortoleavingthe
premisesiflevelsarenotwithinspecificationsortheservicesincludenotfunctionproperlythe
nextstepistoisolatetheproblemwhosteptoisolatingthesourceoftheprobleminthe
downstreamRFsignallevelisnotwithincompanyspecificationsandyouhaveatleastone
problemwiththephysicallayerandsomewhereonthecolossalnetworkbetweenCPEandthat
theproblemmustbeaddressedbeforeproceedinganyfurtherwiththeuseorwiththe
troubleshootingofofcustomerpremiseequipmentusedtodivideandconquermethodofthe
nextsectiontodeterminethelocationoftheradiofrequencysignallevelproblematthe
downstreamRFsignalleveliswithinspecificationsandyoumustspellcheckotherkeypartsof
thephysicallayerforanalogchannelproblemsthisweeklookingforCTBcompositeDrupalbeat
orCSOcompositesecondorderorotherinterferenceissuesthetelevisiondisplayitselfcan
indicatesuchproblemswithanalogservicesthedescriptionoftheimpairmentslaterthis
modulefordigitalchannelsmeansexaminingmurdermodulationerrorrateperbearbiterror

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rateorratioquadratureamplitudemodulationconsolationsingressandsomeonetodothis
you'llneeditHDessayorsignallevelmeterwithintegratedcablemodemyourcableoperatoror
asupervisorwillinstructyouonontowhatmurderAmberlevelsareacceptablebutfor2B6
qualmaminimumorlevelof33DBisoftenspecifiedorgreaterthan33DBisalsoevenbetter
whileapreFECFECforwarderrorcorrectionbermaandBnonzeroexample1890E0isperfect
forBurrthepostDebbieSiebershouldbe04downstreamsignalinganddigitalperformance
measurementsarefineandinparticulariftheissueofthebeautyonlythenyoushouldsuspect
upstreamcommunicationsandHDessayorSOMwithintegratedcablewon'thavetheabilityto
communicatewiththeheadandJessicacablemodemwaterboardingMVAwhichmediacanbe
usedtodeterminethedevicelocationthecustomer'spremisesisabletosuccessfully
communicateontheupstreamtotheheadorandandorhubyoucannotandyoucanandyou
canhavemanyisolatetheproblemtotheupstreamindicatorsbetweenCPEandhadanMICisa
divideandconquermethodthenextsectiondeterminelocationoftheupstreamindications
problemcableoperatorhaveadoptedthewholewholehomecertificationapproachusingthe
HDessayorSOMtheaboveinstructionscanbesimplifieddisconnecttheDTAsetupoften
collectscableuseyourDHDessayorSOMcertifytheconnectionpassabletestfortripleplayat
wholehomeDVRservicesormochaservicesifnotthenproceedtothelineconquermethodof
thenextsectiondeterminethelocationoftheproblemifthecollectionCPEpassesallhomea
wholewholehomecertificationtestontheHDessayinofthelamboralternativelyifallthe
previousdescribedtestrevealednoproblemswiththephysicallayercollectsnetworkthat
you'veisolatedproblemtooneormoreofthefollowingasinglesettopboxorDTAthe
customersdisplaydevicetelevisionmonitororanyotherequipmentbetweensettopboxesTV
suchasaVCRDVDplayerBlurayplayerIstereoequipmenthometheaterandsoanycables
betweenanyofthesevicesthe1ststepisdeterminesettopboxorDTAfunctioningproperlyby
connectingatestTVoraHDessayorSOMsupportthatfunctionalityaswellandwewillconnect
thistestTVconnectedtotheoutputofthesettopboxorDTAdeterminesettopboxorDTAis
functioningproperlyifthesettopboxsupportsHDTVthecustomerTVisinaCTBthenclearly
thetestingfeemustalsobeaCTBreadyorcapableofforthisapproachtoworkalternatively
youcanconnectthecustomerCVdirectlytothewalloutletforcollectscableandbypasssettop
boxesDTAtoseetheTVworksproperlywiththisapproachonlyonlyworksforanalogordigital
channelsarenotencryptedifnovideowasseenthroughthesettopboxorDTAandanalogand
orunencryptedchildcanbeviewedusingthecustomerCVsimplyindicatesaproblemsettop
boxorDTAandpossiblyalsothecablesbetweentheTVandthesettopboxorDTAbutsinceso
muchvideocontentthesedaysisencryptedisnotconclusivethatthecustomerCVdoesnot
workonallchannelswhenconnecteddirectlytothewallatworkoutletorcollectscablelineif
youdohaveclearindicationofasettopboxorDTAproblemitmaybeduetoahardwareor
firmwareupdateorconfigurationsettingsormaybesomestaticelectricitywipedoutthelatter
iseasilycheckedbydisconnectingsettopboxorDTAfromACpowercordwithabout20
secondsplugthepowercordbackinhisiftheunitfunctionsproperlyafterwardisasettopbox
orDTAappearstobefunctionproperlyyou'veisolatedtheproblemtothecustomersown
equipmentandcablesbetweenthemorelseaconfigurationbetweenthesettopboxinthe
customerTVthismeansitcouldbeanyofthefollowingcablingorA/Vconnectionspresenceof
ACelectricalpowertotheequipmentconfigurationoftheequipmentcustomerownequipment
selfreceiversTVCCTV3DTVsBlurayplayersDVDplayersVCRsA.B.switchesvideoswitchers
Slingboxtypedevicesgameconsolesnotethesameissuewouldnotberesolvedforexample

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withaPCorphonesetwhentroubleshootinghighspeeddataorphoneservicescustomer
accountissuesarealsoofaconcerncorrectcodingtothetothecountfortheservicesofthe
customerorderedcommonissueswithcustomersownequipmentcustomerownedequipment
isnopowerincorrectA/VsourceselectionA/Vconnectionswrongpoorautomatedconnection
onthewrongdevicebatteriesA/VconnectionsmissingincorrectA/Vwiringusemaybeweuse
componentintheplaceofcompositeorviceversaorwhatmaywetookthecompositemixup
thecolorsincorrectequipmentsettingsorprogrammingexampleinisolationforcustomer
ownedvideoequipmentwhenadeviceisaBlurayplayerorconventionalBBplayerspresentbe
certaintheTVissettotheappropriateinputsuchasanHDMIorcomponentVCRsconnectedin
seriesmakesuretheTVandVCRtothecorrectsettopboxoutputchannelwhichisusuallya
channel3or4theproblemturnsouttobecustomerCVexplainedtheissueisnottheRFsignal
andshowtheoperationaltestTVorradiooperationontheHDSAorsignallevelmeterif
necessaryyoumaycomparethevideodisplaythecustomerTVagainstthetestTVbyutilizingan
RFsignalsorterunderstandthatthisaddsanadditional3.5DBaminimumlossorattenuationto
thesignalanditwasmortalbeforeaddingthesplitteritcouldbebelowthresholdafterwards
thiswatchesnosplittersiftheRFsignallevelsarenotcorrectforeithertheupstreamand
downstreamandorthemurderAmberisnotconsistentorindeedifitisprescribedsignal
performancemetricfailedintheaboveanalysisorisolationthenthenextstepistolocateand
pointatwhichlocatethepointinwhichthesamelevelofperformancebecomesbecomesoutat
specifiedlevelsthisisadivideandconquermethodofcabletroubleshootingbasicallymeans
thatyoucanpickanintermediatelocationandcheckthesignallevelandorperformancemetrics
thereifokaythemovedowntowardstheCPEifnotthenyoumoveupstreamtowardsthetop
arevariouslocationswithouttheCPEitwasaphysicallayercanhaveafallasshownheresince
manytimestheproblemisthecustomer'spremiseswiringwhichaswecanseehereforthe
diagramcanhaveawidevarietyoflayoutsandcomponentsthemostlogicalplacetostart
dividingthepossiblecasesoffallisatthegroundblockhighlightedherethiswillineffectdivide
thepossiblefaultlocationsbetweenthoseonthecableoperatorsplantandthoseinthe
customerpremiseslogicofthedivideconquermethodissimplecomposeris10possible
Fairpointbetweenthetopandtheoutletforwhichtheinitialsignaltestingshowedproblemsif
youstartwith.1themethodicallywenttopointtothem.3andsoonanditturnedoutthatthe
problemwasat.9itwouldtakeyou9measurementstogettothepointwhentheotherhandif
youbeganwith.5foundersdownstreamofofatthatpointthenwentto.8andagainfound
therewasdownstreamandthenyournextmeasurementwas.9andavoidtakingthe3
measurementstolocatetheproblemthoughtsonaveragethedivideconquermethodprovides
afasterresolutiontothecustomer'sissueduringthedivideconquermethodbesuretolookfor
uninspectedvariancesandRFlevelsand/ormorehistoricallymostofthetroubleshootingcalls
willbespenttroubleshootingRFsignallevelnumberforexamplemurderwouldbe33DBatall
pointstestedthelocationofthefalltoidentifywiththemaregoing22andallpoints
downstreamofthatlocationontheotherhandaresignallevelandmurderarenotwithin'sbest
gaugesweremeasuredatthegroundblockthatusuallymeansthatthedropisfaultyorthetop
isfaultymeasurementofthetabitselfwillquicklydeterminethetopisokaythenightbutthe
dropisnotnotethatiftheproblemisindeedduetothedroplinewouldhaveyour1stclue
wouldhavebeenthatallTVsinthehomewereexperiencesaproblemwiththecustomerhad
informedyouofthisduringyourinitialanalysistheabovedivideconquerexamplesusingRF
signallevelandmurderreferstothepotentialdownstreamproblemsifontheotherhandthe

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issueisandupstreampromisingbytheHDSAorsignallevelmeterwithintegratedcablemodem
youcoulduseamethodconnecttheHDSAorsignalofamediumtodropandgoingtothe
groundblockandverifymeupstreammedicationsasshownhereonthediagramifnotthe
problemiseitherdroplineofthetopasshownherethediagramifyesterdayinjectedoutofthe
groundblockandtheproblemisinthecustomerpremiseswiringshouldmoveinsideyourback
tothedivideandconqueringanapartmentworkwhileheisalsopossibletheproblemisn't
presentwhileyourpresentthisisreferredtoanintermittentproblemwhyyoumaynotseethe
problemwhileonsiteyoumaystillbeabletolocatethesourceoftheintermittentproblemby
performingthecompletesuiteoftestsprescribedbythecableoperatorsupervisorattheatall
possiblebutappointedconfirmingforexamplethatthesignalattenuationfromthetoptothe
CPEiscorrectyoucanmeasureorcalculatealawsuitdropsplittersandpremisescablesthe
murderAmberarewithincompanyspecificationsatthetopandremainwithinspecificationsall
thewaytoanyandallCPdevicesinthepremisesIcheckedofthereturnspectrumatthetop
confirmsthatthecardannoysandsignallawyersarewithincompanyspecificationsseethe
sectionsbelowontroubleshootingtoreturnformoreinformationconfirmthefittingstagged
andcablesareinstalledproperlybeforeleavingthetabthedrophasbeenproperlyinstalledin
additionyoualsocheckthefollowingFconnectorscompressionfittingsandlookforremovalof
crimpedfittingsorhexfittingscollectiblejumperscheckoutwallplatesinhomeamplifiersand
passiveslooseconnectionspoororbadbondingofthegroundblockorbondingblockitistime
nowtoresolvetheproblemthatwasisolatedduringthedivideandconquerassumeforthis
examplethatyou'realreadycheckedRFsignallevelsmurderAmberandotherlevelsatthetop
andhaveruledouttheviewtotheaccidentnetworkhasanyissuesseveraldifferentexamplesof
problemresolutionarepresentedinthecomingsidesoftheprocesscanbeseeninappliedto
othersituationsinexample1inthisexampleproblemwiththecustomerhasa2wayof
acquiringahomethatisfailedinsuchamannerthattheupstreamisblockedwhiledownstream
isamplifiednormallybythemethodofthebodyconqueringyouidentifytheafarwasatthe
pointoffailureandthatwhilethedownstreamlevelsofperformancemetricswithincompany
specificationsatthispointtheupstreamtestshowedthattheupstreamisnotbeingtransmitted
throughthisdeviceasmanycableoperatorsaremovingtocompletelypassivearchitecturesfor
thehomenetworkswhereverpossibleyoursupervisormaydirectyoutorewirethehometo
eliminatemultiplesplittersinthepremisesandimprovethesignallevelswithouttheneedfor
replicationifimplicationinthepremisesisstillnecessarybasedontheattenuationcalculations
youmaystillbedirectedtorewirethepremisesanduseacompanysuppliedamplifieratapoint
specifiedbyyourcompanyoryoumaybedirectedtomerelyreplacethefaultyApplefire
exampletosupposesupposeinsteadoftheproblemhasbeenlocatedinsinglePisacollectinthe
customerpremisesbetweentheoutletinthehomemayhomesplitterandthePisacoagisan
oldertypeshownheresayseries59cablecompanypolicydebatemaybetoreplaceaslidewith
newerseries6collectsandinfactmaybetorewirethecustomer'spremisesisasrequiredby
yourcompanyspecificationsontheotherhandyoumayseeaconnectorthatisclearlydamaged
orimproperlyconnectedcharacterizethe1stresolutiontacticistoreconnecthereyesatthat
pointandthenchecktoseeifsignallevelsandperformancemetricsarenowwithin
specificationsatthePisacoagisalreadyaseries6andwillcontactyoucanseeittheconnectors
appearokayyouhaveyoumayhavereplacethisrottenwhichcouldbetimeconsumingwas
behindawallevenoftheconnectorlookstobesoundyoumayreconnectdrivethecableonthe
1stoneeventontheotherendBeckysignallevelsattheperipheryconnectorsagencyofthe

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resolvetheissueisputtingnewconnectorsonbothendsandnotresolvetheissuethanthe
collectivelightlydamagesomewhereandmustbereplacedexampleforinthisexampleassume
thatthesettopboxwasthatapartofthesourceoftheproblemitturnsoutthesettopboxis
notproperlyprovisionfortheservicesthecustomersorderedasaresulttheyarenotableto
viewasubsetofchannelsthecustomertoldyouwhichchannelstheycouldnotreceiveany
checkthespecifiedchannelRFsignallevelsandperformancemetricsusingthechannelmap
providedtoyoubythecableoperatoryouverifythatallsignallevelsandperformancemetrics
arewithinspecificationsyounotethatthechannelsthatcanbereceivedokayincludeanalog
digitalsetofstandarddefinitionanddigitalHDchannelshoweverthenyouknowthatall
channelsthatcanbereceivedokayareinthebasictierofchannelsinthecustomer'spointthat
itinformsyouthathe'spayingforahighertierofchannelssimplycalltheofficetocheck
provisioningandverifytheaccountreflectsthisinthiscaseitdoessoyoususpectthedevice
withoutproperlyprovisionyourrequestareprovisioningofthesettopboxandthatsolvesthe
problemnotethatitmaybetemptingtoshowthecustomertheactionisbeingtakenby
swappingoutsettopboxorcablemodemthefailurerateofsuchequipmentislowsodonot
swapoutsuchequipmentasthe1stsolutiontoproblemsoftenofthesettopboxhasbeen
identifiedastheculprititcanbeaconfigurationissuenotaheartedhardwareissueisreallyset
topboxestruebecauseoftheproblemtocauseaproblemandthatisnotaconfigurationof
provisioningissuebeforereplacingitproceduresandpracticesmayvaryfromoperatoroperator
howeversopleaseworkwiththelocalmanagementforguidanceifthere'sanyquestionsasto
themethodofproblemresolutionandrepairinthefinalsteptoconfirmtheresolutionand
repairbesuretocheckallcollectscableoutletstobesuretheirimproperoperationasa
customercheckservicesthatwereimpactedpriortoyourarrivalaswellasothercableservices
suchasBODtherearemanyondemandmoviesthatarefreetocustomerstouseacheckBOD
operationifontheotherhandthebeautyproblemswerewithorderinganonfreemovie
encouragethecustomertoorderamovietoTessasettopboxensurethatitwasnotaproblem
inthebillingofthecustomer'saccountanychargecanbecreditedtocustomersaccountper
yourcompany'spolicyandthecustomersatisfiedifthecustomertosignoffontheworkorder
educatethecustomeronthecorrectiveactionthatwastakenresourceservicesreturnedany
faultyorothercustomerowneddevicesorcablesthatyoureplacedandexplainwhytheywere
replacedbecertaintoaskcustomerifthere'sanythingelseyoucandotomaketheircable
experiencebetter

86