JFAPBC (2004) 3:17-23 ASM International

DOI: 10.1361/15477020419794 1547-7029 / $19.00

O R TH O P E D I C S by B. Aksakal, .S.Yildirim, and H. Gul

Metallurgical Failure Analysis of Various Implant

Materials Used in Orthopedic Applications

Failure is one of the most

important aspects of implant
materials behavior and directly
influences the choice of materials
and production methods in
manufacturing.

Introduction
This study investigated implants
made of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V and
316L steel that were obtained from
revision operations between 1993 and
2002. The operations were required
because of various types of implant
failures. This paper illustrates nine
cases of metallurgical failures of a total
hip prosthesis, femoral compression
plates, femoral nail plates, spinal rods,
vertebral implants, and intramedullar
nails fabricated from stainless steel
and titanium alloy. The most common
causes of the implant failures eval-
uated were stress-corrosion fatigue
and wear. The other contributing
factors for the implant failures were
production errors, existence of
inclusions, stress gaps from manu- implant failure analysis is a complex provides information for improve-
facturing routes, and loosening of area of study. Despite the care taken ments in design, operating procedures,
implant material from bone due to in their design, installation, operation, and the use of components. The
lack of osseointegration. and machining, components fail. causes of failure of implant com-
Failure is one of the most impor- Although only a small fraction of im- ponents can be broken down into
tant aspects of implant materials plants fail, failure is a common occur- several categories: misuse; assembly or
behavior and directly influences the ence because of the large number of implantation errors; design errors,
choice of materials and production implants; thus, failure analysis re- including improper selection of
methods in manufacturing. Because mains an extremely important sub- materials; corrosion; corrosion fatigue;
of the many variables involved, ject. Establishing the causes of failure and wear.

Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention Volume 4(3) June 2004 17

 Metallurgical Failure Analysis of Various Implant Materials
According to statistical data, ap-
proximately 100 million metallic
implants were installed in humans
between 1940 and 1975.[1] The most
important markets for medical pro-
ducts are the United States, where
annual revenues are approximately
$62 billion, the European Union,
with revenue of $40 billion, and
Japan, where the revenues are approx-
imately $20 billion.[2]
Biomedical materials must not
damage the body, must sustain mini-
mal damage from the body, and must
provide the required strength, espec-
ially high fatigue strength and tough-
ness, for joints and other applications.
The essence of a biomaterial is an
economic (cheap) implant with the
mechanical, physical, and chemical
properties that provide structural
capability without deleterious effects
on the body. Metallic materials such
as stainless steel, 316L, cobalt-
chromium alloys, and pure titanium
and its alloys have been used for sur-
gical implant materials. The +-type
titanium alloy, such as Ti6Al4V, has
been most widely used as an implant
material for artificial hip joints and
dental implants due to its high
strength and excellent corrosion resis-
tance. Pure titanium and other +-
type titanium alloys were originally
designed for use as general structural
materials, especially for aerospace
structures, but have also been adapted
for biomedical applications. The
development of titanium alloys espec-
ially intended to be used in living
bodies began with the introduction
of new alloys using biocompatible
stabilizer elements, such as iron,
tantalum, zirconium, tin, and
niobium.[3]
The manufacturing of implant
materials generally requires advanced
casting and/or continuous forging
18 Volume 4(3) June 2004
processes. The implants are coated for
better wear, with osseointegration
plasma spray, sol-gel dipping, electro-
chemical, electrophoretic, and sput-
tering methods commonly used as
surface treatments. [4-13] The full
success of an implant depends on vari-
ous factors, such as proper indication
of the case, surgical techniques and
equipment, patient rehabilitation,
biocompatibility, as well as manufac-
turing routes, mechanical properties,
biological stabilization, and the sur-
rounding environment.
Selected Cases
from the Literature
Gilbert et al.[14] investigated two
modular hip implants with a cobalt-
alloy head and a
cobalt-alloy stem Corrosion changes the chemical environment
after a fracture around the implant, inducing an acidic pH and
occurred in the neck thus increasing the likelihood of corrosion.
region of the femoral
component. It was
concluded that the fracture occurred
due to intergranular corrosive attack
and cyclic fatigue loading of the stem.
A numerical method (finite element)
was developed by Chaodi et al. to
predict the progressive failure of a
thick, laminated composite femoral
component for total hip arthroplasty
under in vivo loading conditions.[15]
Jaffe and Scott[16] considered the
relationship between fatigue and
hydroxyapatite coating thickness.
Lynn and DuQuesney [17] showed
that residual stress generated during
plasma spray coating helps to initiate
cracks and enhance crack propagation.
[18]
Howie et al. showed the biological
effects of cobalt-chromium in animal
cells and pointed out that in vitro and
in vivo findings should be compared
with the results from human studies.
Akoy et al.[19] also investigated a frac- number of variables involved in the
tured partial Thompson prosthesis
(continued)
and showed that manufacturing de-
fects and the use of nonstandard
materials led to failure. Implant
failure of a nail was investigated
metallurgically, and it was shown that
fatigue zones around distal locking
holes and screws were predominant
in the failure process. [20] Edwin et
al.[21] showed that closed exchange
nailing with fibulectomy was a
reasonable option for treatment when
the initial nails supporting a tibial
fracture failed.
Wear and corrosion of the counter-
parts in sliding hip screwplates pro-
duce debris. Corrosion changes the
chemical environment around the
implant, inducing an acidic pH[22]
and thus increasing the likelihood of
corrosion. Surgically removed stainless
steel sliding hip screwplates have
shown significant wear, corrosion, and
damage to the surrounding tissue.[23]
Similar work with implant alloys
such as titanium and 316L steel[24-
26]
has supported these observations.
Additionally, Toshikazu and Mit-
suo[27] showed a relationship between
fatigue damage and mechanical
properties in Ti6Al4V alloy.
A review work by McGee et al.[28]
showed that early loosening is related
to poor initial fixation and design,
and that late loosening of a joint
replacement is related to wear of the
prosthetic components. Berger et
al. [29] showed another failure case
occurring due to dissolution of hy-
droxyapatite of coated implants.
These selected studies illustrate the
implant failure process. However, it
Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention
is important to note that most im-
plants are successfully used and that
although there are numerous failures,
failure is a relatively rare event.
Materials and Methods
The experimental procedures used
to investigate the failures reported
here include visual inspection and
both macroscopic and microscopic
characterization. The materials
studied in this work were six implants
that were extirpated from revision
patients. None of the patients had
septic symptoms. These implants
were located in patients for an average
time period of 2 to 3 years (minimum,
6 months; maximum, 7 years). The
application time together with the
causes of failure are summarized in
Table 1.
Failed implant materials removed
from patients undergoing coxarthrosis
and scoliosis revision operations were
the core of the investigations. A total
hip prosthesis was implanted in 1993,
and after 7 years, a fracture occurred
in the femoral stem. In three other
cases, fractures occurred in less than
2 years. Observations showed that for
nearly all fracture cases, improper
osseointegration accelerated the
implant failure. In a case of implanta-
tion due to scoliosis, a spinal rod fail-
ure occurred 3 years after the opera-
tion. After the revision operations
Table 1 Type of Implant Material, Chemical Composition, Survival Time
in Body, and Reasons for Failure
Type of Implant Composition
Total hip prosthesis 17Cr-14Ni
Intramedullar nails 15Cr-10Ni-15Nb
Spinal rods 17Cr-15Ni-3Mn
Compression plates Ti-6Al-4V
Vertebral implant 316L
Femoral nail plate 316L
Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention
removed the failed materials, they
were investigated metallurgically
through a scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM). The type of implant
materials, their survival time in the
body, their chemical composition, and
the reasons for failure are summarized
in Table 1. The analysis showed that
the reasons for implant failures were
corrosive attack, improper manufac-
turing, and fatigue.
Results and Discussion
Surgical implants are exposed to
aggressive working conditions in
terms of corrosion, wear, and mech-
anical loading (static and dynamic).
The possibility of premature failure
exists, and such failures are influenced
by factors such as materials selection,
manufacturing practice, medical
installation procedure, postoperative
complications, and patient mis-
use.[30,31] The systematic investigation
of retrieved surgical implants in-
creases the knowledge regarding
clinical implant performance, demon-
strates interactions between implants
and the body, provides a basis for the
development of biocompatible im-
plant materials, encourages design
optimization, and assists medical
device research.
Statistical analysis shows that 5 to
10% of the 6.2 million implants crack
while in service and that many of the
Survival Time, yr Failure Reason
7 Inclusions, shrinkage cavities,
segregations
1.5 Wear, fatigue
3 Corrosive attack, pitting, wear
1 Inclusions,
multiorigined ductile fracture
2 Erosion-corrosion, stress corrosion
2.5 Wear, fatigue, stress corrosion
cases were due to lack of osseointe-
gration.[1,2] Many failures occur be-
cause of bad design, misuses, improper
production, and nonstandard com-
positions and/or mechanical proper-
ties, for example, the implant fails to
fulfill the requirements of an Inter-
national Organization for Standard-
ization (ISO) standard.
Metal fatigue has been studied
extensively, and the fatigue strengths
of common metallic implant alloys
used in orthopedic applications, such
as stainless steel, cobalt, and titanium
alloys, and their relations to their
microstructure, surface, and corrosion
properties have also been reported.[32-
34]
Despite numerous investigations,
the occurrence of such failures is still
a major problem. A variety of micro-
graphic features were observed on the
fractured or mechanially damaged
surfaces and through microscopic
indications. These features include
intergranular/transgranular cracking,
fatigue striations, and cleavage or
cleavagelike surface topography.
Several implant failure cases that
occurred in the authors patients over
a 9 year period are shown in Fig. 1.
Between 1993 and 2002, 37 osteo-
synthesis reimplantations were made;
in six of the cases, the implant
loosened due to biological wear, and
three of the cases were due to infec-
tion. A total hip prosthesis was
Fig. 1 Several implant failures that occurred
in the authors patients
Volume 4(3) June 2004 19
 Metallurgical Failure Analysis of Various Implant Materials
replaced because of pain. After re-
moving the prosthesis, it was seen that
the implant was broken at the stem.
Segregation, inclusions, and micro-
constituents are aligned and elongated
in directions determined by the metal
flow, resulting in mechanical fibering.
Centerline segregation in the ingot
caused center cracks in forging oper-
ations, and this acted as a stress con-
centrator or crack initiator.
Radiographs of some of the failed
implants are shown in Fig. 2(a-d).
Fig. 2 Radiographs of failed implants. (a) Spinal rod failure. (b) Intramedullar nail fracture and
osteosynthesis failure. (c) Subtrochanteric plate (jewet) fracture failure. (d) Femur diaphyseal
fracture failure of a compression plate
20 Volume 4(3) June 2004
(continued)
Figure 2(a) shows a fractured spinal
rod postoperated from a 2-year-old
boy due to thoracal scoliosis. Figure
2(b) is an intramedullar nail osteo-
synthesis femur diaphyseal fracture
failure postoperated from a 2-year-
old boy. A plate (jewet) osteosynthesis
and subtrochanteric fracture failure
postoperated from a 3-year-old boy
is shown in Fig. 2(c), while Fig. 2(d)
shows a postoperated osteosynthesis
femur diaphyseal fracture failure from
a 2-year-old boy.
The SEM micrograph in Fig. 3
shows that the fracture surface that
caused the failure is due to a combined
effect of inclusions and perhaps a
shrinkage cavity from casting. Intra-
medullar rods failed in the body and
were replaced. After microstructural
examination, it was determined that
failure occurred due to low fatigue
strength. The SEM fractograph in
Fig. 4 shows striation lines and secon-
dary fatigue cracks. In addition, a
fretting effect also took place, and this
is an indication of wear assisted by
selective attack. Figure 5 shows an
intergranular fracture surface with a
triple point at the grain juncture due
to stress corrosion. For hexagonal
close-packed metals, the dislocation
structure and cyclic behavior are more
sensitive to crystal orientation than
are cubic metals because their aniso-
tropic properties produce diverse
microfractographic features.[35-37]
Figure 6 shows the fracture surfaces
of a vertebral implant made of 316L,
where stress corrosion caused brit-
tleness and resulted in brittle fracture.
Some of the factors that cause stress
corrosion are misalloying, aggressive
body environment, and residual
stresses. The latter caused this type
of failure. In nearly all prosthetic
devices, and particularly those having
multicomponents, the regions of stress
concentration often coincide with
crevice areas, where localized corro-
sion is more likely. [32] The adverse
effects of implant-derived wear par-
ticles on periprosthetic tissues are also
important in bone loss and loosening
of implant prostheses. Early loosening
is related to poor initial fixation and
design; late loosening, which is the
major problem and principal cause of
failure, is related to wear of the pros-
thetic components.[28]
The conjoint degradation processes
Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention
of corrosion and wear of metal sur-
faces is clearly of great importance in
the design of orthopedic prostheses.
In a situation in which corrosion and
wear are both possible degradation
mechanisms, each could have a pro-
found effect on the other. However,
overall degradation when both corro-
sion and wear processes are occurring
is shown to be lowest for Ti-13Nb-
Fig. 3 Scanning electron micrograph showing
combined effect of inclusions and
shrinkage cavity during casting
Fig. 4 Scanning electron micrograph showing
fatigue striations and secondary fatigue
cracks
Fig. 5 Intergranular fracture surface showing
a triple point at the grain juncture due
to stress corrosion
Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention
13Zr and highest for Ti6Al4V.[24]
The clinical consequences of at least
partially corroding implants are well
known. The release of solutes, that is,
corrosion products, at an implant site
may cause histological changes in the
local tissue by either direct toxic
effects or a local hypersensitivity reac-
tion, because elemental nickel, cobalt,
and chrome as well as their com-
pounds are known allergens.[25] In Fig.
7, a typical surface resulting from
erosion-corrosion damage is seen. A
Fig. 6 Scanning electron micrograph of stress
corrosion
Fig. 7 Typical surface resulting from erosion-
corrosion damage
Fig. 8 Pitting-type failure occurred due to
corrosive attack
spinal hollow rod was removed from
another patient. Through SEM
observations, it was seen that a typical
pitting-type failure occurred due to
corrosive attack, which originated the
fracture from inside the hollow rod,
as shown in Fig. 8.
The failure during use of a titanium
reconstruction plate for osteosynthesis
was investigated through SEM, and
the fractured surfaces are shown in
Fig. 9(a-c). From the micrographs, it
can be observed that the crack ori-
ginated from inclusions (Fig. 9a),
appears mainly in brittle regions (Fig.
9b), and resulted in multiorigined
ductile fracture with dimples (Fig.
c
Fig. 9 (a) The crack originated from
inclusions. (b) The crack propogated
and resulted in multiorigined style.
(c) Ductile fracture with dimples
Volume 4(3) June 2004 21
 Metallurgical Failure Analysis of Various Implant Materials
9c). Selective attack and intergranular
cracking on the external surface of the
plate occur mainly near the fracture
origin (Fig. 10).
From the analysis, it can be con-
cluded that implant failures most
often result in ductile fracture forms
due to excessive dynamic loading in
which a high amount of plastic
energy is absorbed. Inadequate im-
plant material as well as nonstandard
composition and manufacturing pro-
cesses, improper design and heat
treatment, and faulty coating meth-
ods are the main reasons for failure.
Conclusions
Through metallurgical SEM anal-
ysis, it was found that 42% of failures
occurred due to corrosion plus ero-
sion-corrosion, 16.5% were due to in-
clusions and stress gaps that could be
correlated to fatigue, 16.5% had traces
of production impurities, and 25%
showed fatigue via ductile-type fail-
ures. The results/reasons correlation
can be summarized as follows:
In the investigation of a total hip
prosthesis, the fracture was multi-
origined, probably due to the pres-
ence of manufacturing defects in
both surfaces of the device; was
associated with poor design of the
component; and introduced points
of high stress concentration.
Fig. 10 Intergranular cracking by selective
attack on the external surface of the
plate near the fracture origin
22 Volume 4(3) June 2004
The study revealed that the failure
of the stainless steel femoral com-
pression plates occurred by a
fretting-fatigue mechanism under
the action of low nominal stresses
and unidirectional bending.
The failure of femoral compression
titanium plates occurred by corro-
sion fatigue promoted by the pres-
ence of intense localized corrosion
and intergranular cracking.
The failure of hollow spinal rods
occurred by overload caused by the
intense formation of pitting corro-
sion during service. The pitting was
associated with the presence of
superficial manufacturing routes.
As a result of the analysis of various
implant materials, the main reasons
for failure are corrosive attack, manu-
facturing defects, and nonstandard-
caused failures. Biocompatible
inorganic materials, such as hydroxy-
apatite coating with some binders,
would make the dissolution of metal
ions difficult and so may delay corro-
sion and wear and also minimize the
loosening of implants from bone.
References
1. G.K Smith and J. Black: Models for
Systemic Effects of Metallic Implants,
Proc. Int. Symp. on Retrieval and Analysis
of Orthopaedic Implants, NBS special publ.
472, National Bureau of Standards, MD,
1976, pp. 23-30.
2. C.R.F. Azevedo and E. Hippert, Jr.:
Failure Analysis of Surgical Implants in
Brazil, J. Eng. Failure Analys., 2002, 9,
pp. 621-33.
3. C.R.F. Azevedo: Failure Analysis of a
Commercially Pure Titanium Plate for
Osteosynthesis, J. Eng. Failure Analys.,
2003, 10, in press.
4. G. Pitrowski: Clinical Biomedics, Proc.
Int. Symp. on Retrieval and Analysis of
Orthopaedic Implants, NBS special publ.
472, National Bureau of Standards, MD,
1976, pp. 41-49.
5. D.F. Williams: A Review of Metallurgical
(continued)
Failure Modes in Orthopaedic Implants,
Proc. Int. Symp. on Retrieval and Analysis
of Orthopaedic Implants, NBS special publ.
472, National Bureau of Standards, MD,
1976, pp. 11-21.
6. P. Ducheyne, J. Beight, J. Cuckler, B.
Evans, and S. Radin: Effect of Calcium
Phosphate Coating Characteristics on
Early Post-Operative Bone Tissue
Ingrowth, Biomaterials, 1990, 11, pp. 531-
40.
7. S. Ban and S. Maruno: Effect of Temp-
erature on Electrochemical Deposition of
Calcium Phosphate Coatings in a Simu-
lated Body Fluid, Biomaterials, 1995, 16,
pp. 977-81.
8. J.A. Jansen, J.G. Wolke, S. Swann, J.P.
Van der Waerden, and K. deGroot:
Application of Magnetron Sputtering for
Producing Ceramic Coatings on Implant
Materials, Clin. Oral Implants Res., 1993,
4, pp. 28-34.
9. C.S. Kim and P. Ducheyne: Compo-
sitional Variations in the Surface and Inter-
face of Calcium Phosphate Ceramic
Coatings on Ti and Ti-6Al-4V due to
Sintering and Immersion, Biomaterials,
1991, 12, pp. 461-69.
10. P. Cheang and K.A. Khor: Addressing
Processing Problems Associated with Plas-
ma Spraying of Hydroxyapatite Coatings,
Biomaterials, 1996, 17, pp. 537-44.
11. C.P.A.T. Klein, J.G.C. Wolke, J.M.A. de
Blieck-Hogervorst, and K. deGroot:
Features of Calcium Phosphate Plasma-
Sprayed Coatings: An In Vitro Study, J.
Biomed. Mater. Res., 1994, 28, pp. 961-
67.
12. K. Ishikawa, M. Kon, S. Tenshin, and N.
Kuwayama: Effect of Preparation Condi-
tions in Aqueous Solution on Properties
of Hydroxyapatite, Dent. Mater., 1990, 9,
pp. 58-69.
13. P. Ducheyne, W. Van Raemdonck, J.C.
Heughebaert, and M. Heughebaert:
Structural Analysis of Hydroxyapatite
Coatings on Titanium, Biomaterials, 1986,
7, pp. 97-103.
14. J.L. Gilbert, C.A.Buckley, et al.: Inter-
granular Corrosion-Fatigue Failure of
Cobalt-Alloy Femoral Stems, J. Bone
Joint Surg. Am., 1994, 76(1), pp.110-15.
15. L. Chaodi, G. Christopher, et al.: Pro-
gressive Failure Analysis of Laminated
Composite Femoral Prostheses for Total
Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention
 Hip Arthroplasty, Biomaterials, 2002, 23,
pp. 4249-62.
16. W.L. Jaffe and D.F. Scott: Total Hip
Arthroplasty with Hydroxyapatite-Coated
Prosthesis, J. Bone Joint Surg., 1996, 78-
A(12), pp. 1919-34.
17. A.K. Lynn and D.L. DuQuesnay:
Hydroxyapatite-Coated Ti-6Al-4V, Part
1: The Effect of Coating Thickness on
Mechanical Fatigue Behaviour, Bio-
materials, 2002, 23, pp. 1937-46.
18. D.W. Howie, S.D. Rogers, et al.: Bio-
logical Effect of Cobalt Chrome in Cell
and Animal Models, Clin. Orthop., 1996,
pp. 217-32.
et al.: Failure
19. M.A. Akoy, M. Baydogan,
Analysis on a Femur Prosthesis, The Fifth
Turkey), Sept.
Int. Fracture Symp. (Elazig,
2001.
20. G. Christian, S. Stefanie, et al.: Implant
Failure of the Gamma Nail, Injury, Int. J.
Care Injured, 1999, 30, pp. 91-99.
21. M.M. Edwin, V.A. Edward, J.S. Peter, and
J.S. Neal: Exchange Nailing for Failure
of Initially Rodded Tibial Shaft Fractures,
J. Orthop., 2001, 24(8), pp. 757-62.
22. H.G. Willer, L.G. Broback, and G.H.
Buchorn: Crevice Corrosion of Cemented
Titanium Hip Implants, Clin. Orthop.,
1996, 333, pp. 51-57.
23. B.F. Shagaldi and J. Compson: Wear and
Corrosion of Sliding Counterparts of
Stainless-Steel Hip Screw-Plates, Injury,
Int. J. Care Injured, 2000, 31, pp. 85-92.
24. M.A. Khan, R.L. Williams, and D.F.
Williams: Conjoint Corrosion and Wear
Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention
of Titanium Alloys, Biomaterials, 1999,
20, pp. 765-72.
25. L.Reclaru et al.: Corrosion Behaviour of
a Welded Stainless-Steel Orthopedic
Implant, Biomaterials, 2001, 22, pp. 269-
79.
26. J. Walczak, F. Shahgaldi, and F. Heatley:
In Vivo Corrosion of 316L Stainless-Steel
Implants, Biomaterials, 1998, 19, pp. 229-
37.
27. A. Toshikazu and N. Mitsuo: Fracture
Characteristics of Fatigued Ti6Al4V ELI
as an Implant Material, Mater. Sci. Eng.
A, 1998, 243, pp. 237-43.
28. M.A. McGee et al.: Implant Retrieval
Studies of the Wear and Loosening of
Prosthetic Joints: A Review, Wear, 2000,
241, pp. 158-65.
29. G. Berger, U. Ploska, and G. Willmann:
Hydroxyapatites Solubility May Cause
Loosening of Coated Implants, Proc. 13th
Int. Symp. on Ceramics in Medicine
(Bologna, Italy), 2001, pp. 192-95.
30. O.E.M. Pohler: Failure of Metallic
Orthopaedic Implants, Materials Charac-
terization, Vol 10, Metals Handbook, 9th
ed., American Society for Metals, Metals
Park, OH, 1986, pp. 668-94.
31. J.H. Dumplenton and E.H. Miller: Failure
of Metallic Orthopaedic Implants, in
Metals Handbook, 8th ed., ASM Inter-
national, Materials Park, OH, 1993, pp.
571-80.
32. K.R. Wheller and L.A. James: Fatigue
Behaviour of Type 316 Stainless Steel under
Simulated Body Conditions, J. Biomed.
Mater. Res., 1971, pp. 267-81.
What do you want to learn today?
Subscription information on page 2.
33. S. Suresh: Fatigue of Materials, Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1998.
34. S.S. Manson: ASTM STP 495, Avoidance,
Control, and Repair of Fatigue Damage,
ASTM, Philadelphia, 1971, pp. 254-346.
35. R.O. Ritchie, R.H. Dauskardt, and B.N.
Cox: Fatigue of Advanced Materials:
Summary and Future Trends, Proc. of the
Eng. Foundation Int. Conf. (Santa Barbara,
CA), 1991, pp. 485-93.
36. G. Haicheng, G. Huifang, C.Shufen, and
C. Laird: Orientaiton Dependence of
Cyclic Deformation in High Purity
Titanium Single Crystals, Mater. Sci. Eng.
A, 1994, 118, pp. 23-36.
37. I. Aitchison and B. Cox: Interpretation
of Fractographs of SSC in Hexagonal
Metals, Corrosion, 1972, 28(3), pp. 83-
87.
38. J.C. Chesnutt and J.C. Williams: Com-
ments on the Electron Fractography of
Alpha Titanium, Metall. Trans. A, 1977,
8(3), pp. 514-15.
B. Aksakal, Atatrk University,
Engineering Faculty, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, 25240
Erzurum, Turkey. .S.Yildirim,
Atatrk University, Faculty of
Medicine, Department of Ortho-
pedics, Erzurum, Turkey. H. Gul,
University of Firat,Vocational School
of Technical Sciences, Elazig, Turkey.
Contact e-mail: baksakal@atauni.
edu.tr.
Volume 4(3) June 2004 23