What is the definition of surface

emissivity?
A Combustion File downloaded from the IFRF Online Combustion Handbook
ISSN 1607-9116

Combustion File No: 146

Version No: 1
Date: 03-03-2003
Author(s): Neil Fricker, Alan Williams and Ed Hampartsoumian
Source(s): Journal of the Institute of Energy, September 2001
Referee(s): Bob Tucker
Sub-editor: Bob Tucker
Status: Published
Sponsor: The Institute of Energy

1. Backround
With the enhanced capability and availability of mathematical techniques to model
radiant heat transfer in furnaces and boilers, there is a requirement for more accurate
data on the emissivity of ceramic and metallic solids. Whilst standard compilations of
emissivities and other radiative data1-3 give a considerable amount of information this is
often limited in the temperature range or composition of the material studied. The
nature and optical properties of the surface may change during use and this is especially
the case with refractory materials in high temperature furnaces. This problem has been
intensified because of the interest in lining furnaces with 'high-emissivity' coatings
and/or ceramic fibres or related low-density ceramic materials. There is often
uncertainty about the effect of the surface emissivity of these new materials on
furnace performance. There is also an increased interest in the use of radiation
thermometers based around modern semi-conductor detectors, where the temperature
deduced is a function of the assumed emissivity of the surface and accurate data is
required.
This Combustion File outlines the mathematical basis for defining the surface
emissivities of materials. Any self-consistent system of units may be used in the
equations given below.
It concludes with general guidance on the values of emissivity for real surfaces
commonly found in combustion systems.
Correlations and data to calculate temperature dependent values of surface emissivities
of specific materials commonly found in combustion systems are given in linked
Combustion Files (CF147, 148, 149, 223, 224).
2. The meaning of emissivity
In the analysis of radiative heat transfer, it is essential to be clear about the definition
of emissivity because the term is often used ambiguously. The emissivity of a surface
or body is always defined as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface to the
maximum possible, that is, from a black body at the same temperature. However, since
temperature, wavelength and direction may all affect this ratio, they should all be
included in a fully comprehensive definition. Arising from this requirement, a number of
individual definitions may be encountered in the literature.
For radiation from a body at a particular temperature, the directional
monochromatic emissivity (or spectral emissivity) relates to radiation at a
defined wavelength and direction (usually expressed as an angle, , to the
normal).
If radiation over the whole range of thermal wavelengths but in a specific
direction is considered then the appropriate term is the total directional
emissivity.
Similarly, if all the radiation emitted at a particular wavelength into the
hemisphere beyond the surface is involved, the appropriate definition is that of
the monochromatic hemispherical emissivity.
The value used in many analyses of radiative heat transfer in furnace enclosures
is the simplest one. It relates to radiation at all wavelengths and in all directions
and is the total hemispherical emissivity. It is the value used to multiply T4 in
the Stefan-Boltzmann expression, and it is often referred to simply as the
emissivity.
Measurement of emissivity is frequently made with the surface orientated
perpendicular to the radiometer, in which case the normal emissivity (total or
monochromatic) is determined.
For real surfaces, the ratio of radiation emitted by the surface to that emitted by a
black body at the same temperature is often called the emittance, although the
definition is exactly the same as for emissivity. In this text, emissivity will be used
throughout because most industrial and research workers use it.

3. The Definition of Surface Emissivity

The emissivity of a surface may be defined as the ratio of the radiance from the
surface to that from a black body viewed under identical optical and geometrical
conditions and at the same temperature. The total black body radiation flux density, or
emissive power Eb(T) at a fixed absolute temperature, T, is obtained from integration of
the black body spectral flux, eb(,T), over all wavelengths

Eb (T ) = =0 eb ( , T )d ...Eq.1
This leads to the expression

Eb (T ) = T 4 ...Eq.2
where is known as the Stephan-Boltzman constant.
Based on the definition of emissivity, the total temperature dependent emissivity of a
surface, t(T), may be written in terms of the black body emissive power and spectral
flux density of the surface, e(,T), as

1
t (T ) =
Eb (T ) 0
e( , T ) d ...Eq.3

Integration of e(,T) over the spectral band limits (1, 2) will yield the spectral
emissivity ej(T)

1 2

Ebj (T ) 1
ej (T ) = e( , T )d ...Eq.4

where j is the nominal wavelength position defined by

j = (1 + 2 ) / 2...Eq.5
and Ebj(T) is the black body band emissive power over the same wavelength range.

4. General guidance on surface emissivity

The emissivity of a surface varies with both temperature and wavelength for a metal.
The variation in wavelength follows theory for a radiating metal surface. Non-
conducting materials, such as ceramics, are more complex and can be further
complicated because of surface roughness effects. Often surface finish (CF150) plays a
major influence. In addition, measurements are very difficult to undertake accurately on
an absolute basis. Comparative values within one laboratory are often accurate but
there can be substantial laboratory-to-laboratory differences due to the use of
different techniques and different samples.
Based on an examination of a large amount of data, the following general comments may
be made regarding experimental values of surface emissivity:
The emissivity of clean metallic surfaces is small, being as low as 0.02 for
polished gold and silver, although slowly increasing with temperature.
Oxidation of the metal surface markedly increases the emissivity, up to about
0.8 for heavily oxidised stainless steel.
The emissivity of conductors increases with temperature, whilst that of
insulators will generally decrease or sometimes increase.
Some metal oxides become semi-conductors at high temperatures, and these
exhibit a U shaped emissivity curve.
The total emissivity of ceramics is generally around 0.6 but there is a
considerable variation in the values.
 The spectral emissivity of most refractory materials is quite low at wavelengths
less than 5-6m (typically less than 0.6) so that at higher temperatures over
1000K, the total emissivity tends to be lower at values around 0.4 to 0.59.
Emissivity varies with temperature and wavelength because an increase in the
temperature is accompanied by a decrease in the wavelength of that radiation
according to the Planck distribution 11,12,17.
The directional emissivity of a diffuse surface is independent of direction and
this is often a reasonable assumption for many real substances18. Nevertheless,
all surfaces exhibit some departure from diffuse behaviour and the general
trends for the two special kinds of material discussed already, non-conductors
and conductors, may be summarised as follows.

o For conductors, is approximately constant for < 40, increases up

to about 80 and drops to zero at 90 ( = angle to the normal).

o For insulators is roughly constant for < 70 after which it drops

sharply.
The net result of these trends is that the hemispherical emissivity does not
differ markedly from the normal emissivity, their ratio being between 1.0 and 1.3
for conductors and between 0.95 and 1.0 for insulators.

5. Experimental values of surface emissivity for common

materials
Comprehensive tables listing the emissivity, 0(T), of a wide range of materials as a
function of temperature are given in three linked combustion files:
CF 147 metals
CF148 refractories, glasses and coatings
CF149 carbons and coal ash
CF223 glasses and ceramics
CF224 coatings, paints, paper, porcelain and water
In these Combustion Files, emissivities are expressed as least squares polynomials fitted
to data from the references listed in the Tables by the expression:

0(T) = a +10-5bT + 10-8cT2 +10-10dT3 Eq.6

where T is the absolute temperature (K)

and a, b, c, d are fitted coefficients given in the tables.

Glossary terms
black body - A perfect absorber and emitter of thermal radiation
diffuse surface A surface whose emissivity does not vary with direction of
measurement from the normal to the surface.
directional monochromatic emissivity - Emissivity measured at a specific direction from
the normal to the surface and at a particular wavelength
emissivity - The ratio of the thermal radiation emitted by a body to that emitted by a
black body at the same temperature. Emissivity is often a function of wavelength,
temperature and direction
emissive power - A term generally used to describe the rate of radiant energy emitted
per unit area of plane surface in all directions within the hemisphere (2 steradians)
above it
emittance - For real surfaces, the ratio of radiation emitted by the surface to that
emitted by a black body at the same temperature, equivalent to emissivity.
monochromatic hemispherical emissivity - Emissivity based on the total emission at a
specific wavelength but over all directions in a hemisphere about the surface (i.e. over 2
pi steradians of solid angle).
Radiance A general term meaning radiant emission or radiative heat flux from a
surface. No formal technical definition exists.
radiation flux density - A term generally used to describe the rate of radiant energy
emitted per unit area of plane surface in all directions within the hemisphere (2p
steradians) above it equivalent to emissive power
spectral flux The radiant flux density per unit wavelength at a given wavelength of
emission.
spectral flux density Synonymous with spectral flux.
Stephan-Boltzman constant - The proportionality constant relating the total emissive
power from a black surface, and its absolute temperature (K) raised to the power 4.
Normally denoted by the greek lowercase letter sigma, it has a value of
5.6687X10(exp)-8 Wm(exp-2)K(exp-4).
surface emissivity - The ratio of the radiance from a surface to that from a black body
viewed under identical optical and geometrical conditions and at the same temperature.
total directional emissivity - The ratio of radiation measured at a specific direction
from the normal to a surface over all wavelengths, to that from a black body.
total hemispherical emissivity - The ratio of radiation from a surface over all
wavelengths into a hemisphere, to that from a black body. It is derived using a total
radiation pyrometer, or by integrating spectral measurements.

Keywords
Emissivity; metals; ceramics; glass; coatings; carbon; ash; radiation; heat transfer;
surface; radiance; blackbody; black; emittance;

Related Combustion Files

92 What are emissivity, absorptivity and reflectivity?
93 - What is the difference between spectral and total emissivity?
96 - What is the emissivity of natural gas combustion products?
97 - What is the emissivity of combustion products from oil combustion?
99 - What are high emissivity coatings and how do they work?
147 What data is available on the emissivity of metals as a function of temperature?
148 - What data is available on the emissivity of refractories glasses and coatings as a
function of temperature?
149 - What data is available on the emissivity of carbon and coal ash as a function of
temperature?
150 - What is the effect of roughness on surface emissivities of refractories?
223 What data is available on the emissivity of ceramics and glasses as a function of
temperature?
224 What data is available on the emissivity of coatings, paints, paper, porcelain and
water as a function of temperature?

Sources

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Nonmetallic solids, 1971, Vol. 8; in Thermophysical Properties of Matter, TPRC Data Series
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2. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (60th Edition), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1981.

3. RATANAPUPECH, P. and BAUTISTA, R.G. Normal spectral emissivities of liquid iron, liquid
nickel and liquid iron-nickel alloys. High Temperature Science, 1981, 14(4) 269-283.

4. WILLIAMS, A., HAMPARTSOUMIAN, E. and SIMMONS, B. Unpublished data.

5. OSBORN, P.D. Handbook of Energy Data and Calculations. Butterworth, London, 1985.

6. FLETCHER, J.D. and WILLIAMS, A. Emissivities of ceramic fibre linings for high-
temperature furnaces. JInst.Energy, 377, 1984

7. ELLISTON, D.G. GRAY, W.A., HIBBERD, D.F., HO, T-Y. and WILLIAMS, A. The effect of
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8. GRAY, W.A., HAMPARTSOUMIAN, E., TAYLOR, J.M. and WILLIAMS, A. The role of
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9. HAMPARTSOUMIAN, E. Spectral emittance measurements of furnace wall materials and

coatings. Ceramics in Energy Applications Conference, Sheffield, IOP Publishing Ltd., 1990,
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Acknowledgements
This work was funded in part by the UK Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS)
and part supported by the UK EPSRC. The information contained within this file was
first published in the Journal of the Institute of Energy. 74, No 500 September 2001
(pp 91 99). The permission of the UK Institute of Energy to reproduce it here is
gratefully acknowledged.

File Placing
[Basics]; [Heat & Mass Transfer]; [Emissivity]
[Basics]; [Heat & Mass Transfer]; [Radiation]
[Modelling]; [Mathematical]; [Radiation]

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