French Revolutionary Wars

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The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of

sweeping military conflicts, lasting from 1792 until 1802, French Revolutionary Wars
resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted the
French First Republic against Britain, Austria and several
other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the
War of the First Coalition (179297) and the War of the
Second Coalition (17981802). Initially confined to
Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global
dimension as the political ambitions of the Revolution
expanded. After a decade of constant warfare and
aggressive diplomacy, France had succeeded in seizing
and conquering a wide array of territories, from the
Italian Peninsula and the Low Countries in Europe to the The Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792).
Louisiana Territory in North America. French success in Date 20 April 1792 25 March 1802
these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary
(9 years, 11 months, and 5 days)
principles over much of Europe.
Location Europe, Egypt, Middle East,
The Revolutionary Wars began from increasing political Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, Indian
pressure on King Louis XVI of France to prove his loyalty Ocean
to the new direction France was taking. In the spring of
Result
1792, France declared war on Prussia and Austria, which First Coalition
responded with a coordinated invasion of the country French victory; Peace of
that was eventually turned back at the Battle of Valmy in
Basel, Treaty of Campo
September 1792. The victory rejuvenated the French
Formio
nation and emboldened the National Convention to
Second Coalition
abolish the monarchy.[1] A series of victories by the new
French victory; Treaty of
French armies abruptly ended with defeat at Neerwinden
in the spring of 1793. The remainder of the year Lunville, Treaty of Amiens
witnessed additional defeats for the French, and these
difficult times allowed the Jacobins to rise to power and Territorial
changes Fall of the French monarchy
impose the Reign of Terror as a method of attempting to
and establishment of the
unify the nation. In 1794, the situation improved
dramatically for the French, as huge victories at Fleurus First French Republic
against the Austrians and at the Black Mountain against France annexes Piedmont
the Spanish signaled the start of a new stage in the wars. and all the lands west of the
By 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Rhine
Netherlands and knocked Spain and Prussia out of the Establishment of the pro-
war with the Peace of Basel. A hitherto unknown general French Batavian, Helvetian,
called Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italian, and Ligurian
Italy in April 1796. In less than a year, French armies Republics
under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and
Establishment of the
evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost
Kingdom of Etruria in Italy
every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With
French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians Austria acquires Venetia and
sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Dalmatia
Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic. Spain cedes Trinidad to
Britain
The War of the Second Coalition began with the French
The War of the Second Coalition began with the French Spain retrocedes Louisiana
invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon, in 1798. The to France
Allies took the opportunity presented by the French Netherlands cedes Ceylon
strategic effort in the Middle East to regain territories to Britain
lost from the First Coalition. The war began well for the
Other territorial changes
Allies in Europe, where they gradually pushed the French
out of Italy and invaded Switzerlandracking up victories
at Magnano, Cassano, and Novi along the way. However, Belligerents
their efforts largely unraveled with the French victory at
Zurich in September 1799, which caused Russia to drop Holy Roman Kingdom of France
Empire (until 1792)[note 7]
out of the war.[2] Meanwhile, Napoleon's forces French Republic
annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at (from 1792)
the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. Austria[note 1]
These victories and the conquest of Egypt further French satellites
enhanced Napoleon's popularity back in France; he Prussia (1792 United
returned in the fall of 1799 to cheering throngs in the 95)[note 2]
Irishmen[note 8]
streets. However, the Royal Navy had managed to inflict Great Britain (1793
a humiliating defeat on the French fleet at the Battle of Polish
1800)[note 3]
the Nile in 1798, further strengthening British control of Ireland (1793 Legions[note 9]
the Mediterranean. 1800)[note 3] Spain (1796
United Kingdom
Napoleon's arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the 1802)[note 10]
(180102)
Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, with Napoleon Russia (1799)
installing himself as Consul. Napoleon then reorganized French royalists
the French army and launched a new assault against the DenmarkNorway
Counter-
(Action of 16 May
Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This latest revolutionaries
effort culminated in a decisive French victory at the Battle Spain (1793 1797)[note 11]
of Marengo in June 1800, after which the Austrians 95)[note 2]
withdrew from the peninsula once again. Another Portugal Kingdom of
crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced Sardinia Mysore (Fourth Anglo-
the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to Naples Mysore War)
the Treaty of Lunville in 1801. With Austria and Russia Switzerland
out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself (1798)[note 4]
increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens Other Italian
with Napoleon's government in 1802, concluding the states[note 5]
Revolutionary Wars. The lingering tensions proved too Ottoman Empire
Dutch Republic
difficult to contain, however, and the Napoleonic Wars
began a few years later with the formation of the Third (179395)[note 6]

Coalition, continuing the series of Coalition Wars. Newfoundland

(1796)
Order of Saint John
(1798)
Contents Malta (17981800)

1 Background (Haitian Revolution)

1.1 French Revolutionary Army Saint-Domingue
2 War of the First Coalition rebels (179194)
2.1 179192
2.2 1793 (Quasi War)
2.3 1794 United States
2.4 1795
2.5 1796
 2.5 1796 (17981800)
2.6 1797 Commanders and leaders
2.7 1798
3 War of the Second Coalition Francis II Louis XVI
3.1 1799 Archduke Charles Jacques Pierre
3.2 1800 Baillet de Latour Brissot (179293)
3.3 1801 Count of Clerfayt Maximilien
3.4 1802 Prince Josias of Robespierre (179394)
4 Influence Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Paul Barras (1795
Jzsef Alvinczi 99)
5 See also Napoleon
Dagobert von
6 Footnotes Wurmser Bonaparte
6.1 Notes Michael von Melas Charles-F.
6.2 References Pl Kray Dumouriez
7 Further reading Frederick William II Franois
7.1 Historiography Duke of Brunswick Christophe Kellermann
Prince of Franois tienne
7.2 In French Kellermann
Hohenlohe
William Pitt Charles Pichegru
Henry Addington Jean-Baptiste
Jourdan
Background Charles O'Hara
Comte de Custine
Duke of York
Horatio Nelson Lazare Hoche
French Revolutionary Army Ralph Abercromby Andr Massna
Samuel Hood Jean V. M. Moreau
In 17891792, the entire governmental structure of Paul I Louis Desaix
France was transformed to fall into line with the Alexander Suvorov Jacques Franois
Revolutionary principles of "Liberty, Equality and Prince de Cond Dugommier
Fraternity". The signing of the Declaration of Pillnitz Charles IV (1793 Pierre Augereau
(August 1791) between Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor 95) Jean Baptiste
and King Frederick William II of Prussia and the Mary I Klber
subsequent French declaration of war (April 1792) meant Victor Amadeus III Jacques
that from its formation, the Republic of France was at Ferdinand IV MacDonald
war, and it required a potent military force to ensure its Selim III Thomas-Alexandre
survival. As a result, one of the first major elements of Jezzar Pasha Dumas
the French state to be restructured was the army. Laurens Pieter van Wolfe Tone
de Spiegel (179395) Jan Henryk
The transformation of the army was best seen in the Murad Bey
Dbrowski
officer corps. Before the revolution 90% had been James Wallace
nobility, compared to only 3% in 1794. Revolutionary Ferdinand von
fervour was high, and was closely monitored by the Hompesch zu Bolheim Christian VII
Olfert Fischer
Committee of Public Safety, which assigned
Steen Bille
Representatives on Mission to keep watch on generals.
Some generals deserted, others were removed or Toussaint
executed. The government demanded that soldiers be L'Ouverture Tipu Sultan
loyal to the government in Paris, not to their generals.[3]
A characteristic of the French revolutionary armies, later John Adams
perfected in the Napoleonic era, was their ability to
forage war supplies more effectively than their enemies
from the territories they were marching in, "living off the fat of the land", giving them a crucial advantage
in strategic mobility.
War of the First Coalition
179192

As early as 1791, the other monarchies of Europe looked with outrage at the revolution and its upheavals,
and considered whether they should intervene, either in support of King Louis XVI, or to prevent the
spread of revolution, or to take advantage of the chaos in France. Then, the key figure was Holy Roman
Emperor Leopold II, brother of Louis XVI's Queen Marie Antoinette. Leopold had initially looked on the
Revolution with equanimity, but became more and more disturbed as the Revolution became more radical,
although he still hoped to avoid war. On 27 August, Leopold and King Frederick William II of Prussia, in
consultation with emigrant French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the interest of
the monarchs of Europe in the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe
consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a non-
committal gesture to placate the sentiments of French monarchists and nobles, it was seen in France as a
serious threat and was denounced by the revolutionary leaders.[4]

France eventually issued an ultimatum demanding that the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria under Leopold II
who also was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire renounce any hostile alliances and withdraw its troops
from the French border.[5] The reply was evasive and the Assembly voted for war on 20 April 1792, after
a long list of grievances presented by foreign minister Dumouriez. Dumouriez prepared an immediate
invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule,
as they had earlier in 1790. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the army, and the forces
raised were insufficient for the invasion. Following the declaration of war, French soldiers deserted en
masse and, in one case, murdered their general, Thobald Dillon.[6]

While the revolutionary government frantically raised

fresh troops and reorganized its armies, a mostly Prussian
Allied army under Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of
Brunswick assembled at Koblenz on the Rhine.

The duke then issued a proclamation called the Brunswick

Anonymous caricature depicting the treatment
given to the Brunswick Manifesto by the French
population
Manifesto (July 1792), written by the French king's
cousin, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de Cond, the
leader of an migr corps within the Allied army, which
declared the Allies' intent to restore the king to his full
powers and to treat any person or town who opposed
them as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law.
This, however, had the effect of strengthening the resolve
of the revolutionary army and government to oppose
them by any means necessary.

On 10 August, a crowd stormed the Tuileries Palace,

seizing the king and his family. 19 August 1792, the invasion by Brunswick's army commenced, with
Brunswick's army easily taking the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun.

The invasion continued, but at Valmy on 20 September, the invaders came to a stalemate against
Dumouriez and Kellermann in which the highly professional French artillery distinguished itself. Although
the battle was a tactical draw, it gave a great boost to French morale. Further, the Prussians, finding that
the campaign had been longer and more costly than predicted, decided that the cost and risk of

continued fighting was too great and, with winter approaching, they decided to retreat from France to
continued fighting was too great and, with winter approaching, they decided to retreat from France to
preserve their army. The next day, the monarchy was formally abolished as the First Republic was
declared (21 September 1792).[7]

Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying Savoy and Nice which
were parts of the Kingdom of Sardinia, while General Custine invaded Germany, occupying several
German towns along the Rhine, and reaching as far as Frankfurt. Dumouriez went on the offensive in the
Austrian Netherlands once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at the Battle of Jemappes on
6 November, and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.[8]

1793
Spain and Portugal entered the anti-French coalition in January 1793.
Britain began military preparations in late 1792 and declared that war
was inevitable unless France gave up its conquests, notwithstanding
French assurances they would not attack Holland or annex the Low
Countries.[9] Britain expelled the French ambassador following the
execution of Louis XVI and on 1 February France responded by
declaring war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic.[4]

France drafted hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a policy of

using mass conscription to deploy more of its manpower than the While the First Coalition attacked
autocratic states could manage to do (first stage, with a decree of 24 the new Republic, France faced
February 1793 ordering the draft of 300,000 men, followed by the civil war and counter-revolutionary
general mobilization of all the young men able to be drafted, through guerrilla war. Here, several
the famous decree of 23 August 1793). Nonetheless, the Coalition insurgents of the Chouannerie
allies launched a determined drive to invade France during the have been taken prisoner.
Flanders Campaign.[10]

France suffered severe reverses at first. They were driven out of the Austrian Netherlands, and serious
revolts flared in the west and south of France. One of these, at Toulon, was the first serious taste of
action for an unknown young artillery officer Napoleon Bonaparte. He contributed to the siege of the city
and its harbor by planning an effective assault with well-placed artillery batteries raining projectiles down
on rebel positions. This performance helped make his reputation as a capable tactician, and it fueled his
meteoric rise to military and political power. Once the city was occupied, he participated in pacifying the
rebelling citizens of Toulon with the same artillery that he first used to conquer the city.[11]

By the end of the year, large new armies had turned back foreign invaders, and the Reign of Terror, a
fierce policy of repression, had suppressed internal revolts. The French military was in the ascendant.
Lazare Carnot, a scientist and prominent member of the Committee of Public Safety, organized the
fourteen armies of the Republic, and was then nicknamed the Organizer of the Victory.[12]

1794

The year 1794 brought increased success to the French armies. On the Alpine frontier, there was little
change, with the French invasion of Piedmont failing. On the Spanish border, the French under General
Dugommier rallied from their defensive positions at Bayonne and Perpignan, driving the Spanish out of
Roussillon and invading Catalonia. Dugommier was killed in the Battle of the Black Mountain in November.

On the northern front in the Flanders Campaign, the Austrians and

On the northern front in the Flanders Campaign, the Austrians and
French both prepared offensives in Belgium, with the Austrians
besieging Landrecies and advancing towards Mons and Maubeuge.
The French prepared an offensive on multiple fronts, with two armies
in Flanders under Pichegru and Moreau, and Jourdan attacking from
the German border. The French withstood several damaging but
inconclusive actions before regaining the initiative at the battles of
Tourcoing and Fleurus in June. The French armies drove the
Austrians, British, and Dutch beyond the Rhine, occupying Belgium,
the Rhineland, and the south of the Netherlands.

On the middle Rhine front in July, General Michaud's Army of the

Rhine attempted two offensives in July in the Vosges, the second of
which was successful but not followed up, allowing for a Prussian
counter-attack in September. Otherwise this sector of the front was
largely quiet over the course of the year.

At sea, the French Atlantic Fleet succeeded in holding off a British

attempt to interdict a vital cereal convoy from the United States on General Jourdan at the battle of
the Glorious First of June, though at the cost of one quarter of its Fleurus, 26 June 1794
strength. In the Caribbean, the British fleet landed in Martinique in
February, taking the whole island by 24 March and holding it until the
Treaty of Amiens, and in Guadeloupe in April, where they captured the island briefly but were driven out
by Victor Hugues later in the year. In the Mediterranean, following the British evacuation of Toulon, the
Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli agreed with admiral Samuel Hood to place Corsica under British protection
in return for assistance capturing French garrisons at Saint-Florent, Bastia, and Calvi, creating the short-
lived Anglo-Corsican Kingdom.

By the end of the year French armies had won victories on all fronts, and as the year closed they began
advancing into the Netherlands.

1795
After occupying the Netherlands in a fast moving, mid-winter campaign, France established the Batavian
Republic as a sister republic. The year opened with French forces in the process of attacking the Dutch
Republic in the middle of winter. The Dutch people rallied to the French call and started the Batavian
Revolution. City after city was occupied by the French. The Dutch fleet was captured, and the stadtholder
William V fled to be replaced by a popular Batavian Republic, which supported the revolutionary cause
and signed a treaty with the French, ceding the territories of North Brabant and Maastricht to France on
16 May.

With the Netherlands falling, Prussia also decided to leave the coalition, signing the Peace of Basel on 6
April, ceding the west bank of the Rhine to France. This freed Prussia to finish the occupation of Poland.

The French army in Spain advanced, advancing in Catalonia while taking Bilbao and Vitoria and marching
toward Castile. By 10 July, Spain also decided to make peace, recognizing the revolutionary government
and ceding the territory of Santo Domingo, but returning to the pre-war borders in Europe. This left the
armies on the Pyrenees free to march east and reinforce the armies on the Alps, and the combined army
overran Piedmont.

Meanwhile, Britain's attempt to reinforce the rebels in the Vende by landing troops at Quiberon failed,
Meanwhile, Britain's attempt to reinforce the rebels in the Vende by landing troops at Quiberon failed,
and a conspiracy to overthrow the republican government from within ended when Napoleon Bonaparte's
garrison used cannon to fire grapeshot into the attacking mob (which led to the establishment of the
Directory).

On the Rhine frontier, General Pichegru, negotiating with the exiled Royalists, betrayed his army and
forced the evacuation of Mannheim and the failure of the siege of Mainz by Jourdan. This was a moderate
setback to the position of the French.

In northern Italy victory at the Battle of Loano in November gave France access to the Italian peninsula.

1796
The French prepared a great advance on three fronts, with Jourdan
and Moreau on the Rhine, and Bonaparte in Italy. The three armies
were to link up in Tyrol and march on Vienna. Jourdan and Moreau
advanced rapidly into Germany, and Moreau had reached Bavaria and
the edge of Tyrol by September, but Jourdan was defeated by
Archduke Charles, and both armies were forced to retreat back
across the Rhine.

Napoleon, on the other hand, was completely successful in a daring

invasion of Italy. He left Paris on 11 March for Nice to take over the
weak and poorly supplied Army of Italy, arriving on 26 March. The General Bonaparte and his troops
army was already being reorganised and supplied when he arrived, crossing the bridge of Arcole
and he found that the situation was rapidly improving. He was soon
able to carry out the plan for the invasion of Italy that he had been advocating for years, which provided
for an advance over the Apennines near Altare to attack the enemy position of Ceva.

The Montenotte Campaign opened after Johann Beaulieu's Austrian forces attacked the extreme French
eastern flank near Genoa on 10 April. Bonaparte countered by attacking and crushing the isolated right
wing of the allied armies at the Battle of Montenotte on 12 April. The next day he defeated an Austro-
Sardinian force at the Battle of Millesimo. He then won a victory at the Second Battle of Dego, driving the
Austrians northeast, away from their Piedmontese allies. Satisfied that the Austrians were temporarily
inert, Bonaparte harried Michelangelo Colli's Piedmontese at Ceva and San Michele Mondovi before
whipping them at the Battle of Mondov. A week later, on 28 April, the Piedmontese signed an armistice
at Cherasco, withdrawing from the hostilities. On 18 May they signed a peace treaty at Paris, ceding
Savoy and Nice and allowing the French bases to be used against Austria.

After a short pause, Napoleon carried out a brilliant flanking manoeuvre, and crossed the Po at Piacenza,
nearly cutting the Austrian line of retreat. The Austrians escaped after the Battle of Fombio, but had their
rear-guard mauled at Lodi on 10 May, after which the French took Milan. Bonaparte then advanced
eastwards again, drove off the Austrians in the Battle of Borghetto and in June began the Siege of
Mantua. Mantua was the strongest Austrian base in Italy. Meanwhile, the Austrians retreated north into
the foothills of the Tyrol.

During July and August, Austria sent a fresh army into Italy under Dagobert Wurmser. Wurmser attacked
toward Mantua along the east side of Lake Garda, sending Peter Quasdanovich down the west side in an
effort to envelop Bonaparte. Bonaparte exploited the Austrian mistake of dividing their forces to defeat
them in detail, but in so doing, he abandoned the siege of Mantua, which held out for another six months

(Carl von Clauswitz mentioned in On War that the siege might have been able to be kept up if Bonaparte
(Carl von Clauswitz mentioned in On War that the siege might have been able to be kept up if Bonaparte
had circumvallated the city[13]). Quasdanovich was overcome at Lonato on 3 August and Wurmser at
Castiglione on 5 August. Wurmser retreated to the Tyrol, and Bonaparte resumed the siege.

In September, Bonaparte marched north against Trento in Tyrol, but Wurmser had already marched
toward Mantua by the Brenta valley, leaving Paul Davidovich's force to hold off the French. Bonaparte
overran the holding force at the Battle of Rovereto. Then he followed Wurmser down the Brenta valley,
to fall upon and defeat the Austrians at the Battle of Bassano on 8 September. Wurmser elected to march
for Mantua with a large portion of his surviving troops. The Austrians evaded Bonaparte's attempts to
intercept them but were driven into the city after a pitched battle on 15 September. This left nearly
30,000 Austrians trapped in the fortress. This number rapidly diminished due to disease, combat losses,
and hunger.

The Austrians sent yet another army under Jzsef Alvinczi against Bonaparte in November. Again the
Austrians divided their effort, sending Davidovich's corps from the north while Alvinczi's main body
attacked from the east. At first they proved victorious over the French at Bassano, Calliano, and Caldiero.
But Bonaparte ultimately defeated Alvinczi in the Battle of Arcole southeast of Verona. The French then
turned on Davidovich in great strength and chased him into the Tyrol. Wurmser's only sortie was late and
ineffectual.

The rebellion in the Vende was also finally crushed in 1796 by Hoche, but Hoche's attempt to land a
large invasion force in Ireland was unsuccessful.

1797
On 14 February, British admiral Jervis met and defeated a Spanish fleet off Portugal at the Battle of Cape
St. Vincent. This prevented the Spanish fleet from rendezvousing with the French, removing a threat of
invasion to Britain. However, the British fleet was weakened over the rest of the year by the Spithead and
Nore mutinies, which kept many ships in port through the summer.

On 22 February French invasion force consisting of 1,400 troops from the La Legion Noire (The Black
Legion) under the command of Irish American Colonel William Tate landed near Fishguard (Wales). They
were met by a quickly assembled group of around 500 British reservists, militia and sailors under the
command of John Campbell, 1st Baron Cawdor. After brief clashes with the local civilian population and
Lord Cawdor's forces on 23 February, Tate was forced into an unconditional surrender by 24 February.

In Italy, Napoleon's armies were laying siege to Mantua at the beginning of the year, and a second
attempt by Austrians under Joseph Alvinczy to raise the siege was driven off at the Battle of Rivoli, where
the French scored a decisive victory. Finally, on 2 February, Wurmser surrendered Mantua and 18,000
troops. The Papal forces sued for peace, which was granted at Tolentino on 19 February. Napoleon was
now free to attack the Austrian heartland. He advanced directly toward Austria over the Julian Alps,
sending Barthlemy Joubert to invade the Tyrol.

Archduke Charles of Austria hurried from the German front to defend Austria, but he was defeated at the
Tagliamento on 16 March, and Napoleon proceeded into Austria, occupying Klagenfurt and preparing for
a rendezvous with Joubert in front of Vienna. In Germany, the armies of Hoche and Moreau crossed the
Rhine again in April after the previous year's failure. The victories of Napoleon had frightened the
Austrians into making peace, and they concluded the Peace of Leoben in April, ending hostilities.
However, his absence from Italy had allowed the outbreak of the revolt known as the Veronese Easters
on 17 April, which was put down eight days later.

Although Britain remained at war with France, this effectively ended the First Coalition. Austria later
Although Britain remained at war with France, this effectively ended the First Coalition. Austria later
signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, ceding the Austrian Netherlands to France and recognizing the
French border at the Rhine. Austria and France also partitioned Venice between them.

1798
With only Britain left to fight and not enough of a navy to
fight a direct war, Napoleon conceived of an invasion of
Egypt in 1798, which satisfied his personal desire for
glory and the Directory's desire to have him far from Paris.
The military objective of the expedition is not entirely
clear, but may have been to threaten British dominance in
India.

Napoleon sailed from Toulon to Alexandria, taking Malta

on the way, and landing in June. Marching to Cairo, he
won a great victory at the Battle of the Pyramids;
however, his fleet was sunk by Nelson at the Battle of the
Nile, stranding him in Egypt. Napoleon spent the
remainder of the year consolidating his position in In July 1798, French forces under Napoleon
Egypt.[14] annihilated an Egyptian army at the Battle of
the Pyramids. The victory facilitated the
The French government also took advantage of internal conquest of Egypt and remains one of the most
strife in Switzerland to invade, establishing the Helvetian important battles of the era.
Republic and annexing Geneva. French troops also
deposed Pope Pius VI, establishing a republic in Rome.

An expeditionary force was sent to County Mayo, in Ireland, to assist in the rebellion against Britain in the
summer of 1798. It had some success against British forces, most notably at Castlebar, but was
ultimately routed while trying to reach Dublin. French ships sent to assist them were captured by the
Royal Navy off County Donegal.

The French were also under pressure in the Southern Netherlands and Luxembourg where the local
people revolted against conscription and anti-religious violence (Peasants' War). The French had taken
this territory in 1794, but it was officially theirs in 1797 due to a treaty with Austria. The French forces
easily handed the Peasants' rebellion in the Southern Netherlands, and were able to put down the
revolting forces in under 2 months.

The French in 1798 fought an undeclared war at sea against the United States, that was known variously
as the "Quasi-War", the "Half War" and the "Pirate Wars". It was resolved peaceably with the Convention
of 1800.

War of the Second Coalition

Britain and Austria organized a new coalition against France in 1798, including for the first time the
Russian Empire, although no action occurred until 1799 except against the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

1799

In Egypt, Napoleon had consolidated his control of the country for the time being. Soon after the
In Egypt, Napoleon had consolidated his control of the country for the time being. Soon after the
beginning of the year, he mounted an invasion of Syria, capturing El Arish and Jaffa. On 17 March, he laid
siege to Acre, and defeated an Ottoman effort to relieve the city at the Battle of Mount Tabor on 17 April.
However, his repeated assaults on Acre were driven back by Ottoman and British forces under the
command of Jezzar Pasha and Sir Sidney Smith. By May, with plague rampant in his army and no sign of
success against the city, Napoleon was forced to retreat into Egypt. In July, Turkey, with the help of the
British navy, mounted an invasion by sea from Rhodes. Napoleon attacked the Turkish beachheads and
scored a crushing victory at the Battle of Abukir, capturing and killing the entire enemy army. In August,
Napoleon decided to return to Europe, hearing of the political and military crisis in France. Leaving his
army behind with Klber in command, he sailed through the British blockade to return to Paris and
resolved to take control of the government there in a coup.

In Europe, the French Army of Observation, organized with 30,000men in four divisions, crossed the
Rhine at Kehl and Basel in March 1799. The following day, it was renamed the Army of the Danube.[15]
Under command of Jourdan, the army advanced in four columns through the Black Forest. First Division,
the right wing, assembled at Hningen, crossed at Basel and advanced eastward along the north shore of
the Rhine toward Lake Constance.[16] The Advanced Guard crossed at Kehl, and Vandamme led it north-
east through the mountains via Freudenstadt. This column eventually became the left flank. It was
followed across the Rhine, also at Kehl, by the II. Division. The Third Division and the Reserve also crossed
at Kehl, and then divided into two columns, III. Division traveling through the Black Forest via Oberkirch,
and the Reserve, with most of the artillery and horse, by the valley at Freiburg im Breisgau, where they
would find more forage, and then over the mountains past the Titisee to Lffingen and Hfingen.[17]

The major part of the imperial army, under command of the Archduke Charles', had wintered immediately
east of the Lech, which Jourdan knew, because he had sent agents into Germany with instructions to
identify the location and strength of his enemy. This was less than 64 kilometres (40mi) distant; any
passage over the Lech was facilitated by available bridges, both of permanent construction and temporary
pontoons and a traverse through friendly territory.[18]

In March 1799, the Army of the Danube engaged in two major battles, both in the southwestern German
theater. At the intensely fought Battle of Ostrach, 212 March 1799, the first battle of the War of the
Second Coalition, Austrian forces, under the command of Archduke Charles, defeated Jourdan's Army of
the Danube. The French suffered significant losses and were forced to retreat from the region, taking up
new positions to the west at Messkirch (Mkirch, Mekirch), and then at Stockach and Engen. At the
second battle, in Stockach, on 25 March 1799, the Austrian army achieved a decisive victory over the
French forces, and again pushed the French army west. Jourdan instructed his generals to take up
positions in the Black Forest, and he himself established a base at Hornberg. From there, General Jourdan
relegated command of the army to his chief of staff, Jean Augustin Ernouf, and traveled to Paris to ask for
more and better troops and, ultimately, to request a medical leave.[19]

The Army was reorganized, and a portion placed under the command of Andr Massna and merged with
the Army of Helvetia. Following the reorganization and change in command, the Army participated in
several skirmishes and actions on the eastern part of the Swiss Plateau, including the Battle of
Winterthur. After this action, three forces of the imperial army united north of Zrich, completing a partial
encirclement of Massena's combined Army of the Danube and Army of Switzerland. A few days later, at
the First Battle of Zurich, Massena was forced west, across the Limmat. In late summer, 1799, Charles
was ordered to support imperial activities in the middle Rhineland; he withdrew north across the Rhine,
and marched toward Mannheim, leaving Zrich and northern Switzerland in the hands of the
inexperienced Alexander Korsakov and 25,000 Russian troops. Although the highly capable Friedrich
Freiherr von Hotze remained in support, his 15,000 men were not able to counter Korsakov's poor

defensive arrangements. Three weeks later, at the Second Battle of Zurich, the Russian force was
defensive arrangements. Three weeks later, at the Second Battle of Zurich, the Russian force was
annihilated, and Hotze was killed south of Zrich. This left Massena in control of northern Switzerland,
and closed forced Suvorov into an arduous three-week march into the Vorarlberg, where his troops
arrived, starving and exhausted, in mid-October.[19]

Napoleon himself invaded Syria from Egypt, but after a failed siege of Acre retreated to Egypt, repelling a
British-Turkish invasion. Alerted to the political and military crisis in France, he returned, leaving his army
behind, and used his popularity and army support to mount a coup that made him First Consul, the head
of the French government.[20]

1800
In Italy, the Austrians under General Melas attacked first, and by the
third week in April had advanced to the Var, with Massena and half his
army in Genoa besieged by land by the Austrians and under tight
blockade by the Royal Navy. In response Berthier moved not to the
threatened frontier, but to Geneva- and Massena was instructed to
hold Genoa until 4 June. The Army of the Reserve was joined by
Napoleon, and in mid-May set out to cross the Alps to attack the
Austrian rear. The bulk of the army crossed by the Great St Bernard
Pass, still under snow, and by 24 May 40,000 troops were in the
valley of the Po. Artillery was man-hauled over with great effort and
ingenuity; however an Austrian-held fort on the Italian side (although
bypassed by infantry and cavalry) prevented most of the artillery
reaching the plains of Northern Italy until the start of June.

Once over the Alps, Napoleon did not proceed directly to the relief of
Genoa. Instead, he advanced on Milan, to improve his lines of Napoleon Crossing the Alps by
communication (via the Simplon and St Gotthard passes) and to Jacques-Louis David. In one of the
threaten Melas's lines of communication with Mantua and Vienna, in famous paintings of Napoleon, the
the belief that this would cause Melas to raise the siege of Genoa. He Consul and his army are depicted
entered Milan on 2 June and by crossing to the South bank of the Po crossing the Swiss Alps on their
completely cut Melas's communications. Taking up a strong defensive way to Italy. The daring maneuver
position at Stradella, he confidently awaited an attempt by the surprised the Austrians and forced
Austrian Army to fight its way out. a decisive engagement at Marengo
in June 1800. Victory there
However, Melas had not raised the siege of Genoa, and on 4 June, allowed Napoleon to strengthen
Massna had duly capitulated. Napoleon then faced the possibility his political position back in
that, thanks to the British command of the Mediterranean, far from France.
falling back, the Austrians could instead take Genoa as their new base
and be supplied by sea. His defensive posture would not prevent this;
he had to find and attack the Austrians before they could regroup. He therefore advanced from Stradella
towards Alessandria, where Melas was, apparently doing nothing. Convinced that Melas was about to
retreat, Napoleon sent strong detachments to block Melas's routes northwards to the Po, and
southwards to Genoa. At this point, Melas attacked, and for all the brilliance of the previous campaign,
Napoleon found himself at a significant disadvantage in the consequent Battle of Marengo (14 June).
Napoleon and the French came under huge pressure in the early hours of the battle. Melas believed he
had already won and turned over delivery of the final blow to a subordinate. Suddenly, the prompt return
of a detached French force under Desaix and a vigorous French counter-attack converted the battle into a
decisive French victory. The Austrians lost half of their army, but Desaix was one of the French victims.

Melas promptly entered into negotiations which led to the Austrians evacuating Northern Italy west of the
Melas promptly entered into negotiations which led to the Austrians evacuating Northern Italy west of the
Ticino, and suspending military operations in Italy. Napoleon returned to Paris after the victory, leaving
Brune to consolidate in Italy and begin a march toward Austria.

In the German theater, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine at the
beginning of 1800. Feldzeugmeister Pl Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. In addition to his
Austrian regulars, his force included 12,000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria, 6,000 troops from the
Duchy of Wrttemberg, 5,000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz, and 7,000
militiamen from the County of Tyrol. Of these, 25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance
(Bodensee) to protect the Vorarlberg. Kray posted his main body of 95,000 soldiers in the L-shaped angle
where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a
northward flow along the eastern border of France. Unwisely, Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach,
near the northwestern end of Lake Constance, only a day's march from French-held Switzerland.[21]

General of Division Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded a

modestly-equipped army of 137,000 French troops. Of these,
108,000 troops were available for field operations while the other
29,000 watched the Swiss border and held the Rhine fortresses. First
Consul Napoleon Bonaparte offered a plan of operations based on
outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland, but Moreau
declined to follow it. Rather, Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near
Basel where the river swung to the north. A French column would
distract Kray from Moreau's true intentions by crossing the Rhine
from the west. Bonaparte wanted Claude Lecourbe's corps to be
detached to Italy after the initial battles, but Moreau had other
General Moreau at the Battle of
Hohenlinden, a decisive French
plans.[22] Through a series of complicated maneuvers in which he
victory in Bavaria which
flanked, double flanked, and reflanked Kray's army, Moreau's army lay
precipitated the end of the
on the eastern slope of the Black Forest, while portions of Kray's
Revolutionary Wars. army was still guarded the passes on the other side.[23] Battles at
Engen and Stockach were fought on 3 May 1800 between the army
of the French First Republic under Jean Victor Marie Moreau and the
army of Habsburg Austria led by Pl Kray. The fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy
losses on both sides. However, while the two main armies were engaged at Engen, Claude Lecourbe
captured Stockach from its Austrian defenders under the Joseph, Prince of Lorraine-Vaudemont. The loss
of this main supply base at Stockach compelled Kray to order a retreat to Messkirch, where they enjoyed
a more favourable defensive position. It also meant, however, that any retreat by Kray into Austria via
Switzerland and the Vorarlberg was cut off.[24]

On 4 and 5 May, the French launched repeated and fruitless assaults on the Messkirch. At nearby
Krumbach, where the Austrians also had the superiority of position and force, the 1st Demi-Brigade took
the village and the heights around it, which gave them a commanding aspect over Messkirch.
Subsequently, Kray withdrew his forces to Sigmaringen, followed closely by the French. Fighting at
nearby Biberach an der Ris ensued on 9 May; action principally consisted of the 25,000 man-strong
French "Center", commanded by Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr.[25] After being flanked by General Moreau,
who approached Ulm from the east and overwhelmed his outposts at Battle of Hchstdt, Kray retreated
to Munich. Again, on 10 May, the Austrians withdrew with heavy losses, this time to Ulm.[26]

A several month armistice followed, during which Kray was replaced by the Archduke John, with the
Austrian army retiring behind the river Inn. Austrian reluctance to accept negotiated terms caused the
French to end the armistice in mid-November, effective in two weeks. When the armistice ended, John
advanced over the Inn towards Munich. His army was defeated in small engagements at the battles of
advanced over the Inn towards Munich. His army was defeated in small engagements at the battles of
Ampfing and Neuburg an der Donau, and decisively in the forests before the city at Hohenlinden on 3
December. Moreau began a march on Vienna, and the Austrians soon sued for peace, ending the war on
the continent.

1801
By 9 February, the Austrians had signed the Treaty of Lunville, ending the war on the continent. The war
against the United Kingdom continued (with Neapolitan harbours closed to her by the Treaty of Florence,
signed on 28 March), and the Turks invaded Egypt in March, losing to Klber at Heliopolis. The exhausted
French force in Egypt, however, surrendered in August.

The naval war also continued, with the United Kingdom maintaining a blockade of France by sea. Non-
combatants Russia, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden joined to protect neutral shipping from British attacks,
but were unsuccessful. British Admiral Horatio Nelson defied orders and attacked the Danish fleet in
harbor at the Battle of Copenhagen, destroying much of the fleet of one of France's more steady allies
during the period. An armistice prevented him from continuing into the Baltic Sea to attack the Russian
fleet at Reval (Tallinn). Meanwhile, off Gibraltar, the outnumbered French squadron under Linois rebuffed
a first British attack under Saumarez in the First Battle of Algeciras, capturing a line-of-battle ship. In the
Second Battle of Algeciras, four days later, the British captured a French ship and sank two others, killing
around 2000 French for the loss of 12 British.

1802

In 1802, the British and French signed the Treaty of Amiens, ending the war. Thus began the longest
period of peace during the period 17921815. The treaty is generally considered to be the most
appropriate point to mark the transition between the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic
Wars, although Napoleon was not crowned emperor until 1804.

Influence
The French Revolution transformed nearly all aspects of French and European life. The powerful
sociopolitical forces unleashed by a people seeking libert, galit, and fraternit made certain that even
warfare was not spared this upheaval. 18th-century armieswith their rigid protocols, static operational
strategy, unenthusiastic soldiers, and aristocratic officer classesunderwent massive remodeling as the
French monarchy and nobility gave way to liberal assemblies obsessed with external threats. The
fundamental shifts in warfare that occurred during the period have prompted scholars to identify the era
as the beginning of "modern war".[27]

In 1791 the Legislative Assembly passed the "Drill-Book" legislation, implementing a series of infantry
doctrines created by French theorists because of their defeat by the Prussians in the Seven Years' War.[28]
The new developments hoped to exploit the intrinsic bravery of the French soldier, made even more
powerful by the explosive nationalist forces of the Revolution. The changes also placed a faith on the
ordinary soldier that would be completely unacceptable in earlier times; French troops were expected to
harass the enemy and remain loyal enough to not desert, a benefit other Ancien Rgime armies did not
have.

Following the declaration of war in 1792, an imposing array of enemies converging on French borders
prompted the government in Paris to adopt radical measures. 23 August 1793, would become a historic
day in military history; on that date the National Convention called a leve en masse, or mass
conscription, for the first time in human history. By summer of
conscription, for the first time in human history. By summer of
the following year, conscription made some 500,000 men
available for service and the French began to deal blows to their
European enemies.[29]

Armies during the Revolution became noticeably larger than their

Holy Roman counterparts, and combined with the new
enthusiasm of the troops, the tactical and strategic opportunities
became profound. By 1797 the French had defeated the First
Coalition, occupied the Low Countries, the west bank of the
Rhine, and Northern Italy, objectives which had defied the Valois The armies of the Revolution at
and Bourbon dynasties for centuries. Unsatisfied with the results, Jemappes in 1792. With chaos
many European powers formed a Second Coalition, but by 1801 internally and enemies on the borders,
this too had been decisively beaten. Another key aspect of the French were in a period of
French success was the changes wrought in the officer classes. uncertainty during the early years of the
Traditionally, European armies left major command positions to Revolutionary Wars. By 1797, however,
those who could be trusted, namely, the aristocracy. The hectic France dominated much of Western
nature of the French Revolution, however, tore apart France's old Europe, conquering the Rhineland, the
army, meaning new men were required to become officers and Netherlands, and the Italian peninsula
commanders. while erecting a series of sister
republics and puppet states stretching
In addition to opening a flood of tactical and strategic from Spain to the German heartland.
opportunities, the Revolutionary Wars also laid the foundation
for modern military theory. Later authors that wrote about
"nations in arms" drew inspiration from the French Revolution, in which dire circumstances seemingly
mobilized the entire French nation for war and incorporated nationalism into the fabric of military
history.[30] Although the reality of war in the France of 1795 would be different from that in the France of
1915, conceptions and mentalities of war evolved significantly. Clausewitz correctly analyzed the
Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras to give posterity a thorough and complete theory of war that
emphasized struggles between nations occurring everywhere, from the battlefield to the legislative
assemblies, and to the very way that people think.[31] War now emerged as a vast panorama of physical
and psychological forces heading for victory or defeat.

See also
Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleonic Wars

Footnotes
Notes

1. The Austrian Netherlands and the Duchy of Milan were under direct Austrian rule. Many other Italian states, as
well as other Habsburg ruled states such as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, had close ties with the Habsburgs.
2. Neutral following the Treaty of Basel in 1795.
3. Became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.
4. French invasion of Switzerland
 5. Virtually all of the Italian states, including the neutral Papal States and the Republic of Venice, were conquered
following Napoleon's invasion in 1796 and became French satellite states.
6. Most forces fled rather than engaging the invading French army. Allied with France in 1795 as the Batavian
Republic following the Peace of Basel.
7. War against Austria was actually announced in the National Assembly by then King Louis XVI of the French on
20 April 1792 while the kingdom still existed in name. (Constitutional) monarchy was suspended on 10 August
following the assault on the Tuileries, and abolished 21 September 1792
8. Started the Irish Rebellion of 1798 against British rule.
9. Arrived in France following the abolition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Third Partition in
1795.
10. Re-entered the war as an ally of France after signing the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso.
11. Officially neutral but Danish fleet was attacked by Great Britain at the Battle of Copenhagen.

References
1. TCW Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars. pp.
7879.
2. TCW Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars. pp.
25455.
3. Robert Doughty and Ira Gruber, ed. Warfare in the
Western World: volume 1: Military operations from
1600 to 1871 (1996) p. 187
4. Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution Volume II:
from 1793 to 1799 (1964) ch 1
5. Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of
England in the Eighteenth Century (https://archive.
org/stream/historyenglandei05leck#page/601/mo
de/1up) Volume V (1890) p. 601
6. Charles Esdaile (2002). The French Wars 1792
1815. Routledge. p.7.
7. William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French
Revolution (1989) p. 194
8. Jeremy Black (1994). British Foreign Policy in an
Age of Revolutions, 17831793. p.408.
9. Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, A History of
England in the Eighteenth Century (https://archive.or
g/stream/ahistoryengland34leckgoog#page/n144/m
ode/1up) Volume VI (1890) pp. 10130
10. Alan Forrest, Soldiers of the French Revolution
(1989)
11. Robert Forczyk, Toulon 1793: Napoleon's First Great
Victory (2005)
12. Paddy Griffith, The Art of War of Revolutionary
France, 17891802 (1998)
13. On War, Book II, Chapter 5, 24., Carl von
Clausewitz, translated by Michael Howard, p. 188
ISBN 1-85715-121-6
14. Paul Strathern, Napoleon in Egypt: The Greatest
Glory (2007)
15. Jourdan, p. 140.
Glory (2007)
15. Jourdan, p. 140.
16. Massna, commanding the Army of Switzerland,
sent a Demi-brigade to secure the Swiss town of
Schaffhausen, on the north shore of the Rhine,
which guaranteed communications between the
two forces. Jourdan, pp. 9697.
17. Jourdan, p. 97.
18. Rothenberg, pp. 7074; Jourdan, pp. 6588; 96
100; Blanning, p. 232; (German) Ruth Broda.
"Schlacht von Ostrach: jhrt sich zum 210. Mal
Feier am Wochenende. Wie ein Dorf zum
Kriegsschauplatz wurde. In: Sdkurier vom 13. Mai
2009.
19. Young, pp. 230345; Gallagher, p. 7079; Jourdan,
pp. 190204.
20. Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution Volume II:
from 1793 to 1799 (1964) ch 13
21. Arnold, 19799
22. Arnold, 199201
23. W.M. Sloane, Life of Napoleon. France, 1896, p.
109.
24. Sloane, 109
25. Sloane, pp. 10910.
26. Digby Smith, Napoleonic Wars Databook. London:
Greenhill Press, 1998, p. 178.
27. Lester Kurtz and Jennifer Turpin, Encyclopedia of
violence, peace and conflict, Volume 2. p. 425
28. David G. Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon. p.
136
29. T. C. W. Blanning, The French Revolutionary Wars.
p. 109
30. Parker, Geoffrey. The Cambridge history of
warfare. p. 189
31. Peter Paret, Clausewitz and the State. p. 332

Further reading
 Atkinson, Charles Francis; Hannay, David McDowall (1911). "French Revolutionary Wars". In
Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopdia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.171205.
Bertaud, Jean-Paul. The Army of the French Revolution: From Citizen-Soldiers to Instrument of Power
(1988), a major French study
Black, Jeremy. British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 178393 (1994)
Blanning, T. C. W. The French Revolutionary Wars, 17871801. (1996) excerpt and text search (htt
p://www.amazon.com/French-Revolutionary-Wars-1787-1802-Modern/dp/0340569115/)
Bryant, Arthur. Years of Endurance 17931802 (1942); on Britain
Connelly, Owen. The wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon, 17921815 (2006)
Crawley, C. W., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 9: War and Peace in an Age of Upheaval,
17931830 (1965), comprehensive global coverage by experts
Doughty, Robert, and Ira Gruber, eds. Warfare in the Western World: volume 1: Military operations
from 1600 to 1871 (1996) pp. 17394
Dupuy, Trevor N. and Dupuy, R. Ernest. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History (2nd ed. 1970)
pp. 67893
Esdaile, Charles. The French Wars 17921815 (2002) 113pp excerpt and text search (http://www.a
mazon.com/French-Wars-1792-1815-Lancaster-Pamphlets-ebook/dp/B000P2XH9Y/), ch 1
Forrest, Alan. Soldiers of the French Revolution (1989)
Forrest, Alan. "French Revolutionary Wars (17921802)" in Gordon Martel, ed. The Encyclopedia of
War (2012).
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. The French Revolutionary Wars (Essential Histories) (2013) excerpt and
text search (http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolutionary-Wars-Essential-Histories-ebook/dp/B0
0DSLXXKM/)
Gardiner, Robert. Fleet Battle And Blockade: The French Revolutionary War 17931797 (2006), naval
excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Fleet-Battle-Blockade-Revolutionary-1793-1797/
dp/1845600118/)
Griffith, Paddy. The Art of War of Revolutionary France, 17891802 (1998) excerpt and text search (h
ttp://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/); military
topics, but not a battle history
Knight, Roger. Britain Against Napoleon: The Organisation of Victory, 17931815 (2013)
Lavery, Brian. Nelson's Navy, Revised and Updated: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 17931815 (2nd
ed. 2012)
Lefebvre, Georges. The French Revolution Volume II: from 1793 to 1799 (1964).
Lynn, John A. The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation And Tactics In The Army Of Revolutionary
France, 179194 (1984)
Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon (2014), a major biography
Rodger, A.B. The War of the Second Coalition: 1798 to 1801, a strategic commentary (1964)
Ross, Steven T. Quest for Victory; French Military Strategy, 17921799 (1973)
Ross, Steven T. European Diplomatic History, 17891815: France Against Europe (1969)
Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1982). Napoleon's Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles and the Austrian
Army 17921814.
Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution
and Napoleon," Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1988) 18#4 pp.77193 in JSTOR (http://www.jst
or.org/stable/204824)
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 17631848 (Oxford University Press,
1996); advanced diplomatic history; pp. 100230 online (http://www.questia.com/library/3696068/
the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848)
 Schneid, Frederick C.: The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nb
n:de:0159-20101025334), European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011.
Retrieved 29 June 2011.
von Guttner, Darius. The French Revolution (https://www.academia.edu/9869783/The_French_Revoluti
on) [1] (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283319192_The_French_Revolution) (2015).

Historiography

Simms, Brendan. "Britain and Napoleon," Historical Journal (1998) 41#3 pp.88594 in JSTOR (htt
p://www.jstor.org/stable/2639908)

In French

Attar, Frank, La Rvolution franaise dclare la guerre l'Europe. ISBN 2-87027-448-3

Attar, Frank, Aux armes citoyens! Naissance et fonctions du bellicisme rvolutionnaire. ISBN 2-
0208-8891-2

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