UNIT - 1

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
1.0 INTRODUCTION:
COMMUNICATION: Communication is process of transferring message or information from one place to
another.
ANALOG COMMUNICATION:- It is the type of communication in which the message or information
signal to be transmitted is analog in nature. This means that in analog communication, the modulating signal is
an analog signal.
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION:- In digital communication, the message signal to be transmitted is digital in
nature. This means that digital communication involves the transmission of information in digital form.
Analog and digital signals:
SIGNAL:- It is a physical quantity which varies with time either continuously or discretely.Signals which are
representing in many forms in which it is divided into analog and digital form.
Analog signals:
Analog signals are in the form of continuousvariable such as electric current. An analog signal has
infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from
Value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its path.
The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular axes. The vertical axis
represents the value or strength of a signal. The horizontal axis represents time. The below Figure illustrates an
analog signal and a digital signal. The curve representing the analog signal passes through an infinite number of
points.
Ex. Voice , pressure, ECG signal etc.,

Digital Signal:
Digital signals are in the form of discretequantities and has binary digits. A digital signal, on the other
hand, can have only a limited number of defined values. Although each value can be any number, it is often as
simple as 1 and O. The vertical lines of the digital signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump that the signal
makes from value to value.
Ex. Information in bits or bytes.
Representation of data in signals:

Signals are the electric or electromagnetic encoding of data. Signals are used to transmit data. There are
two types of signals i.e., analog and digital. These two types of signals can be transmitted as an analog signal or
as a digital signal. This means that an analog signal can be transmitted as it is as an analog signal or it can be
transmitted as a digital signal by encoding the signal certain methods. Similarly, a digital signal can be
transmitted as it is as digital signal or it can be encoded as analog signal before transmission Thus there are 4
possible combinations
1.Analog Signal, Analog Transmission AM,FM,PM
2.Digital Signal, Digital Transmission -- NRZ,RZ,Bi phase encoding
3.DigitalSignal, Analog Transmission ASK,PSK,FSK
4.Analog Signal, Digital Transmission -- PCM,DM
1.2 COMPARE ANALOG COMMUNICATION WITH DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Analog Communication Digital Communication

1. Analog data is in the form of continuous 1. Digital data is in the form of discrete
variable such as electric current. quantities and has binary digits.

2. Cost of transmission is low . 2. Cost of transmission is high .

3. Efficiency is low 3. Efficiency is high.

4.Effect of noise is high. 4. Effect of noise is low.

5. Attenuation is high. 5. Attenuation is low.

6. Bandwidth requirement is low. 6. Bandwidth requirement is high.

7.Modulationtechniques:AM,PM,FM,PAM
7.PCM,DM,ASK,PSK,FSK,QAM
etc.

8.Requirement of power is high 8.Requirement of power is low.

9.Ex: Voice, video and radio transmission 9.Text ,Data & integers in CD/DVD

Advantages of Digital Communication Over Analog Modulation:

There are many advantages of using Digital Communication over Analog Communication. Some of them
are listed as below:
The digital communication has mostly common structure of encoding a signal so devices used are
mostly similar.
The Digital Communication's main advantage is that it provides us added security to our information
signal.
The digital Communication system has more immunity to noise and external interference.
Digital information can be saved and retrieved when necessary while it is not possible in analog.
The configuring process of digital communication system is simple as compared to analog
communication system. Although, they are complex.
In Digital Communication System, the error correction and detection techniques can be implemented
easily.
 Digital signals are better suited for processing and combining using multiplexing techniques.
Transmission speed is more.
Transmission power requirements are less.
Reproduction of Digital messages is extremely reliable.
Disadvantages:

Transmission of digitally encoded analog signals requires significantly more bandwidth than that
required for transmission of the original analog signal.
Digital transmission requires precise time synchronization between the clocks used in transmitters and
receivers, thereby a significant part of their resources are required to be allocated.
There is need of additional hardware for encoding for converting analog signals to digital pulses prior to
digital transmission, as well as additional decoding circuitry at the receiver to convert back to the
original signals.
1.3 INFORMATION CAPACITY:
The amount of information that can be transmitted over a channel is called information capacity of a
channel.
The maximum information that can be transmitted over a channel in a given time depends on the
characteristics of the channel. According to Hartleys law the information capacity is directly
proportional to the bandwidth of the channel and transmission time.
I BT
I = KBT
Where, I is information capacity of channel in bits/sec (bps)
K is constant
B is Bandwidth of the channel in Hz
T is transmission time in seconds
K is also directly proportional to I
The greater the bandwidth of the channel, the greater will be the amount of information that can be
transmitted in a given time.
But there is a limit to the amount of data can be sent in a given bandwidth. This limits is given by
Shannon Hartleys theorem which is given by
C = 2B log2 M
Where,
C= information capacity (or) channel capacity in bps.
B=Bandwidth of channels in Hz
M=No.of levels transmitted
From the above equation any desired amount of information can be transmitted in a given
channel by increasing the number of levels. But, it is not possible because of noise.
The receiver may be recognizing the levels wrongly because of noise. Therefore there will be maximum
data rate for a given noise level. The maximum rate is called Shannon Limit which is given by
C = B log2 (1+SNR) bits per second
Where, C = Information capacity in bps
B=Bandwidth of channel in Hz
SNR=signal to Noise ratio.
In the above equation SNR should be power ratio not in decibels.
1.4 .SAMPLING THEOREM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE:

Sampling is a process of which continuous signal is converted into discrete time signals.The process of
transmitting signals in the form of pulses (discontinuous signals) by using special techniques.The signal is
sampled at regular intervals such that each sample is proportional to the amplitude of signal at that instant. This
technique is called sampling.Sampling is common in all pulse modulation techniques.
Analog signal is sampled every TS secs. Tsis referred to as the sampling interval.
fs = 1/Tsis called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.

SAMPLING THEOREM:
Sampling theorem states that if the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system exceeds twice
the maximum frequency of the message signal (fs 2fm), the original signal can be reconstructed in the
receiver with minimum distortion.
Sampling Rate:
It is rate of taking samples taken to gather the actual information from a signal. Sampling rate is defined
as inverse of sampling frequency.
Ts = 1 / fs where fs is sampling rate
Tsis sampling frequency

Fig: Sampling process

Nyquist rate: (Minimum Sampling Rate)
When the sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2fm samples per second is called Nyquist Rate.
fs =2fm
Similarly, maximum sampling interval is called Nyquist Interval.
TS = 1/2fm seconds.
ALIASING EFFECT: If the sampling rate is too low, it will results in aliasing or fold over
distortion.Aliasing occurs when sampling rate is less than twice the maximum frequency of the message
signals.
fs< 2fm
Where, fs = sampling rate and fm = maximum frequency of message signal

Fig: Aliasing effect

If the aliasing occur the signal cannot be reconstructed properly. Once aliasing is present it cannot be
removed. Hence use sampling frequency greater than are equal to twice the maximum frequency for
reconstruction of the message signal without distortion.
Aliasing takes place if fs< 2fm.
TYPES OF SAMPLING: There are 3 sampling methods:
Instantaneous sampling (Ideal sampling)
Natural sampling
Flat topped sampling
Ideal sampling (Instantaneous sampling):
In this type of sampling, the sampling function is a train of impulse.
Natural Sampling:
In natural sampling the amplitude of the sampling pulse varies during the length of the time it is present.
It is undesirable in some applications. A pulse of short width with varying amplitudes.
Flot-topped sampling:
The sample and hold circuit is used to keep the pulse amplitude constant for duration of pulse. This is
called Flat-topped sampling. Sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude values.
 Pulse modulation:
It is a process in which sum of the characteristics of pulse train varies in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the message signal. The main difference from analog modulation technique is, in this
modulation we use pulse signal as a carrier signal.
(or)
Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog information signals and then converting those
samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a source to a destination over a physical
transmission medium.
There are different kinds of modulation technique based on varying the properties of a pulse train. In this
synchronizing, pulses are sent with the information related to the signal at different time samples.
Advantages & disadvantages of Digital Transmission (or) pulse modulation:
Advantages
- -Noise immunity
--Multiplexing (Time domain)
--Regeneration
--Simple to evaluate and measure
Disadvantages
--Requires more bandwidth
--Additional encoding (A/D) and decoding (D/A) circuitry

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PULSE MODULATION

There are two main categories in which pulse modulation can be divided.
1. Analog pulse modulation
2. Digital pulse modulation
 Pulse modulation

Analog pulse modulation Digital pulse modulation

PAM PWM PPM PCM DPCM DM ADM

PULSE ANALOG MODULATION METHODS

In analog pulse modulation the characteristics (amplitude, position and width) of pulse carrier is varied
in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal. There are two types of pulse analog modulation
systems.

1.Pulse Amplitude Modulation(PAM): In PAM, the amplitude of each carrier pulse is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. The amplitude of each pulse is
proportional to the amplitude of the message signal at the instant of sampling.
2.Pulse Time Modulation (PTM): In PTM, the timing of the pulses of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. There are two types of PTM
PWM, PPM.
a)Pulse width modulation(PWM):-It is also known as pulse duration modulation(PDM) and also
known as Pulse Length Modulation(PLM). In PWM, the width of the carrier pulse is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal. The width of each pulse is proportional
to the amplitude of the message signal.
b) Pulse position modulation (PPM) :In PPM the position of the carrier pulse is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. The position of each pulse is proportional to the
amplitude of the message signal.
 DIGITAL PULSE MODULATION
In analog pulse modulation, time is discrete, but the pulse parameters are analog. Both time and
pulse parameters are discrete in pulse digital modulation. There are different types of pulse digital
modulation systems. They are
a) Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) : If the amplitude of the can be approximately represented by a
discrete amplitude value, then it is known as pulse code modulation. It is the process in which
message signal is sampled and th amplitude of each pulse is rounded off to the nearest one of a finite
set of allowable values.
b) Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
Differential pulse code modulation is a technique of analog to digital signal conversion. This
technique samples the analog signal and then quantizes the difference between the sampled value and its
predicted value. It then encodes the signal to form a digital value.
c) Delta Modulation
Delta modulation uses a single bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of analog signals.
Only a single bit is transmitted which simply indicates whether that sample is larger (or) smaller than the
previous sample.
d) Adaptive Delta Modulation
ADM quantizes the difference between the current sample and the predicted value of the next
sample. Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) is another voice coding because of it have bit error
robustness and its low implementation cost.
1.6 EXPLAIN PAM, PWM & PPM WITH WAVEFORMS
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
It is a process in which the amplitude of the carrier pulse train varies in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the message signal. (or)
In PAM, the amplitude of each carrier pulse is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the message signal. The amplitude of each pulse is proportional to the amplitude of the message signal at
the instant of sampling.
In some PAM systems, the amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to the instantaneous
modulating-signal amplitude at the time the pulse occurs. In other PAM systems, the amplitude of each pulse is
inversely proportional to the instantaneous modulating-signal amplitude at the time the pulse occurs. In still
other systems, the intensity of each pulse depends on some characteristic of the modulating signal other than its
strength, such as its instantaneous frequency or phase .

PAM is only one of several forms of pulse modulation. Other methods include varying the durations
(or widths), the frequencies, the positions, or the intervals of the individual pulses in a sequence.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION:
It is a process in which the width of the carrier pulse train varies in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the message signal. Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation
(PDM), is a modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this modulation
technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power
supplied to electrical devices.

PWM is sometimes called pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse length modulation (PLM), as the
width (active portion of the duty cycle) of a constant amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the
amplitude of the analog signal at the time the signal is sampled.
The maximum analog signal amplitude produces the widest pulse, and the minimum analog signal
amplitude produces the narrowest pulse. Note, however, that all pulses have the same amplitude.
PULSE POSITION MODULATION:
It is a process in which the position of carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the message signal. (or)

In PPM the position of the carrier pulse is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal.The position of each pulse is proportional to the amplitude of the message signal.

1.8 GENERATION& DEMODULATION OF PAM

In PAM, the modulating signal modulates the carrier pulse amplitude. As mentioned here amplitude of
high frequency carrier is varied in accordance with the sampled values of message signal. The figure depicts
time domain representation of the PAM technique which mentions analog message signal and PAM
modulated signal as output.
 In PAM, amplitude of pulses is varied in accordance with instantaneous value of modulating signal.The
carrier is in the form of narrow pulses having frequency fs. The uniform sampling takes place in multiplier
to generate PAM signal. Samples are placed Ts sec away from each other.

The fig shows the block dig of PAM generator. It consists of LPF, a multiplier and pulse train
generator. Initially, the modulating signal is passed through the LPF. The LPF removes all the frequency
components which are higher than the frequency fm. this is known as band limiting. The band limiting is
necessary to avoid the aliasing affect in the sampling process. The pulse train generator generates a pulse
train at a frequency fs such that fs fm. Thus the Nyquist criteria is satisfied. The pulse sampling network
does the shaping work to give flat tops.

Fig. Block diagram of PAM generator

DEMODULATION OF PAM
Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation in which the modulating signal is recovered back from a
modulated signal. For PAM signals , the demodulation is done using a holding circuit. In this method, the
received PAM signal is allowed to pass through a holding circuit and a LPF as shown in fig.
The holding circuit is shown in fig. Here the switch S is closed after the arrival of pulse and the
capacitor is charged. It is opened at the end of the pulse. In this way, the capacitor is charged to the pulse
amplitude value and it holds the value during the interval between two pulses. Hence the sampled values are
held as shown in fig. after this holding circuit output is smoothened in LPF. It may be observed that some kind
of distortion is introduced due to the holding circuit.
1.7 Advantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
It is the base for all digital modulation techniques and it is simple process for both modulation and
demodulation technique.
No complex circuitry is required for both transmission and reception. Transmitter and receiver circuitry
is simple and easy to construct.
PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals and can carry the message or information at same
time.
Disadvantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
Bandwidth should be large for transmitting the pulse amplitude modulation signal. Due to Nyquist
criteria also high bandwidth is required.
The frequency varies according to the modulating signal or message signal. Due to these variations in
the signal frequency, interferences will be there. So noise will be great. For PAM, noise immunity is less
when compared to other modulation techniques. It is almost equal to amplitude modulation.
Pulse amplitude signal varies, so power required for transmission will be more, peak power is also, even
at receiving more power is required to receive the pulse amplitude signal.
Applications of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
It is mainly used in Ethernet which is type of computer network communication, we know that we can
use Ethernet for connecting two systems and transfer data between the systems. Pulse amplitude
modulation is used for Ethernet communications.
It is also used for photo biology which is a study of photosynthesis.
Used as electronic driver for LED lighting.
Used in many micro controllers for generating the control signals etc.
Advantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
As like pulse position modulation, noise interference is less due to amplitude has been made
constant.
Signal can be separated very easily at demodulation and noise can also be separated easily.
Synchronization between transmitter and receiver is not required unlike pulse position
modulation.
Disadvantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

Power will be variable because of varying in width of pulse. Transmitter can handle the power
even for maximum width of the pulse.
Bandwidth should be large to use in communication, should be huge even when compared to the
pulse amplitude modulation.
Applications of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

PWM is used in telecommunication systems.

PWM can be used to control the amount of power delivered to a load without incurring the
losses. So, this can be used in power delivering systems.
Audio effects and amplifications purposes also used.
PWM signals are used to control the speed of the robot by controlling the motors.
PWM is also used in robotics.
Embedded applications.
Analog and digital applications etc.
Generation of PWM & PPM
Pulse Width Modulation :
A simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the intersective
PWM. The signal is compared with a saw tooth waveform. When the latter is less than the former, the PWM
signal is in high state (1). Otherwise it is in the low state (0).
The block diagram is used for generation of PWM as well as PPM. In this case a saw tooth signal of
frequency fs is a sampling signal. It is applied to inverting terminal of a comparator with modulating signal at
non inverting terminal. O/P remains high as long as modulating signal is higher than that of ramp signal
Pulse Position Modulation:
The PPM signal can be generated from PWM signal. The PWM pulses obtained at the comparator
output are applied to a mono stable multi vibrator which is ve edge triggered. Hence for each trailing edge of
PWM signal, the mono stable output goes high. It remains high for a fixed time decided by its own RC
components. Thus as the trailing edges of the PWM signal keeps shifting in proportion with the modulating
signal, the PPM pulses also keep shifting. Therefore all the PPM pulses have the same amplitude and width.
The information is conveyed via changing position of pulses

1.12 Advantages of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):

Pulse position modulation has low noise interference when compared to PAM because amplitude and
width of the pulses are made constant during modulation.
Noise removal and separation is very easy in pulse position modulation.
Power usage is also very low when compared to other modulations due to constant pulse amplitude and
width.
Disadvantages of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
The synchronization between transmitter and receiver is required, which is not possible for every time
and we need dedicated channel for it.
Large bandwidth is required for transmission same as pulse amplitude modulation.
Special equipments are required in this type of modulations.
Applications of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
Used in non coherent detection where a receiver does not need any Phase lock loop for tracking the
phase of the carrier.
Used in radio frequency (RF) communication.
Also used in contactless smart card, high frequency, RFID (radio frequency ID) tags and etc.
1.11 COMPARISION OF PAM,PWM and PPM
Pulse amplitude Pulse width Pulse position
S.No
modulation (PAM) modulation(PWM) modulation(PPM)
1.

2. Amplitude of the pulse is Width of the pulse is The relative position of the
proportional to amplitude proportional to amplitude of pulse is proportional to the
of message signal modulating signal amplitude of the message signal.
3. The bandwidth of the Bandwidth of the transmission Bandwidth of transmission
transmission channel channel depends on raise time channel depends on rising time
depends width of the pulse. of the pulse. of the pulse.
4. The instantaneous power of The instantaneous power of the The instantaneous power of the
the transmitter various. transmitter various. transmitter remains constant.
5. Noise interference is high. Noise interference is minimum. Noise interference is minimum
6. Similar to amplitude Similar to implement similar to Similar to implement similar to
modulation. FM. PM.
7. System is complex. Simple to implement Simple to implement
8. Synchronization pulses are Synchronization pulses are not Synchronization pulses are
not needed needed needed

1.14 QUANTIZATION
The process of converting a discrete-time continuous amplitude signal such as the sampled version of
analog signal into a discrete-time signal is called Quantization. This is done by approximating the amplitude
of each sample value to the nearest value from a set of pre determined discrete amplitude levels is called
quantization level.
(or) Quantization is the process of rounding off the sampled voltages to a nearest values to produce
digitalized output.
 For given 8 quantization levels the step size will be 8 V/8= 1V. That means the quantization
levels will be -3.5v, -2.5v, -1.5v, -0.5v, 0.5v, 1.5v, 2.5v, 3.5v. To represent 8 distinct quantization levels, we
require 3 bits. So, the corresponding code number and binary representation will be 0(000), 1(001), 2(010),
3(011), 4(100), 5(101), 6(110) and 7(111).

1.15 PROCESS OF QUANTIZATION WITH WAVEFORMS

The process of quantization is shown in fig. let a signal em(t) whose excursion is confined in the range
from Vmin to Vmax . it is divided this total range Vmax - Vmin into m equal intervals each of size . Accordingly
is called the step size and is given by
= Vmax Vmin / M
In fig. a specific example has been given with M=8 levels. In the centre of each of these steps located a
quantization levels denoted by m0, m1,m7.
The quantized signal emq(t) is generated by adopting the following procedure. Whenever em(t) is in the
range M,emq(t) maintains the constant level m0. Whenever it is in the range M1, emq(t) maintains constant level
m1 and so on. Thus the quantized signal emq(t) will at all times be found at one of the levels m0, m1 . m7.
The transition in emq(t) from m0 to m1, m1 to m2 etc is made abruptly when em(t) passes the corresponding
transition level (1,2,) which is midway between the states m0 and m1, m1 and m2 and so on. Thus, at every
instant of time emq(t) does not change at all with time or it makes discrete quantized jumps of step size .

Fig.Quantization Process

Note that the quantization levels are separated by an amount . On the other hand, the separation of
extreme levels Vmin & Vmax each from their nearest quantization level is only /2. It should also be noted that
at any time the quantization error, has a magnitude which is equal to or less than /2.
It is thus seen that the quantized signal is an approximation to the original signal. The approximation
can be improved by reducing the size of the steps, thereby increasing the no of allowed levels.
1.15 QUANTIZATION NOISE
In quantizing, the actual amplitude at the sampling instant is not transmitted, but nearest standard level is
transmitted in coded form. The quantizing process then introduces an error in the transmitted signal which is
called quantizing error or quantizing noise.
 The error is small if a large no of standard levels are used for a given range of the signal. The 7-digit
code giving 128(27) steps is a standard for transmitting voice signal in telephony. However, when more no. of
levels are used, more bits required to be sent per step and requiring more bandwidth.
The quantization process will produce errors called quantization error or noise. It is the difference
between input and output signal of the Quantizer. The difference between x(t) and xq(t) is called quantization
noise. It is shown in fig.
Quantization Noise ea(t) = x(t) - xq(t)
Where ea(t) = Quantization noise
x(t) = Actual message signal
xq(t) = Quantizing signal.

1.16 BIT RATE & DYNAMIC RANGE FOR PCM SYSTEMS

Bit rate : It is the number of bits transmitted during one second and is expressed in bits per second (bps). In
PCM Bit rate = Sampling Rate x No. of bits per sample.
Dynamic range: The dynamic range of PCM system is the ratio of the strongest possible signal that can be
transmitted and the weakest possible signal (other than 0 V).
DR(dB)= 20 log(Vmax / Vmin)
In linear PCM, the quantization levels are separated by equal voltages. In case of linear PCM system, the
maximum dynamic range in decibels is given by.
Dynamic range = 1.76 + 6.02m dB.
Where, m is the no. of bits per sample.
Increasing the no. of bits per sample increases the data rate which is given by
D = fs.m
Where, D= data rate bits per second
fs= sampling rate in samples/sec.
m= no. of bits per second.
 1.17 DIGITAL PULSE MODULATION (OR) PULSE CODE MODULATION
PCM is the most commonly used digital modulation scheme. In PCM the available range of signal
voltage is divided into levels and each is assigned a binary number representing the level closest to its amplitude
and this digital sequence is transmitted in a serial form.
PCM is the most commonly used digital modulation scheme each sample is then represented by the
binary numbers.This type of transmission is becoming very popular. Analog to digital conversion is achieved by
PCM(Pulse Code Modulation). The basic steps in PCM are as follows.
1. Sample the analog signal at regular intervals
2. Convert the analog signals into some discrete value.
3. Convert these values into binary numbers by assigning a fixed number of bits for each value
4. Convert the binary number as a digital signal by concatenating all these binary numbers.

CODING AND DECODING OF PCM

The process of converting an analog signal into PCM signal is called Coding and the inverse operation of
converting back from digital to analog is known as decoding. Both process can be obtained by using a single
integrated circuit called a Codec.
Coding of PCM: The block diagram for coding of PCM is shown in the figure. Coding is nothing but the
process of generation of PCM signal.
1. Low pass filter:-The main function of low pass filter used in the generation of PCM is to prevent aliasing.
The filter must block all frequency components above one half the sampling rate.
2 .Sampler or Sample and hold circuit: The next step in the generation of PCM is to sample the incoming
message signal using a sample and hold circuit. In order to ensure perfect reconstruction of the message signal
at the receiver, the sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency components of the message
signal.
3.Quantizer:-The next step is the quantization. The process of assigning voltage level to the samples is called
Quantization. Since the original analog signal can have infinite no. of signals level, when quantization is used
, it assigns samples to any of the allowable quantization level closest to it. The no. of levels available depends
on the no. of bits used to express the samples value. The no. of levels is given by
N = 2m
Where N is the no. of levels
m is the no. of bits per sample.

Fig: Block diagram for Coding of PCM

 Quantization process will produce errors called as quantized error or quantization noise. The largest
possible error is one half the differences between levels. This means that the signal to noise ratio varies with the
signal level and is greatest for large signals. The level of quantization noise can be decreased by increasing the
no. of levels. But increasing the no. of levels requires more bits per sample.
4.Encoder:-Encoding is the process in which the sample voltage (Quantize output) are converted into digital
equivalent. If there are 256 quantization levels , thus can be coded by 8 bits. It is done by a standard Analog to
Digital Converter.
5.Parallel to serial converter: The output of A/D convertor is in the parallel form. If it is directly transmitted
8 wires are needed from transmitter to receiver. Hence to save the transmission media, the bits in parallel form
are converted to serial form. Then applied to a channel or transmission media Shift register operated in parallel
to serial mode will act as parallel to serial convertor.

Decoding of PCM signals(PCM Receiver)

The message signal from PCM signal can be recovered by using the process shown in fig.
Regenerator : The regenerator at the start of PCM receiver reshapes the pulses and removes the noise. The
signal is then converted to parallel digital words for each sample.

Fig: Decoding of PCM

Serial to parallel convertor: The received bits are in serial form. Hence it is converted into parallel form using
serial to parallel conversion. Before applying to digital to analog convertor shift register operated in serial to
parallel mode will act as serial to parallel convertor.
Decoder or Digital to analog convertor: The parallel bits are applied to a convertor to get the analog
equivalent of the input data.
Reconstruction filter: The filter operation is the decoding of PCM signal is to recover the message signal by
passing the output of D/A convertor(sample voltage) through a low pass reconstruction filter whose cutoff
frequency is equal to the message signal bandwidth. The output of the reconstruction filter is the reconstructed
message signal.
Advantages of Pulse Code Modulation:
Pulse code modulation will have low noise addition and data loss is also very low.
We can repeat the exact transmitted signal at the receiver. This is called repeatability. And we can
retransmit the signal with any distortion loss also.
Pulse code modulation is used in music play back CDs and also used in DVD for data storing whose
sampling rate is bit higher.
Pulse code modulation can be used in storing the data.
PCM can encode the data also.
Multiplexing of signals can also be done using pulse code modulation. Multiplexing is nothing for
adding the different signals and transmitting the signal at same time.
Pulse code modulation requires large bandwidth
Pulse code modulation permits the use of pulse regeneration.
Disadvantages of Pulse Code Modulation:
Specialized circuitry is required for transmitting and also for quantizing the samples at same quantized
levels. We can do encoding using pulse code modulation but we need to have complex and special
circuitry.
Pulse code modulation receivers are cost effective when we compared to other modulation receivers.
Developing pulse code modulation is bit complicated and checking the transmission quality is also
difficult and takes more time.
Large bandwidth is required for pulse code modulation when compared to bandwidth used by the
normal analog signals to transmit message.
Channel bandwidth should be more for digital encoding.
PCM systems are complicated when compared to analog modulation methods and other systems.
Decoding also needs special equipments and they are also too complex.
Applications of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):

Pulse code modulation is used in telecommunication systems, air traffic control systems etc.
Pulse code modulation is used in compressing the data that is why it is used in storing data in optical
disks like DVD, CDs etc. PCM is even used in the database management systems.
Pulse code modulation is used in mobile phones, normal telephones etc.
Remote controlled cars, planes, trains use pulse code modulations.

Fig: Block diagram of Simplex PCM system

Why PCM is different from PAM?
The combined operation of sampling and quantizing generate a quantized PAM waveform. In fact, PAM
is a train of pulses whose amplitudes are having a number of discrete magnitudes. So no further encoding is
done in PAM. In PCM, each quantized level is represented by equivalent number of bits and the code ward. The
output of PCM is in the coded digital form having digital pulses of constant amplitude, width and position.
1.19 DELTA MODULATION
Delta modulation uses a single bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of analog signals. Only a
single bit is transmitted which simply indicates whether that sample is larger (or) smaller than the previous
sample. The algorithm for a delta modulation system is quite simple. If the current sample is smaller than the
previous sample logic 0 is transmitted. If the current sample is larger than previous sample , a logic 1 is
transmitted.
The figure shows a block diagram for the generation of delta modulation signal. The analog input is
sampled and converted into a PAM signal, which is compared with the output of DAC. The output of DAC is a
voltage is equal to the regenerated magnitude of the previous sample, which was stored in the up/down counter
as a binary number. The up/down counter is decremented or incremented depending on whether previous
sample is larger (or) smaller than the current sample. The up/down counter is clocked at a rate equal to the
sampling rate. Therefore the up/down counter is updated each comparison.
Generation of delta modulation
Initially, the up/down counter is 0 and the DAC is output is 0v. The first sample is taken, converted to
a PAM signal, and compared with DAC output (0v). The output of the comparator is a logic 1 condition (+ve)
indicating that the current sample is larger in amplitude than previous sample.

Fig: Delta modulator

Fig: Wave forms of Delta modulation

On the next clock pulse, the up/down counter is incremented to a count of 1. The DAC now outputs a
voltage equal to the magnitude of the minimum step size (resolution). The steps change value at a rate equal to
the clock frequency (sample rate). Consequently with the input signal shown, the up/down counter follows the
input analog signal up until the output of the DAC exceeds the analog sample , then the up/down counter will
begin counting down until the output of the DAC drops below the sample amplitude.
 In the digitalized situation(shown in the above figure). The DAC output follows the input signal. Each
time the up/down counter decremented, a logic 0 is transmitted.

Decoding of Delta Modulation( Receiver)

Fig: Delta demodulator

The above figure shows the block diagram of a delta modulation receiver. It can be seen that the receiver
is almost identical to the transmitter expect for the comparator. As the logic 1s and 0s are received, the
up/down counter is incremented (or) decremented accordingly. Consequently, the output the DAC in the
decoder is identical to the output of the DAC in the transmitter.
With the delta modulation , each sample requires the transmission of the only bit. Therefore, the bit rates
associated with delta modulation are lower than conventional PCM system. However, there are two problems
associated with delta modulation that do not occur with conventional PCM
1.Slope over load distortion and 2.Granular noise.
Distortions in DM system
1. Slope over load distortion :If the slope of analog signal is much higher than that of approximated
digital signal over long duration, then this difference is called Slope overload distortion.
2. Granular noise : The difference between quantized signal and original signal is called as Granular
noise.It is similar to quantization noise.
Slope over load distortion:
This distortion arises because of the large dynamic range of the in put signal. As shown in figure the rate
of input signal x(t) is so high that the staircase signal cannot approximate it, the step size becomes too small for
staircase signal u(t) to follow the steep segment of x(t). Thus there is a large error between the stair case
approximated signal and the original input signal. This error is called as slope overload distortion. To reduce
this error, the step size should be increased when slope of signal is high.

Since the step size of delta modulator remains fixed, its maximum or minimum slopes occur along
straight lines. Therefore this modulator is also called liner delta modulator (LDM).
Granular noise:
Granular noise occurs when the step size is too large compared to small variations in the input signal.
That is for very small variations in the input signal, the staircase signal is changed by large amount because of
large step size. Figure shows that when the input signal is almost flat, the staircase signal keeps on oscillating
around the signal. The error between the input and approximated signal is called Granular noise. The solution to
this problem is to make step size small.
Thus large step size is required to accommodate wide dynamic range of the input signal and small steps
are required to reduce granular noise. Adaptive delta modulation is the modification to overcome these errors.
Advantages and disadvantages:
The delta analog-to-digital modulation technique is widely used in voice transmission applications such
as telephone and radio communications, which use the principles of modulation to transmit voice signal
frequencies over carrier signals. Delta modulation is specifically applied where timely data delivery at the
receivers end is more important than data quality. It enjoys particular advantages over other analog-to-digital
modulation techniques, including lower noise (or) disruption in transmitted data, lower bandwidth consumption,
cost-effective operations and data delivery acknowledgment.
There are two major disadvantages of delta modulation:
1. Slope overload distortion: occurs when modulating signal varies faster than counter recovered signal.
2. Granular noise: occurs when variation in modulating signal is smaller than step size.
Applications of DM:
1. Telecommunication 2. Instrumentation
3.Computer communication 4. Satellite communication
1.20 COMPARISON OF PCM, DM & ADM
S. PCM DM ADM
No. Parameter
(Pulse Code Modulation) (Delta Modulation) (Adaptive Delta Modulation)
1. It can be use 4, 8 or 16 It can be use one bit per Only one bit is used to
No. of bits
bits per sample. sample. encode one sample
2. The number of levels According to the signal
Levels and step Step size is fixed and
depend on number of bits variation, step size varies
size cannot be varied.
Level size is kept fixed. (i.e .adapted).
3. Quantization Quantization error Slope overload Quantization noise is
error and depends upon the number distortion and granular present but other errors
distortion of levels used. noise are present. are absent.
4. Complexity of
System is complex Simple Simple.
implementation
5. Highest bandwidth is
Transmission Lowest bandwidth is Lowest bandwidth is
required since the no. of
bandwidth required. required.
bits are high.
6. There is no feedback in Feedback exists in
Feedback Here, feedback exists.
transmitter or receiver. transmitter.
7. Signal to Noise
good Poor Better then DM
Ratio
8 Sampling Rate 8 64-128 45-64
9. Bits/Sample 7-8 1 1
10. Applications Audio & Video telephony Speech & Images Speech & Images
1.21 ADVANTAGES OF DELTA MODULATION OVER PCM
The delta modulation has following advantage over PCM.
1. Delta modulation transmits only one bit for one sample. Thus the signaling rate and transmission
channel bandwidth is quite small for delta modulation.
2. The transmitter and receiver implementation is very much simple for delta modulation.
3. There is no analog to digital converter involved in delta modulation.

1.22 OPERATION OF VOCODERS (VOICE CODER)

Vocoder (voice coder) is an example of lossy compression applied to human speech. A vocoder is
reduced the amount of data that needs to be transmitted.Human sounds are produced by emitting air from the
lungs at an adjustable rate. For voiced sounds this air causes the vocal cards to vibrate at an adjustable
frequency. For unvoiced sounds the air passes the vocal cards without vibrating them.
In the either case the sound passes through the vocal card and mouth, which acts as a filter changing the
frequency response of the system at frequent intervals. Vocoder can imitate the human voice with an electric
system. At first in transmitting a signal using a vocoder is to digitize it in the usual way using PCM generally at
64kbps. Then the signal is analyzed and necessary excitation and filter parameters extracted. Only these
parameters need to be send to the receiver where the signal is reconstructed. Data is approximately transmitted
at the rate of 2.4 to 9.6kbps. For this data rate much smaller transmission BW is require compare to 64kbps .
Pulse generator used to produce the voiced sounds and noise generator is used for unvoiced sounds .The
pulsed generator creates a tone rich in harmonics as the sound produced by human vocal cards. An electronics
switch approximately selects pulse generator or noise generator depending on input signal is voiced or
unvoiced. A filter is designed to produced approximate output .
There are two types of vocoders they are
1.Pulse excited linear predictive vocoder
2.Regular pulse excited linear predictive vocoder.
The figure of speech model used in vocoders are shown in the below.

Fig: Block diagram of Vocoder

The fig shows a simple pulse excited linear predictive vocoder. It has a white noise generator useful for
unvoiced signals and a variable frequency pulse generator for producing voiced sounds. The pulse generator
creates a tone rich in harmonics as the sound produced by human vocal cords. An electronic switch
appropriately selects pulse generator or white noise source depending on input signal is voiced or unvoiced. A
digital filter designed to stimulate the human system generates the synthesized output.
Advantages:
1.Requirement of bandwidth is low.
2.Appropriate output is produced.
Disadvantages:
Vocoders can be used for only voice, where as the PCM system can be used to send only 64kb/sec data
stream including music, fax etc.,
Applications:
1. In Telecommunication, to reduce the bandwidth.
2. In music industries.
3. Talking computers and robots.
4. Television and film industries for mimicking the voice.

1.22 DATA COMPRESSION:

Generally with data compression more bandwidth is required to transmit an analog signal in digitl form.
For instance, analog telephony requires less than 4KhZ per channel with single side band AM transmission.
Digital telephony operates at 64Kbps.
To use digital techniques in wireless communication, it is very desirable to reduce the bandwidth. Hence
data compression is required.
There are two main categories of data compression. They are
1. Lossy compression
2. Lossless compression
Lossy compression:
Lossy compression can involve reducing the number of bits per sample or reducing the sampling rate.
Lossy compression method is based on knowledge of the type of signal as well as knowledge of human
perception. A Vocoder is an example for lossy compression applied to human speech. Lossy compression
allows for reduction in the qualities of transmitted signal.
Lossless Compression:
Lossless compression involves, transmitting all the data in the original signal using fewer bits. Lossless
compression generally using redundancies in the data.
The redundancies strings of characters can be replaced with a code that tells the receiver the length of
the repeated strings of characters can be replaced with a code that tells receiver the length of the repeated strings
of characters. This technique is called as Run length Coding. It is very useful in FAX.

PROBLEMS ON PCM:
Problem 1: Calculate the number of levels if the number of bits per sample is a)8 b) 16
a) N= 2m b)N= 2m
8
=2 = 256 216 = 65,536.
Problem 2: Find the maximum dynamic range for a system using 16-bit quantizing
DR =1.76 + 6.02m dB
1.76 + 6.02 X 16 dB
98.08 dB
Problem 3 : Find the maximum data rate needed to transmit audio with a sampling rate of 40KHz and
14-bits per sample.
D = fs.m
= 40KHz X 14
560 Kbps
Problem4: A modulator transmits symbols each of which has 64 different states, 10000 times per second.
Calculate the baud rate and bit rate.
M =64 Baud rate (S) = 10000
Bit rate ( C) = S log2 M = 10 X log2 (64) = 60kbps
Problem 5: A telephone line has a bandwidth of 3.2Khz and a signal to noise ratio of 35db. A signal is
transmitted down this line suing a four level code, What is the maximum theoretical data rate.
Bandwidth (B) = 3.2Khz SNR = 35dB M = 4
First we use the shanon hartly theorem to find the maximum data rate for a four level code in the bandwidth
available, ignoring noise
C = 2 B log2M = 2 X 3.2K X log2 4 = 12.8 kbps
Next, we use the shanon limit to find the maximum data rate for any code, given the bandwidth and Signal to
noise ratio.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Short Questions :
1. Compare analog and digital communication techniques
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of Digital communication
3. Classify pulse modulation techniques
4. Define information capacity of a channel and write the expression
5. State sampling theorem and explain its significance
6. State the advantages and disadvantages of PAM
7. Compare PAM, PPM and PWM.
8. Write applications of PCM
9. State the advantages and disadvantages of PPM
10. Define Quantization and Quantization error
11. State the advantages and disadvantages of PWM
12. What is the principle of pulse code modulation
13. Compare PCM,DM and ADM
14. Write a short note on vocoders
15. Define bit rate and dynamic range for PCM systems
Essay Questions
1. Explain the PCM. Describe the coding and decoding of a PCM in detail
2. Briefly describe about Delta modulation
3. Explain the operation of Vocoders
4. Explain about pulse modulation techniques
5. Compare PAM,PPM and PWM
6. Explain PAM,PPM and PWM with waveforms
7. Explain the generation and demodulation of PAM signal
8. Describe different data compression technique.