PSP Lab Manual

Department of Electrical Engineering
Experiment 1 - Status of National and Regional Planning,

for Power system
Theory:
Electricity plays a key role in the modem society because of its versatility with
respect to input energy form. For increasing the supply of electricity, new power
projects will have to be installed. Expansion, modernization, and maintenance of the
electricity utility industry will require increased capital costs, financial and
environmental restraints, increasing fuel costs and regulatory delays. All these
factors lead to the necessity for a more comprehensive understanding and analysis
of electric power systems. Recent developments in system analysis and synthesis
as well as in related. Digital, analog, and hybrid computer techniques provide
important tools which will aid the planning engineer in meeting these challenges.
The electricity generation capacity in India is the fifth largest in the world. India is
also the sixth largest consumer of electricity, and accounts for 3.4 per cent of the
global energy consumption. Over the past thirty years, the countrys energy
demand has grown at an average of 3.6 per cent per annum. Growth in the installed
capacity of power generation has been spectacular, having risen from 1,712MW in
1950 to 84,087MW ending 1995-96. During the financial year 2011-12, the highest
ever capacity addition of 20,501 MW (thermal, nuclear and hydro) was achieved
1
(CEA). A capacity addition of 17,956 MW during the year 2012-13comprising
15,154 MW of thermal, 802 MW of hydro and 2000 MW of nuclear powerhas been
envisaged.
Indias Installed Generation Capacity stands at 210,951.72 MW as on December 31,

2012. And the electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 225.133 GW as
of May 2013. Captive power plants generate an additional 34.444 GW. Non
Renewable Power Plants constitute 87.55% of the installed capacity, and Renewable
Power Plants constitute the remaining 12.45% of total installed capacity.
There is a lot of diversity in the country in topography, daily peak due to day time
differences, annual peak load timings (winter or summer) & resources in the various
regions. Hence five electricity regions have been established:
1. Northern Region
2. Western Region
3. Southern Region
4. Eastern Region
5. North Eastern Region
Integrated Resource Planning:
The utilities have to evaluate all the supply side and demand side options like
energy conservation programs, direct load control, time of use pricing and system
improvement. This is an aspect of leasr cost planning.
Supply Side options concerns to use of highly efficient, cost effective and cleaner
sources of energy such as renewable energy sources. Up time or availability of
generating station has to be kept as high as possible. Managing regional and
national grid at high efficiency level and improving the transmission and distribution
systems.
Least Cost Utility Planning (LCUP)
2
There are two fundamental problems inherent in traditional planning. The first is
that demand forecasting and investment planning are treated as sequential steps in
planning, rather than as interdependent aspects of the planning process. The
second problem is that planning efforts are inadequately directed at the main
constraints facing the sector, namely, the serious shortage of resources.
Process of Least Cost Utility Planning
Demand forecasts are little more than extrapolations of past trends of consumption;
no attempt is made to understand neither the extent of unmet demand, nor the
extent to which price would influence demand growth. Greater attention should be
paid to end-use efficiency, plant rehabilitation, loss reduction program etc. as these
have a potential for much more economic use of investment resources.
Least cost planning is least cost utility planning strategy to provide reliable
electrical services at the lowest overall cost with a mix of supply side and demand
side resources.
The LCUP uses various options like end-use energy efficiency, load management,
transmission and distribution options, alternative tariff options, decentralized non-
conventional sources power generation and conventional centralized generation
3
sources. The magnitude of the various components depends upon the detailed
outcome of the exercise.
This planning process can yield enormous benefits to consumers and society
because it aims at acquisition of resources that meet consumer energy service
needs in ways that are low in cost, environmentally benign, and acceptable to the
public. Such benefits occur because of the diversity of resources considered, public
involvement in the planning process and cooperation among interested parties.
Least costs utility planning as a planning and a regulatory process can greatly
reduce the uncertainties and risks faced by utilities. System expansion detailed
project reports (DPRs) must be based on least cost planning and need to be made
mandatory by amending the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948.
For an investment to be of least cost, the lifetime costs are considered. These
include capital cost, interest on capital, fuel costs, and operational and maintenance
cost.
To fully realize the benefits, a complete analysis of the options is necessary and
simulation study according to a programming can be necessary and simulation
study according to a programming can be helpful for a complete analysis of
attributes. The process of least cost planning is shown in next page.
National and Regional Planning - Advantages
Such coordination allows joint planning & operation of facilities.

It makes the exchange of economical energy easier.
It prevents the constructions of unnecessary facilities by isolated systems &
increases reliabilities.
More specifically, as a result of transmission interconnections, coordination
offers distinct economic & the non-coincidental occurrence of the peak of the
participation systems.
It might be possible to reduce the total generating capacity requirements that
would otherwise apply if each utility system were to fully meet its needs.
By combining the existing capacity of generation in the region & to make
economic use of the generating resources such as hydro & fossil fuels etc.
Disadvantage
One of the problems in regional planning relates to coordination among the

various utilities in the region with respect to tariff and backing down of
generating units in merit order. HVDC links for transfer of power between
4
various regions is desirable in order to utilize surplus power in some regions
and for stable grid operation.
Experiment 2 - Write Components of Structure of Power

System
Theory:
An electrical power system can be considered consisting of generation,

transmission, sub transmission systems and distribution parts. In general, the
generation and transmission systems are considered as bulk power supply and the
sub transmission and distribution systems are considered to be the final means to
transfer the electric power to the ultimate consumers.
The standard system voltages used in India for transmission and

distribution are as per IS: 12360- 1988are given in the below
table.
5
The basic system consists of energy resources such as hydro, coal, gas etc., a
prime mover, a generator and a load. Some sort of control system is required for
supervising it.
The prime mover may be a steam driven turbine, a hydraulic turbine or an

internal combustion engine. Each one of these prime movers has the ability to
convert energy in the form of heat, falling water or fuel into rotation of the shaft
which in turn drives the generator.
The generator may be are alternator or a DC machine. The Electrical load on

the generator may be lights, motors, heat or other devices, alone or in
combination etc.
The control system functions to keep the speed of the machine constant, the
voltage within prescribed limits to meet varying conditions of the load by
adjusting fuel/water, and generator excitation within the generator capability.
The active power (MW) is regulated by frequency (speed) control. The

reactive power (MVAr) and voltage is regulated by excitation control.
The components of an electric power system include generators designed to

convert mechanical energy into electricity, transformers, which change the
voltage or current of electric power supply, transmission lines used to transfer
power from one location to another, and auxiliary equipment intended to vary
the system controls.
System performance is determined at an instant of time and is characterized by its
functional parameters such as levels of power, voltage, frequency, wave shape,
phase balance, and amperes. Physical properties of interconnected systems are
characterized by resistance of components, inertia moments and time constants
determining the change of electrical and mechanical quantities. The electric power
system is closely connected to other systems by tie lines or links.
6
Power System Components
The power transmission and distribution network may be of the following types:
1. The radial system is as in Figure shown in next page. Here the lines form a
'tree' spreading out from the generator. Opening any line results in
interruption of power to one or more of the loads.
2. The loop system is as in Figure shown in next page. With this arrangement all loads will continue
to be served even if one line section' is put out of service. In normal operation the loop may be open
at some point at A as shown in the figure. In case a line section is to be taken out, the loop is first
closed at A and the line section is put on shut down. In this way no service interruption occurs.
7
3. In Network of lines the same loads being served by a network. This

arrangement has a higher reliability as each load has two or more circuits
of supply.
The sub transmission and distribution circuits are commonly designed as radial or
loop circuits. The high voltage transmission lines are generally laid as
interconnected or networks.
In this case interconnection of major power stations creates networks made of many
line sections. As the demand for load grows, generating capacity and transmission
and distribution must grow as well. Transmission and distribution are distinguished
by their voltage levels. In general, transmission systems have bulk power handling
capability, and relatively long lines connecting generating stations to load centers of
the utilities.
The model of transfer of power (P) by transmission line (having line reactance XL)
between two distance buses, (1 and 2) fed by generating machines with terminal
bus voltage V1 and V2 respectively with phase angle difference is generally
represented as,
P = (V1)*(V2) * sin / XL
8
Distribution systems, including sub transmission system, handle lower levels and
have relatively short lines. The power level that transmission and distribution
systems are being called upon to handle, are increasing with time. The economies
of scale need large generating stations and higher voltage levels for transmission
and distribution. Electricity cannot be stored and has to be supplied instantly.
The component installed capacity, say in MVA p.u., expands progressively as one
moves from generation to transmission, sub transmission, distribution and the
consumer end. Typical value for the Indian power system is,
Generation capacity (1 p.u.) =Transmission capacity (1.5 p.u.) + Sub

transmission capacity (2p.u.) + Distribution capacity (3 p.u.) + Connected
load (6p.u.)
The reduced p.u. values on the right hand will indicate better electricity efficiency of
the system but in the interest of reliability and future expansion p.u. values may be
higher for some sectors. With rapid advancements in the field of electronics and its
applications in innumerable domestic, commercial and industrial sectors, the
demand for quality power supply has increased. 'Computers and other high-tech
electronic process technologies require clean, precise, transient free and
uninterrupted power supply.
Rule 54 of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956, states that a supplier shall not permit
deviation in voltage at the point of supply in consumer premises:
1. In the case of low or medium voltage, by more than 6 per cent.

2. In the case of high voltage, by more than 6 per cent on the higher side or by
more than 9 percent on the lower side,
3. In the case of extra high voltage, by more than 10 percent on the higher side 0r
by more than 12.5 percent on the lower side.
4. Rule 55 states that the frequency of the alternating current should not vary from
the declared frequency by more than 3 percent.
9
Experiment 3 - Explain in detail various planning tools

Theory:
Planning engineer's primary requirement is to give power supply to consumers in a

reliable manner at a minimum cost with due flexibility for future expansion.
The criteria and constraints in planning an energy system are reliability,

environment, economics and electricity pricing, financial constraints, and society
impacts and value of electricity.
Reliability, economic; financial and environmental factors can be quantified.

However, societal effects are evaluated qualitatively. Some of these criteria conflict,
making the planning decisions more complex. For example, meeting higher
reliability levels may be constrained by financial limitations to build new facilities.
Achieving lower environmental impact is likely to increase the cost of electricity to
consumers (economic factor).
10
The system must be optimal over a time period from first day of operation through
the planned lifetime. Today, the planner numerous analysis and synthesis tools at
his disposal.
Various computer programs are available and are used for fast screening of
alternate plans with respect to technical, economic and environmental performance
of power system.
The available tools for power system planning can be split into three basic
techniques: simulation, optimization and scenario Techniques.
1. Simulation Tools These simulate the behavior of the system under certain
conditions and/or calculate relevant indices. Examples of (simulation tools)
are:
Load flow models,
Short-circuit-models,
Transient stability models etc.
In power generation, corporate models can simulate the impact of various

decisions on the financial performance of the power utility company.
The use of simulation tools for strategic planning need voluminous data and
requires the results from various models to be integrated.
11
2. Optimization Tools These minimize or maximize an objective function by

choosing adequate values for decision variables. Examples of these are
optimum power, least cost expansion planning, generation expansion
planning.
3. The Scenario Techniques - This is a method for viewing the future in a

quantitative fashion. All possible outcomes are investigated. The sort of
decision or assumptions which might be made by a utility developing such a
12
scenario might be: should we computerize and automate the management of
power system after a certain date.
The process of Planning Electric Energy Systems consists of generating a set

of planning scenarios. Scenarios can be optimistic/ambitious or optimum or
Pessimistic. In India, the various types of scenarios for electric power are
drawn by the Planning Commission, CEA, State Electricity Boards, research
organizations, individual research workers Etc. Electrical utilities should
prepare integrated resource plans. These Long term plans seek to develop
the best mix of demand and supply options to meet consumer needs for
electric energy services.
Experiment 4 - Write short note on electricity regulation.

13
Theory:
Regulations shape and influence the functions and processes. The regulations
generally concern,
The regulations generally concern,
1. Price setting: consumer tariff, wheeling charges, long-term bulk-power Purchase
agreements.
2. Quality of service standard and monitoring.
3. Compliance with public service obligations.
4. Dealing with consumer complaints.
5. Ensuring fair and open competition or the harnessing of competitive forces, as
appropriate.
6. Monitoring investment in and repair of infrastructure.
7. Third party use of networks.
The current regulations enacted by the Government of India are primarily

administered by CEA in its role as technical and economic advisor to the Minister of
Power, with input from state, regional and central government entities.For example,
there is need for rules regarding transmission access to private generators and for
checking the potential for anticompetitive use of monopoly power.Tariff regulations
at the bulk power level are primarily covered under section 43A of the Electricity
(Supply) Act of 1948.
ELECTRICITY ACTS
INDlAN TELEGRAPHICACT, 1885
This act covers the privileges and powers of the government to place the
telegraphic lines and posts, penalties and certain other supplementary provisions
regarding electric power lines.
INDIAN ELECTRICITY ACT, 1910
This is an act to amend the law relating to the supply and use of electrical
energy. It regulates:
1. Licenses: Grant of licenses; revocation or amendment of licenses; purchase of

undertakings; annual account of licensees.
14
2. Works: Provision as to opening and breaking up of streets, railways and
tramways; notice of new works; laying of supply lines; notice to telegraph
authority; overhead lines; compensation for damage.
3. Supply: Point of supply; powers of licenses to enter premises, restrictions on

licensees; obligation on licensees to supply energy; powers of the state
governments to give direction to a licensee, power to control the distribution
and consumption of energy; discontinuance of supply to consumers; meters.
4. Transmission and Use of Energy by Non-licensees: sanctions required by non-

licensees in certain cases; control of transmission and use of energy.
5. General Protective Clause: Protection of railways, aerodromes, canals, docks

and piers; protection of telegraphic and electric signal lines; notice of accidents
and enquiries; prohibition of connection with earth and power to government to
interfere in certain cases of default.
6. Administration and Rules: Advisory boards; appointment of electrical

inspectors.
7. criminal Offences and Procedure: Theft of energy; penalty for maliciously

wasting energy or injuring works; penalty for unauthorized supply of energy by
non-licensees; penalty for illegal or defective supply or for non-compliance with
order; penalty for interference with meters or licensee's works and for improper
use of energy; offences by companies; institution of prosecution.
8. supplementary Provisions: Exercise in certain cases of power of telegraph

authority; arbitration; recovery of sums; delegation of certain functions of the
state government to the inspection staff; protection for acts done in good faith;
amendment of Land Acquisition Act, 1884;repeals and savings.
THE ELECTRICITY (SUPPLY ACT) ACT, 1948
This act rationalizes the production and supply of electricity and generally
provides for taking measures conducive to its development. It provides for:
1. The Central Electricity Authority: Constitution ; powers to require accounts,

statistics and returns; direction of central government to the Authority; power of
central government to make rules; powers of Authority to make regulations.
15
2. State electricity boards, generating companies; state electricity consultative
councils and local advisory committees; constitution and composition of state
electricity boards; interstate agreement to extend board's jurisdiction to another
state; formation, objects, jurisdiction etc., of generating or transmission
companies.
3. Power and duties of state electricity boards and generating or Transmission

Company, coordination with regional electricity boards and regional load
dispatch centres.
4. The board's finance accounts and audit.
5. Miscellaneous items such as effects of other laws; water power concessions to

be granted only to the board or a generating company; coordination between
the boards and multipurpose schemes; powers of entry; annual reports,
statistics and returns arbitration; penalties; cognizance of offences; direction by
the state government; provision relating to income-tax; members officers and
other employees of the board to be public servant; protection of persons acting
under this act; saving of application of Act.
THE INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES, 1956
It contains 143 rules along with detailed annexure and covers. Some of them are
mentioned below:
1. Authorization to perform duties

2. Inspection of electric installations: Creation of inspection agency; entry and
inspection; inspection fees; appeal against an order; submission of records by
supplier or owner.
3. Licensing: Application, contents and form of draft license; advertisement of

application and contents thereof; approval of draft license and a notification for
grant of license; commencement of license; amendments of license; preparation
and submission of accounts and model conditions of supply.
4. General safety precautions: Regarding construction, installation, Protection,

operation and maintenance of electric supply lines and apparatus; service lines and
apparatus on consumer's premises; identification of earthed conductors;
accessibility of bare conductors; provisions applicable to protective equipment;
16
instructions for restoration of persons suffering from electric shocks; intimation of
accidents; precautions to be adopted by consumers, owners, electrical contractors,
electrical workmen and suppliers; periodical inspection and testing of consumer's
installations.
5. General conditions relating to supply and use of energy: Testing of consumer's

installation; precaution against leakage; declared voltage and frequency of supply;
placing and sealing of energy and demand meters; point of supply; precautions
against failure of supply.
6. Electric supply lines, system and apparatus for low, medium, high and extra high
voltages: Testing of insulation resistance; connection with earth; voltage tests
systems; general conditions as to transformation and control of energy; approval by
inspector; use of energy; pole-type substations; discharge of capacitors; supply to
neo-signs; supply to HVelectrode boiler; supply of X-ray and high frequency
installations.
7. Over headlines: Materials and strength; joints; clearances and supports, erection
of or alteration of buildings; structures; conditions to apply where
telecommunication lines and power-lines can be carried on the same supports; lines
crossing; service lines; protection against lightening; unused overhead lines.
8. Electric traction: Additional rules for electric traction; voltage of supply; difference
of potential on return; current density in rails, size and strengths of trolley wires;
records.
9. Additional precaution for mines and oil fields. 10. Miscellaneous Provisions.
FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980
The Act stipulates the forest clearance requirement for the forest area where hydro plants (reservoir
etc.), and transmission lines are planned. The guidelines for taking power lines through the forest
area are,
1. Where routing of power lines through the forest areas cannot be avoided, these should be aligned
in such a way that it involves the least amount of tree cutting.
2. As far as possible, the route alignment through forest areas should not have any line deviation.
3. The maximum width of right-of-way for the power lines on forest land shall be as follows:
17
4. Below each conductor, width clearance of 3m would be permitted for taking the swinging of
stringing equipment.
5. In the remaining width, right-of-way up to a maximum of 8.5 metres (for 800kV lines), trees will
be felled or looped to the extent required, for preventing electrical hazards by maintaining the
Following, The sag and swing of the conductors are to be kept in view while working out the
minimum clearance mentioned below:
6. In the case of lines to be constructed in hilly areas, where adequate Clearance

is already available, trees will not be cut.
7. Where the forest growth consists of coconut groves or similar tall trees,
widths of right-of-way greater than those indicated above may be permitted in
consultation with the CEA.
18
TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING ACTS These acts are of interest before
erecting a plant, a substation or overhead line. It is necessary to seek approval
of planning authorities whenever these acts are applicable.
ENVIRONMENT LAWS Environment laws such as Water (Prevention and

Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1981; Environment (Protection) Act, 1986are important for getting pollution
clearance from the competent authorities in case of generating plants
Experiment 5 - Modeling of Electrical Forecasting

techniques
Theory
LOADS
Throughout the world, electrification is an ongoing process. The reason for this phenomenon is the
preference for electrical energy. The increasing demand in the Asian region is due to several factors
such as population growth, growth of per capita income, migration to urban areas and increase in
energy using product. Demand forecasts are used to determine the capacity of generation,
transmission and distribution. System and energy forecast to determine the type of generation
facilities required. There are five broad categories of loads-domestic, commercial, industrial,
agricultural and residential. Commercial and agricultural loads are characterized by seasonal
variations. Industrial loads are considered base loads that contain little weather dependent variation.
Their generation characteristics are given below:
Domestic - This type of load consists mainly of lights, fans, domestic appliances such as heaters,
refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers, ovens, heating ranges and small motors for pumping, and
various other small household appliances. The various factors are: demand factor 100 percent,
diversity factor 1.2-1.3 and load factor 10-15 percent.
19
Commercial - This type of load consists mainly lighting for shops and advertisement boardings,
fans, air conditioning;" heating and other electrical appliances used in commercial establishments,
such as shops, restaurants, market places, etc. The demand factor is usually 90- 100 percent, diversity
factor is 1.1-1.2 and load factor is 25-30 per cent.
Industrial - These loads may be of the following typical power range, Small Scale Industries 0-
20kW Medium Scale Industries 20-100kW Large Scale Industries 100kW & above The last type of
loads needs power over a longer period and which remains fairly uniform throughout the day. For
large-scale industrial loads the demand factor may be taken as 70-80 percent and the load factor 60-
65 per cent. For heavy industries the demand factor may be taken as 85-90 per cent with a load factor
of 70-80 per cent.
Agriculture - This type of load is required for supplying water for irrigation by means of suitable
pumps driven by electric motors. The load factor is generally taken as 15-25 percent, the diversity
factor is 1-1.5 and the demand factor is 90-100 per cent
5 Other loads - Apart from the loads mentioned above, there are other loads such as bulk supplies,
street light, traction and government loads which have their own peculiar characteristics
ELECTRICITY FORECASTING
Forecasting of electric load basically consists of: Long-term forecasting which is connected with load
growth and supply / demand side resource management adjustments, Mid/short-term forecasting
which is connected with seasonal or weather variations in a year, weekly or daily load forecast etc.
The planning for the addition of new generation, transmission and distribution facilities is based on
long-term load forecasts and must begin 2-25 years in advance of the actual in service.In India,
electricity load forecasts at the national, the Annual Power Survey Committee underCentral
Electricity Authority prepares regional and state levels.
Load demand of states and regions must be forecasted. The pattern of their typical monthlyload
curves must be determined and the mix of base load and peaking power stations forefficient
integrated operation must be fixed. Locations and power station capacities must alsobe identified to
give optimum results.Tie-up of all necessary inputs; and matching transmission and distribution
systems must alsobe a part of the full plan.Forecasting techniques must be used as tools to aid the
planner, along with good judgment andexperience.
FORECASTING HORIZON
Load forecasting is required in all three facets of power system operation, viz., long-range system
planning, operational planning and operational control, generally in the following time frames,
(i) Long-term forecasting (periods ranging 245.years)
20
(ii) Medium-term forecasting (periods from one month to two years) for operational planning
(iii) Short term forecasting (periods from one day to a few weeks) for operational planning.
(iv) Very short term forecasting (a few minutes to 24 hours) for operational control.
TYPES OF FORECASTS & THEIR IMPORTANCE
Long Range Forecasts:Long-range forecasts involve Identification of both energy and demand
forecasts for a utility over a period exceeding two years. Whereas the energy requirements decide the
type of generating units (i.e., peaking or intermediate or base-load units), expansion and the demand
of peak power requirements decide the utility's investment in generation and the resultant
transmission capacity additions.
Long-term forecasts are used for,
(i) Exploration of natural fuel and water resources.

(ii) Development of trained human power.
(iii) Reinforcement planning of generation transmission and distribution equipment.
(iv) Establishing future fuel requirement.
Forecasts based on either past trends or on very broad based factors do not provide sufficient
confidence level for long-range planning. Forecasting in today's environment has increased in
complexity due to rapid and random changes in the factors that influence load consumption. The
following factors are relevant for their impact on utility's growth:
(i) The country's economic policy, developmental plans, technological development in

production of products and services.
(ii) Growth pattern in domestic, commercial, industrial and agricultural loads.
(iii) Population growth and electrification plan (urban and rural).
(iv) Political, developmental and environmental decisions.
Statistical methods with adaptive techniques are employed to forecast long-range load requirements,
as the method chosen shall have to use past data, growth patterns and human judgment.
Mid-Term Forecasts
These forecasts are aimed to determine yearly or monthly peak, minimum load and energy
requirements for one to few years for the purpose of:
(i) Deciding rat~-structure for billing of different consumer categories.

(ii) Power exchange contract with neighboring utilities and interchange schedules.
(iii) Annual planning and budgeting for fuel requirements and other operational requirements.
(iv) Maintenance scheduling of generation and transmission equipment.
21
(v) Scheduling of captive plants.
(vi) Scheduling of multi-purpose hydro plans for irrigation, flood control, cooling water
requirements etc., apart from generation.
Short-Term Forecasts
Short-term load forecasting is required for operational planning for:
(i) Unit commitment and economic dispatch calculations.

(ii) Maintenance scheduling updates.
(iii) On-line load flows.
(iv) Spinning reserve calculations.
(v) Short-term interchange schedules with neighboring system.
(vi) System security analysis.
(vii) Scheduling of pumped storage units.
(viii) Load management scheduling.
(ix) Optimization of fuel stocking.
FORECASTING MODELING
Factors Affecting the Forecasting: There are many factors which influence the prediction of load,
and their influence vary from area to area and from country to country. The impact of any factor on
load of a utility needs to be properly examined before building a forecasting model. The factors
found to affect a variety of utilities' load are time dependent, weather dependent, random, and other.
Time dependent factors
Power systems exhibit a time dependent pattern of electric load demand. At times, these
factors are regular, irregular or random in nature.
Regular pattern is exhibited during the time of day, day of week and week of the year, and
yearly growth.
Irregular pattern is exhibited on holidays, weekends, special days etc., and
load requirements tend to differ on these days than on other days.
Sometimes, load requirements do not follow any pattern because of
weather or other factors.
Electric load requirements tend to depend on work rest style of our set-up
as there can be different possibilities of electric power consumption if
people are at home during the day than if they are away at work. This
implies that load patterns are different on weekdays and weekends.
An analysis of past data can reveal two or more pattern of load
consumption for a week. On the same lines, load consumption also differs
on holidays, special holidays preceding and following the weekends), and
22
special days of national or social importance which may require excessive
lighting loads etc.
The impact of these holidays and special days on load demand would
depend on the extent of public participation, impact on industrial activity,
and state-level celebrations requiring excessive lighting load. There are
seasonal variations in hourly or daily load, due to change in daylight
hours, change in heating to cooling load or vice-versa, typicality of load
pattern of some months etc. From the past data (typically 2-5 years),
periods in a year can be divided into time-scales (hourly, daily etc.) which
exhibit an established load curve and others with a comparatively variable
load curve.
Weather Dependent Factors
Weather is one of the principal causes of load variations as it affects domestic load, public lighting,
commercial loads etc. Therefore, it is essential to choose relevant weather variables and model their
influence on power consumption. Principal weather variables found to affect the power consumption
include temperature, cloud cover, visibility, and precipitation.
The first two factors affect the domestic/office (e.g., heating, cooling) loads, whereas the others affect
lighting loads as they affect daylight illumination.
Average temperature is considered to be the most significant dependent factor that influences load
variations. However, temperature and load are not linearly related, and variations in temperature in
one temperature range may not have any effect on the load, whereas in other temperature ranges
and/or other seasons a 1C change can change load demand by over one per cent. This non-linear
relation is further complicated by the influence of humidity and by the effects of extended periods of
extreme heat or cold spell.
Random Factors
There are random phenomena which affect load consumption and can cause large errors in load
forecast.
It is difficult to accurately model their actual impact on load demand. These include school holidays,
factory strikes, and influence of popular TV programmes.
Influence of these Phenomena can be studied .if past data on these occurrences are available.
Other Factors
23
Other factors that influence the load demand include, (i) Effects of DSEs
(Distributed generating devices). (ii) Effects of rate tariff (time-of-day pricing,
change in industrial tariffs). (iii) Change over to winter time or summer time.
Impact of these factors in past data should be identified. The model should be
selected based on these factors and other considerations, and should be fitted
to the data. Before use, the model should be checked to discover possible lack
of fit or any inadequacy, and necessary correction should be applied as required.
Forecasting Models
Regression Model
This functionally relates load to other economic, competitive or weather variables and estimates an
equation using the least squares technique. Relationships are primarily analyzed statistically,
although any relationship should be selected for testing on a rational ground.
Regression analysis involves the necessity of using judgment along with statistical analysis whenever
forecasting takes place.
Regression of time series data is a common occurrence in utilities where tracking important measures
of performance on a weekly, monthly, or quarterly basis is conducted. As autocorrelation is a
common problem in such studies, an understanding of this condition and its cure becomes vital if the
results of such analyses are to be valid in the decision-making process.
Strategic Forecasting
Strategic forecasting is becoming increasingly important and involves the explicit examination of the
factors and issues affecting future growth. It recognizes the impact that policy decisions can have on
future loads.
This requires details of consumer operations, their current and potential demand for electricity, their
competitiveness in the market place and their options with respect to production processes, switching
alternatives, energy conservation technologies etc.
In the industrial sector, this implies combining elements of the econometric approach with the
technology detail found in end use/process models. Strategic models must be capable of doing more
than merely forecasting future requirements. They must be able to provide planners with additional
information to help shape the future demand.
24
Mathematical Modeling Simulation
In modeling, the total load is considered to be the sum total of various components due to various
factors.These factors need to be measured and interrelated with load requirements. Thus, this
technique requires individual modeling of each load type, and identifying their interrelationship to
arrive at future load requirements. This is mathematical modeling. Mathematics is a language that
allows us to represent physical problems in a form that a computer can understand.The strength of a
method lies in the accuracy of the results it gives. Errors in predicted loads are found mainly in peak
periods, transitional phase (from peak to off peak and vice-versa), and on weekends and special days.
In extrapolation, future load is treated as an extension of the past and the load curve based on past
data is suitably adjusted to reflect growth trend. Thus, this technique involves the detection of trends
in the past data for various parameters, fitting a trend curve-which could be a straight line, a
parabola, exponential or a polynomial of other orders or a mix of the above.
Econometrics
Certain economic factors which influence the system load growth are:
(i) Business and economic cycle (cyclic variations), (ii) Growth of gross national
product (GNP) (long-term variations), and (iii) Growth in population (long-term
trend)
Most of these factors only affect the long-term trend which will not be picked up
in a normal model based on, say, a past history of 10 years. Of course, changes
in government policy in, say, population, railway traction and integrated socio-
economic development of rural areas, will result in a change in the long-term
trend.
For example, an examination of various electrical energy forecasts in India

reveals that the energy demand with regard to population and GNP leads to a
satisfactory linear regression model. The regression model is of the form
Y =20.74773+2.88151nxl+ 1.3695lnx2
Where, Y =electrical energy demand in GWh, xl =population in millions, x2=GNP

10x millionsof rupees Xl and x2 are graphical projections based on data
available from planning Commission or the concerned ministry, such as Finance
or social welfare.
Single factor modeling
25
Single Factor Model indication may be defective because of the following reasons:
1. It is too general.
2. A sector like industry occupies a far larger share in the consumption of electricity (45%) as
compared to its contribution to GNP which is only 30 per cent. On the other hand, agriculture may
have a larger share in the GNP (50%) but a lower share in electricity consumption (28%)(1996).
3. It is known that the rate of growth of various sectors of the economy is not the same. It is,
therefore, preferable to have separate single factor models for electricity consumption for domestic,
commercial, industrial, agricultural and other uses.
Domestic
The forecast of domestic consumption by use of population forecast and other variable such as
number of domestic consumers and per capita consumption can be a good model of trend line. In
the UK, GDP and average temperature gave a reliable model for energy
forecasts. The model fitted is of the form:
Ct =K+ 0.7167log GDP = 0.7082 log Ct - 1 - 0.4957 log Tt
Where, K =constant (can be calculated by the regression method), Tt=average

temperature over a period t in OF, GDP =Gross domestic product.
Industrial
For industrial projection, the following two trends are important:
1. The growth in industry as represented by the index of production and growth

in the sale of electricity by the utility per unit growth in industry. Two separate
graphs can be drawn. For any point of time, if the two quantities are multiplied,
then the total electricity consumption for the industrial sector can be arrived at.
For example, for a forecast, say for 1998, index of production as projected from
graph = 180 (say) Electricity sold per unit of industrial index (from the graph) =
37 GWh, say (projected) Hence, total electricity sales = 180 x37GWh
=6660GWh.
2. The growth in number of workers employed in industry and electrical energy

consumed per worker. It should be possible to obtain data regarding industrial
workers from either the Central Statistical Organization or the Ministry of Labor.
A trend graph can be established to show a forecast of industrial workers
employed in industry at any point of time. A second trend graph has to be
plotted for the electrical energy consumed per worker. From these two trend
graphs, a forecast can be made for the requirement of electrical energy for the
industrial sector. For example, for a forecast, say, for 1998, (i) Number of
26
industrial workers projected = 0.86 million, say (ii) Industrial electrical energy
sales per worker projected =7750kWh, say (iii) Forecast of electrical energy
sales for industrial sector = 7750 x 0.86 GWh =6665 GWh.
Agriculture
The electricity demand for agriculture can be processed in the same manner as industrial
consumption, the independent variable being the agricultural output or added value.
Alternatively, the trend of installation of irrigation pumps can be established keeping in view the
targets fixed by the Planning Commission and perspective plan envisaged by the Ministry of
Agriculture and Irrigation. A second trend graph can be established for the consumption of electricity
per pump. From these two graphs a trend graph can be established for electricity consumption by the
agricultural sector.
Other Sectors
Forecast for street lighting, water works, sewerage, railways, auxiliary consumption, transmission
and distribution losses, etc., can be made by establishing trend graphs based on time series study.
Alternately, these projections may be made on the basis of plan targets, wherever deemed feasible.
In each of these sectors of energy consumption, the relevant economic Variable may be identified and
an econometric model built. For example, national income in India is a function of energy
consumption. Based on the actual past energy consumption and national income, both the log-log and
linear forms as given below gave a very good fit relation,
Y =68.90 + 0.592 E
Where, Y is national income in billions of rupees, E =Total energy consumption in million tons of
coal replacement.
The Central Electricity Authority carried out a long-term power planning exercise using sophisticated
computer models like EGEAS and ISPLAN for evolving a need based power plan covering the time
horizon of 15 years
27
Experiment 6 - Transmission and distribution planning
Theory:
Distribution
In general, distribution of power is a part of the system between the transmission and consumer
services. In general, a typical distribution system consists of the following network:
Sub-transmission circuits in voltage ratings usually between 33 kV and 220 kV which delivers
energy to distribution substations.
The distribution substation which converts the energy to lower primary system voltage for local
distribution and usually improves facilities for voltage regulation of the primary voltage
Primary circuits of feeders usually operating in the range of 11kV to 33 kV supplying the load in
well-defined geographical areas.
The distribution transformer in rating from 10 to 2500 kVA which may be installed on poles or on
pads or in underground vaults near the consumer sites and transform the primary voltage to the
utilization voltage at usually 110to 440 volt.
Secondary circuits at utilization voltage which carry energy from the distribution transformer along
the street etc.
28
Service lines which deliver the energy from secondary circuits to the consumer premises by service
lines
It is desirable to rationalize and standardize the voltage levels employed in supply systems and to
limit the number of voltage levels. Several studies showed that an optimal supply situation would
have only three voltage levels beyond the low-voltage system. These studies indicated, that no extra
intermediate voltage levels are necessary. However when loads are unevenly distributed (spot-wise),
a two-voltage level system can be very suitable. The six basic distribution systems used by utilities
are discussed below sections:
1. RADIAL
A radial system is connected to only one source of supply.

It is exposed to many interruption possibilities, the most important of which are those due to
overhead line or underground cable failure or transformer failure.
Each event may be accompanied by a long interruption. It has lower reliability. Both components
(feeder and transformer) have finite failure rates and such interruptions are expected and statistically
predictable.
Feeder breaker reclosing or temporary faults are likely to affect sensitive loads. This system is
suitable for small loads.
2. PRIMARY LOOP
A great improvement over a radial system is obtained by arranging a primary loop, which
provides power from two feeders.
Power flow to consumers is by way of single path at any one time from either side of the loop
depending upon the open/close status of sectionalizes and reclosers.
The loop is normally operated with the tie sectionaliser switch open. Any section of the feeder can
be isolated without interruption and primary faults are reduced in duration to the time required to
locate a fault and do the necessary switching to restore service. Each line of the loop must have
sufficient capacity to carry the entire load.
The additional line exposure tends to increase the frequency of faults, but not necessarily the
number of faults per consumer. Sensitive loads are affected by reclosing under temporary fault
conditions.
3. PRIMARYSELECTIVE
It uses the same basic components as in the primary loop. Each transformer can have supply from
two sources.
29
High voltage automatic switching is provided ahead of consumers' transformer. In the event of
loss of feeder, transfer to second feeder is automatic and the interruption duration can be limited to
two or three seconds.
System reliability is high here. It also offers a little advantage to sensitive loads like computer
problems caused by temporary faults. This scheme is normally used for large essential or continuous
process industrial consumers.
4. SECONDARY SELECTIVE
This system uses two transformers, each from separate primary feeders and
with low voltage switching.
The load is generally divided between two LT buses with both transformers
continuously energized. The tie switch on secondary tie bus is normally open
and is interlocked with secondary feeder switches.
This system is commonly used for industrial plants and institutions like
hospitals.
Primary operational switching is eliminated. Duplicate transformer virtually
eliminates the possibility of a long interruption due to failure. Each transformer
and feeder must have sufficient capacity to supply the entire load.
Transfer is automatic upon loss of voltage on either feeder with static
switching equipment. Sensitive equipment can be effectively served. Reliability
is better than in the primary selective system because of additional redundancy
of transformers.
5. SPOT NETWORK
Maximum services reliability and operating flexibility for most loads are obtained
by use of the network using two or more transformer units in parallel.
The low voltage bus (spot network bus) is continuously energized by all units
operating in parallel.
Automatic disconnection of any unit is obtained by sensitive reverse power relays
in the protection. If there is a fault in one feeder, it is isolated by the network
protection on that feeder. Maintenance switching of primary feeders can be done
without consumer interruption. Spot networks are used generally in metropolitan
high-load density areas, for large continuous process industries and essential
services loads such as water works etc.
6. GRID NETWORK
Grid networks provide maximum reliability and operating flexibility.
These networks are the most economical and effective methods to serve the
high density loads in metropolitan cities. The network grid is simultaneously
supplied from several feeders.
30
In grid network, no consumer outage is caused by switching off primary
feeder for scheduled maintenance. Voltage regulation is improved since power
flow to the consumers is through several transformers operating in parallel.
The grid can handle abrupt load changes and disturbances associated with large motor starting
without severe voltage dips or surges. A strong grid network is sufficiently stiff and a fault on one
unit does not disrupt voltage outside of sensitive load tolerance limits.
HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION
The sources of hydro and thermal power are often situated far away from the
load centres. This necessitates transfer of power from one area to another over
long distance; on the other hand increasing requirement of bulk power transfer
over long distances has resulted in the adoption of higher voltages of ac
transmission all over the world.
The policy of generating power at pit heads having high ash content and
transmitting bulk power to load centres, even across long distances, has found
favour for economic and ecological reasons. The voltage level at which power is
to be transmitted depends primarily on the quantity of power to be transmitted
and the distance over which it is to be transmitted.
Observations,
The capital cost per MW-km decreases with higher voltage.
One 800 kV line can normally carry as much power as four 400 kV circuits for equal distance of
transmission.
One 1200 kV circuit can carry the power of three 800 kV circuits and twelve 400 kV circuits for
the same transmission distance.
In comparison to the percentage power loss at 400 kV, if the same power is transmitted at 800 kV,
the line losses are reduced to one-tenth.
31
There is an overall power shortage in the country. There are pockets of surplus but the same
cannot be transferred to distance deficit because of the absence of transmission links. Experience has
shown that transmission links will have to be asynchronous HVDC/back-to-back links as the
frequency of the connecting system widely differs and ac mode of connection is practically
impossible.
HVDC Transmission
High voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission system consists of three basic parts: 1)
converter station to convert AC to DC 2) transmission line 3) second converter
station to convert back to AC. HVDC transmission systems can be configured in
many ways on the basis of cost, flexibility, and operational requirements.
The simplest one is the back-to-back interconnection, and it has two
converters on the same site and there is no transmission line. This type of
connection is used as a tie between two different AC transmission systems.
The mono-polar link connects two converter stations by a single conductor
line of usually negative polarity and earth or sea is used as a returned path. The
most common HVDC link is bipolar, where two converter stations are connected
by bipolar () conductors and each conductor has its own ground return. The
third link is homopolar link which is having two or more conductors having the
same polarity & always operated with ground or metallic return the multi-
terminal HVDC transmission systems have more than two converter stations,
which could be connected is series or parallel.
32
HVDC offers several advantages

DC cables are cheaper compared to ac.
One single cable can take up to 500-1000MW.
A dc cable does not contribute to the short-circuit power.
Costly and difficult overhead line paths in a city centre can be avoided by cabling.
It ensures better conductor utilization.
It provides for three times the capacity, using the same conductors.
It has an even higher capacity with new towers in an existing right-of-way.
It makes it possible to control reactive power in a city Centre.
It ensures increased ac system stability.
It provides for increased power capacity in parallel ac lines.
It provides for controlled power flow.
It provides for double circuit performance of a converted single circuit ac line.
There is higher power without increased short-circuit power.
There is better control of the line load factor.
Disadvantages of HVDC transmission system are

Costly terminal equipments converters are expensive, converters require much reactive power &
generate harmonics so they require filters, and converters have little overload capability. Inability
to use the transformers to change the voltage level.
The difficulty in breaking the D.C currents which results in high cost of D.C
breakers.Generation of harmonics which require A.C & D.C filters, adding to
the cost of converter stations.
Difficult for maintenance, need skilled technicians for operating.
Application of HVDC transmission system
33
Control & stabilization of power flows in A.C ties in an integrated power system
For the cable crossing bodies of water wider than 20ml (32km).
For interconnecting the A.C systems having different frequencies or where asynchronous
operation is desired
For transmitting large amount of power over the long distance by overhead lines
In congested urban areas or elsewhere where it is difficult to acquire right of way for overhead
lines & where the lengths involved make the A.C cable impracticable.
Increasing the capacity of existing A.C. transmission by converting to D.C transmission
New transmission rights-of-way may be impossible to obtain. Existing overhead A.C transmission
lines if upgraded to or overbuilt with D.C. transmission can substantially increase the power transfer
capability on the existing right-of-way.
FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (FACTS)

For economic reasons electric power systems are interconnected within utilities and inter-utilities.
The purpose of transmission network is to pool power plants and load centres in order to
minimize the number of power generation sources needed, taking advantage of diversity of loads,
availability, of sources and in order to supply the load at required reliability.
As power transfers grow, the power system becomes increasingly more complex to operate and
the system can become more insecure with large power flows with inadequate control and inability to
utilize the full potential of transmission interconnections. The concept of Flexible AC
Transmission System has great potential, using thyristor based controllers to offer the utilities the
ability to control power flows on their transmission lines, allow secure loading of transmission lines
to their full thermal capacity.
The relevant technologies based on thyristor based controls are-SSR" damping, static VAr
compensator (SVC), series capacitor, phase angle regulator, static condenser, dynamic load brake,
dynamic voltage limiter, series reactor, fault current limiter, circuit breaker, load tap changer, and
ferro resonance damper.
Static VAr compensators, fast controllable phase shifters, and series compensation, all play a
significant role in FACTS. Although the equipment which comes under this heading has existed for
many years, what is new about FACTS is that these power components and theirspecial features
are systematically evaluated with the goal of increasing the power transfer
limits of ac networks. An important property of the FACTS components is their
ability to control the power flow, both active and reactive power flows or the
power in feed to a certain node. The Control can be used either to regulate the
power flows in the steady state, or to damp power swings dynamically.
PLANNING CRITERIA
Strategy for transmission expansion
34
While SEBs are responsible for providing the transmission systems for their respective state grids,
POWERGRID has been entrusted with the responsibility for laying transmission system network for
facilitating transfer of power generated by the central sector to various constituents as also for laying
necessary transmission network for augmentation/strengthening of regional power grids and
formation of national power grid to facilitate transfer of power not only within a region but also
across various regions in the country.
With the latest amendment (1997-ordinance) to the Indian Electricity Act 1910and the Electricity
Supply Act 1948, private transmission companies can be entrusted for developing any transmission
system.
Keeping in view long- and medium-term perspective planning, the transmission system needs to
be evolved taking an integrated approach for evacuating power from different generating sources,
irrespective of their ownership, and delivering it to the beneficiaries over an optimally designed
power transmission system with reliability, security and economy.
In other words, the state/regional power systems have to be planned in such a manner that the
power received from all the power plants can be transmitted without constraints to different
beneficiaries as per their allocated shares, maintaining a reasonably good voltage profile, stability
conditions and redundancy criteria.
The power system so planned should also integrate well within the region. Hence, the requirement
of individual states as well as the possibilities of inter-state and inter regional exchanges must be kept
in mind during the planning exercises.
Regional grids are developed for substantial inter-regional transfers and limited cross country
exchanges can be attached to achieve optimized utilization of available generation and provide high
standard of supply to beneficiaries with reliability and at reasonable cost.
Thermal loading
Thermal loadings are generally decided by design practice on the basis of ambient temperature
and maximum permissible conductor temperature.
In India, the ambient temperatures obtained in the various parts of the country are different and
vary considerably during the various seasons of the year. It is, therefore, difficult to specify conductor
loadings based on uniform ambient temperature conditions.
The maximum permissible line loading with respect to standard sizes of ACSR employed in 220
kV and 400 kV lines for ambient temperature of 40C, 45C, 48C and 5OC, are different.
For the purpose of system planning studies, the line loadings should not exceed the values
corresponding to appropriate ambient temperature conditions and maximum permissible conductor
temperature, or those dictated by the stability criterion, whichever are lower.
35
Dispatchability- Loading& Outage Capability
The transmission system should be planned on the basis of regional self-sufficiency. Wherever.
Inter-regional power transfer is allowed, the system should also be suitable for specific quantum of
assistance from neighboring regions. The maximum power angular separation between any two
important buses should not normally exceed 40 for load flow under steady state conditions.
The transmission system should be capable of transmitting, the states shares from the central
sector common projects.
The transmission system should be planned to withstand outage of two circuits of 220 kV
systems, or one circuit of 400 kV or higher voltage system, or one pole of HYDC bipole, or an EHV
transformer without the necessity of load shedding or rescheduling of generation.
The transmission system should be planned to ensure full transferring of the maximum possible
output from generating stations even under forced outage of a transmission outlet.
There should be sufficient redundancy to ensure that there is no transmission constraint on
rescheduling generation under the conditions of outage in any of the generating plants.
Reactive compensation should be provided as far as possible in lower voltage systems with a view
to meet the reactive power requirement of loads close to load points.
Security
The system should be able to survive without losing synchronism, the single contingency of
single line-to-ground fault, or line-to-line fault close to a bus on a trunk transmission link cleared by
three pole opening of the circuit breakers on either end within 100 ms from the initiation of fault, or a
fault in HVDC converter station equipment resulting in a permanent loss of one of the poles of an
HVDC bipole.
The above criterion is proposed since single-line-to-ground (SLG) or line-to-line (LLG) faults are
more common and frequent as compared to the other types. Three-phase clearance has been adopted
since it is more commonly practiced as compared to single-pole clearance. In the case of 800 kV
system, the SLG fault for transient stability with a fault clearance time of 5 cycles (100 ms for 50
cycle systems) is to be adopted. The same criterion for security should be adopted with respect to the
800 kV system. In the event of a double contingency of single-line-to-ground fault or line-to-line
fault with the primary protection failing to operate and fault being cleared by second zone protection,
the system should return to stable operation after resorting to load shedding. In the event of an
extreme contingency of outage of two circuits emanating from same generating station, it should be
possible to revert to stable operation with protection being coordinated to island the zones.
Right-Of-Way In view of increasing difficulty in obtaining right-of-way for
transmission lines, and on account of problems associated with the clearance for
routing transmission lines in forest area, transmission lines should be
constructed as double circuit or multi-circuit lines wherever feasible.
Planning of distribution networks
36
The basic parameters considered are-load density, expected load growth, voltage level and circuit.
configuration, number of feeding points etc.
In order to select the most advantageous investments from different alternatives, cost/benefit
studies must be carried out taking into account system voltage, system losses, estimated non
distributed energy due to system faults, annual maintenance costs, safety etc., for one or two years.
Suitable account should be taken of future long-term period unknown factor by some form of
sensitivity analysis.
The existing distribution system network arrangement is a natural starting point for planning for
future developments. Good system planning requires sound knowledge of the existing system to
provide a firm base on which to assess the projects for future network development from the
technical and economic point of view.
At HV (subtransmission) level, the technical studies can be complex. HV systems are introduced
to deal with longer distances and increased power requirements. The use of a single higher voltage
system of 33-220 kV to supply local LV networks directly would lead to unacceptably high costs and
amenity problems. Thus, another voltage level MV (primarylevel), is used to interlink, i.e.,
22 kV or 11 kV. Material & construction costs of 11-22 kV overhead lines are only
slightly higher than those for a 400 V line of the same length, but are
approximately one-tenth the costs of a 110 kV line. It is this large cost
differential which economically justifies the inclusion of an MV network between
the EHV, HV and LV systems, even when the costs of HV/MV substations have
been taken into account. Medium voltage system also provides a convenient
voltage for connecting substantial industrial loads, large buildings or office
blocks. The decision for selecting the voltage level must be based on long term
studies.
Substation development
For planning the density and size of substations in the power system, the following technical and
economic aspects are considered-load density (e.g., MW per km2), load growth, utilization of
transformer capacity, maximum fault levels, flexibility and siting.
Normally, the city areas have higher load densities and the size of substations will be higher than
in rural areas. This is mainly because of the fact that the cost of distributing the power in general is
lower when the load density is high.
Substation bus bar schemes

The arrangement of bus bar and circuit breakers plays an important part in determining the efficiency
of power transmission and distribution system. The type of arrangement to be adopted is determined
by the degree of flexibility of operation, immunity from total shutdown, importance and nature of
loads, security, capital cost and minimization of fault level by way of sectionalization, maintenance,
area of extension, land area etc. The most prevalent bus bar arrangements are given below
37
1. Single Bus System
It is the cheapest arrangement and is used for small substations where power outage for short
periods for maintenance and repairs is permissible.
The disadvantage of the system is that in case of contingency the whole system has to be dosed
down.
Improvement to this is possible by sectionalizing the bus by installing isolating switches or a
circuit breaker so that different sections can be operated independently.
2. Duplicate Bus System

This arrangement is commonly used in large systems with many feeders.
There is a coupling switch or circuit breaker between the two bus bars.
Isolators and circuit breakers are connected so as to have the power flow
without interruption. This is a comparatively more expensive arrangement.
Feeder breaker maintenance is difficult without interruption of supply of
feeder.
3. Transfer Bus Arrangement

With this arrangement line circuit breakers can be taken out for maintenance
and repairs without interruption of supply.
This is a very costly scheme but is more flexible.
4. Breaker and a Half System

The arrangement is suitable for systems where power outage is not
permissible for any reason whatsoever.
The supply has to be kept uninterrupted even in case of bus fault and the bus
can be taken out for maintenance. The cost and the area required are 90
percent and 50 percent as compared to main bus and transfer breaker schemes.
Experiment 7 - Concept of Rational tariffs
Theory:
There are three main objectives of a sound pricing structure/consumer tariff:
(i) Financial-Ensuring that the revenue yields from the application of tariff to the consumer is
sufficient. (ii) Economic-Ensuring that tariffs charged to consumers enable them to make rational
and optimal choices in the use of energy, discourage waste and promote efficient allocation of
resources. (iii) Social-Ensuring that the price structure takes into account fair distribution of costs
among various classes of consumers, subsidization of target class etc.
38
There are two basic tariff-making philosophies recognized- (i) Cost based and (ii) Market based. The
factors used in developing cost-based tariffs are identified as capacity-related, energy-related and
consumer-related. These factors vary for different classes of consumers (residential, agricultural,
commercial, industrial etc.), and require an analysis of much data in order to properly allocate costs.
Cost based tariffs are generally preferred because they are less likely to be criticized by consumers.
However, political or social considerations sometimes over-ride the inherent fairness of cost-based
tariffs especially developing economies. When this is done, the tariffs are said to market based.
COST-BASED TARIFFS
The tariff should have sufficient rates to raise adequate revenue to meet the financial requirements
of the utility.
The tariff should be based on supply cost for each category of consumer. However, urban
consumers will subsidize the rural consumers to some extent.
Peak consumers should pay both capacity and energy costs whereas off peak consumers such as
agriculture should pay only the energy costs.
Lower the service voltage, the greater the costs consumers impose on the system. Therefore,
higher tariff for low voltage consumers is desirable.
Tariffs must be based on marginal costs of serving demand which varies, (i) For different
consumer categories, (ii) For different seasonal industries such as rice shellar, ice industry etc. (iii)
For different hours of the day, i.e., higher rate for peak hours, medium rate for day time and lower
rate for off peak hours, (iv) For different voltage levels, i.e., HT or LT supply consumers. (v) For
different geographical areas.
MARKET-BASED TARIFFS
Following are some examples of market-based tariffs. They may be more prevalent when sufficient
justification can be provided. However, to recover costs, cross-subsidization between various classes
of consumers and/ or some subsidization by the government is inevitable.
Certain industrial rate classes may be subsidized to attract new industry to an area. Residential
rates may be subsidized by other classes or Social/Political purposes. Agricultural tube wells
services may be subsidized to encourage increased food production.
CENTRAL SECTOR GENERATION PROJECTS TARIFFS
39
As per provision of IE (Supply) Act, 1948,the tariff for sale of electricity by generating company to
the state electricity board shall be computed and fixed for a period of five years onnormative basis as
per electricity (supply) Act provision. Bulk power supply agreements (BPSA) are usually signed. An
AC transmission tariff plus HVDC transmission tariff (if any) are charged in each case and charged
on fixed rate/unit basis in each case of agreement. However, the tariff shall be computed and fixed a
new for a period of five years each and whenever additional generating capacity is commissioned in
the same station.
Thermal Power Station

The two-part tariff for sale of electricity from thermal power generating stations (including gas based
stations) shall comprise the recovery of annual fixed charges consisting of interest on loan capital,
depreciation, operation and maintenance expenses (excluding fuel), taxes on income reckoned as
expenses, return on equity and interest on working capital at a normative level of generation and
energy (variable) charges covering fuel cost recoverable for each unit (kilowatt hours) of energy
supplied.
Hydro Power Station

The two-part tariff for sale of electricity from hydro power generating stations shall comprise the
recovery of annual capacity charges consisting of operation & maintenance expenses, tax on income
reckoned as expenses, return on equity, cessor levy on water charges as actual, & interest on working
capital at a normative level of generation shall be based on the norms as may be applicable. There
is a mechanism of incentive specified for improved performance above normative level with respect
to project availability & energy generation.
Transmission tariff
For common interstate projects, the capital cost of construction for the transmission lines and
other assets such as generating stations is generally shared in proportion to the power allocation to
the state.
The power may be in terms of energy drawn for each month or year or for. block of years or over
the life of the line or other assets.
The cost recovery may be in the form of 'transmission tariff in the shape of fixed charges based on
cost contribution plus annual energy charges of kWh supplied. The transmission tariff is the total
tariff for transmission of power and is payable by the beneficiary states. It is equal to the annual fixed
charge which consists of O&M expenses plus depreciation plus interest on loan and working capital
plus return on equity plus any other tax annually payable.
40
Usually O&M charges, depreciation charges and rate of return are levied as per norms notified by
the government or regulatory body. The annual fixed charges are based on fixed assets of the
transmission system.
Tariff for Renewable resources generation

Most of the renewable resources are required to be connected to the grid for selling power to the
nearby utility.
The cost of supplying is normally decided by the avoided cost to utility. The avoided cost to
utility is taken as cost of generation which is predominantly installed by the utility.
If there is no utility generation then the cost may be decided on the basis of opportunity cost.
Opportunity cost is the cost that the consumers will be spending per unit of energy, may be in the
form of wood, diesel, kerosene etc.
It may be noted however, that the cost of power of the new private producers would necessarily
be more than the pooled power provided by the state electricity boards (SEBs),the bulk of which is
from old, depreciated plants. Such average low-cost supply should mean that SEBs can supply power
more competitively than the private distributors, who are more likely to have a larger proportion of
their supply from new plants.
Experiment 8 - Rural Electrification
Theory
Rural Electrification program is mainly funded by Rural Electrification Corporation of India since 1969
for all-round development of village life, agriculture and village industries. The present concerns are:
Rural electrification concerns the supply of electricity to low density areas of villages. It is
traditionally achieved in two ways by the installation of generators independent of the grid, i.e., diesel or
micro-hydel or wind generation etc., directly at the consumption site (village, farm, small industry,
41
dispersed dwellings), or by the extension of the interconnected electrical grid. This latter technique
accounts for 80 per cent of rural electricity distribution in the world and about 98 per cent in India.
For electricity distribution, rural areas are distinguished from urbanized areas by some fundamental
aspects like sites to be electrified are often several kilometers from the existing (H.T.) medium voltage
(MV) network, there is lower population density and electricity consumption is much lower than the
average urban consumption.
The above characteristics of rural electrification result in an increase in capital costs of rural projects
in comparison with urban projects because the great distance of sites to be electrified entails the
installation of MV lines from the grid over sometimes significant distances (Average2 to 3 km in India).
The low population density in comparison with urban sites requires to installation of longer low
voltage (LV)lines per consumer. As a rule of thumb, stability problems limit extensions of grid to a
distance in km of not more than double the line voltage in kV. The rural electrification program has a
useful contribution to the agricultural production, especially by the energization of pump sets for
irrigation. However, due to non-availability of reliable power supply in rural area, the agro-based
industries did not grow and this lead to migration of rural population to urban area. The rural power
system has long lines, low voltage, low power factor, overloaded transformers causing damage to the
costly equipment and higher transmission and distribution losses. The consumers do not install capacitors
in their premises to increase power factor and also have no inclination of participate in the energy
conservation.
COMPONENTS OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION PLANNING
1. Village electrification: A village is deemed to be electrified even if a single connection is given in the
revenue boundary of the village.
2. Pump set energization:This is a major scheme of rural electrification planning. Rural Electrification
Corporation of India, NABARD and commercial banks & many rural electrification cooperatives have
provided funds in equal ratio for pump sets energization.
3. Load development: The use of electricity for domestic and other non-farm activities is still limited and
the creation of HT/LT network in the rural areas for industrial development is yet to take place.
4. System improvement planning: The existing system has expanded at a fast rate and not strengthened,
therefore, making the overall system inadequate. Continuous system improvement needs to be planned as
part of the work culture.
5. Insulated aerial cable system: Insulated overhead distribution system has the ability to reduce the
environmental impact on overhead system both for new work in difficult areas and retrofitting of existing
bare system. High Voltage ABC (Aerial Bunched Cable) system is used in many countries. Covered
conductor system provides an improved open wire system which can be less expensive than HV ABC.
Two versions of power conductors, namely, covered conductor (CC) and covered conductor thick (CCT)
are now used.
42
Decentralized generation
The electrification of these villages by conventional means from grid supply is becoming increasingly
expensive and unreliable. It is desirable to electrify the villages through decentralized generation schemes
like mini-micro hydel, solar, wind, geothermal etc. Also the growth of load in already electrified villages
can be accelerated by such small generation schemes. The small power generation schemes are being
given subsidies up to 50 per cent by the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources to reduce the
ultimate cost of supply. Small hydro and wind generators up to 100 kW should be developed by the local
Panchayat at the identified sites for which necessary expertise should be given by the Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Source /Indian Renewable Energy Development Agencies Ltd (IREDA).
A. Wind Generator: These are competitive source of electricity in windy areas and are susceptible
to substantial development in India. An assessment of wind energy resources in India indicates a
potential of 50,000MW. Now commercially India is generating around 20,000MW of power
through wind energy. The commercial wind turbines in India are in the range of 1-2 MW for grid
connected applications.
B. Small Hydro Power Stations: Small hydro power stations have begun to spread in several
developing countries in hilly areas and plain terrains. Two problems need to be solved here, the
problem of capital cost, which must be kept as low as possible by the use of standardized
hardware and local engineering, and the problem of the good load factor, which must be high
enough to make the project viable.
C. Wood fired gasifier micro power stations: These seem capable of supplying a kWh at a price
comparable to that of a conventional generating set under certain conditions: isolation of the
locality to be supplied and availability of raw materials, with the advantage of using a local
energy source.
D. Photovoltaic systems: Thousands of PV systems are today in operation worldwide, and have
proved highly competitive in a range of residential, agricultural, commercial, village level, health,
education and small-scale industry applications. A large number of photovoltaic water pumps are
now in service in the country.
E. Biomass electricity generation sets: The technology for such biomass based power plants is a
proven one. These run exactly on the same principles as a coal-fired plant. These plants are
modular in nature and are in the 5-25 MW range. They run on any combustible material.
43

PSP Lab Manual

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

PSP Lab Manual

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Department of Electrical Engineering

Experiment 1 - Status of National and Regional Planning,

Indias Installed Generation Capacity stands at 210,951.72 MW as on December 31,

Integrated Resource Planning:

Least Cost Utility Planning (LCUP)

Process of Least Cost Utility Planning

National and Regional Planning - Advantages

Such coordination allows joint planning & operation of facilities.

One of the problems in regional planning relates to coordination among the

Experiment 2 - Write Components of Structure of Power

An electrical power system can be considered consisting of generation,

The standard system voltages used in India for transmission and

The prime mover may be a steam driven turbine, a hydraulic turbine or an

The generator may be are alternator or a DC machine. The Electrical load on

The active power (MW) is regulated by frequency (speed) control. The

The components of an electric power system include generators designed to

Power System Components

3. In Network of lines the same loads being served by a network. This

Generation capacity (1 p.u.) =Transmission capacity (1.5 p.u.) + Sub

1. In the case of low or medium voltage, by more than 6 per cent.

Experiment 3 - Explain in detail various planning tools

Planning engineer's primary requirement is to give power supply to consumers in a

The criteria and constraints in planning an energy system are reliability,

Reliability, economic; financial and environmental factors can be quantified.

In power generation, corporate models can simulate the impact of various

2. Optimization Tools These minimize or maximize an objective function by

3. The Scenario Techniques - This is a method for viewing the future in a

The process of Planning Electric Energy Systems consists of generating a set

Experiment 4 - Write short note on electricity regulation.

The current regulations enacted by the Government of India are primarily

INDlAN TELEGRAPHICACT, 1885

INDIAN ELECTRICITY ACT, 1910

1. Licenses: Grant of licenses; revocation or amendment of licenses; purchase of

3. Supply: Point of supply; powers of licenses to enter premises, restrictions on

4. Transmission and Use of Energy by Non-licensees: sanctions required by non-

5. General Protective Clause: Protection of railways, aerodromes, canals, docks

6. Administration and Rules: Advisory boards; appointment of electrical

7. criminal Offences and Procedure: Theft of energy; penalty for maliciously

8. supplementary Provisions: Exercise in certain cases of power of telegraph

THE ELECTRICITY (SUPPLY ACT) ACT, 1948

1. The Central Electricity Authority: Constitution ; powers to require accounts,

3. Power and duties of state electricity boards and generating or Transmission

4. The board's finance accounts and audit.

5. Miscellaneous items such as effects of other laws; water power concessions to

THE INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES, 1956

1. Authorization to perform duties

3. Licensing: Application, contents and form of draft license; advertisement of

4. General safety precautions: Regarding construction, installation, Protection,

5. General conditions relating to supply and use of energy: Testing of consumer's

FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980

6. In the case of lines to be constructed in hilly areas, where adequate Clearance

ENVIRONMENT LAWS Environment laws such as Water (Prevention and

Experiment 5 - Modeling of Electrical Forecasting

Their generation characteristics are given below:

(i) Long-term forecasting (periods ranging 245.years)

TYPES OF FORECASTS & THEIR IMPORTANCE

Long-term forecasts are used for,

(i) Exploration of natural fuel and water resources.

(i) The country's economic policy, developmental plans, technological development in

(i) Deciding rat~-structure for billing of different consumer categories.

Short-term load forecasting is required for operational planning for:

(i) Unit commitment and economic dispatch calculations.

Time dependent factors