Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DEGRADATION IN EL SALVADOR
Annabelle V. Abisset
University of Nebraska-Omaha
3 October, 2016
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DEGRADATION IN EL SALVADOR
Table of Contents
1 Background..............................................................................................................................3
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................3
1.2 Brief History.....................................................................................................................3
2 Analysis....................................................................................................................................4
2.1 Land Use...........................................................................................................................4
2.1.1 Soil Depletion............................................................................................................4
2.1.2 Deforestation..............................................................................................................5
2.1.3 Urbanization..............................................................................................................6
2.2 The Economy....................................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Gang Land Claims.....................................................................................................7
2.2.2 Remittances.............................................................................................................................7
2.3 Poverty..............................................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Unemployment..........................................................................................................8
2.3.2 Reliance on Natural Resources..................................................................................9
3 Options.....................................................................................................................................9
3.1 Education..........................................................................................................................9
3.2 Incentives for Farmers....................................................................................................10
3.3 Plant and Maintain Trees.................................................................................................11
4 Recommendation....................................................................................................................11
5 Bibliography...........................................................................................................................13
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1 Background
1.1 Introduction
After the death of approximately 75,000 citizens in a violent civil war, the state of El
Salvador came to political peace that ended the influence of communism. It was, however, the
beginning of great instability in many other sectors now of concern. Today, land degradation in
El Salvador is a devastating environmental issue that has the roots of different social and political
causes from the war. The University of Nebraska-Omaha Environmental Advising Team has
recognized this issue that now interconnects with a number of issues in the state.
El Salvador began its fall into the ideology of the iron curtain in 1980 (Allison 2012).
The struggle was over two main groups: the El Salvadoran government, backed by anti-
communist US, and the rebel-communist group, Farabundo Mart National Liberation Front
(FMLN). Today, this major political party, and former rebel group led by President Cern during
the struggle for power, plays a significant role in the politics. Great violence and poverty caused
mass internal displacement, and mass migration. According Blackman, Avalos-Sartorio, and
Chow, thousands of civilians, who were able, fled their country; 90% of whom resettled into the
United States, (2007, p.30). There was also an internal movement from the north of the country
to the south, causing many impoverished citizens to work in the agriculture sector near the
Pacific coasts. The change in work was harsh on the land due to a large increase in plowing for
agriculture, an increase in the cutting of trees to sell for lumber, and space for increased
The United States helped negotiate the Chapultepec Peace accords in 1992 and put an end
to the extremist groups, but the aftermath can be seen to this day (Byrne 193). The negative
impact included poor practices that now cause extreme land degradation, causing the agriculture
sector to suffer the most. From peasant farmers to the state's urban elite, the loss of arable land is
affecting all aspects of life. This issue has now escalated into a major environmental problem,
and a security issue interconnected with present problems. The environment and its affects are
closely related with: land use, the economy, and poverty on both an individual and national scale.
2 Analysis
We first analyzed how the environment is related to land use, particularly with depleted
soils in farming. Agriculture is a widely used practice for income in poor, rural areas. According
to Pagiola and Dixon (1998) one-third of the rural population is employed in agriculture (p. 200).
land use and the affects of civil war, with an amounting sixty-five percent of land that is
unsuitable for cultivation (p. 202). The rural population that increased during the civil war turns
to agriculture for income. It is common to plant basic grains such as maize, beans and sorghum,
but the cultivation practices surrounding these crops leaves the soil depleted (Pagiola and Dixon,
1998, p. 202). Farmers in rural areas choose these staple crops because of their affordability to
produce and guaranteed immediate profit. However, shade plants are the cash crop of the land.
Coffee is the largest shade grown cash-crop, along with various grains and corn that are
According to Blackman, et al. (2007), before the 1990s, coffee was a great commodity in
El Salvador, but was hurt by the drastic fall in coffee prices worldwide (p. 24). This caused less
farmers to grow coffee, decreasing the amount of land for coffee and requiring less trees for
growth. The depleted land causes soil erosion. Geographically, El Salvador is already prone to
erosion because of its mountainous terrain and erodible soils (Pagiola and Dixon,1998, p.209).
The amount of available arable farming land is decreasing as population increases and rural areas
continue to work the land. Soil depletion becomes a security issue for El Salvador when there is
not enough land for citizens to use, and when a main source of income, and food, for many is
becoming obsolete.
2.1.2 Deforestation
Shade-grown coffee requires trees for growth. After the states civil war, the shift of
population to the south caused great stress on mangrove forests. Mangrove forests are aquatic
trees that grow in groups close to the coast or in salty waters. Many people living in poverty at
the time cut down trees to sell as lumber and firewood, a practice that continues to this day.
According to Gamme, Benitez, and Machado (2002), the poor and extremely poor depend on
natural resources as an available good. The majority of fuelwood in the region is attained from
mangroves (p. 229). Also, standard of living in these areas is low. One factor in measuring
poverty is by the accessibility to electricity (Hopkins, Southgate, and Gonzales-Vega, 1999, p. 4).
A majority of the population in these rural areas do not have electric access and use firewood to
fuel wood-burning stoves (p.4). Deforestation has only increased since the end of the civil-war
and poses threats to security in a number of ways. It causes a decline in the resource a large
portion of the population depends on for electricity and method of food preparation.
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Also trees, especially in the geographic region of El Salvador, help buffer the coasts for
protection against tropical storms that threaten the countrys populous coastal cities (Gamme, et
al., 2002, p. 287). El Nino, an irregularly occurring tropical storm in the region, affects farmers
Meza (2001) it disturbs the wet season causing it to come too early or too late and declining
yields (p.3). These factors are vital for success or failure to farmers. It is a security issue for
people affected by displacement caused by the storm and not having proper barriers or
infrastructure in the state to shield these areas from disaster to cities and farms.
2.1.3 Urbanization
The growing population demands a more efficient use of the land. Today, that is seen
with increasing urban areas. According to Hetcht and Saatchi (2007) the rural population that
still relies on agriculture is about half the countrys population, but urbanization has become a
high priority since the 1990s (p.665). There was also a shift in production from crops to low-
wage factory jobs that was a strategy from international developers to boost development. Land
utilizing urban areas and cities certainly have had many benefits, but with negative consequence.
According to The Gangs That Cost 16% of GDP (2016) urbanization has fostered gang activity
in large cities who compete for land amongst other gangs. As the largest problem the state faces,
people are becoming increasingly fearful of their threats. El Salvador has the highest homicide
rate with 120 deaths per 100,000 people in 2015 (The Gangs That Cost 16% of GDP, 2016).
Many tactics on controlling gangs by the government have been successful only in small
quantities. This is one of the largest security threats in the state because increased cities due to
Land use in the state is affecting the economy as a whole. The gangs use of the land is
cause for major concern for people, as well as the economy. The Gangs That Cost 16% of GDP
estimates that around 60,000-70,000 citizens of El Salvador belong to a gang, and that about a
half a million of the population (including businesspersons, politicians and police) are financially
dependent on them. They also estimate that 3% of the GDP, about $756 million, go directly to
gangs but in total the costs of violence and extra security is truly around 16% of the states GDP
(The Gangs That Cost 16% of GDP [UN Development Program] 2016). Extra costs include
those who are willing to pay more in security to feel safe. Much of this issue can be drawn back
to soil degradation because of increased urban areas and the fact that the poor population that
traditionally work in agriculture are forced to move to cities due to a lack of yield and
production. Youths find themselves drawn or forced into gangs. This is a high risk security issue
that causes not only people to feel unsafe, but takes legitimacy away from the government. With
a government dependent to a certain extent on gangs, the economy is being sacrificed, and the
2.2.2 Remittances
The increasing gap between the poor, rural population and countrys elite causes the poor
to rely on others for a source of income. Because a large portion of the population fled to the
United States during the civil war, many of those workers now send remittances back to their
families (Blackman, et al., 2007, 29). The lack of land to cultivate crops has caused a lack of
food in some rural areas. Remittances are essential for providing food in places agriculture is no
longer an option due to depleted lands. In fact, in 1999, it was estimated migrants abroad sent
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DEGRADATION IN EL SALVADOR
more than $1.5 billion back to El Salvador, amounting to roughly 13% of the nations GDP
(p.30). This becomes a security issue when the state is dependent on outside revenue for
when remittances increase the value of land, making it much more profitable to sell the land to
2.3 Poverty
2.3.1 Unemployment
The rural population relies on agriculture for employment. Land degradation complicates
this matter. Farmers believe that their yields have decreased, but have not noticed the affects.
There has also been an increase in the use of fertilizers. Degradation has not had an affect on the
growth of crops, but the use of fertilizers off-puts that (Pagiola and Dixon, 1998, p.205). The use
of fertilizers increases costs for the farmer and causes declining returns, leaving the farmer with a
smaller or negative profit. Agriculture is no longer a viable option for workers in rural areas.
Unemployment and a decrease in the agriculture sector has resulted in poverty throughout
the state. In recent decades, other Central American states, including El Salvador, have turned to
low-wage factory jobs to increase economic activity. Although it increased the lives for many,
half of the population remains rural (Hetcht and Saatchi, 2007, 665). Many of these low-wage
factories have now moved from Central America to Southeast Asia, leaving the land destroyed,
depleted, and unable to repurpose with current resources. The government is sought in this
situation of insecurity that is leaving many unemployed and without the traditional option to
farm.
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Many of those who continue to reside in the countryside are extremely dependent on
natural resources. For them it is a means that is always free and available. Extreme poverty
causes them to rely on simple acts such as subsistence farming and the collection of lumber.
Improper logging is causing a severe case of deforestation and soil erosion (Gamme et al., 2002,
p.285). When this population over logs the area, the natural resource shrinks, such as the
mangrove forests. With less of this resource, a security issue is present. Without enough lumber
for the rural population to harvest, they are at risk of not having enough energy to burn for their
3 Options
3.1 Education
As former Minister of Education, the importance of literacy and school attendance has
carried into your presidency, and with great success. Ceja (2015, May 31) notes that level of
illiteracy have dropped considerably under FMLN, expecting to drop to 9% by the end of 2015.
The government has also ensured basic school supplies, shoes and uniforms to all children to
encourage students to stay in school. This is seen throughout the state, including most rural areas.
areas, to teach proper farming practices in the classroom. These practices should maximize use
and conserve the land. Included in these should be minimum tillage, the use of crop residue as
soil cover and implementing stone walls to separate crops (Pagiola and Dixon, 1998, p.209). The
job of the president would be to ensure that these national programs are truly taught and reach all
Another option the government can impose is offering incentives to farmers who do
practice conservation methods. Many do not practice conservation methods because poor farmers
cannot afford the costly implementations or hard labor that is required. Some of these include
barriers around plants such as rocks, especially denser plants, and terracing the land to prevent
There has been an increase in rural development projects that use incentives with the help
of The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources to combat erosion and deforestation
(Herrador and Dimas, 2000, p.306, 307). Most, however, are used once the project or plants are
done. The incentive should be in the form of a payment, because any other form is short-lived,
and reward the farmer as soon as they begin implementing the sustainable practices. Our team
suggests rewarding the farmer in three portions: when planting, harvesting, and wilting. Each of
these stages has sustainable technique that when recognized, should be rewarded. The budget for
this can easily come from the people themselves. In the example of El Imposible National
Park, there is a small fee to enter the park paid by visitors which can be invested back into the
land by paying these farmers (Herrador and Dimas, 2000, p.308). Another solution our team has
proposed in budgeting is taking a small portion of the remittances many of these farmers receive
and applying it towards this program. This governmental program is anticipated to help reduce
poverty in rural areas by giving farmers the extra help they need to be rewarded for adopting
conservation practice and allowing them to be more successful in their crop yield due to
Much of the problem is the improper use of land. Soil is eroding because of the practices
and the loss of trees and plants. When urbanization takes place and covers soil, a simple solution
is to maintain trees and plants in these areas. Their presence will enrich the soil and help prevent
erosion. This should take place in rural areas, as well, where mangrove and other forests have
seen drastic declines. The increase in trees can also help encourage planting more profitable
shade-grown crops. UNOs Environmental Advising Team encourages you to use the success of
your past. As president you have provided shoes and other essential school supplies to every
child, even in rural areas. Giving a child a tree to plant alongside these school items invites this
practice to be a cultural one and encourages the people to take the matter into their own hands.
4 Recommendation
Our team has analyzed this situation in depth, and our recommendation is to implement a
combination of the three options for maximum benefit. Increasing educational opportunities and
quality of education is important. Your programs thus far have been successful, but we urge you
to take this one step further in order to save the state from environmental disaster. Giving these
resources to the farmers of the future is a crucial first step in addressing the issue. Prevention and
conservation with a younger generation will ensure proper knowledge and greater success for the
Incentives should also be implemented on a larger scale. The Ministry of Environment and
Natural Resources has already had a successful start in providing incentives. We suggest that you
continue to take portions of revenue from national parks, as well as tax a small portion of
remittances to give back to rural farmers. To prevent the cycle of poverty due to poor land,
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supplying an incentive will highly encourage farmers to practice conservation methods which
will result in higher yields for them and a greater value in land. This program has been largely
successful in other areas of Central America, and with our suggestion we believe it will have a
Finally, to prevent land degradation from affecting land use, the economy and poverty our
final suggestion is simple: plant more trees. Having more flora available in the form of trees and
plants will diversify the land and help reduce soil erosion. Both urban businessman in San
Salvador and rural farmer in Santa Ana can participate in this practice. The recommendation is
giving children, and their household, a sapling to plant every year alongside school supplies. This
culturally embeds the issue of land degradation as a cultural practice and recognizes the impact
each person can make. On a small scale, this simple practice will better the lives of thousands of
people.
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5 Bibliography
Allison, M. (2012, 1 March) El Salvadors Brutal Civil War: What We Still Dont Know.
Retrieved from
http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/02/2012228123122975116.html.
Blackman, A., valos-Sartorio, B., & Chow, J. (2007). Shade Coffee & Tree Cover Loss:
Byrne, H. (1996). El Salvador's civil war: A study of revolution. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Ceja, L.G. (2015, May 31). Gains in Education and Poverty Reduction Continues During
http://www.telesurtv.net/english/analysis/Salvadoran-President-Prioritizes-Education-
Poverty-Reduction-20150531-0013.html
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3674049
Hecht, S. B., & Saatchi, S. S. (2007). Globalization and Forest Resurgence: Changes in Forest
Hopkins, J., Southgate, D., & Gonzalez-Vega, C. (1999, December). Rural poverty and land
Hopkins, J. W., Southgate, D., Gonzalez-Vega, C., & Rodriguez-Meza, J. (2001). Rural Poverty,
In 2001 Annual meeting, August 5-8, Chicago, IL (No. 20646). American Agricultural
Association).
Pagiola S., and J.A. Dixon (1998). Land Degradation Problems in El Salvador. El Salvador Rural
Sarah Gammage, Bentez, M., & Melany Machado. (2002). An Entitlement Approach to the
from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4315254
The Gangs That Cost 16% of GDP. (2016, 21 May). The Economist. Retrieved from
http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21699175-countrys-gangs-specialise-
extortion-they-may-be-branching-out-gangs-cost