Stress Reactions in Computerized Administrative Work

Author(s): Gunn Johansson and Gunnar Aronsson

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of Occupational Behaviour, Vol. 5, No. 3 (Jul., 1984), pp. 159-181
Published by: John Wiley & Sons
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 JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL BEHAVIOUR, Vol. 5, 159-181 (1984)

Stress reactions in computerized administrative work

GUNN JOHANSSON and GUNNAR ARONSSON

Department of Psychology, University of Stockholm, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden

SUMMARY
Ninetyfive white-collarworkers employed by an insurancecompany using visual display
units(VDU) connectedby telecommunicationto a centralcomputerfilled in a questionnaire
concerningpsychosocialstressorsin connectionwith work at the VDU. Eleven personswith
extensive and ten with no work at VDUs were also studied during regularwork, during
breakdownof machinery,and in their leisuretime. Self-reportson mood and alertnesswere
recorded along with blood pressure, heart rate, and excretion of adrenaline and
noradrenaline.Resultsindicatethat (1) stressand mentalstrainoccurredin associationwith
delayed response times in the computer system and unpredictedinterruptionsof system
operation, (2) such a temporaryinterruptioncaused an increase of blood pressure and
adrenalineexcretion,(3) complaintsof stressand strainwere reportedmainlyby data-entry
staff,(4) data-entrygroupsdisplayeda higherlevel of physiologicalarousalduringpost-work
hoursthan a controlgroup, and (5) that a majorityof those who workedcontinuouslyat a
VDU reportedphysicaldiscomfortwithin 1.5 hours.It is concludedthat stressand strainin
computerizedwork may be counteractedat the technologicaland the organizationallevel:
by reducingthe durationand frequencyof breakdowns,by reducingresponsetimes in the
system, and by eliminatingpure data-entrytasks.

BACKGROUND

Office automation, especially the introduction of visual display units (VDUs), has
brought new elements into the work environment of white-collar employees;
Ergonomic research has reached the stage where it is possible to draw up guidelines
and instructions for e.g. terminal design, illumination, job posture and other factors
(Grandjean and Vigliani, 1980; Mackay, 1980; Ostberg, 1978). Other important
aspects concern methods for introduction of computer technology, effects on
employment, and effects on organizational structure.
The present study is confined to working conditions for white-collar employees at
a company where the computer system had been built up over a series of years,
taking pains to arrange its introduction in consultation with the staff. Ergonomic
and organizational aspects were considered to some extent but the main purpose of
the study was to identify advantages and problems that computerization entailed in
terms of stress and job satisfaction.

Overload and underload, individual control

The study is part of a long-term research programme, launched from social
psychological and psychophysiological insight into consequences of overload,
0142-2774/84/030159-23$02.30 Received24 May 1982
? 1984 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Revised20 December1982 and 9 June 1983
160 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

under-utilization and lack of personal control in a job situation (Frankenhaeuser

and Gardell, 1976).
It is now generally recognized that the human nervous system functions optimally
when the sensory inflow is on an intermediate level (see e.g. Frankenhaeuser and
Johansson, 1981). The capacity for physical and mental performance is greatest,
and so is well-being, when intensity and variability of stimulation are 'moderate'.
Experimental research has shown that functional disturbances of the nervous
system arise (Zubek, 1969) when sensory stimulation is either extremely weak and
monotonous or extremely complex and intensive.
In stress research, growing emphasis is being placed on the importance of the
psychological processes with which individuals assess the demands of stress
situations and their scope for handling demands for adjustment in a stress situation
(e.g. Frankenhaeuser, 1979; Lazarus, 1976; Lundberg, 1980). A factor of vital
importance for effective coping with stress is the individual's possibility of
influencing the situation. A number of studies have shown how individual
situational control can contribute to the reduction of stress (Frankenhaeuser, 1979;
Frankenhaeuser and Rissler, 1970; Johansson, 1981).
Working from somewhat different empirical and theoretical starting points,
social psychology and sociological research has established that underload and
overload are serious obstacles to job satisfaction (Gardell, 1971, 1982) and that job
satisfaction presupposes a certain amount of autonomy (Emery and Thorsrud,
1976). Studies from this angle have likewise shown that the impact of stressors such
as overload and underload may be modified by the extent to which the individual is
allowed control over his/her work situation (Gardell, 1982; Karasek, 1979).
Studies have also shown that the level of control is of importance in job
socialization. Thus, passive behaviour patterns learned at work can result in lower
levels of political and social activity (e.g. union activity) outside work (Karasek,
1979; Frese, 1982).
Using this frame of reference, the present study was undertaken in order to
investigate the impact of type of work and amount of VDU work on stress and
strain in computerized administrative work.

The present study

A detailed account of the study is given by Johansson and Aronsson (1980).
The study was carried out in the largest insurance group in the Nordic area
(Skandia), one of the concerns in the white-collar sector that has introduced
computers on a large scale in order to rationalize administrative routines and client
services.
The system was operated via visual display terminals, the Alfaskop,
manufactured by Datasaab. An ergonomic study of the job situation at VDUs had
already been undertaken and the results had led to improvements in lighting and
furniture design. Computer storage was used for production as well as for
information systems. Stored information was directly accessible at about 730 visual
display units distributed all over Sweden. The equipment included three IBM
370/158 and IBM communication computers 3705 as well as stores with a capacity
of 7.5 billion bits.
The head office for the western zone, located in Gothenburg, was proposed as
 Computerized Administrative WVork 161

the location for the study and this met with approval from the union and the zone
management. This office had about 500 employees and just over 100 VDUs. A
reference group for the project was set up at Group level and a project group at the
office in Gothenburg.
The study was undertaken in two stages. A questionnaire was used to obtain an
overall picture of the drawbacks and advantages associated with VDUs for
different types of work. The questionnaire also served as a basis for selecting a
smaller group of employees for the second part of the study. This involved the
recording of both psychological and biological data during work and leisure time.

QUESTIONNAIRE STUDY

Method
Subjects and procedure
After extensive preliminary interviews had been held with VDU operators and key
officials (personnel manager, zone manager, safety representative, systems experts,
etc.), a questionnaire was drafted, discussed with the project group, and revised.
The items covered background information on age, education and so on, questions
to map the content of different jobs, evaluative questions about how job content
affected the employee's well-being and perceived mental strain, and questions
covering the person's health status in the past year. The questions were of the
fixed-choice type, as a rule with four or five response alternatives.
The questionnaire was given to 128 employees at the selected office. This group
comprised entire sections/groups selected systematically to represent different
amounts and types of work at VDUs (for details, see Johansson and Aronsson,
1980)1. The average response rate was 74 per cent (95 persons). The confidential
nature of the questionnaire precluded further analysis of the non-response but it is
clear that persons with little experience of the computer system were
underrepresented in the study group.

Four groups with different amounts of VDU work

All those who used VDUs in their work (85 per cent of the respondents) were
asked in the questionnaire to estimate how large a part of working hours they
generally spent at a terminal. These estimates were used to arrive at four groups: no
VDU work, little, moderate, and extensive VDU work2. A majority of those in the
latter category estimated that they spent more than 75 per cent of their working
hours at a VDU. The replies to this question correlated highly with estimated
number of transactions performed per day (r = 0.62, p < 0.001).
These four groups were compared in terms of their general attitude to work,

1Customer service: visitors and/or phone calls (n = 13), secretariat: technical department, industrial
section, etc. (n = 10), claims settlement: vehicle, burglary, claims register (n = 30), insurance depart-
ment, personal: preliminary assessment, premium accounts, registers (n = 7), tariffing: enterprise
department (n = 20), insurance production: civilian, vehicle (n = 15)
2No VDU work, n = 14; little (1-10 per cent of work time) VDU work, n = 20; moderate (10-50 per
cent) VDU work, n = 38; extensive (>50 per cent) VDU work, n = 23.
162 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

attitude to computerization, mental strain and well-being. The results are

summarized below and a detailed account is given by Johansson and Aronsson
(1980). Unless otherwise stated, statistical tests have been undertaken in the form
of one-way analyses of variance.
The four groups did not differ in mean age (average 41 years) or marital status
(on average, 27 per cent were single). Neither did they differ appreciably in the
number of children at home (0.4-0.9 per person), or the duration of employment in
Skandia (c. 15 years).
In terms of sex and education, on the other hand, the groups did show statistically
significant differences (F = 6.976, p < 0.001 and F = 2.992, p < 0.05, df 3/91,
respectively). Almost all the men belonged to the groups with little or moderate
VDU work (men made up 7, 50, 20, and 0 per cent of the groups) and the
proportion of persons with only primary school or 9-year comprehensive school
was highest in the group with extensive VDU work (7, 20, 45, and 48 per cent,
respectively).

Results
General conditions at work
The amount of VDU work was clearly related to job content. Those with no VDU
work at all were chiefly personnel who undertook typing and/or telephone services
and other secretarial tasks for mobile staff. The group with extensive VDU work
contained two main categories: persons who feed data from documents into the
computer system and those who use this system for customer contacts by phone or
in person. The intermediate groups included a large proportion of personnel with
complex tasks that require long experience, chiefly the settlement of claims but also
some investigative work.
All groups had a positive attidue to the company and their jobs. The degree of
instrumentality was low. About 80 per cent agreed that their job conferred
personal satisfaction rather than just an income and a majority would advise a
friend to join the company.
Most persons considered that they could work independently and take initiatives
on their own fairly often. Attention, rush and tact were most pronounced among
the perceived demands on performance, though the average assessments were not
extremely high.
The group without VDU work (secretarial staff, etc.) reported a significantly
smaller element of group problem-solving than other groups (F = 2.816,p < 0.05,
df = 3/88). The extreme groups (no and extensive VDU work) had considerably
less opportunity than the intermediate groups of postponing certain tasks on 'off
days' (F = 3.793, p < 0.05, df = 3/88). The group with extensive VDU work and
the shortest schooling had received less further training in insurance matters than
other groups.

Computerization and work at VDUs

The introduction of computers Concerning the introduction of the computer
system, it was most usual to have been taught to handle the VDU and less common
to have been informed about the system as a whole. A majority considered that
 Computerized Administrative Work 163

their initial instruction was sufficient. Even so, about two-thirds of them, on this
later occasion, wanted further training in the structure of the computer system.
Only 12 per cent of the employees thought that they had sufficient influence over
the changes which computers brought about in job content. The chief causes for
inadequate influence, listed according to frequency, were: employees and unions
lacking knowledge of systems development, lack of interest in the opinions of
employees among the project groups, who designed the systems, and inability of
project groups to describe the systems in a way that the employees can understand.
The results also disclosed a widespread view that employees should be included at
an early stage when developing computer system. A majority (56 per cent) desired
co-determination right from the time when the idea is first discussed.
Attitudes to the prospect of increasingly advanced computerization expressed a
certain amount of anxiety: more than 30 per cent considered that their present
occupational skills may be rendered superfluous. Asked whether personal
experience modifies one's attitude to computerization, 66 per cent replied that
their original opinion had not changed.
The number of years' experience of VDUs increased on average with the amount
of VDU work (2.4, 3.4, and 4.8 years, respectively), the reason being that relatively
uncomplicated routines undertaken by the group with extensive VDU work had
been more amenable to computerization and were therefore incorporated in the
system at an early stage.

Changes connected with computerization Figure 1 presents perceived effects of

computerization. Factors such as autonomy, variety and job responsibility-
production-related qualifications-had remained unchanged. On the other hand,
intensity demands-mental strain, the demands for concentration, amount of routine
work-were all reported to have increased. In fact, no individual considered that
they had decreased.
These results are interesting since they yield partial support to a hypothesis

1 Variety of work 1
2 Autonomy in planning
and doing work 2

3 Job responsibi lity 3

4 Overview of insurance cases 4

5 Demand for attention and 5

concentration
6 Mental strain 6

7 No. of routine tasks 7

t 2 3
Less than Much as Greaterthan
before before before
Figure 1. Mean assessments of changes since the introduction of VDUs
(n = 72)
164 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

stating that the introduction of complex technical systems will reduce needs for
production-related qualifications, i.e. skills associated with the work process and
product/service such as knowledge and experience. At the same time intensity
demands, i.e. demands for concentration and attention, which are qualitatively
neutral with regard to the work process and product/service, are expected to
increase.
Expectations of rapid service The speed of the computer system had affected the
rapidity of the service which both customers and employees expected. Responses to
the question 'If technology and resources enabled one to fix a maximal response
time, how long do you think this should be?' showed that as many as 63 per cent
wanted a maximum delay of 5 s. Only 20 per cent would accept more than 10 s
delay.

Complaints with long VDU sessions The observation that work at VDUs is often
associated with physical discomfort, e.g. eye fatigue, headache and pain in
shoulders and arms (e.g. Grandjean, 1980; Ostberg, 1975) had led the company to
issue a recommendation that work at VDUs should not be undertaken for more
than about 2.5 hours at a stretch. It was found, however, that this standard was
exceeded with varying frequency for as much as 24 per cent of all VDU operators.
It should be added that for some of these operators, the organization of work had a
built-in inducement to exceed the 2.5-hour limit. One group, for instance, with the
task of feeding in data from documents, got a new pile of documents each day.
Prompt service to customers is an important competitive instrument in the
insurance business and the VDU operators demand a great deal of themselves in
order to complete the day's pile before they go home. When someone is sick,
moreover, their share is taken over by the rest of the group, which may also
contribute to an uneven workload and occasional overload.
To obtain a picture of the more acute effects of VDU work, the subjects were also
asked how long a VDU session they could usually manage without experiencing
discomforts of the kinds reported earlier. Of the 80 persons with VDU work who
answered this question, 43 had experience of lengthy VDU work, and of them as
many as 39 persons (91 per cent) had experienced some kind of discomfort. This
group reported a total of 71 complaints, which means that it was common to feel
more than one kind of discomfort. It is noteworthy that for 31 of these 39 persons,
i.e. 70 per cent, the discomfort usually appeared within 1.5 hours.
The main complaints concerned demands on the eyes (58 per cent),
concentration and mental processes (e.g. 'tired in the head', 30 per cent), and
discomforts reflecting unsuitable posture, tension due to stress, etc. An analysis of
the most frequent symptoms broken down by amount of VDU work indicated
slightly more problems in the group with most VDU work.
Causes of mental strain The subjects indicated, for each of 34 potential stressors,
to what degree these contributed to perceived mental strain. Figure 2 presents
average ratings for potential stressors associated with VDU work. As shown in the
graph, there is a positive relation between time spent at the VDU and the impact of
these stressors: the more VDU work, the more strain caused by computer
breakdowns, lack of information about the expected length of breakdowns, phone
calls interrupting VDU work, etc.
 Computerized Administrative Work 165
Contribution from listed factors
nil some quite very
large large
0 1 2 3 4
-@ I .-,,, ,,,,' I/

1. Computer breakdown A Little

2. Uncertainty as to Moderate I VDU work
duration of breakdown
3. Phone caLLs that in- * Extensive
terrupt VDUwork I
4. Workthat piLes up 2
during breakdown 2
-
5. InsufficientLy stan- 3 e00f
dardized Layout of 14
VDUtext 5
6. Inappropriate fur-
niture design 6
I I I I ' I ' ' ' ' I /

Figure2. Causes of mental strain associatedwith VDU work as

relatedto amountof VDU work.The graphlists all factorsyielding
significantF-quotientsin a one-wayanalysisof variance(p < 0.05)

Among other factors with high average ratings but without significant group
differences were work overload, insufficient peace and quiet, high demands for
attention, noise levels in the open-space office, and the obligation to suppress joy
and anger in the open-space office. It is notable that seven of the top ten factors
were associated either with VDU work or with conditions in an open-space office.
Similar information was obtained about factors contributing to well-being at
work. Out of 24 factors, the 10 that were ranked highest included conditions to do
with security of employment, independence, responsibility and benefits such as
flexible working hours, staff canteen and lunches.

Advantages and drawbacks The information given from two open questions
about perceived advantages and drawbacks of the VDU system confirmed the
questionnaire results. Between 50 and 60 per cent of the respondents used this
opportunity of formulating their own answers, listing both advantages and
drawbacks. For the group as a whole the single dominant advantage was considered
to be the rapidity of the system (when it is functioning). The drawbacks mentioned
most frequently were breakdowns in the system, monotony and the
impoverishment of work.

Health The questionnaire also asked about psychosomatic symptoms that may be
associated with mental strain. The results showed that groups where little or
moderate VDU work was combined with complex and partly responsible tasks
(settling claims, tariffing, etc.) had more trouble from stomach complaints than the
secretarial and VDU groups. Statistically significant differences were obtained for
sour retching and stomach-ache (F = 3.377, p < 0.05) as well as for gas, stomach
pain, diarrhoea (F = 2.954, p < 0.05).
166 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

Importance ofjob content in extensive VD U work (data-entry and customer-service)

Employees with very extensive VDU work are of particular interest and in order to
obtain a more detailed picture of them, the subjects who spent more than 50 per
cent of their working hours at a VDU were subdivided into two groups on the basis
of how they used the computer system. One of the sub-groups consisted of personnel
from customer service (n = 11), who used the system for feeding in and retrieving
information connected with customer contacts by phone or in person; the other
sub-group (n = 12) consisted of personnel from various departments, e.g. those
who chiefly feed in data to the computer systems on the basis of incoming documents.
The sub-groups will be referred to as the 'custom-service group' and the 'data-
entry group', respectively.
In comparisons between these two groups the amount of VDU work is kept
constant: they both have extensive VDU work but differ in respect of other
conditions. They are compared in respect of the importance of computerization for
job content, various types of perceived strain and so on. In these cases tests of
significance have been undertaken in the form of two-tailed t-tests of differences
between means.
The two groups did not differ significantly in age (M = 41 years), basic education
or duration of employment. All the subjects were women.
Both groups had lengthy experience of VDU work; apart from one person in the
data-entry group, all the subjects had used VDUs for at least four years. The
customer-service group had received somewhat more weeks of special training
during the past 5 years, and had also obtained more training in the computer system
than the data-entry group. Continuous VDU sessions of more than 2.5 hours were
more common in the data-entry group than in the customer-service group (t = 3.81,
p < 0.001).
Contacts with customers did occur to some extent in the data-entry group but
considerably less frequently than in the customer-service group (42 per cent and
100 per cent respectively, p < 0.01). Compared with the customer-service group,
on the other hand, work with documents involved considerably more frequent
contacts with company employees at other workplaces.
The groups also differed in the type of contacts and channels of communication.
For the data-entry group, contacts occurred predominantly via documents or
internally; almost half of this group usually initiated telephone contacts themselves,
whereas all the customer-service group stated that their telephone contacts
consisted of incoming calls.

Altered job content The replies to some questions about effects of

computerization on production-related qualifications and intensity demands are
shown in Figure 3 (cf Figure 1, p. 163). There were marked differences between the
two groups: the data-entry group had lost more of job qualities than the
customer-service group-especially with respect to variation in work and
autonomy in planning and performing work. Intensity demands had increased in
both groups.
A positive effect for the customer-service group was that it had become easier to
get a complete picture of an insurance case. The data-entry group considered that
the computer system dictated the pace of work to a greater extent than the
customer-service group (t = 2.06, p = 0.05).
 Computerized Administrative VVork 167

1 Variety of work 1 *
2 Autonomy in planning 2
and doing work 2
3 Job responsibiLity 3

4 Overview of insurance cases 4

5 Demandfor attention and 5 *

concent rat ion
6 Mental strain 6 Customer-service
7 No. of routine tasks * group
7 0 Data-entry group

1 2 3
Less than Much as Greater than
before before before
Figure3. Changes in work after VDUs had been introduced, reported by
customer-servicegroup (n = 11) and data-entrygroup (n = 12). All subjects
spent more than 50 per cent of working hours at a VDU (* p < 0.05;
**p < 0.01)

Causes of mental strain Both these sub-groups displaced much the same pattern
as the total group in respect of factors contributing to mental strain (see above, p.
164). Certain differences are worth mentioning however, between the data-entry
and the customer-service group as well as between the former and the total group.
Thus, it seems that the consequences of an open-space office and effects of the
physical environment differed between the customer-service and the data-entry
group. The contribution to mental strain was significantly greater (p < 0.05) for the
data-entry group in the following respects: noise level in the open-space office, lack
of peace and seclusion there and a feeling of being supervised. The data-entry
group was also significantly more troubled (p < 0.05) by inadequate lighting in
general, the lighting at one's own work station and a monotonous work posture.
The substantial problem which an open-space office can pose for certain groups
is indicated by the circumstance that 'insufficient peace and seclusion for work' is
the factor (out of 34) that is considered to contribute most to mental strain for the
data-entry group. Finally, this group reported significantly greater mental
exhaustion at the end of a day's work (t = 2.21, p < 0.05).

Other results Further results concerning, for instance, job content, job
satisfaction, and trade union activity of the whole group and subgroups, as well as a
description of a positively affected group are given by Johansson and Aronsson
(1980).

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY OF STRESS REACTIONS

Method
Details of the study are given by Johansson and Aronsson (1980). The
questionnaire study was combined with a detailed psychophysiological study of a
168 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

smaller group among those who had completed the questionnaire. This part of the
study dealt with the participants' physiological functions, e.g. blood pressure, heart
rate and catecholamine excretion (adrenaline and noradrenaline, i.e. stress
hormones), combined with self-ratings in the work situation. The combined result
of such measurements provides a good picture of the total load on the individual
(see e.g. Frankenhaeuser, 1975).

Subjects
Persons who stated in the questionnaire that they spent more than 50 per cent of
working hours at VDUs and those who had no or little contact with the computer
system were asked by letter to participate in this part of the study. The letter
pointed out that participation was voluntary and could be discontinued if a
person so wished. Ten persons in the group with little or no experience of VDU
work and eleven in the other group volunteered. The remaining persons could not
take part for various reasons, e.g. pregnancy or medication. The two groups have
been named the VDU group (more than 50 per cent of working hours at a VDU)
and the control group (not more than 10 per cent of working hours at a VDU).
All subjects were women working full time. Of the eleven women in the VDU
group, nine were occupied solely or mainly with data entry. They were in a position
to redistribute this work within their group but were expected-and took upon
themselves-to get through all documents on the day of arrival. The other two
persons in the VDU group were in customer service and used their VDU to retrieve
as well as feed in data while in contact with customers either directly or by phone.
Nine members of this group spent more than 75 per cent of working hours at
VDUs, the other two between 50 and 75 per cent.
The control group consisted of typists as well as secretaries who assist fire
engineers. These engineers spend a large part of working hours away from the
office and their secretarial staff handle phone calls, type letters, etc. The control
group also included two persons who settled claims. Only half of the persons in this
group used VDUs at all.

Procedure
Each subject participated for three days, two at work and one weekday off at home.
The two workdays were the same for all subjects, a Tuesday and a Thursday in a
single week. In addition, six persons in the VDU group were examined during a
computer breakdown that occurred on the intervening Wednesday. The day off at
home was a Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday. The company agreed that no pay
deduction would be made for this day off.
The insurance office allowed flexible working hours but during the days of the
study the subjects all arrived at 8 a.m. and left for home at 4 p.m. At 8, 10, 12, 14
and 16 hours they went to the company health centre, where they made self-ratings
of tiredness, mood, etc. and left urine samples. Heart rate and blood pressure were
measured. The collection of these data was undertaken by members of the research
group in collaboration with nurses at the health centre.
Having returned from work, the subjects were visited in their home at 6.30 and
9.30 p.m., when the researchers collected the same data as during working hours,
with the exception of blood pressure.
 Computerized Administrative VVork 169

Dependent variables
At each visit during working hours the subjects went to the same researcher, who
received the self-rating form and urine sample and measured the subject's heart
rate and blood pressure. The subjects were distributed at random between four
stations.

Catecholamine excretion The total volume of the urine sample was measured and
the pH value adjusted with 2 N HCl to about 3. The samples were stored at - 18?C
until they were analysed in accordance with a photofluorimetric method, adapted
for automatic analysis of catecholamines (Andersson, Hovmoller, Karlsson and
Svensson, 1974; Euler and Lishajko, 1961). As an indicator of mental stress, the
photofluorimetric analysis of catecholamines in urine shows good agreement with
plasma levels analysed with new biochemical assays, such as high performance
liquid chromatography (Akerstedt et al., 1983).

Heart rate Heart rate was measured after the subject had been seated for about 3
min. During working hours (8 a.m.-4 p.m.) the measurements were made with an
electronic metre, type Logic (photocell-electrode applied to the ear-lobe). At home
the subjects measured their own heart rate, after careful instruction, by palpation of
the wrist or neck.

Blood pressure Measurements of blood pressure were made with a Cardy 8 mini
A electronic metre by three of the researchers, while the fourth, who was very
accustomed to a mercury monometer, used this method.

Self-ratings On each occasion the subjects made quantitative assessments of

arousal and mood. The assessments were made in the following terms: 'alert,
awake', 'rushed, pressed for time', 'tired', 'happy', 'calm, relaxed', 'sleepy',
'irritated', 'bored', 'strained, tense'. Each rating was to refer to the past two hours
and was performed with the aid of graphic scales 120 mm long with the end points
defined as 'not at all' (sleepy, etc.) and 'maximally' (sleepy, etc.).
Each subject was instructed to let the maximum point on the scale represent the
highest intensity of that aspect she had ever experienced and to make a vertical
mark on each scale to indicate the intensity experienced in the period since the
preceding rating. Each rating was then measured as the distance in mm from the
minimun end of the scale to the mark in question.

Questionnaire data Each of the subjects in the stress study had filled in the
questionnaire presented above.

Comparability of the groups

The VDU and the control group were similar in terms of important background
data. Their mean age was 43 and 46 years, respectively, with ranges of 25-59 and
37-52 years. Their mean period of employment with the company was 14 and 12
years, respectively (ranges 7-26 and 9-17 years). The control group had 3 women
but the VDU group only one with a child aged 6-16 years at home. Married or
cohabiting persons made up 80 per cent of the control group and 73 per cent of the
170 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

VDU group. The only important difference-and even this was not statistically
significant-concerned basic education: persons with only primary or 9-year
comprehensive school made up 55 per cent of the VDU group but only 20 per cent
of the control group.
The information obtained concerning menstruation, menopause, etc., showed
that one person in each group was using contraceptive pills and that four in each
group were post-menopausal. Other participants were in differing phases of the
menstrual cycle at the time of the study.

Results
Actiivity during the days of the study
During the two workdays there were no appreciable breakdowns in the computer
system. These days also appeared to be fairly normal in other respects. The total
number of transactions (messages in) on each day averaged 172 for the VDU group
and 34 for the control group (statistically significant difference: t = 4.97,
p < 0.001).
The subjects had been instructed not to exert themselves physically or mentally
during the day off, not to sleep, and to spend the time as normally as possible.
Judging from impressions at visits, the subjects followed these instructions. The
three days can be considered comparable in all essential respects but one: whereas
the subjects were seated most of the day at work, they moved about more at home
on their day off.
The consumption of coffee and tobacco was registered in detail on the first
workday. On the second workday and the day at home the subjects were instructed
to follow the same 2-hourly pattern of consumption as on the first workday and to
keep a record of this. Analysis of these notes showed that the instructions were
carefully followed. Nine subjects completely abstained from coffee and 16 did so
from tobacco.

VVorkwith the computer system functioning

Two types of statistical analyses were carried out for hormonal and behavioural
data. First, after averaging measures over the two workdays raw measures were
submitted to a three-way analysis of variance: two groups (VDU and control) x
two conditions or days (at work and at home) x two times of day (8 a.m.-4 p.m.
and 4-9.30 p.m.). The results are summarized in Table 1. Second, the average
workday measures were expressed as a percentage of the corresponding base value
from the day at home. These data are presented in Figures 4-8; in some cases
t-tests have been applied to these data for tests of significance of differences.

Comparisons between the three days Few studies have been performed on similar
groups under similar conditions, but compared with such data (e.g. Gardell,
Aronsson and Barklof, 1982; Rissler, 1979) the present absolute levels of
adrenaline and noradrenaline during work appear moderate.
The patterns for adrenaline and noradrenaline were very similar during the two
workdays and there was good agreement for heart rate and blood pressure, too. In
 Computerized Administrative WVork 171

Table 1. Summary of three-way analysis of variance (repeated-measuresdesign) for

catecholamineexcretionand self-ratingsof mood. The factorsentering the analyseswere:
controlgroupversusVDU operators(Group),work daysversusday off (Day), and daytime
versussubsequentevening hours (Time). (df = 1/19)
Sourceof Mean Mean
variance square F P square F P
Adrenaline 'Sleepy'
Group 79.3 5.54 0.030* 1130 1.93 0.181
Day 6.7 6.08 0.023* 5.84 1.94 0.180
Time 34.9 30.3 0.000: 120 40.8 0.000:
Noradrenaline 'Rushed'
Group 17.5 0.08 0.778 257 0.462 0.505
Day 267 9.31 0.007t 1390 6.60 0.019*
Time 258 23.9 0.000: 888 13.0 0.002t
Significantinter-
action: Day x
Time 178 16.2 0.001t 540 14.3 0.001t
'Bored' 'Alert'
Group 38.2 0.373 0.549 2640 2.57 0.126
Day 15.6 0.185 0.672 125 0.368 0.551
Time 91.6 4.23 0.054* 6120 22.6 0.0ooo
'Irritated' 'Tired'
Group 61.5 0.363 0.554 285 0.324 0.576
Dav 243 2.00 0.174 1410 5.23 0.034
Time 98.1 2.56 0.125 15500 44.5 0.0ooo
'Calm' 'Happy'
Group 3320 1.58 0.225 2410 2.59 0.124
Day 1130 2.99 0.100 962 3.20 0.090
Time 1.58 0.012 0.912 739 7.61 0.013*
Significantinter-
action:Time x
Group 812 6.39 0.020
* p< 0.05. tp< 0.01. Tp< 0.001.

the following, therefore, the data for these variables on the workdays are presented
as the mean for the two days. Since most of the self-rated variables also displayed
a very similar pattern during each of the two workdays they too have been com-
bined into a mean value for the two days.
Catecholamine values for the daytime and evening are given in Table 2. The level
of adrenaline excretion differed slightly but significantly between the groups
(Table 1). Other results did not provide any foundation for an interpretation of this
difference, which is of limited importance for the following results, as these are
mainly presented as a percentage of baseline values.

Effects during work Differences in adrenaline excretion between workdays and

the day at home were statistically significant in the daytime (8 a.m.-4 p.m.) for the
VDU group (t = 4.05, p < 0.01) but not for the control group, nor for either group
172 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson
Table 2. Means and standarddeviationsfor excretion of adrenalineand noradrenalinein
the VDU group and the referencegroup duringdifferentworkingand baselineconditions
Adrenaline,pmol/min Noradrenaline,pmol/min
VDU group Controlgroup VDU group Controlgroup
Study conditions X s X s X s X s

Workingdays
at work 8 a.m.-4 p.m. 38.2 13.1 25.1 12.0 157.1 37.4 149.9 22.6
at home 4-9.30 p.m. 30.0 14.7 18.6 7.1 154.7 53.0 145.2 32.1

Days off at home

8 a.m.-4 p.m. 32.2 24.0 26.2 8.7 196.4 63.7 188.0 47.6
4-9.30 p.m. 26.2 12.6 16.9 6.0 152.3 57.7 155.3 57.1

in the evening (4-9.30 p.m.). Corresponding analyses for noradrenaline showed

significant differences for both groups in the daytime (t = -2.99, p < 0.05 and
t = -4.46, p < 0.01) but not in the evening.
To compare the groups during work hours, the mean workday values have been
expressed as a percentage of the corresponding base values from the day at home.
Three-way analyses of variance of the raw data are summarized in Table 1.
Percentage measures of adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively, for the VDU
and control groups are shown in Figure 4. It will be seen that in the morning the
VDU group had a higher adrenaline excretion than the control group and that this
relationship was reversed in the afternoon.
This difference in the pattern during the day is reflected in some of the
self-ratings (Figure 5). For strain, for instance, the VDU group had the highest
ratings in the morning but the control group in the afternoon. For the latter group,
moreover, rush and fatigue also increased towards the end of the workday. The
subjects' own comments on these results suggest that they may reflect a real
difference in the distribution of the workload over the day. The VDU subjects
stated that they usually worked fast in the morning as a precaution in case the
computer broke down. On the days when no breakdown occurred-as in the

150 , . ,

Adrenaline Noradrena line

xo 125
di-
Base-
Fir l 4 Mf line

w75 foU operators

C) 0 Control group

0
8-10 10-12 12 -14 14-16 8-10 10-12 12-14 14-16

Time of day

Figure4. Mean excretionof adrenalineand noradrenalineduring

two workdaysfor the VDU operatorsand the control group. All
values are given as a percentageof baseline values measured at
home on a day off
 Computerized Administrative WVork 173
600 __ I I .__I I_ _ I,_ .I I
_.
Fatigue Ef fort Rush
500
o
40
400

&q 300 O

Z0.
~-Z200

tn ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ba
100 - line
~~~~~*
VOUoperators
1 * t
l 00
0 Control group
0 Ii I
8-10 10-12 12-14 14-16 8-10 10-12 12-14 14-16 8-10 10-12 12-14 14-16

Time of day
Figure5. Mean self-ratingsof fatigue, effort and rush duringtwo workdaysfor the VDU
groupand the controlgroup. 1he originalratings(given in arbitraryunits) have been trans-
formedinto percentagesof the correspondingcontrolvalue measuredat home on a day off

present study-this left a lighter workload in the afternoon. In the control group
the secretarial employees reported that it is fairly common for work and rush to
build up in the afternoon because a number of letters, manuscripts and so on are left
for typing fairly late in the day with a request thay they are completed and, if
possible, mailed the same day. It is conceivable that these conditions contributed to
a different course of the workload for the two groups. Noradrenaline excretion
(Figure 4) was much the same in both groups and was lower throughout at work
than during the day at home (values under 100). The higher values at home
probably reflect the circumstance that the subjects were then less sedentary than at
work.
Mean values for heart rate are shown in Figure 6. The values for the VDU group

120

30

:3 in
.C
:Z 100---

r~O

n 80 0 VDUoperators
I 0 Control group

8 10 12 14 16
Time-of day
Figure6. Mean heart rate during two workdaysfor the
VDU operators and the control group. All values are
given as a percentageof baselinevaluesmeasuredat home
on a day off
174 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

di150 At work 8.00-16.00

c L After work 16.00-21.30
n
n 125
0

L. 1 00 base-
u line
x

- 75

'O

011 VDU Control

operators group
Figure7. Meanexcretionof adrenaline
during and after work for the VDU
operators and the control group. All
values are given as a percentageof con-
trol values measuredat home on a day
off

on their day off at home, i.e. the base for the percentages in Figure 6, were higher
throughout than the corresponding values at work. The percentages are therefore
less than 100 and they are lower throughout than in the control group. This
inter-group difference, however, is not statistically significant.
For blood pressure there was only one baseline measurement from a company
health examination. The percentages based on this value were higher for the VDU
group than for the control group. However, the blood-pressure measurements are
subject to some uncertainty and must therefore be interpreted with great caution.

Persistent effects Adrenaline excretion during working hours and later in the
evening is shown for the two groups in Figure 7. The VDU group has significantly
higher values throughout (Tables 1 and 2), the difference being greatest in the
evening after work. Whereas the control group's level in the evening after work is
much the same as the corresponding base value, the VDU group is still about 16
per cent above its baseline value.
As already mentioned, the level of noradrenaline during work was very similar in
the two groups. The same was true of the period after work, when both groups lay
around 100, i.e. their noradrenaline excretion was the same after work as after a
day off.
Heart rate showed no group differences of interest.
The questionnaire data confirmed that the VDU group found its work a mental
strain to a significantly greater extent than the control group (t = 2.276, p < 0.05).
The VDU group also reported more marked discomfort in the form of mental
fatigue after work (t = 2.702, p < 0.05). These results combined with the
adrenaline data indicate that although the VDU group reported only slightly higher
load during working hours, it carried a persistent effect after work had ended.
The corresponding self-ratings of rush, strain, irritation and fatigue are shown in
 Computerized Administrative >Fork 175

At work 8.00-16.00
After work 16.00-21.30

400 -
Rush Effort
300 -

c
2200 -

.0e 10 - -

o 00
C Irrita tion Fa tigu e
L.300

0 200 -

100 - Coto

VDU Control VDU Control

operators group operators group

Figure8. Mean self-ratingsof mood during and after work for the
VDU groupand the controlgroup.The originalratings(given in arbit-
rary units) have been transformedinto a percentageof the baseline
value noted at home on a day off

Figure 8. Both groups were more rushed and more irritated at work than during a
day off. The VDU group was higher than the control group in both respects. In the
evening the latter group fell back to the same level as after a day off, whereas the
VDU group was then still twice as high as after the day at home.

Temporary breakdown in the computer system

During the Wednesday between the two workdays studied, the computer system
was out of action between 12.34 and 4.06 p.m. On the initiative of the subjects, a
mini-study was improvised to compare ordinary conditions with those during a
breakdown. This study comprises two 2-hour periods, 12-2 and 2-4 p.m., with the
same measurements as on the other workdays. For various reasons, e.g. the
difficulty of checking the consumption of tobacco and coffee, reliable data were
obtained from only six individuals. In the presentation of results the two periods
have been combined into a single period of four hours (12-4 p.m.) and compared
with values measured during the same part of the two 'normal' workdays.
From the biological data presented in Figure 9 it will be seen that during the
breakdown adrenaline, blood pressure and heart rate were elevated compared with
176 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

Regular operation
Computer break-down

ng/min mm/Hg mm/Hg beats/min

8 Adrenaline 140 Systolic 85 Diastolic 80 Heart rate
blood pressure
O S | 5 -a > ibrr[t-2?
5
blood pressure 80
6 136
80 -7
4 132

2
~~~~128A7
124 L70 6
Figure9. Mean excretion of adrenaline,systolic and diastolic blood pressure
and heart rate duringa 4-hourcomputerbreakdownand duringregularopera-
tions at the same time of day (n = 6)

ordinary conditions. Despite the small number of subjects, the differences are
statistically significant for adrenaline excretion and diastolic blood pressure
(t = 4.33, p < 0.01 and t = 2.62, p < 0.05).
The self-ratings displayed the same tendency to higher activation during the
computer breakdown (Figure 10). Although no proper work was done during the
break-on the whole people waited for the system to start up again-the subjects
felt more irritated, tired, rushed and bored as well as less calm and relaxed than
under ordinary working conditions. The differences were statistically significant for
irritation and relaxation (t = -3.72, p < 0.01 and t = 2.93, p < 0.05).

100 nII Regularoperation

Computer break-down
E 80

60

40
C

20

0
Irritation Fatigue Rush Boredom
Figure 10. Mean self-ratings of mood during a
4-hour computer breakdown and during regular
operationsat the same time of day (n = 6)
 Computerized Administrative Work 177
Table 3. Average levels of blood pressureand the contentsof cholesteroland triglycerides
in blood for the VDU group and the control group. All data from the health examination
at the company'smedical station.t-valuesrepresentstwo-tailedtests of significanceof group
differences

VDU group Controlgroup

Variable M M t

Systolicblood pressure,mm Hg 131 129 0.08

Diastolic blood pressure,mm Hg 86 82 0.23
Cholesterol,mmol/l 5.8 6.2 - 0.80-
Triglycerides,mmol/l 1.17 0.85 2.38*
* p < 0.05

The health examination and self-reported symptoms

The questionnaire data about disease symptoms gave no statistically significant
differences between the groups and this was confirmed by the health examination.
However, the triglyceride content in blood, assumed to be associated with the
development of cardiovascular disorders, was significantly higher in the VDU
group (see Table 3).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

A main finding in this study is that the element of mental strain in VDU work is
determined to a large extent by the nature of the task and the amount of VDU
work. A large group of subjects with qualified work (mainly settling claims and
tariffing) who spent less than half their working hours at VDUs reported few
problems to do with the computer system. In some respects the introduction of
computers appear to have improved their working conditions. For them a VDU
was just another aid, like a typewriter and a telephone, enabling them to gain rapid
access to, store or pass on information to do with a case.
The study has shown that it is those with very extensive VDU work who
experience most strains-and those who fare worst are persons whose main task is
to feed the computer system with current data. These results are in agreement with
data reported by Cohen, Smith and Stammerjohn (1981) showing that reporters,
editors and other professionals with flexible and qualified tasks reported less
complaints in association with VDU work than clerical VDU operators in rigid
work procedures with little operator control over job tasks.
The major problem related both to job content and amount of VDU work
seemed to lie in the unforeseeable breakdowns that still occur frequently in the
computer system several years after its introduction. For those in customer service
it meant that customers cannot obtain the prompt service they expect; for the group
with extensive data-entry work the result was an uneven workload because tasks
pile up while the system is out of action. Breakdowns constituted an appreciable
mental strain for these groups. The fact of breakdowns seems to have produced a
special strategy-the pace is forced early in the day to guard against any
breakdown later on. This means that breakdowns affect the workload not only
178 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

when they occur but also when they do not. The threat of a breakdown is constantly
present (Johansson, 1979).
This strategy to cope with the risk of stoppages has been reported earlier from
mechanized industrial work where routines are dictated to a large extent by
technology (Johansson, Aronsson and Lindstr6m, 1978). It is interesting to note
that similar consequences appear to arise when technology is employed in the
service sector.
Contacts with company representatives have given the impression that
breakdowns can hardly be eliminated in the foreseeable future. Two years after the
study was performed, however, some progress had been made in that breakdowns
were shorter and occurred more seldom. For the working environment it would be
reasonable to have reserve capacity available in the event of a breakdown. If this is
not considered feasible, it is important to reduce the negative consequences of
stoppages in other ways. Production planning and job organization must make
allowance for the fact of breakdowns, so that technical and staff resources are
dimensioned accordingly.
Another problem for groups with extensive VDU work is the prolongation of
response times that arises from a high load on the computer system and/or its
telecommunications. At the time of the study the average response time was just
over one second but the range was considerable-there were sometimes delays of
several seconds and even up to half a minute. In such situations the staff could not
tell whether the 'silence' was caused by a high load or whether the system had gone
down. This uncertainty added to the total burden on the individual. Unfortunately,
there are no reliable data on the extent to which response times have been
shortened since the study was performed.
It is interesting to note how technical development can affect attitudes and
expectations. In the days before the computer system it was not uncommon to have
delays lasting several minutes while information was retrieved from paper files.
Seen in this light it may seem remarkable that 63 per cent of the subjects would
prefer not to have to wait more than 5 s for an answer from the computer.
Although it seems reasonable to assume that computer breakdowns and long
response times would create particularly troublesome stress problems in contacts
with customers, the customer-service group showed better satisfaction than the
data-entry groups. Instead the problems reported by persons with extensive VDU
work turned out to be particularly accentuated for those who spent most of their
time feeding in data. There seems to be a value in contacts with customers that
makes up for many disadvantages. This positive aspect, however, can be replaced
temporarily by its opposite: the satisfaction of providing the rapid service which
customers expect becomes a stress factor when the computer system goes down.
For the future it is also of interest to note the between-group difference in
perceived change of production-related qualifications. Again the relation seems to
be mediated by job content. The data-entry group, with the most fragmented and
repetitive work, had lost more of job qualities than the customer-service group,
who had more varying tasks. This result suggests that the present development may
lead to a polarization of qualifications.
There were clear indications that groups performing extensive VDU work took
longer to relax after work. Their level of physiological arousal was higher and they
felt more mental fatigue after work than groups without contact with the computer
 Computerized Administrative Work 179

system. Slow unwinding is regarded as a possible mechanism in the development of

stress disease (e.g. Frankenhaeuser, 1979; Elliott and Eisdorfer, 1982). At the time
of the study groups did not differ in health status, but it should be noted that
VDU work had been carried out for a few years only.
At present one can only speculate about reasons for the mental fatigue associated
with extensive VDU work. In all work it is probably natural to aim at a fairly
uniform rhythm. The speed of computers is high and constant. Human reaction
times are slower, vary somewhat and can be regulated to some extent (by
concentrating or relaxing). When working with a computer most people have to
make a slight effort in order to reduce the difference between their own and the
computer's reaction time. Thus, it is natural that lengthy VDU sessions may induce
complaints of the kind reported here, e.g. headache or persistent fatigue after work.
Although it is the rapidity of the computer system that created problems for VDU
personnel, the occasional long response time affords no relief in this respect
because it disturbs their work rhythm. To the extent that differences in reaction
time between computer electronics and the human nervous system do underlie the
reports of tension, fatigue and so on, it is hardly surprising that special VDU
spectacles and better furniture design have not eliminated these strains. There
seems to be good reason for the recommendation that intense VDU work should
not be carried out for more than 2.5 hours at a stretch, and the present results
suggest than even this may be too long.
Another factor which probably contributed to mental fatigue was the open-space
office, which involves a greater variety and intensity of sensory impressions than
traditional office settings. The consequences, such as impaired performance and
well-being, seemed to be mediated by job content. These results agree with those
obtained in another insurance company (Rissler and Elgerot, 1980), suggesting
that reactions to disturbances in the open space office are more pronounced in jobs
requiring a high level of concentration.
It can be concluded from this study that attitudes to computerization were
ambivalent. Although no one wanted to go back to earlier routines, anxiety was
expressed concerning future developments. Among the concerns mentioned were
the risk that traditional occupational experience and know-how would become
superfluous and that the computer will be able to take over increasingly complex
assessments, so that more and more employees are turned into 'machine minders'.
It was also feared that routines and social networks on the job would become
directed by the computer system to a growing extent and that systems would be
evolved without employees having any real possibility of participating in or
influencing this process. Thus, there was no perceived counterpart to the formal
opportunity which the company had built up for the staff to have influence over
system development. The picture obtained of attitudes to computerization among
insurance staff agrees with other studies on attitudes to technology, in that the
advantages are described in terms to do with production and the disadvantages in
human terms.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by a grant to Drs M. Frankenhaeuser and B. Gardell from
the Swedish Work Environment Fund. A large number of persons at Skandia's
180 G. Johansson and G. Aronsson

head office of the western zone in Gothenburg contributed in various ways to the
successful realization of the project. Special thanks are due to the participants in
the study and to Barbro Olausson, our local contact. Important contributions were
made by Dr Kare Hallhagen and the nurses, Mona Nellhed and Kerstin Pellme, in
the company health centre, by the messenger, the night watchpersons, the project
group and the zone management. Bengt Lindholm was our contact at Group level.
In the research work Bessie Wikander, the Swedish Union of Clerical and Technical
Employees in Industry, assisted in interviews and construction of the questionnaire
and Bjorn Lindstrom in data collection. The hormone analyses were performed by
Lars Holmberg.

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