uu vo 10.14 [el oft paris ~ Row I: wl 3 Fig. 10-14 nal Transmission gequence : ihe ASCIT characters s in Error f figure 10.15 8 -- C With the VR; © With the VRO}, it entification of bits ven a single error in &) ; set LRC in one of the rows and an incorrect C { ve of the columns. The bit ‘which is common to the i ‘and column is the bit in error However, there 1S “g limitation on the Block parity code, which is _‘nuultiple errors in rows and columns can be only ; voted but they cannot be ‘corrected. This is because Fig. 10.15 not possible to locate the bits which are in error. 's will be clear by the following example. 1 nny bit will result in a non- 1 R With the VRC bi Even parity LRCti AMPLE 10.2. The following bit stream is encoded using VRC, LRC and even parity. Locate d correct the error if it is present. 11000011 11110011 10110010 00001010 00101010 00101011 10100011 01001011 11100001 olution = byte! bit in error :bytebyte * A 1238 4 LRC bits (even parity) >f2r17@oTre Te Wrens waoee oo \g parity 3| TO 1LiIO paw, ep ooo —___ block’ 0001110110 bg ono go 00 8 Oho 1 vectits Ze (even parity) ' aft 7 Wrong parity First it ofthe fith byte j is in error Fig. 10.16 Figure 10.16 shows the recei val "ect hat the parity bits elena data block alongwith th Ncin the Bae ow (encircled bi) is nooo eo wate Bnd VRC’ bi sae is incorrect. Thus, usi Inilsate wrong parit bits. It may be met " Thus, using VRC and arity. Therefore, the fil! C, it is possi 6 it is possible to locate 10.10 IMPORTANT DEFINITI TONS RELATE! D TO cor DES 1. Code Word The code word is the i o e n bit e1 and parity or redundant bits. mncoded block of bits, Ag al b - AS already di incisbseake : |, it contains message pits+ Error Control Coding + 463 Code Rate “Tho code rate is defined as the ratio of the number of message bits () tothe total number of iss (n) ina code word. 30.2) = l= Code rate 8. Code Vectors rot” previous nutcle, we hve used the code bite and code vectors as similar terms. Let us now Tae the code vectors. We can visualize an n-bit code word to be present in an n-dimensional space. eo coordinat or elements of this code vector are the bits present in the code word. We consider ieee figure 10.17 which shows the 3-bit code vectors. % _ Table 1.2 enlists the 8 possible combinations ofthe -bitcode word, Wo can assume bits x, tobe on the X-axis, bits x, to be on the Y-axis and bits x, to be on the Z-axis. Then figure 10.17 shows the various S-bit code vectors. Table 8.1 =| Code word No.l7.=Z|=¥|==¥| F of[o fo of [2 2[ #[31]o ra poe Fig. 10.17 Code vectors for 3-bit code words. 4, Hamming Distance Let us consider two code vectors (or code words) having the same number of elements. The Hamming distance or simply distance between the two code words is defined as the number of : Pein cuhich their respective elements differ, For example, let us consider the two code words given below : b2 code word No, 1 ein Ost 20 A10e 0 Bae. t t t Hamming distance = Q code word No. 2 O22 0s1,.1. Et o 5. Hamming Weight of a Code Word [1(x)] ‘The Hamming weight ofa code word xis defined as the number of non-zero elements in the code word. Hating weight of a code vector (code word) is the distance between that code word and an all-zero code vector (A code having all elements equal to zero). 6. Code Efficiency ‘The eode efficiency is defined as the ratio of message bits to the number of transmitted bits per block k ‘Therefore, code efficiency = code rate = > Bann EXAMPLE 10.3. Find the Hamming weight of the following code vector: x=11010100~ he above code word is 4, the H pte in AMminy elemen” aber of nonezera ee the gotution A" wo) dint ofined as the smallest Hamming Minima 4 in code ix de Hintance dyn oF Hine! r block mv digtance dyin vectors iD the cade mal s the smallest Hamming weight of difference. Ct of cot ! . any pair ee is sa , fatanee Of g 5 io, the aninirau” aan ed that the minimum distance of a linear block eo an i diy vertors. HLean Be Prov" ong in the code. M any pa i ig avegntor une non-2er0 code vector! Het Hamminnt A ; sale tion and Correction in Brror dete sonable when the number of transmission error in a cody always port use then the erroneous word is not a valid code worg p* the erroneous code word may correspond Rate of dyin ‘the error del Joss than the mit oe veweds d oer of errors equals or exceeds dpigy © < , ; when the number of errors i vseannot be detected. The error detection and correction capabjy, anh acinigue doped distance d,,,, a8 shown in Table 10.3. lita ending technique depend on the minimum ‘Table 10.3. Error detection and correction capabilities S.N,| Description Expression 1 | Detect upto s errors per word pin 2 (6+ 1) 2 | Correct upto ¢ errors per word dj, 2 (2+ 1) 3, | Correct upto errors and detect s> terrors per word | d,,=(¢+8+1) EXAMPLE 10.4. For a Hamming distance of 5, how many errors can be detected ? How many errors can be corrected ? " Solution : Let us consider table 10.3, Assuming minimus . “ im Hamming distance i. dyin = 5. . DONG RONZ: (@ Number of errors that ean be detected, (6) can be _ he use ofexror-control coding adés cbimined fron complexity to the system. especially, for the implementation of decoding operations in the receiver. (+1) S dain or 8S5-1 or 8S4. Ans. __ Thus, at the most 4 errors can be detected (i) Number of errors that can be « " orrected () can be obtained from or ts2 A ns, Thus, at the most, 2 errors can be corrected, red, 10,11 LINEAR BLOCK CODES 1. Now, let us discuss the lin 7 ear block codes j and obtain various mathematical o> detail he related to these codes, xpressi Ci 2. We consider an (nb) lis a ale . ran (n, k) linear bl omy m, number ofbits are identical tothe nee 18 hich p peeprge eee! Aalelemetones which is to be transmitted, 8€ sequence K-message bits” Fi a 10-48 Structure of the code for a linear block code10. 1. 12, 13. 465 rror Control Coding ply ‘The remaining (nk) number of bits are called as the generalized parity check bits or parity bits. ‘These parity bits are computed from the message bits, according to the prescribed encoding rule which decides the mathematical structure of the code. Let us consider figure 10.18, which shows the structure of a code word. ‘A code word consists of k message bits which are denoted by mg: Myo» Ma-+ and (n—b) parity bits denoted by ¢g, 5+» Cnn" ‘The sequence of message bits is applied to a linear block encoder to produce an” bit code word. The clements of this code word are Xp +» Xn 1" ‘As shown in figure 10.18, the first k bits of the code word are identical to the corresponding parity bits (cy, c,....). We can express this mathematically as under: m, for i=0,1, wk-1 cp for i=kh+1,..n-1 ‘The (x- h) parity bits are linear sums of the kt message bits as will be discussed later on ‘The code vector represented by equation (10.4) can be mathematically represented as : (10.4) X=(M:C] (10.5) where M= k- message vectors and C= (n— 8), parity vectors ‘Ablock code generator generates the parity vectors (or parity bits) required to be added to the message bits to generate the code words. The code vector X can also be represented as under : X=MG w- (10.6) where X= Code veetor of 1 Xn size M= Message vector of 1 k size and G= Generator matrix of kx n size. Equation (10.6) can be represented in the matrix form as under : I cn = My ci Ghexn (10.7) ‘The generator matrix is dependent on the type of linear block cade used. The generator matrix is generally represented as under: (a= 0,17) .. (10.8) where J, =k x hidentity matrix and kex (n=) coefficient matrix. 10. 0 01. 0 Therefore, 1, tog and Ov On EL ee Poo Pio Pa -k,o Py Pa Pa-ha snd Pel ; : : e (10.9) Pyra Pur- Beas oka Pkt 4 buctn=) ‘The parity vector can be obtained as under: c=MP s+ (10.10) Substituting the matrix form, we obtain+ Digital Communications + 466 ———— a eee Po Po a ‘ P, Pata Ry Py thy Wi Cr Cy avenge Eley My yds oy ! Pon Pr Paki boctncty Th i vectors as under : Hy solving, Uhe above matrix equation, we pot the parity vectors as Mg Pog DM, Py O tty Py O oe © My Po pay im, P, + 10.13, 1S Me Pig D my Py my Pig ® -- Om, Py yy Cy 5 My Pyy D ty Pyy O ttty Pog © ou. O my, Py 1 HHarly, we can obtain the expressions for the remaining p ity bits. 10.12 HAMMING CODES Hamming codes ave tin oT block codes, The family of (nk) Hamming codes for q > 3 is defined by os the following, expressions Fe Coleword enthn= 1) eae 1. Block diagram :n = 2-1 bee —q-1 a=_h) code ’ or eaiwayge bits : A= 24g — 1 (10.13) 2. Number of message jez melsogaile parity bits Number of parity bits : (a —h)=¢. ; “ode word struct where q 24. ic, minimum number of parity bits is 3, eee ae ee 1 num distance d,,,,,= , Solui h 5. ‘The code rate or code efficiency = — . (10.14) mean n code | Wa >> 1, then code rate r= 1, | ¢ ‘The general structure of Hamming code word is shown in figure 10.19, Vv 10.12.1. Error Detection and Correction Capabilities of Hamming Code Considering table 10.1 for Ue minimum distance, wo have, d,,, ‘ '- The number of errors that can be detected per word = 2 BNO dig 24 NY BeOEL ee, 2% The number of errors that enn be corrected per word wince CC ae Sze) 4, ts1 ‘Thu, Wilh dig = 3, it in possible to detect “pto2 errors and itis poxsible to correct upto only error, a a tick oe ae Wey Chespressing the relationship helween the message bits and the parity AN tinear block code, Let H donote an one \) 010 ool o11 and P=Py,,=]1 0 1 110 As the size of message block is & = 3, there are eight possible message blocks : (0, 0, 0) (0, 0, 1), 1,0), ©, 1, 1) (1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1s 1, 0) (1s 1, 0). Now, let us obtain the relation between parity vec! ‘trix Pas under : , tors B, message vevtors M and the coefficient mnw sur, rt obi P “The solution of equation (0 om iy 4 (m, x1) @ (mz, xD=M OM _ emg @ Ms ~ «= (m,*1) @ (m, XO) @ (m1, X= Mo O M2 inte ee phd iv) 1) @ (my X1) © (my XO) = My @ MH ble for us to obtain .m, and m, into these equations, it is poss the parity bits 6, 1. Pur the message word (m, 0.00). we have 61 “The vomplete code word for this message word is given pa vou KNOW? byt The two key system parameters available to the designer are Cote word=[0 0 0]0 0 0 transmitted signal power and ‘ channel bandwidth. These two parity parameters, together with the power spectral density of receiver noise, determine the signal energy my my My OO OD 2. Hor the exern) message vet, i (hay My, we have per bit-to-noise power spectral 208 1=1 density ratio E,/No. =091=1 =0 8 0=0 Therefore, (ey ey. €,) = (1,1, 0) ‘The: complete code word for this message word is given by, My My My Cy Cy Cp Code word= [00 1]1 16 4, Similarly, we ean obtai 2 ‘in the cod ini suns hae boon fea the code words for the remaining message words. All these cote— nl Table 10.4 Code vectors for (6, 3) block code Complete code vector L Now let us obtain the code words for a (7,4) Hamming code. EXAMPLE 10.6. The parity check matrix of a particular (7, 4) lienar block code is given by, 1110100 im=|1 101010 1o11001 (i) Find the generator matrix (G). (ii) List all the code vectors (ii) What is the minimum distance between the code vectors ? 2 How many errors can be corrected ? (iv) How many errors can be detecte Solutirn : First, let us obtain the P? matri PT is the transpose of the coefficient matrix P. The given parity check matrix natrix, Itis given that the code is (7, n=7 and k=4 e 3 x 7 math’ His(n-h) xn 4) Hamming code. Therefore, we have Hence, the parity check matrix [#1] will b (H) = (PT|I, a] where PT ig (n - k) by matrix and J, _, 38 ("~ A) x (n~ B) matrix, 711 0;100 : 110 1;010 Wehave (Hlsxa=}1 0 1.110 0 UsxeComune 470 — —_—— cootficie rin P from P". aptain the coofficient matrix P «of the trans; = ot us . sing of ‘Pos toe res atid by interesante ows and columns ee ma oe frit : 2 110 We have Palio 1 OT Vix Let us add the identity matrix to P matrix to get generator matrix ‘ ‘The gencrator matrix G is a k x n matrix, So, here, it will be a 4% 7 matrix. ‘Thus, we have G= 1h |PI 3 where J, isa k Xie, 4x 4 matrix, ; . Substituting the 4X4 identity matrix and the cooffieient matrix, we obtain, 10 o0o0;11 2 o100:110 G=Jo 010; 101 a ooo1+;olilj,s i fo f This is the required generator mitt * Now, let us obtain the parity bits for each message vector. The parity bits can be obtained by using the following expression : c= MP Therefore, feo. Cy, Calyx 3 = [mg Mm, M2 M3); x4 [Plyxs lai. —) Therefore, [ey €y5 Calyx = Lg, My, Myy Mg] ' 5 i" w 011 Solving, we obtain a y= (my XD) ° ie eg iae the x010 im.) *1) © (m, x GQ aes ® 2) @ (mi, *0) mq x1) eaitel v (m, X0) @ (m, x1 Simplifying the equations, we obtain 222) 8 (mx) f= My ® m io © m, my 0-006 of 0000, ™ @ m, Om, hore “018 My ® ma ® my Using th a & tai) one the meseage word ban N°." obtain the pari (te (59 essage word be, Party bite foreach mre iz a4 le, te caw ge veetor. For exampl Then, we have471 ©=080@1=1 vethe parity BIE are by by b, = 101 vprofores tHe complete code word for the message word 010 Lis comleessde word =[0 TOT OT] Ts el Message Parity we ean obtain : nese goilarly ae eed for the other message vectors. All these message vectors 3 the corresP* ie iy ‘s code words are given in table 10.5. The weight of the code Jeo given. Table 10.5. Code words for the (7, 4) Hamming code | Se meee pe bits Code words Weight of the a code vector mm ™, Ms | Co Cr Se | > ese oo ofo 0 0 0 0 0 O- 0 o i ifo o 0 7 O 1 2 3 1 0 1{0 0 1 0 1 O 1 3 7 1 0fo0 0 i 2 2 1 «0 4 y 12 ofo 2 0 O 1 1 0 3 1 0 tfo a 0 2 2 09 21 4 24 o 1 1f/o 122 9 O D2? 4 oo ofo 2 7 1 0 O 0 3 Toi tt}a oo Oo} 4 to ofa 0 Oo 1 1 0 0 3 a1 eta ce to Ot 3 p20 tio. 1 A oO 1 4 \ oo tf 2 9 0 O O 7D 3 | or oti t Oo 2 O 1 0 4 \ 7 0 ofa 2 2 eo 4 \ fas et ? 1 1 21 7 | Weknow that the minimum distance d,,, is equal to the minimum weight of any non-zero code ‘sttor. Looking at table 10.5, we obtain gig = 3+ ADS- Number of errors that ean be detected is given by dyin 2841 32zstl ss2 Hence, at the most two exrors can be detected. or+ Digital Comraunications « 472 _ Number of errors th alee be corrected is stiven by nig 2 E+ D u4) or or st ‘This means that at the most one error can be corrected. ‘Thus, for the (7, 4) lin one error can be corrected block code, at the most two errors can be detected and at the most only 10.12.2. Encoder of (7,4) Hamming Code The encoder for (7, 4) Hamming code in shown in figure 10.20. This encoder produces all the code words corresponding to various meauag words listed in table 10.4. Mensage register “ Input bit. [my [m2 | ™ [mo Message The parity or check bits (ey, ¢), ¢) are nequonce bits being generated for each meniage word (my, No code m,, my, m,) with the help of equation 10.15. Ss Words The parity bits are obt from the message Module 2 bits by means of modulo-2 addera*. The adders Parity or output switch S is first connected to th check bits message register to transmit all the n Maye Parity or check [eq [ey [ee bits in a code word. Then it is connected to Go 2 i a the parity bit register to transmit the Parity bit register corresponding parity bits. Thus, we get a 7 Fig. 10.20 Encoder for (7, 4) He de. bit code word at the output of the switch: i nan fe $9 Areca woe 10.13 SYNDROME DECODING FOR BLOCK CODES