Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies
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The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East In-
dies, now Indonesia, during World War II from March
1942 until after the end of the War in 1945. The period
was one of the most critical in Indonesian history. Un-
der German occupation, the Netherlands had little ability
to defend its colony against the Japanese army, and less
than three months after the rst attacks on Borneo,* [1]
the Japanese navy and army overran Dutch and allied
forces. Initially, most Indonesians joyfully welcomed the
Japanese, as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters.
The sentiment changed, as Indonesians were expected
to endure more hardship for the war eort. In 1944
1945, Allied troops largely bypassed Indonesia and did
not ght their way into the most populous parts such as
Java and Sumatra. As such, most of Indonesia was still
under Japanese occupation at the time of their surrender,
in August 1945.
The occupation was the rst serious challenge to the
Dutch in Indonesia and ended the Dutch colonial rule,
and, by its end, changes were so numerous and extraor-
dinary that the subsequent watershed, the Indonesian
National Revolution, was possible in a manner unfea-
sible just three years earlier.* [2] Unlike the Dutch,
the Japanese facilitated the politicisation of Indonesians
down to the village level. Particularly in Java and, to a
lesser extent, Sumatra, the Japanese educated, trained
and armed many young Indonesians and gave their na-
1
tionalist leaders a political voice. Thus, through both the
destruction of the Dutch colonial regime and the facilita-
tion of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese occupation
created the conditions for claiming Indonesian indepen-
dence within days of the Japanese surrender in the Pa-
cic. However, the Netherlands sought to reclaim the In-
dies, and a bitter ve-year diplomatic, military and social
struggle ensued, resulting in the Netherlands recognising
Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949.
1 Background
Map prepared by the Japanese during World War II, depicting
Java, the most populous island in the Dutch East Indies.
Until 1942, Indonesia was colonised by the Netherlands
and was known as the Dutch East Indies. In 1929, during
the Indonesian National Awakening, Indonesian national-
ist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta (later founding
President and Vice-President), foresaw a Pacic War and
that a Japanese advance on Indonesia might be advanta-
geous for the independence cause.* [3]
The Japanese spread the word that they were the 'Light
of Asia'. Japan was the only Asian nation that had suc-
cessfully transformed itself into a modern technological
society at the end of the 19th century and it remained
independent when most Asian countries had been under
European or American power, and had beaten a Euro-
pean power, Russia, in war.* [4] Following its military
campaign in China Japan turned its attention to South-
east Asia advocating to other Asians a 'Greater East Asian
Co-Prosperity Sphere', which they described as a type of
trade zone under Japanese leadership. The Japanese had
gradually spread their inuence through Asia in the rst
half of the 20th century and during the 1920s and 1930s
2 3 THE OCCUPATION

had established business links in the Indies. These ranged
from small town barbers, photographic studios and sales-
men, to large department stores and rms such as Suzuki
and Mitsubishi becoming involved in the sugar trade.* [5]
The Japanese population peaked in 1931, with 6,949
residents before starting a gradual decrease, largely due
to economic tensions between Japan and the Nether-
lands Indies government.* [6] A number of Japanese had
been sent by their government to establish links with
Indonesian nationalists, particularly with Muslim par-
ties, while Indonesian nationalists were sponsored to visit
Japan. Such encouragement of Indonesian nationalism
was part of a broader Japanese plan for an 'Asia for the
Asians'.* [5] While most Indonesians were hopeful for the
Japanese promise of an end to the Dutch racially based
system, Chinese Indonesians, who enjoyed a privileged
position under Dutch rule, were less optimistic. Also
concerned were members of the Indonesian communist
underground who followed the Soviet Union's popular
united front against fascism.* [7] Japanese aggression in
Manchuria and China in the late 1930s caused anxiety
amongst the Chinese in Indonesia who set up funds to
support the anti-Japanese eort. Dutch intelligence ser-
vices also monitored Japanese living in Indonesia.* [8]
In November 1941, Madjlis Rakjat Indonesia, an Indone-
sian organisation of religious, political and trade union
groups, submitted a memorandum to the Dutch East In-
dies Government requesting the mobilisation of the In-
donesian people in the face of the war threat.* [9] The
memorandum was refused because the Government did
not consider the Madjlis Rakyat Indonesia to be repre-
sentative of the people. Within only four months, the
Japanese had occupied the archipelago.
donesian groups where people were killed, vanished or
went into hiding. Chinese- and Dutch-owned properties
were ransacked and destroyed.* [12]
The invasion in early 1942 was swift and complete. By
January 1942, parts of Sulawesi and Kalimantan were
under Japanese control.* [13] By February, the Japanese
had landed on Sumatra where they had encouraged the
Acehnese to rebel against the Dutch.* [13] On 19 Febru-
ary, having already taken Ambon, the Japanese Eastern
Task Force landed in Timor, dropping a special parachute
unit into West Timor near Kupang, and landing in the Dili
area of Portuguese Timor to drive out the Allied forces
which had invaded in December.* [14] On 27 February,
the Allied navy's last eort to contain Japan was swept
aside by their defeat in the Battle of the Java Sea.* [15]
From 28 February to 1 March 1942, Japanese troops
landed on four places along the northern coast of Java
almost undisturbed.* [16] The ercest ghting had been
in invasion points in Ambon, Timor, Kalimantan, and on
the Java Sea. In places where there were no Dutch troops,
such as Bali, there was no ghting.* [17] On 9 March,
the Dutch commander surrendered along with Governor
General Jonkheer A.W.L. Tjarda van Starkenborgh Sta-
chouwer.* [13]

Outline of the Japanese entry in Batavia, as depicted by the

Japanese
2 The invasion
The Japanese occupation was initially greeted with opti-
Main article: Dutch East Indies campaign mistic enthusiasm by Indonesians who came to meet the
On 8 December 1941, the Netherlands declared war Japanese army waving ags and shouting support such as
Japan is our older brotherand "banzai Dai Nippon". As
the Japanese advanced, rebellious Indonesians in virtually
every part of the archipelago killed groups of Europeans
(particularly the Dutch) and informed the Japanese reli-
ably on the whereabouts of larger groups.* [18] As famed
Indonesian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer noted:With
the arrival of the Japanese just about everyone was full of
hope, except for those who had worked in the service of
Japanese advance through Indonesia, 1942 the Dutch.* [19]"

on Japan.* [10] In January the American-British-Dutch-

Australian Command (ABDACOM) was formed to co-
ordinate Allied forces in South East Asia, under the com-
mand of General Archibald Wavell.* [11] In the weeks
leading up to the invasion, senior Dutch government of-
cials went into exile taking political prisoners, family,
and personal sta to Australia. Before the arrival of
Japanese troops, there were conicts between rival In-
3 The occupation
The colonial army was consigned to detention camps
and Indonesian soldiers were released. Expecting that
Dutch administrators would be kept by the Japanese to
run the colony, most Dutch had refused to leave. Instead,
 3

1943, when its command was narrowed to just Suma-

tra and the headquarters moved to Bukittinggi. The 16th
Army was headquartered in Jakarta, while the IJN's 2nd
South Fleet was headquartered in Makassar.

Internment camp in Jakarta, c. 1945

Experience of the occupation varied considerably, de-

pending upon where one lived and one's social position.
Many who lived in areas considered important to the war
Japanese identity card issued to Louis Victor Wijnhamer, Jr., a eort experienced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrest
local Indo-European man, during the occupation. and execution, and other war crimes. Many thousands of
people were taken away from Indonesia as forced labour-
ers (romusha) for Japanese military projects, including
they were sent to concentration camps and Japanese or the Burma-Siam and Saketi-Bayah railways, and suered
Indonesian replacements could be found for senior and or died as a result of ill-treatment and starvation. Between
technical positions.* [20] Japanese troops took control of four and 10 million romusha in Java were forced to work
government infrastructure and services such as ports and by the Japanese military.* [23] About 270,000 of these
postal services.* [17] In addition to the 100,000 European Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held ar-
(and some Chinese) civilians interned, 80,000 Dutch, eas in South East Asia, Only 52,000 were repatriated to
British, Australia, and US Allied troops went to prisoner- Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.
of-war camps where the death rates were between 13 and Tens of thousands of Indonesians were to starve, work as
30 per cent.* [21] slave labourers, or be forced from their homes. In the Na-
The Indonesian ruling class (composed of local ocials tional Revolution that followed, tens, even hundreds, of
and politicians who had formerly worked for the Dutch thousands, would die in ghting against the Japanese, Al-
colonial government) co-operated with the Japanese mil- lied forces, and *
other Indonesians, before Independence
*
itary authorities, who in turn helped to keep the lo- was achieved. [24] [25] A later United Nations report
cal political elites in power and employ them to sup- stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a
ply newly-arrived Japanese industrial concerns and busi- result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese
nesses and the armed forces (chiey auxiliary military occupation, including 30,000 European civilian internee
*
and police units run by the Japanese military in the deaths. [26] A Dutch government study described how
Dutch East Indies). Indonesian co-operation allowed the the Japanese military recruited women as prostitutes by
*
Japanese military government to focus on securing the force in Indonesia. [27] It concluded that among the 200
large archipelago's waterways and skies and using its is- to 300 European women working in the Japanese military
lands as defence posts against any Allied attacks (which brothels,some sixty ve were most certainly forced into
*
were assumed to most likely come from Australia). [22]* prostitution. [28] Others, faced with starvation in the
The Japanese colonial rulers divided Indonesia into three refugee camps, agreed to oers of food and payment for
separate regions; Sumatra was placed under the 25th work, the nature of which was not completely revealed to
* * * * *
Army, Java and Madura were under the 16th Army, while them. [29] [30] [31] [32] [33]
Borneo and eastern Indonesia were controlled by the 2nd Materially, whole railway lines, railway rolling stock, and
South Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy (the IJN). industrial plants in Java were appropriated and shipped
The 16th Army and the 25th Army were headquartered back to Japan and Manchuria. British intelligence reports
in Singapore* [2] and also controlled Malaya until April during the occupation noted signicant removals of any
4 3 THE OCCUPATION
Netherlands Indian Gulden the Japanese occupation currency
materials that could be used in the war eort.
Next to Sutan Sjahrir who led the student (Pemuda) un-
derground, the only prominent opposition politician was
leftist Amir Sjarifuddin who was given 25,000 guilders
by the Dutch in early 1942 to organise an underground
resistance through his Marxist and nationalist connec-
tions. The Japanese arrested Amir in 1943, and he only
escaped execution following intervention from Sukarno,
whose popularity in Indonesia and hence importance to
the war eort was recognised by the Japanese. Apart
from Amir's Surabaya-based group, the most active pro-
Allied activities were among the Chinese, Ambonese, and
Manadonese.* [34]
In South Kalimantan, a scheme by Indonesian national-
ists and Dutch against the Japanese was uncovered before
the Pontianak incident occurred.* [35] According to some
sources this happened in September 1943 at Amuntai
in South Kalimantan and involved establishing up an Is-
lamic State and expelling the Japanese but the plan was
defeated.* [36]* [37]
In 1943 the Japanese beheaded Tengku Rachmadu'llah,
a member of the royal family of the Sultanate of Ser-
dang.* [38] In the 19431944 Pontianak incidents (also
known as the Mandor Aair), the Japanese orchestrated
a mass arrest of Malay elites and Arabs, Chinese, Ja-
vanese, Manadonese, Dayaks, Bugis, Bataks, Minangk-
abau, Dutch, Indians, and Eurasians in Kalimantan, in-
cluding all of the Malay Sultans, accused them of plot-
ting to overthrow Japanese rule, and then massacred
them.* [39]* [40] The Japanese falsely claimed that all of
those ethnic groups and organisations such as the Islamic
Pemuda Muhammadijah were involved in a plot to over-
throw the Japanese and create a People's Republic of
West Borneo(Negara Rakyat Borneo Barat).* [41] The
Japanese claimed that- Sultans, Chinese, Indonesian
government ocials, Indians and Arabs, who had been
antagonistic to each other, joined together to massacre
Japanese., naming the Sultan of the Pontianak Sul-
tanate as one of the ringleadersin the planned rebel-
lion.* [42] Up to 25 aristocrats, relatives of the Sultan of
Pontianak, and many other prominent individuals were
named as participants in the plot by the Japanese and then
executed at Mandor.* [43]* [44] The Sultans of Pontianak,
Sambas, Ketapang, Soekadana, Simbang, Koeboe, Nga-
bang, Sanggau, Sekadau, Tajan, Singtan, and Mempawa
were all executed by the Japanese, respectively, their
names were Sjarif Mohamed Alkadri, Mohamad Ibrahim
Tsadedin, Goesti Saoenan, Tengkoe Idris, Goesti Mesir,
Sjarif Saleh, Goesti Abdoel Hamid, Ade Mohamad Arif,
Goesti Mohamad Kelip, Goesti Djapar, Raden Abdul
Bahri Danoe Perdana, and Mohammed Ahouek.* [45]
They are known as the 12 Dokoh.* [46] In Java, the
Japanese jailed Syarif Abdul Hamid Alqadrie, the son
of Sultan Syarif Mohamad Alkadrie (Sjarif Mohamed
Alkadri).* [47] Since he was in Java during the executions
Hamid II was the only male in his family not killed, while
the Japanese beheaded all 28 other male relatives of Pon-
tianak Sultan Mohammed Alkadri.* [48] Among the 29
people of the Sultan of Pontianak's family who ere be-
headed by the Japanese was the heir to the Pontianak
throne.* [49] Later in 1944, the Dayaks assassinated a
Japanese named Nakatani, who was involved in the inci-
dent and who was known for his cruelty. Sultan of Pon-
tianak Mohamed Alkadri's fourth son, Pengeran Agoen
(Pangeran Agung), and another son, Pengeran Adipati
(Pangeran Adipati), were both killed by the Japanese
in the incident.* [50] The Japanese had beheaded both
Pangeran Adipati and Pangeran Agung,* [51] in a public
execution.* [52] The Japanese extermination of the Malay
elite of Pontianak paved the way for a new Dayak elite to
arise in its place.* [53] According to Mary F. Somers Hei-
dhues, during May and June 1945, some Japanese were
killed in a rebellion by the Dayaks in Sanggau.* [54] Ac-
cording to Jamie S. Davidson, this rebellion, during which
many Dayaks and Japanese were killed, occurred from
April through August 1945, and was called theMajang
Desa War.* [55] The Pontianak Incidents, or Aairs,
are divided into two Pontianak incidents by scholars, var-
iously categorised according to mass killings and arrests,
which occurred in several stages on dierent dates. The
Pontianak incident negatively impacted the Chinese com-
munity in Kalimantan.* [56]* [57]* [58]* [59]* [60]
The Acehnese Ulama (Islamic clerics) fought against
both the Dutch and the Japanese, revolting against the
Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in Novem-
ber 1942. The revolt was led by the All-Aceh Reli-
gious Scholars' Association ( PUSA). The Japanese suf-
fered 18 dead in the uprising while they slaughtered up
to 100 or over 120 Acehnese.* [36]* [61] The revolt hap-
pened in Bayu and was centred around Tjot Plieng vil-
lage's religious school.* [62]* [63]* [64]* [65] During the
revolt, the Japanese troops armed with mortars and ma-
chine guns were charged by sword wielding Acehnese un-
der Teungku Abduldjalil (Tengku Abdul Djalil) in Bu-
3.1 Indonesian nationalism 5

loh Gampong Teungah and Tjot Plieng on 10 and 13 came later, but only after it was clear the Japanese would
November.* [66]* [67]* [68]* [69]* [70]* [71]* [72] In May lose the war). The outer islands under naval control, how-
1945 the Acehnese rebelled again.* [73] ever, were regarded as politically backward but econom-
ically vital for the Japanese war eort, and these regions
were governed the most oppressively of all. These experi-
3.1 Indonesian nationalism ences and subsequent dierences in nationalistic politici-
sation would have profound impacts on the course of the
Indonesian Revolution in the years immediately following
independence (19451950).

1966 ABC report examining Sukarno's alliance between imperial

Young Indonesian boys being trained by the Japanese Army
Japan and the Indonesian nationalist movement

In the decades before the war, the Dutch had been over-
whelmingly successful in suppressing the small national-
ist movement in Indonesia such that the Japanese proved
fundamental for coming Indonesian independence. Dur-
ing the occupation, the Japanese encouraged and backed
Indonesian nationalistic sentiments, created new Indone-
sian institutions, and promoted nationalist leaders such
as Sukarno. The openness now provided to Indonesian
nationalism, combined with the Japanese destruction of
much of the Dutch colonial state, were fundamental to
the Indonesian National Revolution that followed World
War 2.* [24]
Nonetheless within two months of the occupation the
Japanese did not allow the political use of the word In-
donesia as the name for a nation, neither did they allow
the use of the nationalistic (red and white) Indonesian
ag. In factany discussion, organisation, speculation or
propaganda concerning the political organisation or gov-
ernment of the country(also in the media) was strictly
forbidden. They split up the Dutch East Indies into three
separate regions and referred to it as the 'Southern Terri-
tories' (Indonesian: Daerah Selatan). While Tokyo pre-
pared the Philippines for independence in 1943, they si-
multaneously decided to annexe the Indonesian islands
into the greater Japanese Empire. Until late 1944 when
the Pacic war was at a turning point the Japanese never
seriously supported Indonesian independence.* [74]
The Japanese regime perceived Java as the most politi-
cally sophisticated but economically the least important
area; its people were Japan's main resource. As such
and in contrast to Dutch suppression the Japanese
encouraged Indonesian nationalism in Java and thus in- In addition to new-found Indonesian nationalism, equally
creased its political sophistication (similar encourage- important for the coming independence struggle and
ment of nationalism in strategic resource-rich Sumatra internal revolution was the Japanese orchestrated eco-
To gain support and mobilise Indonesian people in their
war eort against the Western Allied force, Japanese
occupation forces encouraged Indonesian nationalistic
movements and recruiting Indonesian nationalist leaders;
Sukarno, Hatta, Ki Hajar Dewantara and Kyai Haji Mas
Mansyur to rally the people support for mobilisation cen-
tre Putera (Indonesian: Pusat Tenaga Rakyat) on 16 April
1943, replaced with Jawa Hokokai on 1 March 1944.
Some of these mobilised populations were sent to forced
labour as romusha.
Japanese military also provided Indonesian youth with
military trainings and weapons, including the forma-
tion of volunteer army called PETA (Pembela Tanah
Air Defenders of the Homeland). The Japanese mil-
itary trainings for Indonesian youth originally was meant
to rally the local's support for the collapsing power of
Japanese Empire, but later it has become the signicant
resource for Republic of Indonesia during Indonesian Na-
tional Revolution in 1945 to 1949, and also has leads to
the formation of Indonesian National Armed Forces in
1945.
On 29 April 1945, Japanese occupation force formed
BPUPKI (Indonesian Independence Eort Exploratory
Committee) (Japanese: , Dokuritsu
Junbi Chsakai), a Japanese-organized committee for
granting independence to Indonesia. The organisation
was founded on 29 April 1945 by Lt. Gen. Kumakichi
Harada, the commander of 16th Army in Java. Indone-
sian independence meeting and discussion were prepared
through this organisation.
6 4 END OF THE OCCUPATION

nomic, political and social dismantling and destruction communities. Many of these soldiers joined the TNI or
of the Dutch colonial state.* [24] other Indonesian military organizations, and a number of
these former Japanese soldiers died during the Indonesian
National Revolution, including the famous Abdul Rach-
4 End of the occupation man (Ichiki Tatsuo).* [78]* [79]* [80]* [81]

Japanese soldiers on trial.

Japanese commanders listening to the terms of surrender

General MacArthur wanted to ght his way with Allied
troops to liberate Java in 194445 but was ordered not to
by the joint chiefs and President Roosevelt. The Japanese
occupation thus ocially ended with Japanese surren-
der in the Pacic and two days later Sukarno declared
Indonesian Independence. However Indonesian forces
would spend the next four years ghting the Dutch for in-
dependence. American restraint from ghting their way
into Java certainly saved many Japanese, Javanese, Dutch
and American lives. On the other hand, Indonesian inde-
pendence would have likely been achieved more swiftly
and smoothly had MacArthur had his way and American
troops occupied Java.* [75] A later UN report stated that
four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the
Japanese occupation.* [76] About 2.4 million people died
in Java from famine during 194445.* [77]
Liberation of the internment camps holding western pris-
oners was not swift. Conditions were better during post-
war internment than under previous internment, for, this
time, Red Cross supplies were made available and the Al-
lies made the Japanese order the most heinous and cruel
occupiers home. After four months of post-war intern-
ment, Western internees were released on the condition
they left Indonesia.
Most of the Japanese military personnel and civilian colo-
nial administrators were repatriated to Japan following
the war, although the process took nearly a year for most
individuals, and often two years or more. Following
screening for war crimes, physical labor or security duty
for thousands more, and war crimes trials for approxi-
mately 1,038 individuals, they were sent back to Japan
aboard remaining Japanese vessels. Approximately 1,000
Japanese soldiers deserted from their units (then under
allied command) and assimilated themselves into local
The nal stages of warfare were initiated in October 1945
when, in accordance with the terms of their surrender,
the Japanese tried to re-establish the authority they relin-
quished to Indonesians in the towns and cities. Japanese
military police killed Republican pemuda in Pekalongan
(Central Java) on 3 October, and Japanese troops drove
Republican pemuda out of Bandung in West Java and
handed the city to the British, but the ercest ghting
involving the Japanese was in Semarang. On 14 Octo-
ber, British forces began to occupy the city. Retreating
Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and
300 Japanese prisoners they were holding. Five hundred
Japanese and 2000 Indonesians had been killed and the
Japanese had almost captured the city six days later when
British forces arrived.* [82]
I, of course, knew that we had been forced
to keep Japanese troops under arms to protect
our lines of communication and vital areas ...
but it was nevertheless a great shock to me to
nd over a thousand Japanese troops guarding
the nine miles of road from the airport to the
town.* [83]
Lord Mountbatten of Burma in April 1946
after visiting Sumatra, referring to the use of
Japanese Surrendered Personnel.
Until 1949, the returning Dutch authorities held 448 war
crimes trials against 1038 suspects. 969 of those were
condemned (93.4%) with 236 (24.4%) receiving a death
sentence.* [84]

5 See also
Japanese-run internment camps
6 References
[1] Klemen, L. (19992000). The conquer of Borneo Is-
land, 19411942. Dutch East Indies Campaign website.
[2] Ricklefs 1991, p. 199.
[3] Friend, p. 29.
[4] Vickers, pp. 86-87.
[5] Vickers, pp. 8384.
[6] Mayumi Yamamoto, Spell of the Rebel, Monumen-
tal Apprehensions: Japanese Discourses On Pieter Er-
berveld, Indonesia 77 (April 2004):124127.
[7] Vickers (2005), p. 86
[8] Vickers, p. 83.
[9] Bidien, Charles (5 December 1945). Independence
the Issue. Far Eastern Survey. 14 (24): 345348.
doi:10.1525/as.1945.14.24.01p17062. ISSN 0362-8949.
JSTOR 3023219.
[10] The Kingdom of the Netherlands Declares War with
Japan. ibiblio. 15 December 1941. Retrieved 5 October
2009.
[11] Klemen, L. (19992000). General Sir Archibald Per-
cival Wavell. Dutch East Indies Campaign website.
[12] Taylor (2003), pp. 310311
[13] Vickers (2005), p. 87
[14] Horton, William Bradley (2007). Ethnic Cleavage in
Timorese Society: The Black Columns in Occupied Por-
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[15] Klemen, L. (19992000).The Java Sea Battle. Dutch
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[16] Klemen, L. (19992000). The conquest of Java Island,
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[17] Taylor (2003), p 310
[18] Womack, Tom; The Dutch Naval Air Force against Japan:
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[19] Pramoedya Ananta Toer, The Mute's Soliloquy, trans.
Willem Samuels (New York: Penguin, 1998), pp. 74
106 (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1975).
Cited in Vickers, p. 85.
[20] Cribb & Brown, p. 13.
[21] VIcker (2005), p. 87
7
[22] Taylor (2003), p. 311
[23] Library of Congress, 1992,Indonesia: World War II and
the Struggle For Independence, 194250; The Japanese
Occupation, 194245 Access date: 9 February 2007.
[24] Vickers, p. 85.
[25] Ricklefs 1993, p. 207.
[26] Cited in: Dower, John W. War Without Mercy: Race and
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[27] Ministerie van Buitenlandse zaken 1994, pp. 69, 11, 13
14
[28] http://www.awf.or.jp/e1/netherlands.html
[29] Soh, Chunghee Sarah. Japan's 'Comfort Women'".
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[30] Soh, Chunghee Sarah (2008). The Comfort Women:
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226-76777-2.
[31] Women made to become comfort women - Netherlands
. Asian Women's Fund.
[32] Poelgeest. Bart van, 1993, Gedwongen prostitutie van
Nederlandse vrouwen in voormalig Nederlands-Indi 's-
Gravenhage: Sdu Uitgeverij Plantijnstraat. [Tweede
Kamer, vergaderjaar 93-1994, 23 607, nr. 1.]
[33] Poelgeest, Bart van. "Report of a study of Dutch gov-
ernment documents on the forced prostitution of Dutch
women in the Dutch East Indies during the Japanese oc-
cupation." [Unocial Translation, 24 January 1994.]
[34] Reid, Anthony (1973). The Indonesian National Revolu-
tion 19451950. Melbourne: Longman Pty. p. 12. ISBN
978-0-582-71046-7.
[35] Davidson 2002, p. 78.
[36] Ricklefs 2001, p. 252.
[37] Federspiel 2007, p. 124.
[38] Buyers, Christopher (January 2002 January 2013).
SERDANG. The Royal Ark. Christopher Buyers.
[39] Heidhues 2003, p. 204.
[40] Ooi 2013, p. 42.
[41] Heidhues 2003, p. 205.
[42] ed. Kratoska 2013, p. 160.
[43] Davidson 2002, p. 79.
[44] Davidson 2003, p. 9.
[45] ed. Kratoska 2002, pp. 167168.
[46] Ooi 2013.
[47] Ooi 2013, p. 176.
8 7 REFERENCES

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Sedjarah Iahirnja Tentara Nasional Indonesia. Con-

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8 Further reading
Anderson, Ben (1972). Java in a Time of Rev-
olution: Occupation and Resistance, 19441946.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-
0-8014-0687-4.
Hillen, Ernest (1993). The Way of a Boy: A Memoir
of Java. Toronto: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-85049-
5.

9 External links
Media related to Japanese occupation of Indonesia
at Wikimedia Commons
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