Pagei

IceAgePeopleofNorthAmerica
Environments,Origins,andAdaptations

editedby
RobsonBonnichsen
KarenL.Turnmire

 Pageii

TheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans

355WenigerHall,OregonStateUniversity,CorvallisOR973316510

TheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericansisanaffiliateoftheDepartmentofAnthropologyandaresearch
unitthatreportstotheOfficeofResearchatOregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.TheCSFAwasestablishedin
July1981byaseedgrantfromMr.WilliamBingham'sTrustforCharity(renamedBinghamTrust).Themission
oftheCenteristhepromotionofinterdisciplinaryscholarlydialogueandthestimulationofpublicinterestonthe
subjectofthepeoplingoftheAmericasthroughresearch,education,andoutreach.Towardthesegoals:

CSFAdesignsandimplementsprogramsofstudyandresearchinvolvingthephysical,biological,and,and
culturalsciences

CSFAprovidesleadershipandcoordinationtoscholarsworldwideonthesubjectoftheFirstAmericans

CSFApromotesanopendialoguebetweengovernment,business,avocationarchaeologists,andtheNative
AmericancommunityonthepreservationofculturalresourcesandotherissuesrelatingtothestudyoftheFirst
Americansand

CSFAdisseminatestheproductofthissynergismthrougheducationprogramsreachingabroadrangeof
groupsfromschoolchildrentothegeneralpublicandtointernationalscholars.

TheCenter'spublishingprogramincludesCurrentResearchinthePleistocene,presentingnotelengtharticles
aboutcurrentresearchintheinterdisciplinaryfieldofQuaternaryStudiesastheyrelatetothepeoplingofthe
Americasandaquarterlynewsmagazine,theMammothTrumpet.

 Pageiii

IceAgePeopleofNorthAmerica
Environments,Origins,andAdaptations

editedby
RobsonBonnichsen
KarenL.Turnmire

OregonStateUniversityPress
forthe
CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans
Corvallis,Oregon

 Pageiv

ThepaperinthisbookmeetstheguidelinesforpermanenceanddurabilityoftheCommitteeonProductionGuidelinesforBookLongevityoftheCouncilonLibrary
ResourcesandtheminimumrequirementsoftheAmericanNationalStandardforPermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterialsZ39.481984.

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData

IceagepeopleofNorthAmerica/editedbyRobsonBonnichsen,KarenL.Turnmire.
1sted.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0870714589(alk.paper)
1.PaleoIndiansNorthAmerica.2.IndiansofNorthAmericaAsianinfluences.
3.GlacialepochNorthAmerica.4.PaleoecologyNorthAmericaPleistocene.
5.NorthAmericaAntiquities.I.Bonnichsen,Robson.II.Turnmire,KarenL.
III.OregonStateUniversity.CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans.
E77.9.I341999
970.01dc219923496
CIP

1999CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans
Allrightsreserved.Firstedition1999
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

OregonStateUniversityPress
101WaldoHall
CorvallisOR973316407
5417373166fax5417373170
http://osu.orst.edu/dept/press

 Pagev

Dedication

EdwardJ.Zeller

Thisbookisdedicatedtothememoryofoneofthemajorauthorsofthiscollection:Dr.EdwardJ.Zeller,whoselongcareeringeochemistry,geophysics,
andgeology,contributedmuchtoarcheologyandgeoarcheology.

AfterearninghisPhDattheUniversityofWisconsiningeology,hedidactiveresearchinbothchemistryandgeophysics.Hewasapioneerin
thermoluninescenceandinelectronspinresonance,developingtechniquesusedthroughoutthescientificworld,especiallyasappliedtoarchaeologyand
geoarchaeology.

HecontributedhisexpertisetotheMammothMeadowprojectinMontanabyapplyinggeophysicaltechniquestounderstandingtheshapeandscaleofthe
quarrypits.Recognizingtheneedforbettermapsandphotosofthesite,hepersonallyplannedandflewgeophysicalandlargescaleaerialphotosurveys.

InhisotherworkhemadesignificantcontributionstostudiesofthemineralresourcesoftheAntarctic,thepaleontologyoftheRockyMountainWest,
meteorimpactsinNebraska,climaticchange,andcyclicalchangesinsunspotsandtheireffectontheearth.

 Pagevi

Contents

AnIntroductiontothePeoplingoftheAmericas 1
RobsonBonnichsenandKarenTurnmire

IceAgeEnvironmentsofNorthernEurasiawithSpecialReferencetothe 27
BeringianMarginofSiberia
MikhailG.Grosswald

ImpactofIcerelatedPlantNutrientsonGlacialMarginEnvironments 42
MortD.Turner,EdwardJ.Zeller,GiselaA.Dreschoff,andJoanneC.
Turner

PeriglacialEcology,LargeMammals,andtheirSignificancetoHumanBiology 78
V.Geist

PleistocenePeoplesofJapanandthePeoplingoftheAmericas 95
TakeruAkazawa

TheColonizationofWesternBeringia:Technology,Ecology,andAdaptations 104
TedGoebelandSergeiB.Slobodin

LatePleistocenePeoplingofAlaska 156
ThomasD.HamiltonandTedGoebel

BluefishCavesandOldCrowBasin:ANewRapport 200
JacquesCinqMarsandRichardE.Morlan

SearchingfortheEarliestCanadians:WideCorridors,NarrowDoorways,Small 213
Windows
MichaelClaytonWilsonandJamesA.Burns

PrehistoryoftheGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlaintoAbout8,500YearsAgo 249
AlanL.BryanandDonaldR.Tuohy

TheLatePleistocenePrehistoryoftheNorthwesternPlains,theAdjacent 264
Mountains,andIntermontaneBasins
GeorgeC.Frison

PaleoindianArchaeologyandLatePleistoceneEnvironmentsinthePlainsand 281
SouthwesternUnitedStates
DennisStanford

TheBurnhamSiteandPleistoceneHumanOccupationsoftheSouthernPlainsof 340
theUnitedStates
DonG.Wyckoff

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PleistocenePeoplesofMidcontinentalNorthAmerica 362
BradleyT.Lepper

RadiocarbonChronologyofNortheasternPaleoAmericanSites:Discriminating 395
NaturalandHumanBurnFeatures
RobsonBonnichsenandRichardT.Will

NoVestigeofaBeginningnorProspectforanEnd:TwoDecadesofDebateon 416
MeadowcroftRockshelter
J.M.Adovasio,D.Pedler,J.Donahue,andR.Stuckenrath

TheEarlyHoloceneOccupationoftheSoutheasternUnitedStates:A 432
GeoarchaeologicalSummary
AlbertC.Goodyear

TheInhabitantsofMexicoDuringtheUpperPleistocene 482
JoseLuisLorenzoandLorenaMirambell

BreakingtheImpasseonthePeoplingoftheAmericas 497
RobsonBonnichsenandAlanL.Schneider

Index 520

 Page1

AnIntroductiontothePeoplingoftheAmericas
RobsonBonnichsen1
KarenTurnmire2

Introduction

TheParadigmShift

EVENTHOUGHTHEPEOPLINGoftheAmericashasbeenthefocusofscientificinvestigationsformorethanhalfacentury,thereisstillnodefinitiveevidencethatwillallow
specialiststosaywhenthefirstAmericansinitiallyarrivedorwhotheywere.This,however,innowaydiminishesthesignificanceofthemanynewcontributionsbeing
madeinthisfield.Thegoalofthisvolumeistoprovideanuptodatesummaryofsomeofthemostimportantnewdiscoveriesearlierthan10,000yearsoldfrom
NortheastAsiaandNorthAmericathatarechangingourperceptionsabouttheoriginoftheFirstAmericans.

AnimportantshiftinperspectiveisreflectedinterminologyusedtocharacterizeAmerica'searliestpeoples.Traditionally,theterm"Paleoindian"hasbeenusedtorefer
tolatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenepopulationsandarchaeologicalculturalcomplexes.ShortlyafterthediscoveryoftheFolsomandClovissitesinthelate1920s
andearly1930s,theassumptionwasmadethatmodernNativeAmericanswerethedescendantsofAmerica'sfirstpeople.FrankH.H.Roberts,Jr.(1935)
apparentlywasthefirsttousethetermPaleoindian.ItimpliesdirectbiologicalandculturalcontinuitybetweenfoundingpopulationsandmodernNativeAmericans.

Recentresearch,however,suggeststhattheoriginofAmerica'searliestinhabitantsismorecomplexthanoriginallyanticipated.Ratherthanasinglefounding
population,scholars(Greenbergetal.1986WallaceandTorroni1992Wallaceetal.1985)nowbelievethatgeneticandarchaeologicalevidencesupportthe
propositionthattheAmericaswerecolonizedbymultiplefoundingpopulations.Someoftheseearlypopulationscouldhavebecomeextinct,othersmayhave
intermarriedwithlatermigrants,andothergroupsmaybethedirectancestorsofmoderndayNativeAmericans.Wesuggestthattherelationshipbetweenmodern
andancienthumanpopulationsrepresentsanimportantnewresearchfrontier.RatherthancontinuingtousethetermPaleoindian,whichimpliesbiologicalandcultural
continuityfromthetimeofinitialoccupationtothepresent,weproposetousethedescriptiveterm"Paleoamerican"tocharacterizelatePleistoceneandearly
Holocenepopulationsandarchaeologicalcomplexes.

SpecialistsinPaleoamericanprehistoryhavebeenembroiledformorethanfourdecadesinacontroversyregardingtheinitialtimingofhumanentryintotheAmericas.
BonnichsenandSchneider(thisvolume)provideadetailedcritiqueoftheLateEntryandEarlyEntrymodels.OnevariantoftheLateEntrymodelknownasthe
ClovisFirstmodelproposesthatasmallbandofhumanhuntersenteredtheAmericasfromSiberiaabout11,500yearsago(Haynes1964,1966,1977Martin
1973MossimanandMartin1975).Thispioneeringpopulation,knownastheClovispeople,wasequippedwiththrustingspearsorpossiblyatlatalstippedwithfluted
points(specializedflakedstonepointswiththinningonbothfacesofthebasalendofthepointtofacilitatehafting).TheClovishunters,armedwithanewtechnology,
wereverysuccessfulintheirnewhabitat.HumanpopulationlevelsrapidlyincreasedanddescendantsofthefoundinggroupexpandedthroughoutNorthAmericaand
SouthAmericaattheexpenseofPleistocenefauna.Inamatterofapproximately1,000years,thecolonistssupposedlyexterminated33generainNorthAmericaand
morethan50generainSouthAmerica(Martin1984).

IncontrasttothespecialistswhoadheretotheLateEntrymodel,anothergroupofspecialistshavedevelopedtheEarlyEntrymodeltoexplaintheinitialpeoplingof
theAmericas(Bryan1978,1986).TheEarlyEntrymodelcannotbereducedtoasinglescenariothatallspecialistswouldagreeon.AllversionsoftheEarlyEntry
model,however,proposethattheAmericaswerepeopledwellbefore11,500yearsago.
1
.CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,OregonStateUniversity,CorvallisOR973316510
2
.Milford,ME04461

 Page2

ThemostcommonscenarioenvisionsthatsmallgroupswithageneralizedeconomyandasimpleflakeandcoretooltechnologycametotheAmericasfrom
NortheastAsiawellbeforetheendofthelastIceAge.Theproposedtimingofthisevent(s)androute(s)takenremainspeculativeintheabsenceofstrongempirical
datathatcanbeusedtosupportoneviewoveranother.

Inscientificresearch,debateshouldberegardedasanormalpartoftheprocessofadvancingknowledge.Unfortunately,thedebateoverthepeoplingoftheAmericas
hasnotoperatedinthismanner.RatherthanusingthedebateasapositiveforumfortestingcompetinghypothesesabouttheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericas,orabout
siteintegrity,averyconservativegroupofLateEntryadvocateshassystematicallyattackedallclaimsforpre12,000yearoldoccupationintheAmericas.The
persistenttacticofraising"whatif"possibilities,nomatterhowimprobable,hashadsomeveryseriousconsequences.Perhapstheworstconsequenceofthedebateis
thatithasbecomenexttoimpossibletoraiseresearchfundsthroughcompetitivegrantsmanshiptoconductresearchatarchaeologicallocalitiesthatmaybegreater
than11,500yearsold.

Aftermanyyearsofdebate,therehasbeenaremarkableturnofeventsintheFirstAmericanscontroversy.ItisnowclearthattheClovisFirstversionoftheLate
Entrymodelisdead,andthefieldofFirstAmericansstudiesisundergoingasignificantparadigmshift(AdovasioandPedler1997Meltzer1997).Thereareseveral
importantfactorsresponsibleforthisshift.ManyindividualsandinstitutionsthroughouttheAmericashavecontributedtothisimportantchangeinperspective
(BonnichsenandSteele1994BonnichsenandTurnmire1991Bryan1986:Greenbergetal.1986Meltzer1995StanfordandDay1992SteeleandPowell1992,
1994Wallaceetal.1985)bydevelopingarchaeological,genetic,linguistic,andhumanskeletaldataimportanttoanobjectiveunderstandingofthepeoplingofthe
Americas.AlthoughcurrentpressarticlesattributetheparadigmshifttoTomDillehay's(1989,1997b)importantworkattheMonteVerdesite,Chile,ourviewisthat
therealsituationissomewhatmorecomplex.

Thethreemostimportantfactorsresponsiblefortheparadigmshiftinclude:

(1)Theoccurrenceofseveralpre11,500yearoldsitesinNorthAmericaandSouthAmericathatareclearlynotpartoftheCloviscomplexandthatpredateClovis
agesites(Gruhn1997)

(2)TheidentificationofaseriesofdistinctiveregionalcotraditionsinNorthAmericathatarecontemporaneouswithClovisand

(3)Theacceptancebyskepticsofthe12,500yearoldMonteVerdesite,Chile,asevidenceforthepresenceofhumansintheAmericaspriortothedevelopmentof
Clovis.

Intheconcludingchapter,BonnichsenandSchneider(thisvolume)presentacritiqueofthemodelbuildingproceduresusedbytheproponentsoftheLateEntryand
EarlyEntrymodels.TheyreviewimportantdatawhichsuggestthatseveralofthekeypropositionsoftheClovisFirstversionoftheLateEntrymodelarenot
supportedbyempiricalfactsfromthearchaeologicalrecord.TheyarguethattheClovisFirstmodelmustbewrongforanumberofreasons.Althoughthatmodel
proposesthattheClovisbiggamehunterscamefromSiberia,scientistshavefailedtofindanycredibleClovisflutedpointsinthereputedSiberianhomeland.Another
issueisthatClovispointsfromtheUnitedStatesappeartobeolderthanthosefoundinthefarnorth.TheLateEntrymodelalsopredictsthatClovisisthefirstand
basalculturefromwhichallotherNorthAmericanculturalpatternsdeveloped.Ongoingcarefularchaeologicalresearchhasdemonstratedthatnumerousnonfluted
projectilepointsoccurintheUnitedStatesthatareasearlyasClovis.SomeofthemostimportantofthesecotraditionsincludetheNenanacomplexofAlaska
(Goebeletal.1991),theChesrowcomplexofWisconsin(Overstreet1993),theGoshencomplexofthenorthernGreatPlains(Frison,thisvolume),andthestemmed
lanceolatepointcomplexesfoundthroughouttheWest(BryanandTuohy,thisvolume).Finally,severalNorthAmericanandSouthAmericansites,withanantiquityof
greaterthan12,000yrB.P.,clearlypredateClovisagesites(Gruhn1997).SomeofthemostimportantoftheselocalitiesincludeBluefishCaves(CinqMarsand
Morlan,thisvolume),MeadowcroftRockshelter(Adovasioetal.,thisvolume),PendejoCave(MacNeish1996),RancholaAmopola,ElCedral,Mexico(Lorenzo
andMirambell,thisvolume),Taimataima,Venezuela(OchseniusandGruhn1979),PedraFurada,Brazil(GuidonandPessis1996),andMonteVerde,Chile
(Dillehay1989,1997a,1997b).

Inadditiontotheabove,Dillehay'sworkatMonteVerde,41southlatitudenearPuertoMontt,Chile,hasbeeninstrumentalinconvincingsomecriticsthatthe
ClovisFirstvariantoftheLateEntrymodelisnolongerviable.TheMonteVerdesite,whichpredates

 Page3

Clovisby1,000years,isa12,500yrB.P.settlementalongthebanksofwhatisnowChinchihuapiCreek.WhatisunusualaboutMonteVerdeisthatorganic
archaeologicalremainswerepreservedunderpeatdeposits,andthatextraordinarycarewastakenbyDillehayandhisresearchteamtoinvestigatethistrulysignificant
site.InvestigationsatMonteVerdehaverevealedmuchmorethantheusualarrayofbonesandpossiblestonetools.Fromwoodhousestructures,woodenlancesand
diggingsticks,andwoodenmortarswithplantresiduesontheirsurface,todozensofmedicinalplants,hunksofmeat,andhumanfootprintscomesoverwhelming
evidencedemonstratingthepresenceofhumans.Theinorganicremainsalsoincludesomesurprises,suchassmallsphericalstonesknownas''bolasballs,"anarrayof
simpleflaketools,andafewbifaciallyflakedstonetools.ThreefragmentaryprojectilepointsarereminiscentoftheElJobostylethatisfoundfartothenorthatthe
TaimataimasiteandelsewhereinVenezuela.Collectively,theartifactsandfeaturessuggestthatMonteVerdewasapermanentsettlementsitelocatedinacooldamp
rainforest.MoresothananyotherPaleoamericansiteinvestigatedtodate,MonteVerdeprovidesmorethanaglimpseintoIceAgelifeways.Duetoitsunique
preservationcircumstances,itcontainsanarrayofperishableorganicartifactsthatwouldnormallybemissingfromotherpre11,000yrB.P.sites.Thetwovolume
MonteVerdesitereport,whichpresentsresearchresultsof80scientificcollaboratorsand20yearsofwork,isanextraordinarycasestudy(Dillehay1989,1997b).

InearlyJanuaryof1997,severalleadingspecialists,representingboththeLateEntryandEarlyEntrymodels,spent11daysscrutinizingtheMonteVerdeproject.
Thereviewincludedanexaminationofartifactual,analytical,andfieldevidence.ThereviewteamexaminedartifactsattheUniversityofKentuckyandtheUniversity
ofSouthernChile,Valdivia.SitegeologyandcontextwereexaminedattheMonteVerdesite.Attheendoftheworkingconference,theparticipantsreacheda
consensusthatthestratigraphyisgood,theradiocarbonrecordsupportstheclaimthatthesiteis12,500yrB.P.andthatDillehayisindeedcorrect,MonteVerdeisa
siteanditpredatestheNorthAmericanClovispattern.

Insummary,theparadigmshiftanddemiseoftheClovisFirstvariantoftheLateEntrymodelcanbeattributedtoanincreasingnumberofNorthandSouthAmerica
sitesthatclearlypredateClovis,theoccurrenceofseveralcotraditionsthatarecontemporaneouswithClovis,andadefinitivecasestudyfromMonteVerdethat
yieldedmorepre11,500yrB.P.evidenceforhumansthananyotherAmericansiteinvestigatedtodate.Onthebasisofthesedata,wemustconcludethattheClovis
Firstmodelisnotonlydead,butreadyforburial!ThedemiseoftheClovisFirstmodel,however,doesnotnullifythevalueoftheLateEntrymodel.Atthisjuncture,
thepossibilitymustbekeptopenthatboththeLateEntryandEarlyEntrymodelsarecorrect.

VolumeOrganization

INDEVELOPINGTHISVOLUME,wepresentadetailedcompendiumoflatePleistocenePaleoamericanarchaeologicalrecordsthatcanserveasafoundationofexisting
knowledgeinthisfieldandforcreatingthenextgenerationofmodelsthatseektoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericas.Ourstrategyinconstructingthisvolumehas
beentoinviterecognizedscholarswhohaveadetailedunderstandingofregionalenvironmentalandarchaeologicalrecordsfromNortheastAsiaandNorthAmericato
preparetopicalandregionalsyntheses.

TheselectionofenvironmentalpapersfocusesontheenvironmentalhistoryofwesternBeringia,whichisessentialfordevelopinganunderstandingoftheeventsand
processesthatwouldhaveallowedearlyhumanpopulationstomovefromNortheastAsiatoNorthAmerica.Most,butnotall,ofthearchaeologicalsyntheseswere
originally,presentedaspapersattheFirstWorldSummitthatwasorganizedandconvenedbytheCSFAattheUniversityofMaineduringMayof1989.Following
theconference,itwasrecognizedthatthereweremanygapsintheconferenceproceedings,andthattheoriginalcollectionofpapersdidnotprovideasystematic
coverageofPaleoamericanprehistory.Therefore,additionalspecialistswereinvitedtocontributetothevolumethis,inconjunctionwithamoveoftheCSFAfromthe
UniversityofMainetoOregonStateUniversity,hasmadethedevelopmentofthisvolumeaslowandtediousprocess.Tocompensateforthesedelays,thevolume
contributorsgenerouslyagreedtoupdatetheirmanuscriptssothattheyarenowcurrent.

Theauthorswhopreparedarchaeologicalsyntheseswereencouragedtosummarizeevidencefromwelldatedstratifiedarchaeologicalsites.Sitereportsarcthe
essentialbuildingblockfordevelopingrealisticmodelsforunderstandingearlyAmericanprehistory.Siteswith14Cdatedculturalsequencesareregardedasessential

 Page4

todevelopingatemporalframeworkformakingcomparisonswithinandbetweenregions.

Asubstantialamountofnewinformationhasbeensynthesizedbythevolumecontributors.Nonetheless,manyimportanttopicsandsitesarenotincluded.Someofthe
mostimportantnewarchaeologicaldiscoveriesimportantinFirstAmericansstudiesthatarenotdealtwithbythevolumeauthorsaresummarizedinthischapter.
Collectively,thesynthesesdocumentthatawiderangeofculturaldiversitywaspresentinNorthAmericabyClovistimesandthereissuggestiveevidenceforthe
presenceofpre11,500yearoldpopulationsthroughouttheAmericaswellbeforetheendofthelastIceAge.Thesenewdatasetthestageforrethinkingour
strategiesforsearchingandinterpretingtheoriginsoftheFirstAmericans.

Paradoxes

RECENTRESEARCH,WHILESERVINGtoclarifyandelucidatecertainaspectsofthepaleoenvironmentalandarchaeologicalrecordsfromNortheastAsiaandNorthAmerica,
isalsonotableforilluminatingtheapparentparadoxesandcontradictionsinherentinthePaleoamericanenvironmental,archaeological,andbiologicalrecords.Itis
importanttorecognizethatthereareanumberofparadoxesintheorthodoxviewthattheAmericaswerepeopledfromNortheastAsiainlateglacialtimes.For
example,glaciologistsoffersharplycontrastingmodelsabouttheextentofglaciationinwesternandcentralBeringia(Grosswald,thisvolumeHughesandHughes
1994Hughesetal.1991West1996a:Figure2).TheboundaryconditionssetbytheminimumandmaximumglacialmodelsoftheoccurrenceofWisconsinanage
iceinSiberiaandNorthAmericaprovideverydifferentlimitingconditionsonpossiblemarineandoverlandroutesthatcouldhavebeentakentotheAmericasduring
fullglacialtimes.

Thesmallesticesheets,or"minimumglacialmodels,"depictNortheastAsiaasawideopenlandscapethatwouldhaveallowedhumanentryintotheAmericasatany
time,includingthelastglacialmaximumabout18,000yearsago(West1996a:Figure2).Bycontrast,thelargesticesheets,or"maximumglacialmodels,"depict
extensiveglaciationthatcoveredmoreofeasternandwesternBeringia.Theselargeicesheetswouldhavebeenamajorimpedimentforpopulationsattemptingto
movethroughwesternBeringiaduringglacialmaximumtimes(Grosswald,thisvolumeHughesandHughes1994).

AnotherenigmaofgreaterBeringiaiswhatisknownasthe"productivityparadox"(Schwegeretal.1982).Onthebasisofpalynologicaldata,itisproposedthat
productivityinBeringiawasquitelowandwouldnothavesupportedviablehumanandanimalpopulationsinBeringiaduringfullglacialtimes.Otherlinesofevidence
suggesttheoccurrenceofamosaicenvironment,whichsupportedacomplexfaunaadaptedtoicemarginalconditions(Geist,thisvolumeGuthrie1968Turneretal.,
thisvolume).

Contradictionsandparadoxesarenotlimited,however,toonlythepaleoenvironmentalrecord.Ambiguityalsoexistsastohowtointerpretthegeneticrecord.
WorkingwithmodernmtDNA(Torronietal.1993)foundthatthatSiberianpopulationslackedtheBmtDNAhaplogroupfoundinNativeAmericansandEastAsian
populations.TheyproposethatthislineageeitherbecameextinctinSiberiaafterasplitbetweenancestralSiberianandNativeAmericanpopulationsoritspresencein
NativeAmericansrepresentedanearlierdistinctmigration.

Archaeologicalparadoxesalsoexist.Forexample,theCloviscomplexappearsasafullblownculturalpatternthroughoutmuchoftheNorthAmericancontinent
about11,500yrB.P.Despiteyearsofextensivearchaeologicalinvestigation,theantecedentsofClovis,whetherOldWorldorNew,remainelusive.Otherparadoxes
andcontradictionsinclude:

(1)Thewiderangeofvariabilityinflutedprojectilepointstyles

(2)TheoccurrenceofnonflutedprojectilepointindustriesthatseeminglyproliferatedinNorthandSouthAmericaduringthelatePleistocene

(3)TheearliestflutedpointsrecoveredthusfarfromtheArcticandtheIceFreeCorridorappeartopostdateratherthanpredateClovis(HamiltonandGoebel,this
volume)

(4)TheexistencethroughouttheNewWorldofvarioussitesandindustriesthatappeartopredate11,500yrB.P.(Dillehay1997bGruhn1997MacNeish1996
OchseniusandGruhn1979)and

(5)Thegrowingawarenessthatearlyhumanskeletalremainsgreaterthan8,000yearsoldfromtheGreatPlainsandtheWestappeartorepresentanearlierlong
headedpopulationthatdoesnotcloselyresemblemorerecentNativeAmericanorNativeSiberianpopulations(JantzandOwsley1997SteeleandPowell1992,
1994).Theseandotherparadoxesunderscoretheneed

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toconsiderthepossibilitythattheAmericaswerepeopledoveralongperiodoftime,includingwellbeforetheendofthelastIceAge.

TheFutureofFirstAmericansStudies

NOWTHATTHELONGSTANDINGimpedimentoftheClovisFirstmodelisbehindus,andavarietyofparadoxesliebeforeusthathaveyettobesolved,itistimetorefocus
ourattentiononthegoalsandobjectivesofFirstAmericansstudies.Itistimetoplanfutureresearchefforts,andatimetohealoldwoundsandgainsightofour
commongoalofdevelopingasecureandobjectiveknowledgeofAmerica'searliestculturalandbiologicalheritage(AdovasioandPedler1997Bonnichsenetal.
1995DillehayandMeltzer1991Meltzer1997).

Asafieldofinvestigation,FirstAmericansstudiesmustseekanswerstofivequestions:Who?When?Where?How?andWhy?Althoughchronologyorsiteagewill
remainveryimportant,thetimehascometobroadenourfocus,todefinenewresearchquestions,andtolookcriticallyathowwecandevelopmorereliablemodels
thatseektoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

TheadvancesbeingmadeinFirstAmericansstudiesaredirectlylinkedtoanunderstandingheldbymostspecialiststhatthisresearchmustbeconductedwithinan
interdisciplinaryframework.SpecialistswhoattempttodevelopmodelsforexplainingthepeoplingoftheAmericasmustdealwithawidearrayofenvironmental,
biological,andculturaldata.Thetaskofcreatingsyntheticmodelsthatwilladequatelyexplainthebiological,cultural,andenvironmentaleventssignificantto
understandingAmericanoriginsatthelocal,regional,andglobalscalesisaformidableundertakingwithmanyinherentproblems.Forexample,importantdatafor
understandingthepeoplingoftheAmericasoccuronfourcontinents:NorthAmerica,SouthAmerica,Asia,andEurope.Furthermore,thescholarlyliteratureofthis
fieldappearsinmanylanguages(e.g.,Chinese,English,French,Portuguese,Spanish,Russian,Japanese,etc.).

FirstAmericansstudiesisarelativelyimmatureandhighlycomplexfieldwithaverysmallnumberofspecialists.Notsurprisingly,thereareveryfewpre11,500year
oldsitesthathavebeencarefullyinvestigatedbyqualifiedteamsofexperts.Consequently,thedatabaseofPaleoamericansitesthatservesasthefoundationfor
creatingmodelstoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericasisinmanysenseswoefullyinadequate.Indeed,muchadditionalattentionmustbeplacedondevelopingquality
sitereportsasthesearchforAmericanoriginscontinuesandthefieldmatures(Bonnichsenetal.1995).

Paleoenvironments

QUATERNARYSCIENTISTSHAVEmadesignificantstridesintheunderstandingofglobalpaleoclimatesandhowthesehaveaffectedtheadvancesanddemiseoficesheets,
sealevelfluctuations,creationofpaleolandforms,andthelinkagebetweenpaleoclimaticsystemsandpaleoenvironments(LascaandDonahue1990Porter1988
RuddimanandWright1987Waters1992).ThetemporalframeworkandeventsoftheQuaternaryperiodprovidetheessentialcontextforunderstandinghuman
colonizationandtheriseanddemiseofhumanadaptivepatterns.Thisframework,however,continuestoundergorefinementanddebate.MikhailGrosswald(this
volume)challengestheorthodoxviewthattheAmericascouldhavebeenpeopledatanytimeduringglacialperiods,insteadproposingthatacontinuoussystemsofice
sheetscoveredthenorthernoutskirtsofEurasiaduringthelastglacialmaximum.GrosswaldconcludesthatanAsianoverlandroutetoAlaskaduringtheheightof
glaciationwasimprobable.Travelerswouldhaveencounteredicesheets,icedammedlakes,andaveryinhospitableglacialenvironment.Overlandtravelwouldhave
beenpossibleonlyduringarelativelyshortandwarmlateglacialintervalneartheendofthelastIceAge.Similarconstraintsimposedbyicesheetsandmarine
transgressionswouldhaveinhibitedhumanmovementfromwesterntoeasternBeringiaduringearlierperiodsaswell.

AnothertenetoftheorthodoxviewofthepeoplingoftheAmericashaslongassumedthatglacialmarginswouldhavebeenbarren,coldareasunsuitableforplant,
animal,andhumanlife.Turneretal.(thisvolume)suggestthatthereisextensiveevidencefortheoccurrenceofanimalpopulations,includinghumans,inicemarginal
zonesofcontinentalicecapsinNorthAmerica,Asia,andEurope.

Formostplantspecies,growthandcolonizationinrecentlydeglaciatedlandscapesarelimitedbythreemajorplantnutrients:potassium,phosphate,andnitrogen.
StudiesofglacialiceonAntarcticaand

 Page6

GreenlandhaveshownthatsubstantialconcentrationsofnitrateandlesseramountsofammoniumionsarepresentinPleistoceneageice.Thisfixednitrogenisreleased
onlythroughmeltwaterrunoff.Environmentsalongglacialmarginsarealsoenrichedinpotassiumandphosphate,especiallyinareaswhereglaciershaveoverridden
igneousormetamorphicterrain.Throughmechanicalgrindingattheicerockinterface,breakageofchemicalbondseffectivelyincreasesthesolubilityoftherock
potassiumandphosphate.Thepresenceofessentialplantnutrientsinwaterthatsaturatesunconsolidatedglacialdepositsmayhavepermittedakindofnatural
hydroponicplantgrowth,acceleratingsoilformation.Oncesoilshadbeguntoform,thepresenceofnutrientcontainingsolutionswouldpermitanunusuallyhighlevel
ofproductivitytobemaintainedinstableicemarginalregions.Thesupplyofnutrientsfromglacialicewouldhaveallowedpopulationsofplants,animals,andhumans
tohavelivedalongicesheetmargins.ThesemarginalenvironmentswouldhaveactedasrefugiaasthefavorableconditionsofthePleistocenedeterioratedintothe
earlyHolocene.

Geist(thisvolume)buildsontheaboveideasbysuggestingPleistoceneperiglacialenvironmentscreatedyoung,productiveecosystems,whichwerefavorableforthe
developmentoflargemammalsandhumans.FromthelateTertiaryonward,asetofremarkablemammalsexhibitingluxuriantbodygrowthevolvedwiththeincreased
severityofseasonallycoldclimates.

Geistproposesthatperiglacialenvironmentswerevitaltotheappearanceanddevelopmentofhumancharacteristicsandthathumans,likeothermammals,were
shapedbyhypermorphicspeciation.Infact,theperiglacialzonewassofavorablethattwohominidgroupsflourishedduringthelastglacialperiod:Neanderthalsinthe
earlyWrmwerefollowedbyCroMagnonsinthelastglacialpulse.GeistconcludesthattheUpperPaleolithicwasagoldenageforhominidsadaptedtoperiglacial
environments.Culturalexpressionflourishedanditcanbeseeninthequalityofpaintings,carvings,andtools,aswellasintheexcellenthealthandphysical
developmentofindividuals.

TheimportanceofAsiaticperiglacialsteppeisunderscoredbyDaleGuthrie's(1996:172)conceptoftheMammothSteppebiome.Guthriearguesthatthespecial
Holarcticbiome,theMammothSteppe,wasthehomelandofMongoloidpeoples.ThecolddrygrasslandthatdevelopedbehindthesouthfaceoftheHimalayas
becametheheartlandoftheMammothSteppe.

DuringPleistocenecyclesoflowsolarinput,thisgrassybiomespreadwestwardacrossEuropetotheAtlantic,northwardtotheArcticOceanontothehugeexposed
continentalshelfofNorthAsia,andeastwardtoNorthAmericaviatheexposedBeringianlandbridge.Thiscombinationofcoldandaridityledtotheeliminationof
woodplants,andfavoredcertainaridadaptedgrassesandforbs.

ThePleistocenesteppelandswereinvadedbyadiversegroupofmammals,predominantlygrazers.Fossilsshowbothlargeandsmallmammalswerepresentinthe
specialhabitat,includingthewoollymammoth(Mammuthusprimigenius),woolyrhino(Coelondontaantiquitatis),steppebison(Bisonpriscus),caballinehorses
(Equusferus)hemionids(Equushemionus),reindeer(Rangifertarandus),muskoxen(Ovibosmoschatus),saigaantelope(Saigatatarica),andotherless
numerousspecies(Guthrie1996:173).Guthrienotesthatmanyspeciesdevelopedenormousbodysizetosurvivetheharshwinters.TheMammothSteppeembraced
anenormousareathatwasnotuniformthroughout.Animalssuchasthereddeer,wildboar,roedeer,andmoosepenetratedthesouthernborderoftheMammoth
Steppebutnevermovedoutonit.

Fromtheabove,itshouldbeclearthatpaleoecologistsinterestedinthepeoplingoftheAmericashavedevelopedenvironmentalparametersthatfavoranoverland
terrestrialapproachforthepeoplingoftheAmericas.Partly,becauseoftheparadigmaticbiasoftheClovisFirstmodel,littleconsiderationhasbeengiventothe
environmentalparametersthatwouldhavecontrolledthespreadofmaritimeculturealongthePacificRimduringlatePleistocenetimes,ifnotearlier.Thereisaneedto
developanunderstandingofhowthesea/landinterfacechangedbetweenglacialandinterglacialperiodsandhowseacurrentsandtemperaturesshifted.Itseems
probablethatearlymaritimepeopleswouldhavefoundreliablefoodresourcessuchasseaweed,mussels,clams,seals,sealions,andfishbothduringglacialand
interglacialtimes.

AsianOrigins

MOSTSCHOLARSBELIEVEthatBeringiaisthelogicalgatewaythroughwhichtheFirstAmericansenteredtheNewWorldandthat,therefore,apotentialcolonizing
populationmustfirsthavebeeninplaceinNortheastAsia.RecentresearchfromNortheastAsia

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suggeststhepresenceofLowerPaleolithichumanpopulations.Theculturalandbiologicalremainsoftheseearlypeoplesarerelativelypoorlyknown.TheUpper
Paleolithicarchaeologicalrecord,whichistypifiedbymicrobladeusingpeoples,ismoreabundantandbetterknown(Goebel,thisvolume).SeeWest(1996b)fora
recentoverviewoftheBeringiaarchaeology.

Manystudentsofprehistoryproposethatonlymodernhumans(Homosapienssapiens)hadthesurvivalskillstopenetratethefarnorthandthatthiscouldnothave
occurreduntilabout40,000yearsago.Theyreasonthatfire,shelter,andtailoredskinclothingwererequirementsforsurvivingthewintersinthefarnorth(Fagan
1987).NewresearchreportedbyYuriMochanov(1993)ontheDiringYuriakhsite,locatedat61northlatitudeontheLenaRiver,isofgreatimportance
(AckermanandCarlson1991).Mochanov's26,000m2excavationexposedmorethan30clustersofartifactsthatinclude4,000quartzandquartzitecobblecores,
unifacialchoppers,flaketools,hammerstones,andanvilstones(Watersetal.1997).DiringiscertainlytheearliestandmostinterestingearlysiteineasternSiberia(see
Goebel,thisvolume).Thoughcriticshavesuggestedthat"artifacts"fromthesiteareactually"geofacts"producedbynaturalprocesses,thereisunanimousagreement
amongauthoritieswhohavevisitedthesiteandexaminedthevastlithicassemblagethattheDiringspecimensaretheproductofhumanbehavior.

Theageofthesite,however,remainsapointofcontention.Onthebasisofpaleomagneticandradiothermoluminesenceages,Mochanovinitiallyproposedthatthe
artifactbearinglevelofDiringdatedtobetween1.8and3.1millionyearsago.MorerecentworkbyWatersetal.(1997)ondepositslocatedstratigraphicallybelow
andaboveartifactlevel5suggestamuchlaterageforthisimportantsite.Forman'sthermoluminescencemethodhasproducedaseriesof10consistentdatesthat
indicatetheageoftheDiringYuriakhoccupationisabout300,000yearsold.Ifcorrect,thesedatesimplythatearlyHomosp.wasequippedtowithstandthe
subarcticwintersofSiberiafarearlierthanpreviouslyanticipated.

EventhoughtheDiringYuriakhsiteappearstobetheoldestsitefoundtodateinNortheastAsia,NikolayDrozdovandcolleagues(Chlachulaetal.1994)have
locatedanotherseriesofearlysitesontheKrasnoyarskReservoirinthevicinityofKurtak,centralSiberia.Thesesites,situatedat55northlatitudeontheYenisei
River,spanthelastfullglacialcycleandaresaidtoyieldcobbletoolsthatcomefromMiddlePleistocenestratigraphiccontexts.

InadditiontothecentralandnortheasternSiberianPaleolithicsites,thearchaeologicalrecordfromHonshuIsland,Japan,isyieldingimportantnewdata.Alongthe
northeasterncoastofHonshu,aseriesofmorethan40MiddlePaleolithicsiteshavebeenuncoveredintheSendaiarea.Tephrachronologyindicatesthatthesesites
rangeinagefrom150,000tomorethan200,000yearsago(Akazawa,thisvolumeHiroshietal.1990MasahitoandHiroyuki1990YoshizakiandIwasaki1986),
andrecentworksuggeststhattheoldestsitesintheareamaybeasmuchas400,000yearsold(AlanL.Bryan,personalcommunication1995).Earlypeoplescould
easilyhavewalkedfromtheAsiaticmainlandtoJapanduringaglacialmaximumwhensealevelswerelowerandJapanwasconnectedtothemainland.TheHonshu
archaeologicalrecordsuggeststhepresenceofhumansalongthenorthPacificRimforthepast400,000yearsandperhapslonger.

Fromtheabove,itmaybeinferredthatearlyHomosp.hadspreadacrossNortheastAsiabyLowerPaleolithictimes.Brace(1996:87),inreviewingthehuman
skeletaldatafromnortheasternAsia,notestwospecimensofinterestthataretransitionalbetweenHomoerectusandmodernpopulations.TheJinniuShanspecimen
isthemostcompleteandwasfoundin1984approximately400kmnorthofZhoukoudianatca.45N.latitude.Noformaldescriptionisyetavailableonthis
specimen,althoughauraniumseriesageofbetween100,000and200,000yearshasbeenassigned.Acursoryexaminationoftheskullshowsthatithasthelong,low
cranialshape,heavydoublearchedbrowridges,andlarge,morphologicallycomplexmaxillaryincisorscommontoNeanderthals.Otherfeatures,includingtheshape
oftheocciput,thelateralmarginsoftheorbits,andthejunctureofthenasalboneswiththeadjacentmaxilla,showsimilaritiestotherespectiveanatomical
configurationsregularlyfoundinthelivinginhabitantsofthearea.

Wu(1994),inassessingthechronologyandmorphologyofthehumanfossilrecordfromChina,envisionsthatHomoerectusarrivedbetweenonetotwomillion
yearsago.HeinfersthatPleistocenehumansinChinaexperiencedagradualevolutionarychangeinmorphology.CommonskeletalfeaturessharedbetweenHomo
erectusandHomosapiensinChina,butnotsharedbyEuropeancontemporariesinformorfrequency,suggestthathumanevolutioninChinahasbeencontinuous
throughoutmorethanone

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millionyears.Morphologicalevidence,suchasIncabones,indicatesgeneflowbetweenthehumanpopulationsofChinaandthoseofotherpartsoftheworld,
especiallythewesternPacificregionandtheAmericas.Exactlywhentheseearlypopulationsmovedintothefarnorthisunknown.

Ingeneral,theearlyAsiaticsitesstronglyimplythatbyLowerPaleolithictimesearlyhumanpopulationshadacoldclimateadaptiverepertoire(i.e.,fire,clothing,
shelter,andtechniquesforprocessingfood)forsurvivingtherigorsofanorthernperiglacialwinter.TheperiglacialenvironmentsoftheAsiaticsteppeareseenby
animalpaleoecologists(Geist,thisvolumeGuthrie1996)asaPleistoceneevolutionarycenterthatwitnessedthedevelopmentofhomorphicmammalsadaptedto
cold,treelesslandscapes.

EventhoughnorthcentralAsiasouthofLakeBaikalisseenasanevolutionarycenterforMongoloid(Guthrie1996Turner1985),Caucasian(Turner1985),and
Mousterian(Geist,thisvolume)populations,littleconsiderationhasbeengiventothepossibilitythatenvironmentalforcingontheCentralAsiansteppemayhave
playedanimportantroleinacceleratingtheevolutionarytransitionbetweenHomoerectusandHomosapiens.TheearlyarchaeologicaldiscoveriesfromtheYenisei
andLenariverdrainagesandJapansuggestthathumanswereearlyparticipantsinicemarginalenvironmentsandcoevolvedalongwithothermammalian
hypermorphs.Thisprocessdidnotoccurjustonce,butlikelyoccurredinsuccessiveiceages,acceleratingthepaceofevolutionandgivingrisetonewbiologicaland
culturaladaptations.Throughadaptiveradiation,newvariantsofhominidsdispersedacrosstheMammothSteppeintoenvironmentsthatlaysouthofthesteppe,and
possiblyintotheAmericas.

Akazawa(thisvolume),forexample,proposesamodelinwhichthecolonizationofJapanwasaccomplishedviaawavelikeseriesofhumanmigrationsthatwere
linkedwiththespreadofPleistocenespecies.AsimilareventmayexplaintheUpperPaleolithicrecordfromSiberiaandHokkaido.Theoriginalcolonizingpopulations
followedanddevelopedaspecializedsubsistencesystembasedonmammothprocurement,whichisrepresentedinthearchaeologicalrecordbymicroblade/wedge
shapedcoreassemblages.TherelativelylateJapanesemicrobladeassemblages(ca.15,00010,000yrB.P.)andthoseofAlaska(ca.11,800yrB.P.)likelyare
derivedfromSiberia.Akazawahypothesizesthattheextremelycoldclimaticconditionsof20,00018,000yrB.P.mayhavebeenthedrivingforcebehinda
southwardmicrobladebearingmigrationtoAsiaandtheAmericas.

TurningnorthtotheUpperPaleolithicandMesolithicofwesternBeringia,Goebel(thisvolume)suggeststhattheearliestevidenceforhumansinthisregiondatesto
about14,000yrB.P.AnUpperPaleolithiccomplexwithbladeandbifacetechnologyisknownfromthestratifiedsiteUshki1(layerVII),incentralKamchatka,and
atBerelekh,acampsiteinthelowerIndigirkaBasin.AnotherimportantculturalpatterninwesternBeringia,microbladetechnology,iswidespreadbuthasbeendated
atUshki1toonlyabout10,700yrB.P.Goebeldoesnote,however,thattherearemanyundatedlateUpperPaleolithic,Diuktailikeindustriesthathavebeen
identifiedintheKolymaandOmolonbasinsofwesternBeringia,aswellasontheChukotkaandKamchatkapeninsulas.Theseindustriessuggestawidespread
distributionofmicrolithicindustriesinthelatePleistoceneandearlyHolocene,andanexpansionoftheDiuktailikeindustriesintoeasternBeringiaattheendofthelast
glacialmaximum.

TheAmericanFarNorth

HAMILTONANDGOEBEL(thisvolume),intheirreviewoftheearlyAlaskanarchaeologicalrecord,notethattheearliestfirmlydatedassemblagesdateto11,800yrB.P.
FoursitesascribedtotheNenanacomplex(DryCreek,WalkerRoad,MooseCreek,andOwlRidge)arecharacterizedbytheoccurrenceofbifacesandblades,
sideandendscrapers,cores,occasionalburins,andtheabsenceofmicroblades.Thesesiteshaveaprobableageof11,30011,000yrB.P.InthenearbyTanana
Valley,theBrokenMammoth,SwanPoint,Mead,andHealyLake(Chindadnassemblage)sitescontainoccupationsranginginagefrom11,800to11,000yrB.P.
TheSwanPointandHeal),LakesitescontainelementsofboththeNenanacomplexandmicroblades.HamiltonandGoebel(thisvolume)observethattherelationship
oftheNenanaandChindadnassemblagestotheCloviscomplexoftemperateNorthAmericaisnotwellunderstood.TheysuggestthattheNenanacomplexcould
documenttheappearanceofPaleoamericansinAlaska,whoarecontemporarieswithClovis.TheMesaandotherhuntingsitesintheBrooksRangelikelywerealso
occupiedbyPaleoamericanswhospreadnorthwardintosubarcticCanadaandAlaskaabout10,500yrB.P.

ThereisnoindicationthatflutedpointsoriginatedintheNorth.Althoughabout50flutedpointshavebeencollectedinAlaska,mosthavecomefromundatedsurfaces,
shallowsiteswheremixingislikely,orfrom

 Page9

Holocenecontexts(HamiltonandGoebel,thisvolume).ThesepointsdiffertypologicallyfromClovisinthatfluteremovalappearshavetobeenaccomplishedby
pressureratherthanpercussion,andtheiryoungeragesarenotsurprising.ThemajorityofflutedpointfindsinAlaskaandtheYukonoccurwithinorneartheBrooks
Range.Theapparentabsenceofsitesolderthan11,800yrB.P.inAlaskaremainsatroublingdilemmaforarchaeologists,bothbecauseofthesimilaragesofthe
NenanaandCloviscomplexesandbecauseofthelackofpotentialancestralsites.

AttheAlaskan/Yukonborder,thereisaculturalandtemporalgulfamongarchaeologistsandthearchaeologicalrecord.ExcavationsatBluefishCaves,Yukon
Territory,haveproducedevidenceofanearlyBeringianoccupationdescribedbyCinqMarsandMorlan(thisvolume).CaveII,UnitB,hasyieldedaculturally
modifiedmammothboneflakeandcorethathasbeenAMSdatedto23,500yrB.P.Theflakedbone,alongwithmicrodebitage,underliesaPaleoarcticDyuktai
assemblagewithmicrobladesdatedatca.15,000yrB.P.

CinqMarsandMorlanalsodescribearecentprogramofAMSdatingconductedonsimilarbonespecimensfromthecontroversialOldCrowlocalities.Theyhave
foundthatthehumanlymodifiedOldCrowbonesarerestrictedtoatimespanrangingbetween40,000and25,000yrB.P.Thisgroupedagedistributionsupportsthe
premisethattheOldCrowspecimensareadeliberatelyworkedboneassemblage,ratherthantheproductofnaturaltaphonomicprocessesasarguedbycritics.The
OldCrowandlowerBluefishCaveIIassemblagessuggestanearlyboneflakingtechnologyineasternBeringiabeforethelastglacialmaxima.

Pathways

TheCoastalRoute

IFTHEAMERICASWEREPEOPLEDbypopulationscomingfromNortheastAsia,therearethreeplausibleroutes:(1)byboatalongtheNorthwestCoast(2)byfootthrough
interiorBritishColumbiaand(3)byfootthroughtheIceFreeCorridor.Gruhn(1994),whohasmostrecentlyreviewedthistopic,hasarguedthatthePacificCoast
routeofinitialentryofhumanpopulationsintotheNewWorldshouldbegivenseriousconsideration.Althoughpaleoecologicalandlinguisticargumentscanbe
marshaledinsupportofthisview,thereislittleinthewayofsubstantialarchaeologicalevidencefromtheNorthwestCoastitself.Thereis,however,indirectevidence
fromJapanthatsuggeststhathumanpopulationsalongtheNorthPacificRimhadboatsbyatleast30,000yearsago(BonnichsenandSchneider,thisvolumeOda
1990).ThisinterpretationcanbeseenasindirectsupportforthehypothesisthattheAmericascouldhavebeencolonizedbyboatusingpeoples.

DefinitivearchaeologicaldatafromtheWestCoastofNorthAmericatosupportthecoastalentryhypothesishasyettobefound.This,however,isnotsurprisingas
muchoftheWestCoastwassubmergedbyariseinsealevelthatoccurredattheendofthePleistocene.Potentiallyearlysiteshavebeenreportedfromraised
coastlinesinsouthernCalifornia(Berger1982ErlandsonandMoss1996).Althougharchaeologicalevidencefromtheselocalitieshasyettowinwidespread
acceptancefromsomemembersofthearchaeologicalcommunityothersitesmaybefoundalongupliftedsectionsofthePacificCoastthatcouldprovidesupportfor
theearlycoastalentryhypothesis.

TheOverlandRoute

EVIDENCETHATCOULDbeusedtoSupportanoverlandroutethroughinteriorBritishColumbiaistotallyabsent.Butabsenceofevidencedoesnotnecessarilymeanthat
evidenceisabsent.Almostnosurveyworkhasbeenconductedinthismountainousarea.Additionally,ifhumansoccupiedthisareabeforetheonsetofthelast
glaciation,remainsfromtheseearlyoccupationslikelywereeitherdestroyedbyglaciationoraredeeplyburiedbeneathglacialdeposits.

TheIceFreeCorridor

THEICEFREECORRIDORHYPOTHESIS,whichhaslongbeenanimportantcomponentoftheClovisfirstmodel,hasaftermanyyearsofresearchfailedtoyielddefinitive
evidencethatrelatestohumancolonizationoftheAmericas.InarecentarticleontheglacialcontrolsoftheIceFreeCorridor,JacksonandDukRodkin(1996)
concludethatBeringiaandunglaciatedNorthAmericawereseparatedbyicefromaround20,000yrB.P.untilafter13,000yrB.P.SeeWilsonandBurns(this
volume)foranoverviewofthehistoryoftheIceFreeCorridorconcept.

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Thoughanumberofflutedprojectilepointshavebeenfoundinthisarea,mostofthesetendtobesurfacefinds.Projectilepointsthatoccurincontextwithinthe
Corridorareinfrequent,andtheoldestofthesehavethusfartendedtobeCharlieLakepoints,atriangular,weak,andsometimesmultipleflutedformthatappearsto
beroughlycoevalwithFolsom.CharlieLakepointshavebeenrecordedincontextatonlytwosites:CharlieLake,BritishColumbia,whichyieldedanaveragedateof
10,500yrB.P.(Fladmarketal.1988)andSibbaldCreek,Alberta,whichproducedaquestionabledateofaboutathousandyearsyounger(Ball1983).

FlutedpointsfindsinwesternCanadafallwithinanareathatwasprobablyboundedbyicetotheeastandwestbetween11,500and11,200yrB.P.(Wilsonand
Burns,thisvolume).ThedistributionofflutedpointsinanareathatwasfreeoficeearlierthanthesurroundingregiondoesnotnecessarilysupporttheClovisFirst
model.ThelateageofflutedpointsinAlaska(HamiltonandGoebel,thisvolume)andattheCharlieLakesitesuggeststhatPaleoamericanpopulationsweremoving
northward,ratherthansouthwardaspredictedbytheClovisFirstmodel.However,asWilsonandBurns(thisvolume)note,thecaseisnotyetconclusivelyproven.

AninterestingnewcomplexitytotheIceFreeCorridorhypothesishasbeenaddedbyrecentresearchattheVarsityEstatesandSilverSpringssites,Alberta(A.L.
Bryan,personalcommunication1997Chlachula1996andChlachulaandLeBlanc1996).TheVarsityEstatesandSilverSpringssiteswereexposedbypostglacial
downcuttingintheBowRiverValley,Calgary.TheVarsityEstatessiteissituatedbeneath24mofglaciallakedepositsandaboveCordillerantill.TheSilverSprings
siteoccursbeneaththeCordillerantillontopofoldriverdeposits.Althoughabsoluteagesforthesiteshaveyettobedetermined,theBowValleywassubmergedby
proglacialLakeCalgary,whichwasdammedbytheadvanceofLaurentideice.Ithasbeeninferredthatsincethearchaeologicalremainsoccurbelowproglaciallake
deposits,occupationatthetwositesmusthaveoccurredsometimebefore20,0005000yrB.P.,althoughotherinterpretationsarepossible(Gruhn,personal
communication1998).

Thediscoveryofarchaeologicaldepositscontainingacobbletoolindustrywithflakedcobbles,hammerstones,anvils,alteredflakes,andabifacewithrefittedflakes,
instratigraphiccontext,isofconsiderableimportance.IftheworknowbeingdonebyChlachulaandcoworkersWithstandscriticalreview,thesenewdiscoverieswill
requirearethinkingoftheIceFreeCorridorconcept.TheoccurrenceofthesesitesatthesouthernendoftheIceFreeCorridormayplacehumansimmediately
southoftheIceFreeCorridorbeforethelastglacialmaximum.ThesenewdatamayimplythattheIceFreeCorridorisunimportanttounderstandingthepeoplingof
theAmericas,ashumanswereherewellbeforeclosure,andothercontinentalroutesmayhavebeenpossible.

WesternNorthAmerica

SPECIALISTSHAVELONGBELIEVEDthattheAmericanWestisanideallocationtosearchforpre12,000yrB.P.evidenceofearlyhumanoccupation.Asubstantialnumber
ofearlystratifiedsiteshavebeeninvestigatedinWesternNorthAmerica.Thesedataarenowbeingusedtoexamineandtestimplicationsofcompetingmodelsthat
seektoexplainthelateglacialarchaeologicalrecord.

TheNorthwest

ATTHEENDOFTHELASTIceAge,aseriesofextremeenvironmentaleventsoccurred,includingvolcanismintheCascades,recessionoftheglaciersintheNorthern
RockiesandCascades,multiplecatastrophicfloodingeventswhichcreatedthechanneledscablandsintheColumbiaBasin,andextensivedepositionofglacial
outwashsedimentsinregionalrivervalleyssimilartosouthernBeringia(Bonnichsenetal.1994).TheseeventsmodifiedtheNorthwesternlandscapeandbrought
aboutenvironmentaldisruption.Yet,theformationofnewpostglacialenvironmentspresentednewopportunitiesforhumanadaptationtodiverseenvironments.

ThereisbutasingleicemarginalsiteinthePacificNorthwest.TheManisMastodonsite,locatednearSequim,Washington,isapeatcoveredglacialpondbasinthat
hasproducedbutcheredmastodonandbisonbones.Tworadiocarbondatesplacetheageofthiseventatabout12,000yrB.P.(Gustafsoneta1.1979:158).
Althoughdiagnosticprojectilepointswereabsent,ofinterestwastherecoveryofabonepointembeddedinamastodonrib.

WestoftheRockyMountains,widelyscatteredClovisfindssuggestthepresenceofbiggamehuntingtraditionsintheColumbiaRiverdrainagesystem.No

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faunalremainshavebeenfoundinassociationwithflutedpointsfromthisregion.Althoughsurfacefindsofflutedpointshavebeenmadethroughouttheregion,theEast
Wenatcheesite,locatednearEastWenatchee,Washington,hasthebestcontextforanyknownflutedpointsiteoftheregion(Gramly1993Mehringer1988a,
1988bMehringerandFoit1990).DuringtheinstallationofanirrigationsysteminMackRitchey'sappleorchard,afascinatingarchaeologicalassemblagewasfound
80100cmbelowthesurface.ExcavationsatthesiteconductedfirstbyP.J.Mehringer,Jr.andlaterbyM.Gramlyledtotherecoveryof14exquisitelycraftedand
verylargeflutedpoints,severallargebifaces,blades,severalscrapers,andbibeveledbonerods(foreshafts).GlacierPeakvolcanicashfoundadheringtothelower
facesoftheartifactssuggeststhatthesiteisabout11,200yearsold.

Withinthisregion,theWindustphase(Rice1972)mayrepresentacotraditionthatiscoevalwithClovisandcontinuedintopostClovistimes.AtthePilcherCreek
site,nearBaker,Oregon,D.Brauner(1985,personalcommunication1994)foundaWindustcomponentwithpointsburiedwithinGlacierPeaktephrainastratified
excavationcontext.ThisassociationappearstobeverygoodandrepresentstheoldestdatedoccurrencefortheWindustphaseinthePacificNorthwest.

PostClovishumanadaptationtothisenvironmentallydiverse,butgeographicallymorerestricted,settingledtotheemergenceofseveraldistinctPaleoamericanco
traditions.Theselocaltraditions,datingbetween11,000and9000yrB.P.,includeFolsom,Plano,Windust,HellGap,andOldCordilleranpointstyles.

Themostfamousrecentfindfromtheregion,knownasKennewickMan,hasyettobeadequatelystudied.Thehumanremainswerefoundalongthebanksofthe
ColumbiaRiverbytwocollegestudents.J.Chatters,whoinvestigatedthesiteandcollectedtheremainsfortheKennewickCoroner'sOffice,initiallybelievedthe
skeletontobethatofamodernEuropeanpioneer.ThisinterpretationwasquicklycastasidewhenCATscanimagesofthehipilluminatedthepresenceofwhat
appearstobeabrokenCascadepoint.A14CdatebytheUCRiversidelaboratoryproducedacorrectedageof9300yrB.P.onbonefromtheskeleton.

TheKennewickManskeletonisnoteworthyforseveralreasons.First,itisthemostcompleteearlyhumanskeletonfoundinthePacificNorthwest.Additionally,
preliminaryobservationsbythreeindependentobservers(J.Chatters,G.Krantz,andK.McMillian)suggestthatKennewickMandiffersfrommodernNative
Americansoftheregion.TheKennewickskeletonischaracterizedbyalonghead,aprominentchin,averylargenose,andarmsthatarelongrelativetobody
portions.Additionally,thedentalmorphologyofthisindividualmostcloselymatchesthatoftheSundadontypattern(Turner1985).Onthebasisofpreliminary
evidence,theKennewickManremainssuggestthepresenceofanearlyNorthAmericanpopulationthatwasreplacedbylaterpeopleswithMongoloid
characteristics.Eightscientistshaverequestedtherighttostudytheseremainsbeforereburialbutsofar,thisrequesthasbeendenied.FiveNativeAmericantribes
haveclaimedtheKennewickManremains,andhaveaskedtheArmyCorpsofEngineerstorepatriatetheskeletonundertheNativeAmericansGraveProtectionand
RepatriationActof1990(NAGPRA).Asofspring1999,theKennewickMancaseisstillincourt.

GreatBasinandSnakeRiverPlain

MOVINGONTOTHEGREATBASINandSnakeRiverPlain,BryanandTuohy(thisvolume)offeranargumentchallengingtheClovisFirstmodel.Researchwithinthisregion
increasinglysuggeststhatacotraditioncharacterizedbystemmedprojectilepointsexistedatthesametimeas,ifnotearlierthan,Clovis.

Datedflutedpointsitesarerareinthisregion,andthefoursitesthathavethusfarproducedradiocarbondatesindicateasomewhatanomalousagerangeforfluted
projectiles.ConnleyCave#5,Oregon,containedbothaflutedpointandstemmedpointsabovealeveldatedat9540260yrB.P.theHenwoodsite,California,
yieldedaflutedpointassociatedwithahearthdatedat8470370yrB.P.andDangerCave,Utah,producedtwoflutedpointsthoughttobeyoungerthan10,500
yrB.P.(BryanandTuohy,thisvolume).Finally,theWasdensite,Idaho,hasyieldedthreeflutedpoints(albeitofFolsomlikemanufacture)inassociationwith
mammothbonethatrecentlyproducedaradiocarbondateof10,910150,whichisconsideredtobemoreacceptablethanoldassaysof12,250200,and12,850
150yrB.P.(BryanandTuohy,thisvolume).

Stemmedpointsoccurthroughoutthisregionatsitesdatedbetween11,000and8000yrB.P.,andhavebeenfoundatthreesitesdatedinexcessof11,000yrB.P.
Theseare:thebasaloccupationofFortRockCaste,

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14
Oregon,whichyieldeda Cdateof13,200720yrB.P.WilsonButteCave,Idaho,whichhasproducedobsidianhydrationdatesbetween16,000and9000yr
B.P.atSmithCreekCave,Nevada,wheretheMt.Moriahoccupationzoneyieldedeight14Cdatesrangingfrom9940160yrB.Pto11,400200yrB.P.(Bryan
1988:65).

BryanandTuohy'sworkcallsintoquestionboththeassumptionthatClovisoccursearlierthanthestemmedpointtraditionandthatstemmedformswerederivedfrom
Clovis.Instead,itnowappearsprobablethattheearlystemmedpointsoftheBasinandRangephysiographicprovincesrepresentatraditionthatevolved
independentlyof,butwascoevalwith,Clovis.ThereissomeindicationthatthistraditionservedasthebasalcultureforthelaterAgateBasinandHellGapformsof
thePlains(BryanandTuohy,thisvolumeStanford,thisvolume).

NewpaleobiologicalevidencefromtheGreatBasinsuggeststhatlatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenepopulationsfromtheGreatBasindifferedfrommodernday
NativeAmericanpopulationsintheregion.ThediscoverythattheSpiritCavemalemummyhasaradiocarbonage,basedonameanoffourdates,of941060yr
B.P.(TuohyandDansie1996:4950)makesthisburialtheoldestknownmummyfromNorthAmerica.Inadditiontothemummy,twocrematedskeletonswerealso
foundatthesite.Thesespecimens,inadditiontotheWizzardBeachskullfromPyramidLake,whichisdatedto9515155(GX19422G),constitutesomeofthe
oldesthumanskeletalremainsfromNorthAmerica(Tayloretal.1995).Steele(personalcommunication1996)indicatestheseearlyfindshavecloseaffinitiesWith
southAsianpopulations(JantzandOwsley1997).Theyaredistinguishedbytheirrelativelylongandnarrowcraniaandsmallnarrowfaces.Laterpopulationstended
tobemorebrachycranicandexhibitedlarger,broaderfaces(SteeleandPowell1992,1994).

ThePlainsandtheSouthwest

MORETHAN60YEARSofPaleoamericanstudiesonthePlainsandintheSouthwesthaveprovidedtheframeworkofculturalenvironmentalhistorythatalsohasbeenused
tointerpretmuchoftheprehistoryofthewesternUnitedStatesandCanada.StratifiedPaleoamericansitesfromthisregionareessentialtoourunderstandingofan
arrayofimpressiveculturalcomplexes.Beforediscussingthese,abriefreviewoftheenvironmentalhistoryoftheregionisinorder.

OntheeastsideoftheRockyMountains,theLaurentideicesheetdisplacedtheSaskatchewanandMissouririverstothesouth.Topographicdepressionfromthe
weightoftheicesheetledtothecreationofglacialLakeAgassiz,whichcoveredpartofsouthernSaskatchewanandmostofsouthernManitoba.Huge,southflowing
meltwaterchannels,carryingwaterandicefromthedisintegratingicesheets,eventuallycontributedtothedammingoftheMissouriandYellowstonerivers(Clayton
andMoran1982).ThisblockageresultedintheformationoflargetemporarylakesinnorthernMontanaandtheDakotas.Similarly,breakupanddeglaciationof
mountainglaciersintheRockiesledtocatastrophicfloodingofmajorriversystemsflowingintothePlains,includingtheMissouri,thePlatte,theRepublican,and
Canadiandrainagesystems,aswellasthecreationofcomplexterracesequencesandthedepositionofimmenseloessdeposits.

AlthoughlatePleistocenecatastrophicfloodingprobablyeliminatedsomedepositsofarchaeologicalinterest,otherdepositswerecreated.Thearchaeologicalrecord
fromthisregionisparticularlyimportanttoourunderstandingofearlyPaleoamericanprehistory,aswellasmanywellstratifiedsitesoflatePleistoceneandHolocene
age.

Newevidenceforapre12,000yrB.P.humanpresenceissuggestedbySteveHolen'songoingworkonlatePleistocenemammothsitesinsouthwesternNebraska
andnorthcentralKansas(Hall1995a,1995bHolen1994,1995,1996MayandHolen1993).Holen,workingwithgeoarchaeologistDavidMay,hasdetermined
thatallthesediscoveriesoccurinPeorianLoessoflatePleistoceneage(20,000to14,000yrB.P.).Thesesitescharacteristicallycontainflakedmammothboneand
lackastonetoolassociation.

ExcavationoftheLaSenasiteonthewestsideoftheMedicineCreekReservoir,Nebraska,revealedasingleColumbianmammoth(Mammuthuscolumbi).Soil
datesfromthestratigraphiclevelcontainingthemammothremainsyieldedagesof18,860360yrB.P.(Tx7006)and16,730430yrB.P.(Tx6708).Collagen
extractedfromthemammothbonewasdatedto18,000190yrB.P.(Beta28728)and18,440145(AA6972).AttheLaSenasitethebonesaredisarticulated,
andlongbonesexhibitgreenbonefractures(brokenwhenfresh).Manyofthefracturedlimbbonesexhibitnegativebulbsofpercussionsubstantiallylargerthanwould
beexpectedifproduced

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bycarnivores,butmatchwithexpectationsforlargehammerstones.Unbrokenribsandvertebraeoccuramongthefracturedlongbones.Holensuggeststhatthese
patternsareidenticaltoflakedbonesfoundatClovisagesitessuchasLange/Ferguson,SouthDakota(Hannus1989).

AnothersitecurrentlyunderinvestigationbyHolen'steamistheShaffertsite,locatedinanarroyothatdrainsintotheMedicineCreekbasin.Flakedmammothbones
areexposedinloessdepositsapproximately2mbelowthesurface.Holen(personalcommunication1997)reportsa16,500yrB.P.bonedatefromtheShaffert
mammoth.

Approximately40milesawayinthePlatteRiverdrainage,anothermammothwasfoundonthelandofRichardandHarrietJensen,nearCozad,Nebraska.Whenthe
Jensensite,originallyinvestigatedasapaleontologicalsalvageproject,startedtoproduceflakedbonessimilartoLaSena,Holenwascontacted.Approximately50
60percentoftheJensenmammothhasbeenrecovered,andsomeofthelongboneelementsexhibitgreenbonefractures,includingimpactpointsandboneflakes.
Radiocarbondatesof13,830and14,830yrB.P.havebeenobtainedonbonecollagenandsoilhumates,respectively,fromtheJensensite(Holen,personal
communication1995).

TheLovewellMammothsiteoccursontheLovewellReservoirinnorthcentralKansas.Geomorphicresearchindicatedthatthenorthshorelineofthelakeconsistsof
Farmdalian/Woodfordianterracefill.Testexcavationofthesiterevealedaconcentrationofmammothbonesandbonefragments,someofwhichexhibitnegativescars
suggestiveofhighvelocityimpactpointsandboneflaking.Ofinterestistherecoveryofthepolishedendofaboneforeshaftfoundintheexcavation.Aradiocarbon
dateonbonetakenfromaspirallyfracturedmammothboneyieldedanageof18,25090yrB.P.(CAMS1536)(Holen1996).

Otherevidenceforapre12,000occupationhasbeenfoundbyR.S.MacNeish'sresearchteam(Chrismanetal.1996MacNeish1996)atPendejoCave,New
Mexico.PendejoCave,locatednearOrogrande,NewMexico,isastratifiedsitethathasproducedpaleontological,paleobotanical,andpossiblearchaeological
remains.Morethan55radiocarbondeterminationssuggesttoMacNeish(1996)thatcontinuoushumanoccupationoccurredatPendejo,datingbacktomorethan
55,000yrB.P.

ThefulldetailsofthePendejositereporthaveyettobepublished,andabookonthisprojectisinpress.Inanoverview,MacNeish(1996)usesthematerialfrom
PendejoCavetoaddressthepre11,500yrB.P.debate.MacNeishinvitedvariousspecialiststothesiteduringexcavations.Onevisitingscholar,C.V.Haynes,Jr.,
statedatthetimeofhisvisitthatnonculturalmechanismscouldbeusedtoexplainmanyofthediscoveriesatPendejoandsuggestedthatmultipleworkinghypotheses
thatwouldinvolveconsiderationofbothnaturallyandculturalfactorsshouldbeconsideredatPendejo.Todate,thissuggestionhasnotbeenheeded.

MacNeish(1996)hasrespondedbysuggestingthattherearemorelinesofevidenceindicativeofhumanpresenceatPendejoCavethanfromanyotherNorth
Americanlocality,includingmostClovissites.Heassertsthatinadditiontoflakedstoneartifacts,thereareseveralimportantindependentlinesofartifactualevidence
foundinstratigraphiccontextthathebelieveswillrefutethenonculturalhypothesis.MacNeisharguesthatdiagnosticevidenceforthepresenceofhumansincludes:

(1)Astudyofrawmaterialdistributionsindicatingthat186(54percent)of303lithicartifactsareexotictothedolomitecavesiteandmusthavebeentransportedinto
thecavebyhumans

(2)Atotalof23shapedfeaturesdugintolowerstratigraphiclevelscanbeattributedtohumans

(3)Theoccurrenceoftwologs(15cmdiameter)insidethecavecanbeattributedtohumans

(4)Thermoluminescencereadingsofburnedcavefloordepositssuggestthefireswereinternalanddidnotmoveintothecavefromtheoutsideaswouldbeexpected
withgroundfires

(5)ABisonantiquushumeruswithmajorshaftimpactscars(multipleflakescarsusedtoshapeoneend)thoughttobeindicativeofhumanbehavior

(6)Ashapedboneprojectilepointappearstohavebeendrivenintoahorsephalanx

(7)16frictionskinimprints,whichmatchonlyhumanprints,foundonclaynodulesbakedattemperaturesofover120Cwererecoveredfromfivestratigraphiclevels
and

(8)Humanhairoccursinpre12,000yearoldlevels.

CertainlyanimpressivearrayofdatahasbeenrecoveredfromPendejo,andthefinalreportonthisprojectawaitsscrutinyoftheprofession.

Shortlyafter12,000yrB.P.,diagnosticprojectilepointsmadetheirappearanceonthePlains,e.g.,ClovisandGoshen(cf.Frison1991).FollowingthePleistocene
megafaunalextinctions,whichoccurredabout10,800yearsago,aseriesofregionalcotraditionsdevelopedalongtheflanksoftheRocky

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MountainsandontheNorthwesternPlains.TheseincludedGoshen,HellGap,AgateBasin,Folsom,andCody.

Althoughquestionsremain,portionsoftheClovisFolsomPlainview/AgateBasinHellGapCodysequencearearecurringpatternatsitesthroughoutthePlainsand
Southwest.Recentdiscoveriescontinuetorefineandelucidateourknowledgeofthetechnologies,settlementpatterns,andsubsistenceandlithicprocurementsystems
oftheseearlyPlainstraditions.Frison(thisvolume)andStanford(thisvolume)reviewthephylogeneticandtechnoculturalrecordsoftheNorthernPlains,Central
PlainsandSouthwest,andSouthernPlains,respectively.

TheSouthwestandPlainsarecharacterizedbytwopredominantearlyprojectilepointpatterns(Stanford,thisvolume).Thesetraditions,unliketheirappearanceinthe
Northwest,aresequentialratherthanparallelandincludeabasallythinned,flutedpointpattern,intowhichStanfordplacesClovis,Folsom/Midland,Goshen,and
Plainviewandalanceolatepointpattern,whichStanforddefinesasencompassingtheAgateBasin,HellGap,andCodycomplexes.

EasternNorthAmerica

TheIceMargin

FOLLOWINGRETREAToftheLaurentideicesheet,thelandscapeunderwentarapidevolutioncharacterizedbylargeproglaciallakesandmassivemeltwaterchannels.The
environmentineasternNorthAmericawasmodifiedstronglybytheretreatingicesheet,whichwouldhavehadeffectsontheanimalsandplantsoftheicemarginal
zone.Turneretal.(thisvolume)indicatethattherelativelycool,moistmarginalzonewouldhaveactedasabroadrefugiumforanimalsandplantsthatwereadaptedto
Pleistoceneenvironments.ThesemarginalzonerefugiawouldhavepersistedasatundraalongtheshiftingicefrontduringthelatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenethat
wasfollowedbyaherbshrubtundra,which,inturn,wasfollowedbyawidezoneofborealforest(Jacobsonetal.1987).Thereisanexpandingbodyofevidence
thatindicatesthathumanpopulationswereinthesedynamicicemarginalzones(Bonnichsen1980Bonnichsenetal.1987Turneretal.,thisvolume).

D.F.Overstreet(1993),forexample,hasidentifiedadistinctPaleoamericancomplexonthewestsideofLakeMichigan.Onthebasisof35sites,whichoccurina
limitedgeographicalarea,Overstreethasdefinedauniquearchaeologicalcomplexassociatedwithextinctfauna.Thesesiteshaveadistinctartifactassemblagemade
oflocalrawmaterials,withawiderangeoflanceolatepoints.Overstreet(1993)hasnamedthisgroupofsitestheChesrowcomplex.Inapreliminary
settlement/subsistencemodel,twositetypeshavebeenidentified:welldrainedbeachridgesofGlacialLakeChicago,andinteriorbogmarginsitesinswalesoflake
borders.Faunalremainsassociatedwiththiscomplexincludemammoth,mastodon,caribou,andmuskox.Artifactsfoundindirectassociationwithfaunalremainsare
notconsideredtobepartsoftheCloviscomplex.Artifactsaremadefromlocalmaterials,especiallyquartzitecobbles.Importanttoolcategoriesincludeprojectile
points,bifacepreformsandblanks,cores,hammerstones,andutilizedflakes.Projectilepointformsrangefromstemmedlanceolatetobasallythinnedconcavebase
specimens.ThepresenceofextinctfaunainassociationwithChesrowcomplexsiteshasledOverstreettoconcludethatChesrowmayberelatedinsomewayto
ClovisbutitshouldberegardedasanindependentcotraditionasearlyasClovis,ifnotancestraltoit.Ofparticularimportanceare:Schaefer10,960yrB.P.(Beta
62822),12,22080yrB.P.(Beta628323),12,310yrB.P.(CAMS30171)12,480130yrB.P.(Beta62824)MudLake13,44060yrB.P.(CAMS
36643)Fenske13,47050yrB.P.(CAMS36642)andHebior12,52050yrB.P.(CAMS25943)12,52050yrB.P.(CAMS25943)mammoths.
MastodonsfromtheareaincludetheDeerfieldMastodon1,DeerfieldMastodon2,andDeerfieldMastodon3andthesehaveradiocarbonassaysrangingfrom
10,700to11,140yrB.P.Thesemammothandmastodonremainsshowevidenceofhumanmodification,areassociatedwithnondiagnosticstonetools,andarethe
focusofongoingresearch.

Evidenceforahumanpresencealongtheicemargininthemiddletoeasternpartsofthecontinentisnotuncommonandsupportsafocusonbiggamehunting.
CaribouhuntinghasbeeninferredforPaleoamericansitesinsouthcentralandsoutheasternOntario(DellerandEllis1988),aswellasfornorthernNewEnglandand
theMaritimeprovinces(Bonnichsenetal.1985Gramly1982,1988MacDonald1968),andsouthernNewEngland(Nicholas1987).Lateglacialproboscidean
fossilsinassociationwithhumanremainsareknownfromsouthernOntario,Michigan,andfarwesternNewYork(DellerandEllis1988Fisher1995Laub1995).

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MidContinentalNorthAmerica

LEPPER(THISVOLUME)providesanoverviewoftheevidenceforPleistocenepeoplesinMidcontinentalNorthAmerica.Hefocusesontwoprimaryregionswithin
MidcontinentalNorthAmerica,whichhetermstheGreatLakesSubareaandtheMidcontinentalRiverineSubarea.Thoughflutedpointsarecommontobothregions,
studiesshowthesesubareasexhibitsignificantlydifferentsiteandstonetooldistributionpatterns.

TheearlyarchaeologicalrecordoftheGreatLakesischaracterizedbylarge,singleoccupationsites.Incontrast,theMidcontinentalSubareahasyieldedlarge
numbersofisolatedflutedpoints,butfewsites.ThoserarelargesitesthathavebeenfoundintheMidcontinentaregenerallyquarryrelatedlocalitieswithevidenceof
multipleoccupationsoroccurinsettingsthatareparticularlyfavorableintermsoftheirenvironmentalsituation,suchassalinesprings.Lepperproposesthatthese
dissimilarregionalpatternsreflectadaptationsthataroseasresponsestotwoverydiverseenvironments.

Theperiglacialenvironmentofthenorthernborealforestsupportedalimitednumberoffaunalspecies,whereasthewarmerandmorestableenvironmentsofthe
midcontinentalregionformedavegetalmosaicthatsustainedadiversefaunalandfloralassemblage.Leppersuggeststhatthelimitednumberofgamespeciesinthe
northwouldhaveforcedhumanstoconcentratetheirattentiononafew,veryproductiveresources,theprocurementofwhichrequiredalarge,cooperativehuman
effort.Quiteprobably,caribouherdsformedthebasisofearlyGreatLakesPaleoindiansubsistencepatterns,althoughmastodonandmammothalsomayhavebeen
hunted,assuggestedbytheChesrowcomplex.

Inthemoresoutherlyareas,whereanumberofdifferentandequallydesirablegamespeciesflourished,therewasnosuchbenefittolargehumanaggregations.Onthe
contrary,althoughthisregioncontainedadiversefaunalassemblage,itwaslikelyadispersedone.Gamespeciessuchasdeerorelktendtoliveassolitaryanimalsor
insmallgroups,unlikethelargecaribouherdsofthenorth.Thisdispersedsouthernresourcebaseeasilycouldhavesupportedalargenumberofpeople,butinsmall
bandsratherthanlargesettlements.

Reliableradiocarbondatedsitesarepresentlynonexistentinthemidcontinent,andthechronologyoftheearlyPaleoindianperiodinthisareaisproblematic.TheGreat
LakesGaineysitehasyieldedtwothermoluminescencedatesof12,3601224yrB.P.and11,420400yrB.P.theStateRoadRipplesite,Pennsylvania,
producedaradiocarbonageof11,385140yrB.P.(UGa878)CloudsplitterRockshelter,Kentucky,wasdatedat11,278yrB.P(UCLA23401)andthe
flutedpointcomponentoftheShriversite,Missouri,wasthermoluminescencedatedat10,6501100yrB.P.(seeLepper,thisvolume:Table3).Thesefew,widely
scattereddatessuggesttheagerangeofthemidcontinentalPaleoamericanoccupationwassimilartothatrecordedinotherpartsofthecountry.

IntheGreatLakesregion,aPaleoamericanevolutionarysequenceencompassingtheGainey,Barnes,andCrowfieldpointtypeshasbeendevisedontypologic
grounds(Storck1991).ThegeneralizedGainey/ClovispointhasbeenfoundthroughouttheMidcontinentalSubareahowever,theabsenceofdatesandprevalence
ofisolatedpointformsand/orpoorlystratifiedmulticomponentsiteshaveprecludedtheestablishmentofaprojectilepointsequence.BarnesandCrowfieldpoints
havebeenrecoveredonlyinfrequentlyoutsidetheGreatLakesregionthereissomeindicationthatthesetypesreflectalocalizedadaptation(seeLepper,thisvolume).

FlutedpointsdisappearedfromtheGreatLakesregionby10,400yrB.P.(DellerandEllis1988Lepper,thisvolume).IntheMidcontinentRiverineSubarea,unfluted
lanceolatepointsarepresentbyatleast10,960240yrB.P.(Bush1988Lepper,thisvolume),andsubstantiallyearlieriftheMeadowcroftMillerLanceolateisnot
discounted(seeAdovasioetal.,thisvolumeLepper,thisvolume:Table4).Daltonprojectilesoccurinthesouthernportionsofthisregionby10,500yrB.P.
(Goodyear1982Lepper,thisvolume:Table4).Thearrivalofthelanceolateprojectilepointtradition(andslightlylaternotchedpointcomplexes)intheMidcontinent
appearstorepresentacontinuationofthebroadbasedeconomicstrategiescharacteristicofthePaleoamericanperiod,ratherthananabruptculturaltransition.

NortheasternNorthAmerica

THEFIRSTPEOPLESTOcolonizerecentlydeglaciatedlandscapesinnortheasternNorthAmericaleftarecordofflutedpointsandlanceolateformsintheirwake.Inseeking
todeterminewhethersitesintheNortheastareasoldaselsewhereinNorthAmerica,BonnichsenandWill(thisvolume)evaluatethe14Crecordfromnortheastern
NorthAmerica.Theyfindthatvarious

 Page16

culturalandnaturalprocessesalluvialtransport,forestfires,treethrows,andcookinginhearthsareresponsibleforintroducingandmixingcarbonizedplant
remainsintoarchaeologicalsites.Morethan50percentoftheallegedPaleoamericansitesexaminedyielded14CagesofHoloceneage.This,coupledwiththelackof
criteriabysiteinvestigatorstodeterminewhethercharcoalisofculturalornaturalorigin,ledtheauthorstoconcludethattheradiocarbonrecordfornortheastern
Paleoamericansitesisambiguous.However,theplacementofflutedpointsitesonancientlandformsassociatedwithdeglaciationsuggestthatcolonizationlikelywas
coincidentwithregionaldeglaciation.

MeadowcroftRockshelter,Pennsylvania

MEADOWCROFTROCKSHELTERremainsthebestexampleofapre11,000yrB.P.occupationyetdiscoveredineasternNorthAmerica.Meadowcrofthasyieldedalong,
stratifiedculturalrecord,correspondingtoalengthyradiocarbonsequence.Adovasioetal.(thisvolume)detailtheradiocarbonrecordfromthesite,addressing
assertionsthatthedateshaveresultedfromparticulateornonparticulatecontamination.

Thusfar,of104charcoalsamplessubmittedforradiocarbondating,59dateshavebeenproduced,50ofwhichareinternallyconsistent.Ofthese,39areyounger
thanabout12,800yrB.P.andcomprise,withtheexceptionoffourlowmagnitudereversals,anagesequencerangingfromtheArchaictotheearlyHistoricperiods.
Theyoungerdatesareconsistentwithartifactsrecoveredinstratigraphiccontextfromthesite,andthereislittledoubtthattheyaccuratelyreflecttheagesofthese
materials.

The13datesinexcessof12,800yrB.P.(onlysixofwhichhaveundeniableartifactassociations)areinternallyconsistentandinstratigraphicorder.AsAdovasioet
al.(thisvolume)pointout,iftheolder(pre12,800yrB.P.)Meadowcroftdatessufferfromcontaminationorstratigraphicmixing,thentheremustbeanexplainable
mechanismthatwouldaccountforthecessationofthisprocessatthebeginningoftheyounger,acceptedculturalsequence.Extensivescrutinyoftheradiocarbon
datedsamplesandoftheoperativesiteformationprocessesshownoindicationofcontaminationandthesuppositionthatsomesortofhidden,selectivemechanism
waseffectiveonlyduringthedepositionoftheoldermaterialsishighlyimprobable.

SubstantialevidencesupportstheassertionthatMeadowcroftRockshelterrepresentsapre11,500yrB.P.occupation,whichwouldappeartodateminimallyfrom
12,000yrB.P.toperhapsasearlyas15,000yrB.P.(seeLepper,thisvolume:Table2).TheStratumIIalithicassemblagerepresentsasmallcoreandblade
industryandisnotatvariancewithwhatwewouldexpectapreorevenancestralClovissitetolooklike(Haynes1987).

SoutheasternUnitedStates

THELATEGLACIALMAXIMUM,circa20,00018,000yrB.P.,coincidedwithasealeveldecreaseofaround120mbelowpresent(Bloom1983).TheterminalPleistocene
wasatimeofrapidlychanginglandscapesandclimates.Deglaciationcommencedaround14,000yrB.P.,andsealevelsroseslowlyfromtheirfullglacialminimum
stands.Vastareasofthecontinentalshelf,whichmayhavebeenoccupiedbyhumans,wereexposedduringthisperiod.Duringthelateglacial,acooltemperate
''borealforest"dominatedbyjackpine(Pinusbanksiana)andspruce(Picea)wasreplacedbytemperatedeciduousforestasclimateamelioratedintheSoutheast
(DelcourtandDelcourt1991Morseetal.1996).

RecentarchaeologicalresearchisenhancingourunderstandingofpreClovisoccupationintheSoutheast.J.M.McAvoyandD.K.Hazzard,aspartoftheNottoway
Riversurvey,areinvestigatingtheCactusHillsite(Hall1996McAvoy1992McAvoyandMcAvoy1997).ItislocatedonafloodplainintheCoastalPlainarea.
WhatisnotableaboutthisstratifiedsanddunesiteisanoccupationfoundstratigraphicallybelowClovisthatisproducingartifacts.AhearthfromtheClovislevel
includedascatterofsouthernpinecharcoalthat14Cdatedto10,920yrB.P.(Beta81589).Eightto10cmbelowandcappedbytheClovissurface,ascatterof
whitepinecharcoalproducedanAMS14Cageof15,07070yrB.P.(Beta81590).Associatedwiththisfeaturearesevenquartziteflakesandthreequartzcore
blades.McAvoynotesthatthesite'ssandydepositsposequestionsofintegrity.Additionalworkinanotherareaofthesitehasproducedmorebladesbutnocharcoal.
FurtherexcavationsareinprogresswiththeobjectivesoflocatingmorecharcoalandclarifyingtherelationshipbetweentheClovisandthepre15,000yearoldlevel
(Hall1996).TheClovislevelhasproducedcoreblades

 Page17

oflocalquartziteandCloviseratoolsmadefromchert,includingaflutedpoint.

J.N.MacDonaldhasbeenworkingintheSaltvilleValley,Virginia,attheSaltvillesite(Wisner1996).DuringlatePleistocenetimes,ariverflowedthroughtheSaltville
Valleyuntilabout13,500yrago.Apparentlytheriverwasdammedandalakereplacedthevalleybottomwithmudsthatpreservedadiverseanddetailedrecordof
plantandanimallife,includingevidenceofhumanoccupation.Workatthesitehasexposedtheremainsofmastodonandmuskox(Bootheriumbombifrons).Many
ofthesebonesarebroken,somewerediscoloredbyfire,andotherfragmentsoccurinconcentrationsandhavewhatappeartobechopmarksontheirsurface,
suggestingtheywereprocessedformarrow.Althoughnoprojectilepointsarereported,aflakedstonewithaserratededgemaybeapurposefullyshapedstonetool.
Anotherpossibleartifactismadeonabrokenmuskoxtibiawithpolishonbothsurfacesofthebrokenpointedend.Whatareinterpretedasfirecrackedrocksare
commingledwiththeotherremains.Asinglecorrected14Cdateontwigshasanageof13,950yrB.P.(Beta65209).

TherelationshipbetweenhumansandPleistocenemegafaunaintheSoutheastisnotclear.Argumentsadvancedvaryfromfavoringgeneralistadaptationswitha
minimalemphasisonmegafauna(Meltzer1988)toabiggamehuntingfocus(Anderson1995).OngoingresearchbyJ.DunbarandS.D.Webbhasemphasizedthe
investigationofnumerousunderwaterspringlocalitiesassociatedwiththeTertiarykarstregioninnorthernandcentralFlorida.Directassociationsbetweenhumansand
nowextinctfaunahavebeenfoundatLittleSaltSpring(whereagiantlandtortoisewasrecoveredwithasharpenedwoodenstakeembeddedinitscarapace),andat
WacissaRiver,Florida(Dunbar1991Webbetal.1984).Additionalarchaeologicalinvestigationsdoneincollaborationwithagroupofdivershaveyieldednumerous
otherlocalitieswithboneandstonetools(Clovis,Suwanee,andSimpsonpoints)inassociationwithextinctfauna(Dunbar1991Dunbar,personalcommunication
1995).

Goodyear(thisvolume)observesthatseveralthousandflutedandunflutedpointshavebeenfoundthroughouttheSoutheast.Themostcommonflutedpointformsare
ClovisandCumberlandunflutedtypesincludeQuad,Suwanee,Simpson,andDalton.BasedonradiocarbonandstratigraphicworkdoneoutsideoftheSoutheast,
thesetypesarethoughttospantheintervalfrom11,500to10,000yrB.P.FewsiteshavebeeninvestigatedintheSoutheast,andGoodyearnotesfieldworkisneeded
atstratifiedsitestounderstandfullytheculturalandenvironmentalcontextofearlycultures.Towardthisend,heprovidesadetailedoverviewofthegeoarchaeological
situationforfindingsignificantsitesintheSoutheast,aswellassummarizingmuchofthemostimportantresearchnowinprogress.

Mexico

LORENZOANDMIRAMBELL(thisvolume)envisionthatMexicowasfirstoccupiedbyhumans40,000to35,000yrB.P.Theearliestartifactsareregardedasnon
specializedimplementsandincludechoppersandchoppingtools,scrapers,denticulates,shapedflakesandblades,andutilizedflakes.Artifactstendtobelarge,rarely
lessthan5cminlength.ImportantsitesrepresentingthispatternincludeTlapacoya,intheValleyofMexico,andRanchoLaAmapola,E1Cedral.

Sometimebetween14,000and9000yrB.P.,leafshapedandflutedpointsmadetheirappearance.ClovisprojectilesandtheirvariantsoccurthroughoutMexico,and
LorenzoandMirambell(thisvolume)describethreeforms:classicClovisapentagonalvariantandaconcavesidedvariant.ThemajorityofMexicanflutedpoints
havebeenrecoveredfromsurfacecontexts,andtheirchronologyisunclear.AClovislikepointrecoveredfromLosTapiales,highlandGuatemala,hasbeen14C
datedat10,700yrB.P.(GruhnandBryan1977).

Mexicodemarcatesthenorthwardextensionoffishtailflutedpoints,aSouthAmericantraditionroughlycoevalwithClovis.AsingleClovispointwithawaistedbase
andtwofishtailpointsoccurinassociationatLosGrifos,Chiapas,wheretheyhavebeendatedbetween9700and8000yrB.P.(LorenzoandMirambell,thisvolume
seeRanereandCook1991foralternativedates).

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Conclusions

TheClovisFirstModel

THECONCLUDINGSECTIONisinpartaeulogyinacknowledgmentofthepassingofaparadigm.AsnotedbyBonnichsenandSchneider(thisvolume),current
archaeologicaldatadonotsupportkeypropositionsoftheClovisFirstmodel.AlthoughtheClovisfirstvariantoftheLateEntryparadigmnolongercanbe
sustained,itisusefultoconsiderhowithasservedthedevelopmentofFirstAmericansstudies.

TheClovisFirstmodelhashadimportantimplicationsfortheinterpretationofregionalarchaeologicalrecords.Aswillberecalled,themodelpredicatesthattheinitial
ClovismigrationrepresentedthefirstsettlementofNorthAmerica.Fromanarchaeologicalperspective,thismodelimpliesthatweshouldfindCloviscomplexartifacts
inthebasallevelofallClovisagedarchaeologicalsites.Followingasettlinginperiod,theoriginalcolonistsarepresumedtohaveadaptedtolocalcircumstances.As
environmentalcircumstancesofthelateIceAgechanged,numerouslocaltraditionsevolved,givingrisetoaplethoraofarchaeologicalcomplexes.

TheClovisFirstmodelhasresultedintheplacementoffarmoreemphasisonClovisthaniswarranted.Manyregionalinvestigatorshaveacceptedthekey
propositionsofthemodelasamatteroffaithandhaveassumedthatClovisistheearliestculturalpatternintheirregion.BeliefintheClovisFirstmodelhascaused
somearchaeologiststostoptheirexcavationsattheClovislevelwithoutfurtherexcavationtodeterminewhetherolderarchaeologicalmaterialslieinolderstratigraphic
depositsortoignorepre12,000yearoldgeologicalcontextsaspossibilitiesforhumanoccupation.

RegionalspecialistshavelongbeencognizantofthepossibilityofcotraditionsthatareofthesameageasClovis.Yet,mosthavefoundthispropositionunacceptable.
Althoughthereasonsforthisreluctancearcnotfullyclear,itmaybethewidespreaddistributionofCloviscomplexsitesandartifacts,coupledwithsecure,narrowly
definedchronologybasedonmany14Cdates,thatledmanytoaccepttheLateEntrymodelasareasonableandvalidinterpretation.Theregionalsummariesinthis
volume,however,demonstratethatthereisanincreasingbodyofdatafromstratified,welldatedarchaeologicalsitesacrossNorthAmericathatsupportsthe
propositionsthatthereareavarietyofcotraditionsthatusedbifacesandprojectilepoints,andthatthesecomplexesareasearlyastheClovis.Someofthemost
importantcotraditionsdiscussedbyvolumecontributorsincludetheNenanacomplexofAlaska(HamiltonandGoebel,thisvolume),theWesternStemmedcomplex
fromtheGreatBasin(BryanandTuohy,thisvolume),theGoshencomplexfromthenorthernGreatPlains(Frison,thisvolumeStanford,thisvolume),andtheGreat
LakesChesrowcomplex(Overstreet1993).Othercotraditionswillsurfaceasspecialistsdevelopcarefuldetailedstratigraphicandchronologicalstudiesofindividual
sites.ThatcotraditionswerenotonlypresentbutproliferatedatthesametimeasClovisinbothNorthAmericaandSouthAmericaseemsclearlyapparent.

TheissueofwhetherClovisrepresentsasinglearchaeologicalcultureoraseriesofnewadaptationsthatspreadrapidlyacrossexistingpopulations(Bonnichsen1991
Bonnichsenetal.1987)hasyettobeadequatelyresolved.SomescholarsproposethatCloviswasthefirstbasalcultureinNorthAmerica,andthatitoriginatedin
SiberiaorBeringia.Ifso,flutedpointsitesshouldbeolderinAlaskaandyoungerinthelowerUnitedStates.Infact,HamiltonandGoebel(thisvolume)indicatethe
reversetobetrue.OthersproposethatClovisoriginatedinNorthAmerica,perhapstheSoutheast,andspreadacrossNorthAmerica.Clovisnolongercanbe
characterizedasasinglebiggamehuntingsociety.Therearemanyregionalflutedpointvarieties,e.g.,Cumberland,Gainey,Debert,etc.Regionalvariantsrepresent
differencesinpointformsandinmanufacturingproceduresandmaybeindicativeofdifferentsocioculturalgroupsandinsomecasesdifferencesinbasicadaptive
strategies.

Althoughthedetailsofchangesinthearchaeologicalrecordvaryfromregiontoregion,thegeneralpatternisclear.Inmostregions,stratifiedarchaeologicalsites
containaseriesofcomplexes.Onearchaeologicalcomplexisreplacedbythenexte.g.,ontheHighPlains,ClovisisfollowedbyFolsom,whichisfollowedbyHell
Gap,etc.Butjustbecauseonepatternfollowsthenextinthestratigraphicrecord,itdoesnotfollowthatthereisnecessarilyanycloseculturalandbiological
relationshipbetweentwocomplexesjuxtaposedinthesamesite.ThecausalfactorsresponsibleforthedevelopmentoflatePleistoceneandearlyHolocene
archaeologicalcomplexesinNorthAmericaarepoorlyunderstood.ThecomparativestudyofancienthumanDNAandtechnologicalanalysisofartifactproduction
repertoireshavepotentialforresolvingissues

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concerningbiologicaldescentandculturalaffiliation.AnunderstandingofmechanismsresponsibleforchangeinthePaleoamericanarchaeologicalrecordisanessential
focusforfutureresearch.

ThetraditionalClovisFirstmodelthatenvisionedallNorthAmericanprojectilepointsevolvingfromabasalClovispatternisnowbeingreconsidered(Frisonand
Bonnichsen1996:304).OneversionoftheEarlyEntrymodelpresumesthat:(1)humanswereintheAmericaswellbeforetheendofthelastIceAge(2)global
environmentalchangeledtoenvironmentalforcingattheendoftheIceAgeand(3)humansrespondedtotheirnewecologicalcircumstancesinavarietyofways.
Someofthemostimportantresponsesincluded:(1)utilizingnewplantandanimalresources(2)borrowingandinnovatingnewtechnologiestoadaptbetterto
changedcircumstancesand(3)reorganizingsettlement,subsistence,andtradenetworkpatternstoaccommodatenewcircumstances.

ThepaperspresentedbytheauthorsofthisvolumedemonstratethatthePaleoamericanarchaeologicalrecordischaracterizedbymajorpunctuationsorbreaksinthe
culturalrecordbetweenoccupations.Thecausesofsuchpunctuationsarepoorlyknown.Insomecases,climatechangemaybeimplicated.Rapidclimatechangein
lateglacialtimeslikelyservedasaforcingmechanismthatledtochangesinthepaleoecologicalsystemsonwhichhumansweredependent.Inothercases,new
innovationsandpopulationgrowthmayhavebeencatalystsresponsibleforthechangesthatcanbeobservedinthearchaeologicalrecord.Yetinothercases,
immigrationfromNortheastAsiaandthearrivalofnewpopulationsmaybethekeytoexplainingchangesobservedinlocalsequences.

IncontrasttotheClovisFirstvariantoftheLateEntrymodel,theEarlyEntrymodelpredictsthatenvironmentalforcingattheendofthelastIceAgeledtothe
developmentofaseriesofcotraditionspenecontemporaneouswithClovis.By11,000yrB.P.,therewasculturaldiversity,notasingleculture,andthisdiversityis
representedinthearchaeologicalrecordbyseveralarchaeologicalculturesthatusedbifaciallyflakedprojectilepoints.

TheEarlyEntryModel

INTHEPAST,MOSTSPECIALISTSinterestedinthepeoplingoftheAmericashaveemphasizedoverlandterrestrialcolonizationmodels.CurrentevidencefromJapansuggests
boatswerepresentintheNorthPacificby30,000yearsagoandperhapsmuchearlier.ArchaeologicalevidencefromnorthernNorthAmericathatwouldsupporta
coastalentryrouteisnonexistent.Indeed,thisisnotsurprising,asrisingsealevelswouldhavedrownedevidenceforearlycoastalsites.Yet,thecoastalentryroute
thatproposesboatusingpeopleswithamaritimelifestyleexpandedaroundthePacificRimremainsaviableoptiontooverlandcolonization.Itisamodelthat
deservesconsiderablymoreattentionthanithasreceivedinthepast.

AnincreasingamountofnewinformationcanbemarshaledinsupportoftheEarlyEntryterrestrialmodel.Drozdov'sworkontheYenesei,Mochanov'sworkatthe
DiringYuriakhsite,andongoingworkatseveralearlysitesinnortheasternHonshu,supporttheviewthatearlyhumanpopulationswerebothonthecoastandin
interiorNortheastAsiaduringLowerPaleolithictimes.Survivalintheseenvironmentswouldhaverequiredthedevelopmentofasophisticatedrepertoirefordealing
withextremelycoldenvironmentsatamuchearliertimethanhadpreviouslybeenanticipated.

ThenewarchaeologicalevidencefromNortheastAsiaindicatesthatcoldwasnottheformidablebarriertohumanoccupationthathaslongbeenassumed.Although
theempiricalrecordsupportshumanpresenceinNortheastAsiabyMiddlePaleolithictimes,sitesofcomparableagehaveyettobereportedintheAmericas.There
are,however,stratifiedsiteswithmultipleradiocarbondateswithflakedstonetoolsandorganicartifactsfromtheAmericasofUpperPaleolithicAge.Themost
famousarcPendejoCave,NewMexico,andPedraFurada,Braziltheearliestlevelsatbothsitesdatetoabout50,000yearsago.Thetheoreticalpossibilityremains
openthatevenearliersiteswillbefoundintheAmericas.Indeed,ifweexcludethispossibility,wewillneverlook.

AlthoughtheEarlyEntrymodelprovidesausefulframework,thesparsenatureofcurrentknowledgeabouttheearliestpeopleswhocametotheAmericasmustbe
emphasized.Wedonot,forexample,knowhowmanydiscretepopulationscolonizedtheAmericas,theroutestaken,orwhetherpopulationmovementbetween
continentstookplacebyseaoroverland.Wedonotknowwhetherinitialcolonizationoccurredbydemicexpansionorbyrapidcolonizationbyskilledboatsmen.
AndwedonotadequatelyunderstandtheadaptivesystemsoftheearlyAmericans.

Whatlittlewedoknowsuggeststhatvariabilityinregionaladaptationsoccurredpriorto12,000yearsago.Thereisapossibilitythatthemammothsteppe

 Page20

adaptationoccurredbothinthefarnorthandontheGreatPlains,assuggestedbytheemphasisonflakedmammothbonefromBluefishCaves,Holen'ssitesfrom
KansasandNebraska,andtheDutton,Selby,andLambSpringsites(Rancieretal.1982Stanford1979StanfordandGraham1985Stanfordetal.1981).Wedo
notknowhowthesesitesrelatetoMeadowcroftRockshelterandPendejoCave,whichhaveyieldedflaketoolassemblages.ThedeeplyburiedVarsityEstatesand
SilverSpringssites,Alberta,mayrepresentquarrysitesinanicemarginalenvironmentbutweknownexttonothingastohowhumanswouldhavesurvivedinthis
challengingenvironment.

Yes,thereisapre11,500yearoldhumanpresenceintheAmericasbutourknowledgeofthisperiodisverythin.Thetaskthatliesaheadofusisthedevelopment
ofobjective,wellresearchedknowledgeofpreClovisarchaeologicalandpaleoecologicalpatterns.Wewillneedmorequalitysitereportsandpaleobiologicalstudies
beforewecanbegintomakerealisticcorrelationwithinregions,letalonebetweenregions.

ThemostinnovativeandcredibleFirstAmericansprojectsarebeingguidedbyspecialistswhohaveadoptedaninterdisciplinaryresearchapproachandassembled
teamsofspecialiststoassistwiththeirinvestigationswhoadheretotheprinciplesofdevelopmentofathoroughunderstandingofsitechronology,sitestratigraphy,and
siteformationprocessesandwhoarewillingtoexplorewhetherornotpatternsfoundarenonculturalorcultural.DuringtheyearsinwhichtheClovisFirstmodel
waspreeminent,grantproposalrefereesandfundingagencieswithheldmostfundingforinvestigationofpre11,500yrB.P.sitessuchprojectsmustnowbefunded.

Manybiasesarelikelytocontinuetoenterintoouracceptanceofearlysites,basedlargelyonourexpectationsofwhatapreorprotoClovisassemblageshould
looklike.AsFrisonpointsout(thisvolume),itisimportantthatthedistinctionbetween"pre11,500yrB.P."andancestral(proto)Clovisbekeptinmind.Whilewe
logicallymayexpectanancestralClovisoccupationtopossesstraitsresemblingClovis,thereshouldbenosuchexpectationinherentinourassessmentofpotential
"pre11,500yrB.P."sites.Thereisnoassurancethat"pre11,500yrB.P."siteswillbecharacterizedbyabladeandbifacetechnology,noristherenecessarilyany
reasonwhytheyshouldresembleoneanother.

Toth(1991),amongothers,espousesacommonlyheldviewofthecriteriathatmustbepresenttoqualifyasabonafidesite.Thisyardstickincludesthepresenceof
unequivocalartifacts,extinctfaunalremains,multipleradiocarbondatesinanunambiguousassociation,andmultiplesitesinanareathatwillyieldthearchaeological
sequence.StrictadherencetoayardstickofthisnaturewouldnotbesensitivetonuancesinthePaleoamericanarchaeologicalrecord.Thenewresearchsummarized
inthisvolumeclearlyindicatesthattherearemanyvalidlinesofevidenceinadditiontotheusuallitany.Forexample,atMonteVerde,Dillehay(1997b)reportsthe
presenceofwoodenartifacts,bolasstones,dozensofmedicinalplantremains,housestructures,andphosphateandothergeochemicalsignaturesdocumentingthe
presenceofhumans.BonnichsenandSchneider(thisvolume)reportthathumanandanimalremainscontainingancientDNAcanbefoundroutinelyatmanysites.
MorlanandCinqMars(thisvolume)andHolen(1996)reportflakedmammothbone.Chrismanetal.(1996)reportfingerprintsonfiredclaynodulesaswellas
numerousotherlinesofevidence.

FirstAmericansstudiestraditionallyhavefocusedonarchaeologicaldata.Inrecentyears,however,thisfascinatingfieldhascaughttheattentionofnonarchaeologists.
Specialistsareusinghumanskeletal,linguistic,andgeneticdataintheirsearchtounderstandAmericanorigins.Eventhoughthisexpandedfocusrepresentsapositive
direction,problemsremaininrespecttohowtheabovelinesofinformationcanbeintegratedwithotherlinesofinterdisciplinarydata.BonnichsenandSchneider(this
volume)observethatthelinguisticevidenceandsomelinesofgeneticevidencearebasedontheirownuncalibratedtimescalesandcannotberelatedtomodelsbased
onarchaeologicalandinterdisciplinarydatasetsthatusecalibratedtimescales(e.g.,14C).Nonetheless,atleastinthecaseofgenetics,thisappearstobeashortterm
difficulty.ByworkingwithancientDNAextractedfrombone,softtissue,and/orhairfromdatedarchaeologicalcontexts,itisnowpossibletointegrateancientDNA
researchwitharchaeologicalandotherdatausedtoreconstructthepast.

ThesenewapproachesandadditionallinesofevidenceunderscoretheimportanceofainterdisciplinaryframeworkforconductingPaleoamericanresearch.The
searchforAmericanoriginsrequiresgreaterscientificsophisticationonthepartofprojectinvestigatorsthanatanytimeinthepast.Itisnolongeradequatetojusthold
aPh.D.

 Page21

degreeinanthropology.Principalinvestigatorsmustbeabletodealwithambiguitytheymustbepreparedtodevelopandimplementresearchdesignsforseparating
culturalfromnaturalsignatures.Andtheymustbeabletoworkwithmultiplelinesofevidencefrommanydisciplineswiththegoalofdevelopingvalidreconstructions.

AnincreasingnumberofspecialistsaremeetingthesedemandsbydrawinguponabroadspectrumofQuaternarysciencesaswellasthedisciplinesofanthropology,
linguistics,paleobiology,genetics,andmolecularbiology(BonnichsenandSteele1994Bradley1985DillehayandMeltzer1991Dillehay1997bGreenberg1987
Holliday1997LascarandDonahue1990Porter1988RuddimanandWright1987Schurretal.1990Wallaceetal.1985Waters1992West1996a,1996b).
Inseekingtounderstandthelinkagesbetweennaturalsystems(e.g.,climatology,oceanography,geology,pedology,biology),culturalsystems(linguistics,
archaeology),andpaleobiology(genetics,physicalanthropology,molecularbiology)foraspecificproject,principalinvestigatorsareassemblinginterdisciplinary
researchteams.Theburdenofthisapproachlieswiththeprincipalinvestigator,whomustintegratetheresultsintoacoherentandcrediblepictureofthepast.Itis
imperativethatyoungscholarswhoenterthisfieldreceiveinterdisciplinarytrainingtomeetthechallengesthisexcitingarenaofresearchhastooffer.

Acknowledgments

OurthanksgotoMilaBonnichsen,MarvinT.Beatty,BradleyLepper,andMortD.andJoanneC.Turnerforeditorialsuggestionsthatledtoimprovementsinthe
manuscript.WealsowouldliketothankDavidOverstreetandSteveHolenformakingavailableunpublishedradiocarbondates.

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IceAgeEnvironmentsofNorthernEurasiawithSpecialReferencetotheBeringianMarginofSiberia
MikhailG.Grosswald

Abstract

Geologicevidenceinparticular,glacialgeomorphologysuggeststhatacontinuoussystemoficesheetscoveredthenorthernoutskirtsofEurasiaduringthelast
glacialmaximum.Apartofthesystem,theBeringianicesheet,wascenteredonthesouthernChukchiSea,spreadouttotheshallowBeaufortSeaandBeringSea
shelves,andcontinued,asafloatingiceshelf,intothedeepBeringSea.ThisimpliesthatthetrueimageofIceAgeBeringiawasnottheconventionalsceneofawide,
icefreelandbridgewithenvironmentfavorableforperiglacialbiotasandprehistorichumans.Rather,itsuggestsaterrainthatwasheavilyglaciated,partlyfloodedby
icedammedlakes,inhospitable,andimpenetrablebyanimalsandhumans.

Hence,overlandAsianmigrationtoNorthAmericawasimprobableduringtheheightofglaciation,whenanicesheetandicedammedlakesclosedoffthemigratory
paths.ItwasnotprobableduringHolocenetimeeither,whensealevelrisefloodedtheBeringStrait.CrossingofBeringiabyanimalsandhumansseemspossibleonly
duringarelativelyshortandwarmlateGlacialinterval,mostprobablytheBllingAllerdinterstadial.Itwasduringthattimethattheprocessoficesheetshrinkage
wentfarenoughtoopenicefreepaths,andtheprocessofsearisehadnotyetreachedthecriticalleveloffloodingthestrait.OnemayspeculatethatearlierAsian
migrationstoNorthAmericaweresimilarlyconstrainedbyicesheetsandmarinetransgressions.Thisscenarioisconsistentwithavailablearchaeologicalevidence.

Introduction

WHATKINDOFENVIRONMENTSprevailedinArcticEurasiaduringtheIceAges,inparticularduringthelastglacialmaximum(LGM)?Theanswertothisquestionisof
utmostimportancetounderstandinghumanprehistoryandforexplainingthedistributionofancienthumanhabitatsandmigratorypaths.Particularlyvitalisknowledge
oftheextentandgeographyofformericesheetsandicedammedlakesintheArcticcoastallowlandsandtheirsubmarinecontinuationsthecontinentalshelves.

TheextentandtypeofglaciationontheBarents,Kara,EastSiberian,andothercontinentalshelvesofEurasiahavebeenthesubjectofdebatefordecades.The
competinghypothesesfallintoseveralgroups.Oneofthem,stillexceptionallyinfluentialinRussia,includesavarietyofantiglacialistic,or''diluvialistic,"conceptstheir
adeptsdenyicesheetglaciationsofthehighlatitudelowlands,letalonetheshelves,andbelievethatrecentcrustalmovementsandtectonicallyinducedmarine
transgressions,notglaciations,playedaleadingroleinpastglobalchanges(e.g.,GrambergandKulakov1983).Anothergroupadherestothe"conceptofrestricted
glaciation,"whichadmitssome,butonlyminor,polaricecovers.Accordingtothisconcept,theIceAgeArcticwasdominatedbyicefreeenvironments,while
glaciationwasrepresentedbysmallicecapsconfinedtothewesternperiAtlanticregion(Biryukovetal.1988Pavlidis1992Velichko1994).Thethirdconcept,
whichisthecoreofourreconstructions,suggestsacontinuoussystemofmarineicesheetsgroundedontheentireArcticcontinentalmargins,withafloatingiceshelf
overthedeepArcticBasinandachainofproglaciallakesintegratedintoatransEurasianmeltwaterdrainagesystem(DentonandHughes1981Grosswald1980,
1988,1998Hughesetal.1977).

InstituteofGeography,RussianAcademyofSciences,29StaromonetnyStreet,109017,Moscow,Russia

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Thelastconcepthasgainedmassivesupportfromglaciologicalandpaleoclimatemodelingvirtuallyallthemodelingsbasedonreasonableassumptionsofclimate
changesuggestacontinuouslatePleistoceneicesheetofArcticEurasiastretchedfromtheBarentsandKaraseas,acrossmostofNortheasternSiberiaandtheBering
Strait,toAlaska(FastookandHughes1991Hughes1995HuybrechtsandT'siobbel1995LindstromandMacAyeal1989Marsiat1994VerbitskyandOglesby
1992).

ThemodelofcontinuousicesheetsofArcticEurasiahasbeenconfirmedandsubstantiatedbymultidisciplinarystudiesundertakenintheBarentsSea.Inparticular,
ScandinavianresearchersuncoveredawealthofnewgeologicalandgeophysicalevidenceforthecontinuousglaciationofthewesternpartoftheSea(Elverhiand
Solheim1983Sttemetal.1992,Salvigsen1981VorrenandKristoffersen1986Vorrenetal.1988andmanyothers)whileRussiangeologistsdidthesameinits
easternpart(Gataullinetal.1993).

Lateron,thefocusofthedebateshiftedtotheeasternEurasianArctic,i.e.,tothecontinentalshelvesandcoastsoftheLaptev,EastSiberian,Chukchi,andBering
Seas.DuringtheLGM,sealevelloweringshadtoturntheregionintodryland.ThiswouldcreatealinkbetweenSiberiaandAlaskaavastlowlandupto1,500km
wide,commonlyreferredtoastheBeringLandBridge.UnlikethewesternEurasianArctic,thatregionwas,andstillis,widelybelievedtohaveneverbeensubjected
toicesheetglaciation.Accordingtopublishedmapsanddescriptions,itsPleistoceneenvironmentsweredominatedbyopen,icefreetundrasorgrasslandsthat
providedAsiananimalsandhumanswithabroadavenueformigrationtotheAmericas(Hoffeckeretal.1993LaukhinandDrozdov1991Morlan1987Sher1976
Turner1989).

IthasbeenconsideredselfevidentthatthePleistoceneclimateoftheregionwastoodrytopermitglaciationexceptinmajormountainranges"(Morlan1987),thus
onlycirqueandsmallvalleyglaciersusuallyarepresentedonglacialmapsofNortheasternAsia(Arkhipovetal.1986BaranovaandBiske1964Biryukovetal.
1988Glushkova1984Velichko1993).EveninpublicationsbyVaskovsky(1959)andHopkins(1972),whichdepictfairlylargeglaciersinNortheasternAsiaand
areconsideredbyYurtsev(1976)as"obviouslymaximalistic,"theadjacentcontinentalshelvesarcshowntobenearlyicefree.Thuseventhe"maximalists"believe
thattheformerglaciationofBeringiawaslargelyterrestrial,i.e.,restrictedtoland.

ItwasthispaleogeographythatgavebirthtothemodernconceptofIceAgeBeringia.Basedonphytogeographicconsiderations,Yurtsev(1976)usedthistermto
defineanareaoficefreecontinentalshrivesandcoastalplains,confinedbetweentheKolymaandMackenzierivers,withtheBeringLandBridgeroughlyassumingits
center.Forarchaeologicalandzoogeographicpurposes,thenotionofaMegaBeringiaalsowasintroducedtodefineanevenlargerregionthatreachedtheLena
RiverdeltaandTaimyrPeninsulainthewest,andKamchatkaPeninsulainthesouth,andalsowasbasicallyicefree.Sher(1976)hypothesizesthat,duringtheheight
ofglaciation,thisterrainmighthavebecomeavastrefugiuminwhichtheperiglacialflorasandfaunas,specifictothehighlatitudeNorthernHemisphere,originatedand
evolved.

ThemaximummodelofaEurasianglaciation,withacontinuousicesheetspreadingacrosstheArcticcontinentalshelfofSiberiaandBeringia,challengesnotonlythe
conventionalimageofawide,icefreeIceAgelandbridge,butalsothebiogeographicandarchaeologicalreconstructionsbaseduponthisconcept.Themodeldoes
notnecessarilyimplythatthereconstructionsshouldbediscardedhowever,theirrethinkingandrevisionaredefinitelydue.

EvidenceforIceSheetGlaciation

TheBarentsandKaraSeaShelves

ASWASALREADYPOINTEDOUT,icesheetglaciationoftheBarentsandKaraSeashasbeenestablishedbygeologicalinvestigationscoveringtheislandsandseafloor.No
lessconvincingevidenceforthisglaciationwasobtainedontheadjacentcoastalplains.Thisevidencecomprisedglacialgeomorphiccomplexes:inparticular,end
morainesalignedintoicemarginalbeltsiceshovedfeaturesassemblagesofdrumlins,flutes,glacialstriae,grooves,andothericemotiondirectionalindicatorsglacial
throughvalleysbreachingmountainridgessubmarinetroughsonshelvestracesoficedammedlakesandmeltwaterdrainagechannelsallattestingtotheformer
landwardicemotionfromtheseas.

Thesegeomorphiccomplexesweresurveyedandmappedbynumerousexpeditionsduringdecadesofresearch.Theirdescriptionswerepublishedbymany
researchers(e.g.,AndreyevaandIsayeva1988Arkhipovetal.1980,1986Arslanovetal.1987KindandLeonov1982Lavrov1977).Thisauthor

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Figure1.
GlacialgeomorphologydepictinglateWeichselianendmorainesandtracesoficemovement
innorthcentralEurasia:1.continentalslope2.endmoraines3.yedomaridges
(Grosswaldetal.1994)4.glacialstriae,bouldertrainsand
5.majorglacialtroughsonthecontinentalshelf.

extensivelyusedtheabovematerials.Itwasfromthedatapresentedinthesepublications,aswellasfrommyownfieldobservations,thattheglacialmapsin
Grosswald(1980,1988,and1998)wereconstructed.Bitsandpiecesofpublishedinformationhavebeenputtogether,inparticular,separatesegmentsofmoraines
integratedintocontinuousicemarginalbelts.Also,LGM,lateGlacial,andHoloceneageshavebeenassignedtothebelts,andmyowndataandconsiderations
employedtopositiontheformericespreadingcentersandtoestablishicesheetchronologies.

IcesheetencroachmentuponthenorthwesternmarginofEurasiaalsoisstronglysuggestedbyevidenceforformericeimpoundmentoftheriversflowingintothe
BarentsandKaraSeas.Thisevidencelacustrineterracesandsediments,spillways,andotherpaleolakesignatureswasfoundinthebasinsoftheSevernaya
Dvina,Mezen,Pechora,Ob,andYeniseyrivers.Inanumberofcases,thelacustrinesequencesweredateddirectlytothelatePleistocene(Arkhipovetal.1980
Arslanovetal.1987).

Themap(Figure1)presentsapatternofendmorainesrelatedtothelastglaciationofthewestcentralEurasianArctic.Itsuggeststhatamajoricespreadingcenterof
theKarapaleoicesheetwassituatedonthesouthernKaraSeafloor.TheKaraicemotionradiatedfromthatcenterinalldirections,specifically,southwardontothe
WestSiberianPlainandMidSiberianUplandwestwardacrossNovayaZemlyaintotheBarentsSeaandnorthwardoverthecontinentalshelfedgeintotheCentral
ArcticOcean.

TheEastSiberianShelves

UNTILRECENTLY,EVIDENCEforanicesheetoftheEastSiberianshelvesandcoastallowlandswassparse,indirect,andinconclusive.TheargumentsinfavorofaNew
SiberianicesheetputforthbyKolosov(1947)andsomeotherresearchershavebeenjudgederroneousandbeendisregarded,andtheicesheetitselfconsidered
highlyproblematic.Indeed,sofar,noprimafacieglaciallandformshavebeendetectedontheEastSiberianshelvesandcoasts.

ThefirstconvincinggeologicalsignaturesofavastEastSiberianicesheetwereuncoveredduring19871990.Initiallytheywererestrictedtotheglaciogeomorphic
complexoftheNewSiberianIslandsandthesurroundingshelf.Thecomplexconsistedofarcuateasymmetricridgesspacedinsuchawaythattheyformedgarlands
andafishscalepatternofoutwashplains,tunnelvalleys,andlateralmeltwaterchannels(Figure2a).Thearcuateridgesturnedouttobeobductedheadsof
glaciotectonicthrustsheets,whichwereproducedandshovedbyanicesheet.Theirgeometryisindicativeofformericemotionfromthenortheast(Grosswald1988,
1990).TusksofMammothprimigeniuswerefoundwithintheicedeformedbedsoftheislands,implyingalateWeichselianageforthewholecomplex.

AnothercomplexoficeshovedfeatureswasdiscoveredandmappedintheTiksiareaofNorthYakutia.Itwasfoundtoberepresentedbywellpreservedicethrust
formsstackingordersofimbricaterockslices,coupledwithglaciallyexcavated

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basins("hillandholepairs")andbyparallelrockdrumlinclusterscarvedfromPaleozoicshales(Figure2b).Therocksliceshavebeendisplacedtothesouthwest,
theshaleplatesindrumlinsoverturned,andthedrumlintailspointedinthesamedirection.Thus,itisclearthatthegeomorphologyoftheTiksiareaalsosuggestsa
northeasttosouthwestdirectionofformericeflow(GrosswaldandSpektor1993).

TheTiksihillandholepairswereAMS 14Cdated.Tothisend,aRussianSwedishfieldpartyvisitedtheareainthespringof1990anddrilledseveralholesintothe
lakebottomsthroughtheice.ThesedimentcoreswereprocessedanddatedatUppsalaUniversity,Sweden.Theiragessuggestedthatlacustrinesedimentationinthe
holesdidnotstartbefore8500yrB.P.,andthattheTiksiglaciotectoniccomplexwas

Figure2.
Glacialgeomorphologyindicatingiceflowingover(A)theNewSiberianIslands,(B)TiksiBayandTiksiArea
andNorthYakutua,and(C)theLaptevSea:I.submarinepushmoraines2.glaciotectonic(push)moraineson
land3.tunnelvalleys4.erosionalcliffs5.submarineflatbottomdepression(ahole)6.rockdrumlins7.
inferrediceflowdirections8.meltwater9.bedrockoutcrops10.outwashfans11.poorlydrainedareas12.
outlinesoffigures(A)and(B)in(C).

 Page31

formedduringthelatePleistocene(Grosswaldetal.1992).Besides,recordedgravityanomaliesoverthecontinentalmarginofEastSiberiainparticular,anegative
anomalyofupto60milligalcenteredeastofNewSiberianIslandsappeartobeconsistentwithicesheetglaciationoftheregion(Tarakanovetal.1987:Figure3).

BasedontheevidencefromtheNewSiberianIslandsandtheTiksiarea,afirst400kmlongiceflowbandwasreconstructedbythisauthor.Itextendedfromthe
islandssouthwestward,reachingthefoothillsoftheVerkhoyanskyRange.Withthisaccomplished,itbecamepossibletotakethefollowingstepandoutlineatentative
marginoftheEastSiberianicesheetontheLaptevSeacoast(Grosswald1988,1998).

Furtherprogresswasmadeinestablishingtheicesheet'ssouthernlimitsbymappingtheorientedtundramesoformsoftheYanaIndigirkaLowlandandtheLena
Riverdelta,includingsocalled"orientedlakes."Withintheentireregion,orientationoftheseformshasprovenstrikinglyconsistentwiththeaboveflowbandand
unrelatedtodirectionsofsummerwindsortectonicstructures.Figure4showsthegeomorphiccontinuumoftheYanaIndigirkaLowlandandadjacentareas,including
theorientedforms.Thefigureshowsthatthetundraridgesandlakesareclearlyalignedalongsubmeridionaldirections,andthatthelatterradiatefromtheNew
SiberianIslandstoformafanlikepattern,divergingtothesouth.Inaddition,thefiguredisplaysasecondsystemofparallelridgesandvalleys,orientedtransversally
tothesubmeridionallakeandridgealignments.

OrientedtundraformsofthiskindarewidespreadinSiberiaandAlaska.TypicallytheyoccurontheArcticcoastallowlandsblanketedbyicerichsiltsandsands.The
formshavebeeninterpretedcommonlyasthermokarstfeatures,whiletheirelongationandregularorientationareaccountedforbytheeffectsofprevailingsummer
winds.However,weargued(GrosswaldandHughes1995GrosswaldandSpector1993)thatthisexplanationdoesn'tmakesenseinArcticSiberia.Instead,we
proposedthattheorientedtundraformshadinheritedtheirorientationandalignmentfromglacialdrumlinizationandfluting,producedbyamarineicesheet
transgressingfromtheadjacentcontinentalshelf.Amongotherargumentssupportingthishypothesisaredrumlinfieldsoccurringonacontinuationoftheoriented
tundracomplexes(Grosswald1996seeFigure4).

Thetransverseridgesandvalleysappeartohavebeenicemarginalfeatures,akintoUrstromtlerandformedbymeltwaterstreamsandpools,markingconsecutive
positionsofaretreatingicemargin.Thesefeatureshavebeenthermoerodedintoathickblanketofpeculiaricerichsiltsandsands,makingupasocalled"yedoma."
ThishadaccumulatedinproglacialenvironmentsmainlyduringlateGlacialandearlyHolocenetimes,withanicydaminthenorthbeingavitalprerequisitefortheir
formation.Atanumberofsites,theyedomawas14CdatedtothelateGlacial(KaplinaandLozhkin1982),andthusprovideschronologicalcontrolfortheoriented
tundracomplexes.

Asaresult,wesuggested(Grosswald1999)thattheformsinquestionare,infact,lateWeichselianglacialfeatures,andthatonecanusetheirorientationforicesheet
reconstructions.Beingcarvedfromdeeplyfrozenandicerichsediments,theformssubsequentlyhavebeendistortedanddisfiguredbythermokarst,

Figure3.
Negativefreeairgravityanomaliescontouredin10milligal
isoplethscenterednortheastoftheNewSiberianIslands.
FromTarakanovetal.(1987).

 Page32

solifluction,andotherperiglacialprocesses,whicharegatheringspeedundercurrentclimatewarming.Thisseemstoaccountfortheirsystematicmisinterpretation.

Basedontheflowlinesderivedbothfromtheiceshovedfeaturesandorientedtundraforms,anadvancedreconstructionofanEastSiberianicesheetwas
accomplished(GrosswaldandHughes1995Hughes1995).TheicespreadingcenteroftheicesheetprovedtobeontheArcticshelf,inthevicinityoftheNew
SiberianIslands,anditssummitreachedanaltitudeof1,700ma.s.l.(Figure5).ThaticesheetwascoalescentwiththeKaraicesheetinthewestandwithanother
greaticesheet,theBeringian,intheeast.Obviously,thisreconstructionofglacialpaleoenvironmentsisinconflictwiththeaforementionedconceptofMegaBeringia
asaterrainremainingicefreethroughouttheentireglacialhemicycle.TheonlytimeimaginablethatMegaBeringiamighthavestayedbothdryandicefreewassome
intervalofthelateGlacial.

Figure4.
GeomorphologicalcomplexesoftheYanaIndigirkaLowlandandadjacentareas:1.largeiceshovedfeatures2.direction
ofhorizontalglacialpressure3.drumlins4.directionoflongaxesofthetundraorientedforms5.transversetundra
ridges6.relicvalleysofmeltwaterstreams7.inferrediceflowlines8.mountainsandhighlands9.areasdiscuusedin
thetext10.glacialandmeltwaterbreaches.Areas:A.iceshovedfeatures,theNewSiberianIslands,B.thesame,Tiksi
areaC.orientedforms,northwesternLenadelta,D.drumlinsoftheBol.LyakhovskyIsland,E.fieldoforientedforms,
YanaIndigirkaLowland,F.siteofwashboardmoraines,G.pushmoraineoftheAllaikhavalley,J.Ogustakhdrumlin
field.

 Page33

Figure5.
ThelastEastSiberianicesheet.A3DreconstructionofHughes
(1995,GrosswaldandHughes1995).

TheChukchiandBeringSeaShelves

ASPOINTEDOUTINTHEINTRODUCTION,icesheetglaciationoftheChukchiSeaBeringianregionisconsideredimprobable.ThishasbeenstatedrepeatedlybyHopkins,
Pavlidis,BrighamGrette,Velichko,andothers.ThelateWeichselian(lateWisconsinan)glaciationoftheregionisbelievedtohavebeenparticularlysmall.For
instance,accordingtoBrighamGretteetal.(1992),glaciationthroughoutcentralBeringiawasrestrictedandconsistedofonlyrockglaciersandsmallcirqueglaciers,
noneofwhichreachedeventheoutercoast.Itisonlyforsomeearlierglaciationsthattheseauthorsadmitalargericeextent,andyet,evenforthem,onlyterrestrial
glacierscenteredonChukchiPeninsulaareenvisaged.However,consideringtheearlierglaciations,HopkinsandBrighamGrettegoasfarastoconcludethatthe
Chukchiglaciersdescendedontoanearbyshelf,crossedthenorthwesternBeringSea,andencroachedontoSt.LawrenceIsland.Thisevent,characterizedbylarger
iceextentandsouthwardexpansionoftheChukchiice,formerlyascribedtopenultimateglaciation(Hopkins1972),nowisconsideredaspostSangamoni.e.,taking
placeafter125kaB.P.(Heiseretal.1992)."After125kaB.P.butbeforetheLGM"thosearetheirchronologicalbracketsofthelasticeexpansionbeyondthe
shoresofChukchiPeninsula.Thus,forreasonsthatIfailtocomprehend,HopkinsandotherskeeparguingagainstalateWeichselianageofthelastglaciationof
Beringia.Nonetheless,theirevolutionin"our"directionisobvious:whattheyusedtotakefor"penultimate"glaciation,nowisthe"earlyWeichselian,"andwhatthey
believedtobeonetotwomillionyearsold,todayisdatedto125kaB.P.(Bensonetal.1994).

Despitetheseassertions,evidenceforalateWeichselianicesheetglaciationofBeringiadoesexistandmountsrapidly.Atentativeversionofourcaseforthatice
sheethasalreadybeenpresented(Grosswald1998GrosswaldandHughes1995Hughes1995

 Page34

HughesandHughes1994Hughesetal.1991).Thetimeisripetoelaborateontheproblem.

Tobeginwith,weshouldaddresstheproblemofglaciationwithintheChukchiSearegion.Here,thoughmarinegeologicalinvestigationsfailedtofindglacialformson
theseafloor(Alekseev1991Pavlidis1992),relevantevidenceisuncoveredonthecoasts.Amongotherthings,astrikinglypronouncedandlarge(12,000km2field
ofpushmoraineshasbeenfoundandmappedinthelowerKolymaRiverbasin,andanorientedtundracomplexdetectedintheAyonIslandarea,westoftheChaun
GubaBay.HavingbeenidentifiedonsatellitephotosbyGrosswald(1996),bothgeomorphiccomplexesclearlyattesttotheiceflowdirectedsouthwestward,from
thesealandward,andsuggestamajoricespreadingcentersituatedontheArcticshelf,northeastoftheKolymadelta.

Therearcsomeadditionalpiecesofcorroborativeevidence.FirstisasequenceoffivetillsheetsrecoveredbydrillingontheVankaremLowland,ChukchiPeninsula,
whichbelongtotheUpperandMiddlePleistocene(Laukhinetal.1989).Secondistheaccumulationofglacialerraticslarge,facetedandscratchedbouldersmixed
intomarinesandsandgravelsthatthisauthorhasobservedonCapeSerdtseKamen.Itisnoteworthythatboththeareas,theVankaremLowlandandCapeSerdtse
Kamen,werebelievedtobeicefreethroughouttheIceAge(Hopkins1972Vaskovsky1959).ThirdaretheglaciatedlandscapesofWrangelIsland,whichalsowas
commonlybelievedtohaveremainedicefree.AnabundanceoffacetedandscratchedglacialerraticsandLapplandstylegeomorphologywerefoundtobetypical
featuresoftheisland(observedbytheauthor,199193).

OfparticularimportanceisgeomorphicevidenceforsouthwardiceflowthroughtheBeringStraitandacrossthelatitudinalChukchiRange.CapeDezhnev,bounding
theBeringStraitfromthewest,wasfoundtobea700mhighglaciatedwallwithatruncatedspuratitsfootandahugemassofcoarsedebrisonitssouthernside.In
thiscontext,thestraitmayturnouttobeagiantglacialbreach.DozensofotherbreachesUshapedthroughvalleyscrossthe1,000kinlongmountainbarrier
formedbytheChukchiRangeandAlaska'sSewardPeninsula,suggestingamassivesouthwardflowofanextensiveicesheet(Grosswald1998Grosswaldand
Hughes1995).

SoutherlyiceflowdirectionalsoisimpliedbylargeendmorainesofthesouthernAnadyrLowland.Thesemoraines,firstdescribedbyKartashov(1962)and
BaranovaandBiske(1964),aremadeupofsandyandgravellyclaystheyformarcuateridges,upto2kmwideand3040kmlong,withareliefof5070m.
Groupsofindividualridgesarelinedupintolobaterows,ormorainic"garlands,"allturnedbytheirconvexsidestothesouthandsouthwest.

Judgingfromsatellitephotos,theglacierssuggestedbytheoutermostendmorainescrossedthelowerAnadyrRiverandformedacontinuousicefrontatthesouthern
limitoftheAnadyrLowland(seeFigure6).Notethattheicefrontextendeddiagonally,inanorthwesttosoutheastdirection,andfacedsouthwestward.Generally,
thereconstructediceflowlinesextendfromthenorthspecificallyfromtheChukchiSeacontinentalshelftothesouth,andintersectthewholepeninsulaandits
"backbone,"theChukchiRange.ThissuggeststhatthemajorLGMicespreadingcenterofBeringiarestedontheChukchishelf,notonthehighlandsofChukchi
Peninsula,andthatthepeninsulaitselfwasoverriddenbyamarineicesheet.Inotherwords,theparadigmofmarineglaciation,formerlydevelopedinthewestern
EurasianArctic,appearsapplicablealsotoBeringia.

AnotherpeculiarfeatureoftheflowlinesinFigure6istheircleardeflectiontothewest.Forinstance,onthecoastsoftheGulfofAnadyr,theice,insteadofbeinga
"natural"landtoseaflow,deflectedawayfromthesea.Moreover,thegulf'ssouthwesterncoastwastransgressedbytheicemovingfromthesealandward.Resulting
fromthistransgression,largemassesofdeadglaciericecontainingmarinemicrofossilswereleftbehindandburiedonthegulf'scoasts(B.I.Vtyurin,personal
communication,1996).

ParticularlyconvincingevidenceforthewestwarddeflectionoficeflowinBeringiacomesfromthephenomenonof"glaciallycutcorners."Thelatterareland
promontoriesjuttingoutintotheseaandintersectedbyglacialtroughs.Judgingfromtheauthor'sobservationsandsatellitephotos,thisgeomorphologyischaracteristic
ofCapeDezhnev,southeasternChukchiPeninsula,CapeNavarin,CapeOlyutorsky,andothercapesandpeninsulasoftheregion.Forinstance,thesoutheast
looking"corner"ofChukchiPeninsula,turnedintoamazeoffjords,displaysclearevidenceofhavingbeendissectedbytheBeringStraiticestream,deflected
westward.Here,iceflowlinesenteredtheSinyavinoStraitfromthenortheast,andgotoutofthePovideniyaFjord,whileotheradjacentflowlineshadthesameNE
toSWdirection.ThustheicestreamoftheBeringStrait,havingbeenstronglydeflectedtothewest,hadto

 Page35

Figure6.
LateWeichselianicemargins,iceflowlines,andglacialbreaches(throughvalleys)intheeastern
ChukchiandBeringSeas.Notethewestwarddeflectionoftheiceflowlinesimplyingaformerice
sheetgroundedontheBeringSeashelf.

precludeadirecttransportoferraticsfromChukchiPeninsulatoSt.LawrenceIslandduringglacialmaxima.Thisinturnimpliesthatthescenariopostulatedby
Hopkinsandcolleaguesisinconsistentwiththereconstructedflowlinepatternandneedsreconsideration.

Judgingbyamultitudeofexamples,"icecutcorners"areubiquitousontheshoresboundingtheformermarineicesheets(Grosswald1998).InthecaseofBeringia,
theoccurrenceofsuchgeomorphiccomplexesstronglysuggeststhattherewasamarineicesheetconfinedintheBeringSea.Havingbeensqueezedbetweenthe
boundinglandmasses,theicesheetexertedbackpressuredirectedlandward.TheestablisheddeflectionoftheBeringianiceflowlinesclearlyresultedfromthis
pressure,whilethe"glaciallycutcorners,"alsosuggestiveofapronouncediceflowdeflection,areitsgeomorphicmanifestations.Itwasbecauseofthisdeflection
causedbybackpressureofamarineicesheetthattheBeringianicemovedacrosstheboundingheadlandsandcutthemwithtransverseglacialtroughs.Incidentally,
oneoftheheadlands,CapeOlyutorsky(Figure7),liesquiteclosetoadeepbasinofthesouthernBeringSea,sothattheice,overridingthecape,couldonlybethe
edgeofaniceshelffloatinginthisbasin.

Asitis,theoccurrenceof"hanging"troughsonCapeOlyutorskyisconsistentwiththefloatingBeringiceshelf,whichwasinferredbyGrosswaldandVozovik(1984)
fromgeomorphicandglaciologicalarguments.AnadditionalpieceofevidencefortheiceshelfisprovidedbyglaciatedtroughscrossingthesubmarineCommander
AleutianRidgeanditsislands(Black1976).Inparticular,BeringIslandoftheridgeisknowntohavebeenbreachedbyafewthroughvalleyswithUshapedcross
sectionsandstriationsontheirslopes(ErlichandMelekestsev1974),andabundanterraticbouldersoccurontheadjacentseafloor(B.V.Baranov,personal
communication,1997).

ReconstructionofaBeringianicesheetconsistingofagroundedicedomeandafloatingiceshelfappearstobeconsistentwiththeevidenceforarecent,post
Sangamon,episodeoficeoverridingSt.LawrenceIsland(Benson1993).Inaddition,itprovidesafirstsatisfactoryexplanationforgiantsubmarinetroughsincised
intothesouthernmarginoftheBeringSeacontinentalshelf.Sofar,thesetroughssocalledsubmarine"canyons"ofBering,Bristol,Pribylov,

 Page36

Figure7.
CapeOlyutorskypeninsulawithintersectingglacial
troughs.Drawingfromanairphoto.

Pervenets,Zhemchug,andothers,characterizedbyUshapedcrosssectionsandupto3kmdepthsweredescribedbyScholletal.(1970),butvirtually
unaccountedfor.

Furthermore,theconceptofaBeringianicesheetisinkeepingwiththeresultsofdeepseadrillinginthehighlatitudeNorthPacificundertakenduringLeg145ofD/V
JOIDESResolution(Leg145...,1993).Analysisofthecoresedimentsyieldedbythedrillinghasprovidedcompellingevidenceforextensiveglaciationofthe
ocean'scoastsandshelvesbetween2.6millionyearsagoandtheendofthePleistocene.Inparticular,basedonvariationsinthedensityofsedimentsfromthetop
portionsofthecores,KotilainenandShackleton(1995)inferredthatthelast95kaofthePleistocene,includingisotopestage2,hadbeenpunctuatedbyasequence
ofabruptpaleoceanographicchangessimilartoandsimultaneouswithHeinricheventsandDansgaardOeschercoolingcyclesoftheNorthAtlantic(Figure8).Among
otherthings,signaturesoftheBllingAllerdandYoungerDryasoscillationsarereadilydiscernibleonthedensitycurves.Thisdiscoveryputsanendtothe
speculations,howevergroundless,astothe"olderthantheLGM"ageofthelastBeringianiceexpansion.

Also,itwasfoundthatanotherdistinctiveeventhadaccompaniedtheonsetandgrowthofNorthPacificglaciationanorderofmagnitudeincreaseinthenumberand
volumeofvolcanicashbeds(Leg145...1993).Tome,thesimultaneityofthesetwoeventsstronglysuggeststhatthesourceoficerafteddebrisrecoveredbythe
drillingshouldbelookedforinsouthernBeringiaitself,notinremoteareasofArcticSiberiaorAlaska.Themajorvolcaniceventthat"dwarfsanyearlierash
eruptions"oftheKamchatkaAleutianregioncanbeaccountedforonlybythebuildupofathicklocalicesheet,andbyitsstaticpressurecapableofsqueezingoutthe
gasesandlavasfromdeepsetvolcaniccenters.

TheevidenceforBeringianglaciationisconstantlymounting.Bynowithasgatheredcriticalmasssufficienttowarrantattemptsatfiguringoutthesizeandshapeofthe
formericesheet.AtentativereconstructionofaBeringianpaleoicesheetgroundedontheChukchiandBeringcontinentalshelvesispresentedinFigure9.Thetopof
theicesheetreachedanaltitudeof2,000ma.s.l.,anditsnorthernmargin,buttressedbytheCentralArcticiceshelf,wasthickenoughtogroundonthesubmarine
ChukchiBorderland(i.e.,ontheArlisPlateau,NorthwindRidge,andChukchiCap)atdepthsof300to700or800m,probablyevendeeper.

ThesouthernmarginoftheicesheetwasfringedbytheBeringiceshelffloatinginthedeepbasinoftheBeringSea.Theexceptionallygreatdepthsofthesea's
"canyons"(Sholletal.1970)implytheabnormallygreatthicknessoftheiceshelf,whichinturnsuggeststhatthelatterwasbuttressedbytheCommanderAleutian
Ridge.Itwasacrossthisridge,throughdeepstraitsandshallowsaddles,thattheBeringianicewasreleasedintotheNorthPacificOcean.AnothersourceofNorth
PacificicebergsseemstohavebeentheOkhtskSeaicesheet(GrosswaldandHughes1998).

Infact,theKotilainenShackletondensitycurvessuggestthatarmadasoficebergswereperiodicallyejected,insynchronywithglacialeventsoftheNorthAtlantic,into
theNorthPacific.AscenarioofthiskindwassuggestedearlierfortheNorthAtlanticnowtherearegroundstoapplyittotheNorthPacific.AndiftheNorthAtlantic
waspartiallysurroundedbyhugeicesheetsandiceshelves,isn'titsensibletoassumethattheNorthPacificOceanwascharacterizedbythesamepaleoglacial
environment?

 Page37

Figure8.
DensityvariationcurvesfromODP145drillingsites882and883(thinlines)plottedagainstoxygenisotope
recordfromtheGRIPicecoreinSummit,Greenland(thickline).Theirpossiblecorrelationisshownbydotted
lines.AfterKotilainenandShackleton(1995).TheisotopeStage2zoneisaddedbythisauthor.

Conclusions

GEOLOGICALEVIDENCE,largelyderivedfromglacialgeomorphology,suggeststhattheArcticoutskirtsofEurasia,includingitsBeringianshelf,wereoccupiedbya
continuousicesheetduringthelastglacialmaximum.Extensiveglaciercomplexesformedsimultaneouslyinnearbymountainranges,whileicedammedlakesinundated
theSiberianlowlandsandintermontanebasins.Apartofthesystem,theBeringianicesheet,wascenteredonthesouthernChukchiSea,spreadouttotheshallow
BeaufortSeaandBeringSeashelves,andcontinued,asfloatingiceshelves,intothedeepBeringSeaandtheCentralArcticOcean.Giventhispaleogeographyof
ArcticEurasia,thetruesceneryofIceAgeBeringiadifferedgreatlyfromitsconventionalimage.Insteadofanicefreesteppeorgrasslandlandscapefavoringthe
periglacialbiotasandprehistorichumans,thereextended,forafewmillionkm2,ahugepolaricesheet,deadlycoldandlifeless.Inotherwords,therewasnotawide
BeringLandBridgeopenfortheoverlandAsianmigrationstoNorthAmerica,butanenormousicyhighland,inhospitableandimpenetrableforplants,animals,and
humans.Analternativemaritimemigrationroute,theonealongtheNorthPacificRim,alsowouldhavebeenobstructedbytheglaciercomplexesoftheSeaof
Okhotskandadjacentmountains,aswellasbytheiceshelfandicedomesofsouthernBeringia.

Hence,overlandAsianmigrationtoNorthAmericawasimprobableduringtheheightofglaciation,whenanicesheetclosedoffthemigratorypaths.Neitherwasit
probableduringHolocenetime,whensealevelrisedidthesametothepathsbyfloodingtheBeringStrait.OnlyduringarelativelyshortandwarmlateGlacial
intervalnamely,duringtheBllingAllerdinterstadewascrossingofBeringiapossibleforanimalsandprehistorichumans.Notably,theearliestlateWeichselian
StoneAgeindustriesinAlaska,theClovisandFolsomcomplexes,weredatedto12,000and11,000yrB.P.,respectively(Hoffeckeretal.1993),nottotheLGM.
Itwasnotbeforethatwarmintervalthattheprocessoficesheetshrinkagewentfarenoughtoopenicefreepaths,anditwaswellafterthatintervalthattheprocess
ofsearisereachedtheleveloffloodingthestraitandclosedthepaths.Onemayspeculatethatearlier,duringpreWeichselianglaciations,AsianmigrationstoNorth
Americaweresimilarlyconstrainedbyicesheetsandmarinetransgressions.

 Page38

Figure9.
ThelateWeichselianBeringianicesheet(atentativereconstruction).ModifiedafterHughesandHughes(1994).
ThenumberedcirclesshowtheODP145drillingsites.

 Page39

Acknowledgments

IthankparticipantsoftheseminarattheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,andpersonallyRobsonBonnichsenandTerenceHughes,fortheir
encouragementandfortheveryideaofthispaper.MythanksalsoareduetoSusanSimpsonforhereditingwork.

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ImpactofIceRelatedPlantNutrientsonGlacialMarginEnvironments
MortD.Turner1
EdwardJ.Zeller2,3
GiselaA.Dreschhoff3
JoanneC.Turner1

Abstract

Asignificantnumberofproboscideans(mammoths,mastodons,andotherelephantlikemammals)andproboscideankillsiteshavebeenfoundalongthemarginsof
formericesheets,especiallythesouthernmarginsoftheLaurentideicesheetofNorthAmerica.Wepostulatethattheabundanceoflargemammalsandhuman
predatorsintheseareasistheindirectresultoftheavailabilityoflargequantitiesofnutrientsfromthemeltingice.

Inmostplantspecies,growthislimitedbyoneormoreofthreeessentialplantnutrients:potassium(K),phosphate(P),andfixednitrogen.Glacialmargin
environmentsareenrichedinbothKandP,particularlyinareaswheretheglaciershaveoverriddenigneousormetamorphicterrains.Mechanicalgrindingprocesses
alongtheicerockinterfaceresultinchemicalbondbreakageandincreasedgrainsurfaceareathateffectivelyincreasethesolubilityofthesenutrients,thusenhancing
theiravailabilitytoplantsgrowinginfreshlyexposedglacialdepositsandmakingKandPinexcesssupplyinthewatersaturatingfreshglacialdepositsalongtheice
fronts.Therefore,itistheavailabilityoffixednitrogenthatactsasapracticallimittogrowthformostplantspeciesalongtheicefronts.

Substantialconcentrationsofnitrate(NO3),aswellassmallamountsofammoniumion(NH4),arepresentinglacialiceinbothAntarcticaandGreenland.Thenitrateat
highlatitudesoriginatesinboththestratosphereandthetroposphere.AsubstantialportionofthestratosphericNO3isproducedbysolarterrestrialinteractions.The
troposphericportionoftheNO3istheresultofbothsolarterrestrialinteractionsandstrictlyterrestrialprocesses,suchaslightning,sprayfromtheocean,andstatic
dischargefromimpactofsnowanddustparticles.SomeoftheNO3andmostoftheNH4aretheproductofbiologicalprocesses.Fixednitrogenfromtropospheric
andstratosphericsourceshasaccumulatedinthePleistoceneandHoloceneicesheetsforthousandsofyears.Sublimationprocesses,activealongtheicemargin
becauseofkatabaticwindsthatflowfromtheinterior,increasetheconcentrationoffixednitrogenintheice.Fixednitrogenisreleasedthroughrunoffatthemelting
margin.Thisprovidesasignificantadditiontothefixednitrogenbudgetforplantsgrowinginsoilswithinthemarginalzone.Thiswill,inturn,increasethetotal
biologicalproductivityofthemarginalzone.Thepresenceofalltheessentialplantnutrientsinthewaterthatsaturatesunconsolidatedglacialdepositsmaypermita
kindofnaturalhydroponicplantgrowthtodeveloprapidly,therebyacceleratingsoilformation.Oncesoilsform,thecontinuingpresenceofsolutionscontaining
completeassemblagesofnutrientspermitsanunusuallyhighlevel
1
.InstituteofArcticandAlpineResearch,UniversityofColorado,Boulder,CO80309
2
.DeceasedJanuary14,1996
3
.SpaceTechnologyCenter,UniversityofKansas,Lawrence,KS66045

 Page43

ofproductivitytobemaintained.Thisisespeciallytruewhereanicemarginremainsessentiallystableforlongperiods.

Aportionofthefixednitrogendischargedintothemarginalzoneofanicesheetleavestheareabywayofthewaterdrainingfromthemarginalzone.Someofthisfixed
nitrogenbecomesincorporatedintofloodplainsiltthatisthesourceofwinddepositedloess.Itisinpartresponsibleforthenutrientrichnessofloessdeposits.During
thelatePleistoceneandearlyHolocene,at~308kaB.P.(approximately30,000to8000yrsB.P.)largeicesheetsrepeatedlybuiltupandmeltedbackonthe
continentsoftheNorthernHemisphere.Theseicesheetshadvolumesofasmuchas60millioncubickmattheirmaximumat~18kaB.P.,makingthemactasgigantic
reservoirsofNO3.TheNO3wasreleasedalongtheiredgesduringmeltingoftheglaciers,andthuslargequantitiesweremadeavailabletoenhanceplantgrowthin
theseareas.Anabundanceofsmallandlargeanimalsflourishedinthisdesirableenvironment.

Introduction

DURINGLATEPLEISTOCENEandearlyHolocenetime(Figure1),at~30ka(approximately30,000years)to~8kaB.P.(approximately8000yrsB.P.),largeareasof
NorthAmericaandEurasiawerecoveredbythickicesheets(Andrews1987Arkhipovetal.1986DentonandHughes1981DykeandPrest1986Flint1963,
1971GeologicalSurveyofCanada1984Grosswald1980,1988GrosswaldandGlebova1992RichmondandFullerton1986Sibravaetal.1986Velichko
1977)(Figures2,3,and4).ThesouthernmarginsofthemajorNorthAmericanicesheet(thelatePleistoceneLaurentideicesheet)(Figure4)areshowninsome
detailonaseriesofmapsbySoller(1992,1993,1994,1997,1998).Theadvancingicesheets(Ives1974,LoveandLove1974,Nichols1974)disruptedand
displacedplantandanimalassemblagessouthward.

TraditionalassumptionshavebeenthatthemarginalzonesofthePleistoceneicesheetswerecoldandbiologicallyunproductive.CwynarandRitchie,forexample,
indicatethatAlaskanBeringiaandperiglacialEurasiawerelowproductivityArcticsteppetundra(CwynarandRitchie1980,RitchieandCwynar1982).Also,Soffer
(1985:149157,169211)indicatesclimaticenvironmentsinthecentralRussianPlainthatwouldhavebeendifficultforlifeduringglacialepisodes.However,
paleontologicalandarchaeologicalevidenceshowthattheicemarginsandperiglacialmargins,especiallyalongthesouthernmarginsoftheseicesheets,were
populatedbyadiverseflora,megafauna,andhumans(Bonnichsen1980Butzer1971,1976Grichuk1972Guthrie1968,1982,1996Hopkins1972Hopkinset
al.1982Martin1982MartinandKlein1984MartinandWright1967Schweger1982Soffer1985:169211Velichko1973Velichkoand

SelectedAbbreviationsUsedinthisPaper

B.P.beforepresent

O(1D)Excitedoxygenoratomicoxygen

GCRGalacticCosmicRays

HHolocene

kakiloyearsor1,000years

LGMlastglacialmaximum

ngnanogram(billionthofagram106g)

PSCPolarStratosphericClouds

SPESolarProtonEvents

TgTerragrams(unitof1012grams)

Morozova1969Zelleretal.1988).AsBenedict(1975:73)haspointedout,thehuman"tendencytoexploittheresourcesofmarginalenvironmentswheneverclimatic
conditionspermitremainsasstrongtodayasatanytimeduringthepast12,000years."

Anunderstandingofthecontentsoficesheetsleadstheauthorstotheviewthattheicesheetsthemselveswerethesourceoftheessentialplantandanimalnutrients.
Thisincludedalimitedamountofnitrateintroducedbydirectdepositionfromtheupperatmosphereinthevicinityoftheauroralring(Qinetal.1992,Zellerand
Parker1981)andbyterrestrialnitratesfromthetroposphere(Delmasetal.1985,LegrandandDelmas1988).Nitrate(NO3)istheterminaloxidationstateof
nitrogenwhichcanoccurinanumberofoxidizedstatesofnitrogen/oxygencombinant.Fixednitrogenisaspecifictermforthechemicallysolubleformofnitrogen
availabletoplants.Fixednitrogenintheatmospheremayoccurinreducedformasammonia(NH3)orinanumberofoxidizedstatesasN2O,NOx(NO+NO2),and
oddnitrogenNOy (N2,NO,NO2,NO3,N2O5,andHNO3).Nitrousoxide(N2O),producedbythebiosphericnitrogencycle,canbetransportedupfromtheearth's

 Page44

Figure1.
Graphshowingchangesintemperatureduringthelast1.50,000years,withtheexpandedcurveforthelast18,000years.
Temperaturechangesareshownforthelast150ka.ThistimeperiodcoversthelatePleistocene,including
thelastinterglacial,theSangamon/Eemianinterglacial,severalcoldepisodes(stadials),warmerepisodes
(interstadials),andthepresentwarminterglacial(theHolocene).DuringtheSangamonandtheHolocene
interglacials,theNorthernHemisphereicesheetsweremeltedawayentirely,withtheexceptionofthe
Greenlandicesheet.DuringtheglacialperiodbetweentheSangamonandtheHolocene,theNorthern
Hemisphereicesheetswaxedandwanedwiththefluctuatingclimates.Theinset,anenlargementofthe
curveforthelast18,000years,showsthelesserfluctuationsoftheclimateoftheHolocene.
[ModifiedfromEarthQuest1991:insert.]

surfaceintothestratosphere(Figure5).Nitrousoxideisanimportantsourceofoddnitrogen(NOy )inthestratosphere,whereitcanreactwithanexcitedoxygen
atomO(1D),whichisproducedbyphotolysisofozone(O3),toproduceNO.OthersourcesofNOy includeionchemistryassociatedwithatmosphericionization.
Simplereactionchainsultimatelycanproducenitrateion(NO3)ornitricacid(HNO3)inthepresenceofmoistureintheatmosphere.HNO3istransferredfromthe
atmospherebyphotolysisintheatmosphereorbyremovaltothesurfaceintheformofprecipitation(Figure6).

Othertraceelementsandfactorsnecessaryforallplantandanimallifewerepresentattheicesheetmarginsinsufficientquantitiestoallowthehighproductivity
necessarytoaccountfortheplants,humans,andotheranimalsthatmadeuptheenvironmentsindicatedbythefossilrecord.

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Figure2.
ExtentoflatePleistoceneicesheetsofEurasia.
AtthelatePleistoceneglacialmaximum,about18kaB.P.,severalicesheetsmergedtocovermost
ofEuropenorthoftheAlps,northernRussia,mostofnorthwesternSiberia,andtheArcticBasin
continentalshelf.Wherethelandsurfaceslopeddownwardtothenorth,glacialmeltwater
accumulatedalongthesouthernedgesoftheicesheets.Refugiaalsoexistedalongthesouthern
frontoftheicesheetswherelargePleistocenemammalsandpossiblyhumanssurvivedthelate
PleistoceneIceAgeandintotheHolocene(Formanetal.1995:115Soffer1985:189211see
Figure13,thispaper).Insomeareasthelevelofthemeltwaterexceededtheheightofthesouthern
divides,anddrainageriversflowedsouthintotheAralandCaspianSeas.
[AfterGrosswald1980,1988,1992].

RequirementsforPlantGrowth

SEVERALCHARACTERISTICSofglacialmarginenvironmentshavestrongpositiveeffectsonbiologicalproductivity.Ingeneral,plantgrowthiscontrolledbysixmajor
factors,thelackofanyoneofwhichcanactastheprimarylimittogrowthinaspecificenvironment.Thesefactorsareasfollows:

(1)Availabilityofadequatesunlight

(2)Availabilityofadequatewater

(3)Sufficientperiodsofabovefreezingtemperatures

(4)Adequatesuppliesofelementsessentialforplantgrowth:carbon(C),hydrogen(H),oxygen(O),phosphorus(P),potassium(K),nitrogen(N),sulfur(S),
magnesium(Mg),calcium(C),iron(Fe),manganese(Mn),copper(Cu),zinc(Zn),molybdenum(Mo),andboron(B).

Eachofthesefactorsisimportanttoplantproductivityand,subsequently,toanimalnutritionandproductivity.

Availabilityoflight(factor1)inglacialmarginenvironmentsofthelatePleistocenewasassuredbecausetheretreatingiceexposednewterrainthathadbeenfreeof
plantcoverfordecadesorcenturies(Birks1980JacobsonandBirks1980Watson1980Whitesideatal.1980Wright1980).Watersupply(factor2)from
meltingicewasenhancedattimeswhentemperatureswerehigh,sothatanyplantstressresultingfromrisingtemperaturestendedtobe

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Figure3.
ExtentoftheFennoscandianIceSheetinnorthwestEurope.Duringthelate
PleistoceneglacialmaximumthewesternpartoftheEurasianicesheetscovered
allofScandinavia,mostofGreatBritain,andmostofIreland.Thiswestward
extensioniscalledtheFennoscandianicesheet.
[ModifiedfromAubrey1985:85.]

moderated.ThepresenceofnumerousproglaciallakesalongthesouthernedgesofmajoricesheetsintheNorthernHemisphereindicatestheabundanceofmeltwater
duringperiodsofmaximumextentoftheicesheets(Figure2),aswellasduringperiodsofretreat(Figures7and8).Thelengthsofperiodsofabovefreezing
temperatures(factor3)weredependentuponthelatitudeoftheglacialmargininquestionandtheorbitalparametersofearththatexistedatthetime.Itisalso
importanttonotethattheexistenceofkatabaticwindflowdowntheicesheet(similartoachinook)tendedtoincreasetheaveragetemperatureinthemarginalzone.
Thenetwarmingtothemarginoftheicesheetbythekatabaticwindislimitedbycoolingofthekatabaticairbecauseofsublimationofthesnowandice.The
magnitudeoftheincreasedependsonthetotalchangeinaltitudeoftheairmassfromitspointoforiginovertheinterioroftheglaciertothatinthemarginalzone.The
effectmaybesmalliftheicesheetisthin,butitwillalwaysbeinthedirectionofanincreaseintemperature.

Themainobjectiveofthispaperistodiscusstheicerelatedmajorplantnutrients(N,P,K)thatareconcentratedalongtheglacialmarginandthatcausehighlevelsof
productivityinthisenvironment.Amountsoftheotherelementsessentialforplantgrowthcanbeassumedtobeadequateinandaroundmarginsofcontinentalglaciers
andicesheets,asmostaremineralelementsthatwouldhavebeenreleasedinabundantamountsrelativetoplantneedsbytheabrasionofglacialiceonrocks.

 Page47

Figure4.
LaurentideIceSheetonNorthAmericaintheLatePleistocene.NorthAmerica,showingthe
extentoftheLaurentideicesheetinlatePleistocenetime.Theicesheetspreadoutward
towardthemarginsfromseveralaccumulationcenters.SeveralearlierLaurentideicesheets
developed,somecoveringlargerextents,duringthelast2to3millionyears.
[ModifiedfromAndrews1987:15,22Booth1987:72FultonandPrest1987:182andMap1703A.]

NutrientSources

NutrientsDerivedfromRock

THENORTHAMERICANandEurasianshieldsaremadeuplargelyofcrystallinebasementrocks.Thebasementrockmassispresentasinterlockingmineralaggregates.
DuringPleistocenetime,icesheetswereadvancingoverthemetamorphosedcrystallinerock,producingfinelygroundglacialflour(FultonandPrest1987:184).Two
oftheessentialnutrientsforplantgrowth,PandK,werederiveddirectlyfromthisgrounduprock.TheprimarysourceofPisascalciumphosphatefromthe
accessoryminerals,apatite,(CaF)Ca4(PO4)3,andcollophane,Ca3P2O8.H2O,thatarecommoninpracticallyalligneousandmetamorphicrocks,andmanymarine
sediments.PotassiumiswidelydistributedinbothigneousandmetamorphicterrainswhereorthoclaseandtheotherKcontainingfeldsparsandfeldspathoidsmakeup
ahighpercentageofthecrustalrocks,astheydointhenorthernpartoftheNorthAmericancontinent.

Erosionbyicesheetsisaccomplishedmainlybyabrasionofthebasalrockintoextremelyfinegrainedglacialflour.Thenatureofthegrindingmechanismduringglacial
advanceissuchthathighlyangulargrainsareproduced.Glacialflour,oneofthemajorproductsofglacialerosion,hasmanyordersofmagnitudemoresurfacearea
thandoestheparentrock,asshownbyelectronmicroscopystudies(KrinsleyandDoornkamp1973KrinsleyandNewman1965KrinsleyandTakahashi1962
Mahaney1995).Thefinelygroundmineralsthatresultfromglacialabrasionhaveahighsurfacetovolumeratioandahighproportionofdistortedanddangling
chemicalbondsonthegrainsurfaces.Theactivationenergyforionsonthesurfaceofsuchgrainsiseffectivelyreduced,andthesolubilityoftheconstituentionsishigh.
Theerosionproductsoficesheetmovementareincorporatedintheglacierandcarriedalongwiththebasaliceinthedirectionoftheicemovementuntiltheyreach
thezoneintheicesheetwheremeltingandsolutiontakeplace.Glacialmeltwaterflowsrapidlydowntheinterior,base,andmarginsoftheice,pickingupaheavyload
ofglacialerosionproductsintheprocess.Amajorpartofthetransportation,suspension,andultimatedepositionoftheglacialflourcontainingKandP,twoofthe
essentialnutrients,isinanaqueousenvironmentwheresolutionisenhanced.

NutrientsfromGlacialIce

INVIEWOFTHEABUNDANCEofKandPgeneratedbythegrindingeffectsofglaciers,itisprobablethatplantgrowthinglacialmarginenvironmentsultimatelyislimitedby
thequantityoffixednitrogenavailableintheseenvironments.OfthethreenecessaryplantnutrientsK,P,andNO3onlyfixednitrogenisnotsuppliedbytherocks
thatwereoverriddenbytheice.

 Page48

Figure5.
Atmospherictemperature/pressurezones.TheEarth'satmosphere,
uptoabout100kmabovethesurface,isstratifiedintoaseriesof
zonescharacterizedprimarilybytheirpressureandtemperature.
Mostofthecloudsweseeandtheweatherweexperiencearein
thelower20kmoftheatmosphere,howevermostofthechemical
reactionsproducingthenitratesdiscussedinthispapertakeplace
athigherelevationsbyreactionsbetweentheupperatmosphere
andparticlesfromthesunandfromcosmicradiation.

Theonlyexceptiontothismightbetheoccurrenceofinsignificantlysmallamountsofammonium(NH4)reportedinbiotite(Tainoshoetal.1991).

Nitrogenfixedbyinorganicprocessesintheatmosphereisknowntobedepositedonandincorporatedintoicesheets,especiallyinthehigherlatitudes,asdiscussed
below.Asshownabove,meltwaterflowingfromthemarginofanicecapcanbeexpectedtocontainhighenoughlevelsofP,K,andnitrates(NO3)(Brownetal.
1973,Gorham1958,JohannessenandHenricksen1978)topreventplantstress.Naturalhydroponictypegrowthcanproceedrapidlyinsuchanenvironment,and
plantsgrowingonfinelygroundglacialtillhavetheadditionaladvantageofdirectrootcontactwithnutrientcontainingsubstratesduringtimeswhenmeltwaterinfluxis
reduced.Finally,suchrapidgrowthpromotestheaccumulationoforganicresidues,acceleratingtheformationoftruesoilsintheearlystagesofglacialmargin
environments(Wright1980:16andpersonalobservationsbytheauthorsintheMountCook,NewZealand,glaciersystems).

SourcesofFixedNitrogen

SEVERALSOURCESOFFIXEDnitrogenexistintheatmosphereandsoilatthesurfaceoftheearth.Theseare:(1)theterrestrialnitrogencycleintheglobalatmosphere,(2)
highlatitudesources,and(3)solarterrestrialinteractions.Alloftheseultimatelyarederivedfromthenitrogenthatmakesupapproximately80percentoftheearth's
atmosphere,bybothorganicandinorganicprocessesinthelowerandupperatmosphere.Muchofthefixednitrogenderivedfrombothorganicprocessesandby
lightningisproducedin,andcyclesthrough,thebiosphere,mainlyinthelowtomidlatitudes.Significantamountsofinorganicfixednitrogeninthehighnorthernand
highsouthernlatitudesareproduced:(1)byionizationintheauroraloval,(2)byionizationfromhighenergygalacticparticles,and(3)fromstaticgenerationassociated
withsuspendedparticlesofsnowanddust.WhenNO3becomesattachedtosnowcrystalsandincorporatedintoglacialice,itispreservedthereuntilitmelts.The
fixednitrogenthatbecomespartofglaciersorlargeicesheetsiscarriedinconveyerbeltfashiontothemeltingedgeoftheice,whereitbecomesavailablefor
incorporationintoorganicprocesses.

GlobalAtmosphericSourcesofFixedNitrogenandtheNitrogenCycle

SEVERALTYPESOFFIXEDnitrogenproductionareactiveinthetroposphereandonthesurfaceoftheearth.Theseincludebiologicalactivity,biomassburning,lightning,
andanthropogenicactivities.Nitrogenfixingbacteriaareparticularlyactiveintherootsofcertainplantsandinthegutsofplanteatinganimals.Therottingofnitrogen
bearingplantsandanimalsreleasestrappedNO3intotheatmosphere.ThesesourcesofNO3dominateinthetropicandtemperatezoneswheretheNO3cyclesfrom
theatmospherethroughthebiota

 Page49

Figure6.
NO3inrainandsnow.Solargeneratednitratedescendsfromtheupperatmosphere,tobewashedoutofthelower
atmosphere,alongwithterrestrialnitrate,byrain(left)andsnow(right).Nitratereachingtheearth'ssurfacequickly
interactswithlocalplantsorrunsoffintoriversandlakes.Nitratesreachingthesurfacecoveredwithsnowremain
inthesnowunaltereduntilspringmeltandrunoff,whentheyenrichtherunoffwateratthetimeofthespring
growthseason.Ifthesnowbecomespartofapermanentsnowandicemass(glacieroricesheet),thenitrate
remainsunalteredintheiceuntilitseventualreleaseatthemeltingedge,whereitenrichestherunoff.

andbackintotheatmosphere.AnothersignificantsourceofNO3isseaspraythrownbywaveactionintotheatmospherefrommarinesurfacesatalllatitudes.

Othersignificantsourcesofnitratesproducedattheearth'ssurfacearefrombiomassburningandlightningstrikes.Anthropogenicactivitiesproduceverylarge
amountsofnitratesfromatmosphericnitrogenthroughthemanufacturingofNO3andNH4,fertilizersformiddlelatitudeagriculture,andbyothermanufacturing
processes.Lightningproducesfixednitrogenintheloweratmospherethroughthedirectionizationofatmosphericmolecules.TheseprocessescanresultinionizedN
andO,whichenhancechemicalreactivitytoformNOproductswiththeultimateformationofNO3.

AtmosphericionizationalsomayplayamajorroleintheproductionofNO3.Thisprocessisactiveonaglobalscaleregardlessoflatitudebecauseoftheinteractionof
galacticcosmicrays(GCRs)throughouttheatmosphere.Inthepolarregionsthereisadditionalatmosphericionizationwithinthemiddleandupperatmosphere
becauseofthechargedparticlesresultingfromsolaractivity.Changesinsolaractivitycanleadtolargevariationsintheabundanceofnitrogenoxidesinthe
thermosphereandmesosphere,particularlythroughauroralparticleprecipitation(Baker1994Barth1992Callisetal.1991Garciaetal.1984).

HighLatitudeSources

RELATIVELYLARGEAMOUNTSofNO3arefoundintheexistingicesheets,andevidencefromdrillingandsamplingofPleistoceneiceshowsthatNO3wasbeingsupplied
duringthePleistocene,aswell.ItisthisNO3inthePleistoceneicesheetsthathelpedtomaketheicemarginalzonessuitabletoherbivoresandcarnivores.Mostofthe
NO3thatreachedtheicemarginalzoneswasfromhighlatitudesources,depositedontheicesheetsbygravityandcarriedto

 Page50

Figure7.
MeltwaterlakesleftbytheretreatingLaurentideIceSheet.TheLaurentideicesheetoflateWisconsinantime
occupiedrelativelylowreliefterraininnortheasternNorthAmerica.ExtensiveareasofeasternCanadaandlarge
partsofthenortheasternUnitedStateswerecoveredatthemaximumextentoftheicesheet.Thelandsouthof
theicesheetgenerallyslopedsouthandeast,causingmostofthemeltwatertodraindowntheMississippi
RiversystemoreastwardintotheAtlanticOcean.Muchofthelandundertheicesheetwasdepressedbythe
weightoftheiceandwasslowtoreboundaftertheicemelted.Theresultingnorthwardandeastwardslopeof
theland,exposedbymeltingoftheLaurentideicesheet,causedaccumulationofmeltwateragainstthe
retreatingicemargin.Partialreboundofthedepressedlandeventuallydrainedmostoftheselakes,although
theGreatLakesandLakeWinnipegstillexistasremnants.Thisfigureshowsthemaximumextentofthe
proglaciallakes,althoughtheydidnotallexistatthesametime.Muchofthenitratereleasedfromtheice
sheetsbymeltingwastrappedintheselakes.Thiscausedextensiveplantandanimalproductionintheareas
exposedbythemeltingoftheicebeforethewaterfinallyfounditswaytothedrainagesystemsbeyondthe
formeredgeoftheicesheet.
[ModifiedafterTeller1987:4243].

themarginalzonesbyicemovement.ThissectiondiscussestheoriginsofthehighlatitudeNO3thatbecamepartoftheicesheetsandglaciersduringPleistoceneand
Holocenetimes.

Whenweconsidertheeffectsonbiologicalproductivityattheglacialmargins,itisimportanttolookattherelativesupplyofnutrientsinthenarrowregionofthe
marginalicezone.ThisisincontrasttothelargeadjacentbiogenicreservoirssuchasthetemperateforestsortheSouthernOcean(Biggs1978).Thenonbiogenic
contributiontothefixednitrogenbudgetinthehighlatitudes,includingthenitrogenbudgetinglacialice,isextremelysignificant,evenwhencomparedtotheverylarge
biogenicinputtothetotalglobalnitratebudget.Inadditiontothenormalnonbiogenicnitrateinfallathighlatitudes,therearespikelikeadditionsofnonbiogenicNO3
thataddtothenutrientlevels(Parkeretal.1978a,1978b).ThesehigherleveladditionsofnonbiogenicNO3becomeevenmoresignificantduringtheearlyspring
melt,

 Page51

Figure8.
Meltwaterlakesanddrainagedistributariesleftbythemelting
oftheLakeMichiganlobeoftheLaurentideIceSheetinthelate
Pleistocene.Drainagedisruptedbydepressionsandmorainesleft
bytheretreatingicecausedtheaccumulationofmeltwater.
Nitraterichmeltwaterwasveryslowtopassthroughthearea
beforereachingefficientdrainagesystems,thuscontributing
tothedevelopmentofnutrientrichvegetationinsuchglacial
marginzones.Theseregionsstillcontainmanyareasof
standingwaterandswampsthathavenotdrainedorbeen
filledinbysedimentation.
[ModifiedafterTeller1987:47.]

whenthemostcriticalgrowthrateoccursinplants(Brownetal.1973Gorham1958JohannessenandHenricksen1978).

Thechemicalconstituentsfoundinpolarglacialice,includingthehighlatitudeNO3,arevitaltothebiologicalproductivityoftheglacialmargins.Inordertounderstand
thebiologicalproductivityoftheglacialmarginalzones,itisnecessary,first,todiscusstheunusualmechanismthatpermitshighlatitudebiogenicandnonbiogenic
plantnutrientsto(a)formand(b)bedepositedonthesurfacesofbothpolarregions.Basically,variouschemicalfluxestotheicesheetsofGreenland(Figure9)and
Antarctica(Figure10)canbedividedintothefollowinggroups:crustal(Ca,Mg),seasalt(Na,C1,K),sulfate(mostlyvolcanicandmarinebiogenicsources),and
NH4andNO3(Legrandetal.1988Mayewskietal.1993Zielinskietal.1996).

InbulkaerosolsamplescollectedoverAntarctica,NH4occursinconcentrationsthatvarybymorethan50percent,withthehighestvaluesfoundintheAntarctic
Peninsula(WestAntarctica),andthelowestfoundatMawsonStation(EastAntarctica).Incontrast,NO3valuesarehigherbyafactoroftwoatMawsonStation.
BecauseNH4concentrationsgenerallyaremuchlowerthanNO3concentrationsinpolarice(Mayewskietal.1993Tayloretal.1993),theoriginofNO3inhigh
latitudeicesheetsandglaciersisofprimaryinterest.

OnesourcefortheNH4ionsisknownfrombiomassburningonlandatlowerlatitudes,theresultsofwhicharethencarriedtohigherlatitudesbyatmospheric
circulation.NH4alsomayoccurassociatedwithsulfateas(NH4)2SO4frommarinesources(Delmasetal.1985).AnothersourceofNH4maybeproducedbyimpacts
ofextraterrestrialbodiesontheatmosphere.Recently,alargespikeinammoniumformatethatseemstobeassociatedwiththeTunguskaatmosphericimpacteventof
1908hasbeendetectedinaGreenlandicecore(Peel1993).Largemeteoritesmayconvertatmosphericnitrogentonitrates,ashasbeenindicatedbythecoincidence
oflargequantitiesofnitricacidonthesurfaceoftheearthimmediatelyfollowingtheimpactoftheCretaceousTertiarybolide(Retallack1996).

AllevidenceindicatesthatthePleistoceneicesheetsoftheNorthernandSouthernHemispheresweregreatreservoirsoffixednitrates.Adeepcoredrilledbythe
RussiansatVostokStationinthecentralEastAntarcticicesheethasbeenanalyzedforanumberoftracespeciesincludingfixednitrogenintheformofNO3,SO4,
anddeuteriumhydrogenratios(deltaD).Althoughthesechemicalspecieshavebeenshowntohaveaverywiderangeofconcentrations(Figure10),atnotimeinthe
last150kaB.P.didthequantitiesoffixednitrogenintheicesheetapproachzero.ThisisalsotrueforNO3duringthelast40kameasuredinicecoresfromthe
Greenlandicesheet(Figure9).

ThenaturalsourcesofNO3areprimarilyterrestrial,marine,andatmosphericinorigin.TheexceptionsintheenvironmentaremodernanthropogenicNO3.Theglobal
NO3sourcesandtheirregionsofinfluencewithintheatmosphere(altitude)aresummarizedinTable1,basedonsummariesinLegrandetal.(1989)andWolff(1995).

 Page52

Figure9.
Presenceofnitrogenandsulfatesandtheratioofoxygen18toOxygen16intheGreenlandIceSheet
Project(GISP)icecoreduringlatePleistoceneandHolocenetimes.TheGISPicecorewasdrilledinto
thecentralGreenlandicesheettoreachicethatwasdepositedassnowover40,000yearsago(40ka
B.P.).Delta018(d18O),theratioofoxygen18tooxygen16,indicatestheaveragetemperatureat
thetimeofsnowfall.Lessnegatived18O(totherightonthegraph)indicateshighertemperatures.
Highersulfate(SO4)isindicativeofgreatervolcanicactivity,especiallyintheNorthernHemisphere.
Nitrogenasammonia(NH4)andasnitrate(NO3)wasbeingdepositedontheicesheetthroughoutthelate
PleistoceneandHolocene(40katopresent),but(NH4)washighestjustpriortotheinitiationoftheHolocene
(afterMayewskietal.1994).

Nitricacid(HNO3)ingaseousoraerosolform,mostlyoftroposphericandstratosphericorigin,isincorporatedinthesnowlayersoftheicesheets.Stratosphericnitric
acid,whateveritsorigin,mayundergotheprocessofparticulateformation,duetoheterogeneousreactions,particularlyinwinterandspring,inthecoldpolar
atmosphere.EfficientdownwardtransportofNO3fromthestratospheretothesurfaceofthepolaricesheetoccurswithintheisolationofthepolarwinteratmosphere
byformationofPolarStratosphericClouds(PSCs).ThepresenceofPSCssuggeststheremovalofnitricacidfromthegasphasebycondensationanddehydrationto
thesolidphase,formingrelativelylargeparticlesofnitricacidtrihydrate(McElroyetal.1988Woffsyetal.1990).FortheArctic,ithasbeenshownthat
denitrificationoftheatmospherealsocantakeplacewithoutdehydration,bygrowthandsedimentationofparticulateshighinnitricacid(Faheyetal.1990).New
insightsintothecloudmicrophysicsthatleadtotheformationofPSCsanddownwardtransportarestillevolvinghowever,thereisnodoubtthatHNO3contributesa
significantmassfractiontothestratosphericaerosols(Tabazadehetal.1994).Duringthepolarnight,thelowtemperatureconditionspermitgaseousHNO3tobe
transformedintothesolidphaseortoliquiddropletform(Song1994).The

 Page53

Figure10.
Presenceofnitrates,sulfate,anddeuteriumintheVostok,Antarctica,icecoreduringthelatePleistocene.TheVostok
corepenetrated2,000mintothecenteroftheEastAntarcticicesheet,sufficienttoreachpreSangamon(preEemian)
ice.Thegraphontherightshowsthecontentofdeuteriumintheiceinrelationtohydrogen.Areasofthecurve
above(totherightof)about4400/ 00indicateprecipitationofsnowduringwarminterglacials.Thepeakatthetopofthe
coreisinsnowthatfellintheHolocene(~10kaB.P.topresent),whilethepeakatadepthofabout1,700misinicethat
fellassnowduringthelastinterglacial(Sangamon),about125kaB.P.DuringthelatePleistocene(betweenabout250
and1,600m,10kaand100kaB.P.),temperaturesfluctuatedbetweencoolandcold,butatnotimeweretheyaswarmas
duringtheinterglacials.Sulfate(middlegraph)andfixednitrogen(lowergraph)showthathighquantitieswereprecipitated
withsnowjustbeforethetwointerglacials,andlesseramountsduringlatePleistocenetime.Atnotimeduring
thelast150kadidfixednitrogenintheVostokicefallbelow~10ng/gofice.
[ModifiedfromLegrandetal.1988.]

denitrificationofthestratospherebygravitationalsedimentationtothepolaricesheetsisclearlynotspatiallyeven,e.g.,throughoutthearcticbasin(Notholt1994).
EvidenceforefficientdownwardtransportofNO3intotheupperstratosphere(Koukeretal.1995)athighlatitudescomesfrommeasurementsbytheNimbus7
satellite.Inaddition,penetrationofstratosphericairintothetropopausehasbeenreportedbyGruzdevandSitmov(1992),aswellassubsidenceintheArcticwinter
stratosphere(Toonetal.1992)andverticalredistributionofHNO3aerosolsbysedimentation(Arnoldetal.1989).

SolarTerrestrialInteractionSourcesofNitrates

THESUNISTHEDRIVINGFORCEintheenvironmentattheearth'ssurface.However,whenconsideringsolarterrestrialinteractions,theemphasisisnotonthelargestreamof
energythatreachestheearthintheformofelectromagneticradiation(whichincludesthelargestsourceofenergyforallprocessesonearth).Rather,inourdiscussion
ofsolarterrestrialreactions,werefertothevariablepartofsolarradiationthatiscloselyrelatedtothestrengthofthesolaractivity,aswellasthesolarparticleflux
interceptedbytheearth.Thisvariablesolarradiationconstitutesonlyafractionoftheenergythatiscarriedtowardtheearthbytheconstantportion(solarconstant),
butitisextremelysignificantfortheprocesseswearediscussing.Wewillfocushereonthevariableradiationanditseffectontheupperatmosphereoverthemagnetic
polesoftheearth.

 Page54

Figure11.
Auroraloval.Solarparticlesapproachingtheearthinteractwiththe
earth'smagneticfieldandarefunneledtowardthenorthandsouth
geomagneticpoles.Theyproduceluminousemissionsofatomsand
moleculesinthepolarupperatmosphereinanirregularcirclearound
thegeomagneticpolestheauroralovals.Theposition,shape,and
strengthoftheauroralovalschangewiththelevelofactivityofthe
sunandthefluxofcosmicradiationreachingtheearth.Thegreatest
generationofupperatmospherenitrateisassociatedwiththeauroral
ovals.Thisillustrationshowstheusuallocationofthenorthernauroral
ovalduringaperiodoflowsolaractivity.DuringPleistoceneperiodsof
highersolaractivity,theauroralringexpandedtocoveragreaterextent
ofthePleistocenelocationsoftheNorthernHemisphereicesheetson
Eurasia,NorthAmerica,andGreenland,explainingthehighamountsof
fixednitrogenintheseicesheets.
[Modifiedfrom1995GeophysicsInstitute,UniversityofAlaska.]

Themostobviousvisiblevariableonthesunisthechangeinthenumberandareaofsunspots.Every11.1years,onaverage,theyreachapeakthatisassociatedwith
strongmagneticfields.Thesunspotsalsoaresubjecttoaquasiperiodicmagneticcycle,withadurationofabout22.2years,duringwhichthenumbersandareasof
thesunspotsundergochange.Thepeaksofsunspotactivityusuallyarenotallofthesamemagnitude,thevariationinpeakmagnitudeshowingacyclicalpatternof
about80years,calledtheGleisbergcycle.Inaddition,therearelongertermvariations,duringwhichsunspotsalmostdisappearforlongperiods,suchasduringthe
Maunderminimumfrom1645A.D.to1715A.D.andtheSpoererminimumfrom1450A.D.to1550A.D.(Eddy1976)or,conversely,periodssuchasthe
Medievalmaximumfrom1100A.D.to1250A.D.(Noyes1982)inwhichthesunspotmaximamayhavebeenespeciallyhighforlongperiodsoftime.

Themagneticregionsinandaroundsunspotsarecalledactiveregionsfortheyaretheseatofviolentmagneticactivity,includingthephenomenonofsolarflares.Solar
flaresarethesourceoflargeenergyreleases,includingultravioletradiation,Xrays,gammarays,andchargedparticles.Sucheruptionsofenergeticparticles,called
solarprotonevents(SPEs),maylastuptoseveraldays.Theirtraveltimetoearthrangesfrom20to40hours.Oftentheenergyreleaseinasolarflarecanproduce
highenergyparticles,whichincludeelectrons,protons,andalphaparticles.Asthechargedparticlesreachtheearth'senvironment,theyareguidedbytheearth's
magneticfieldlinesandthushavealmostfreeaccesstothepolarregionsoftheearth(Armstrongetal.1989).Theseeffectsproducetheauroralring,illustratedin
Figure11,wheremanynitratesareformed.

VerylargeincreasesintheproductionofNOspeciesareknowntooccurthroughtheionizationprocess,especiallyinthepolarwinterstratosphere,butmostlyat
ionosphericaltitudes(Barth1992Callisetal.1991).AsaresultofmeasurementsofNO3concentrationsacrosstheAntarcticcontinent,itisbelievedthattheauroral
zonefootprintispreservedinAntarcticsnow(Dreschhoffetal.1993Qinetal.1992).Largerperiodsofvariationinsolaractivity(Maunderminimum,Spoerer
minimum,Medievalmaximum)havebeenfoundandidentifiedintwoindependenticecoresfromthehighicesheetsofEastAntarctica(ZellerandParker1981).They
reportedthatmodulationbysolaractivitycauseddetectablevariationinNO3concentrationsinthe1,200yearsequencefromSouthPoleicecoreandina~3,200
yearsequencefromtheGeomagneticSouthPole(VostokStation)icecoreontheEastAntarcticicesheet.Thisvariation

 Page55

Table1.
GlobalSourcesofNitratesthatContributetoConcentrationsFoundinPolarIceSheets.
Source Location Altitude GlobalTotalsTg(N)/yr
Soilexhalation Surface Troposphere 810.8
Biomassburning Surfaces Troposphere 12(70%humancontrol)
Lightning 015kmTropics Troposphere 2.62.8
N2Ooxidation 2050kmStratosphere Stratosphere 0.7

GalacticCosmicRays Stratosphere Stratosphere 0.06atsolarmaximum

(GCRs) +Troposphere +Troposphere 0.086atsolarminimum
Downfluxfrom >85kmThermosphere Mesosphere+auroral 0.0030.01atsolarmaximum
Thermosphere zonewinterStratosphere ~0atsolarminimum

revealsitselfasloweraverageyearlybackgroundvaluesofNO3duringthetwoknownperiodsoflowsunspotnumbersandashighervaluesduringtheMedieval
maximumfrom~850yrB.P.to700yrB.P.(~11001250A.D.)

TheMedievalmaximumwasidentifiedthroughthestudyof14Ctreeringdata.Thisperiodseemstohavebeenatimeofunusuallyhighmagneticactivity.Theisotope
14Ciscontinuouslycreatedbyhighenergygalacticcosmicray(GCR)particlesenteringtheglobalatmosphere.Thehighenergyparticlescollidewiththenitrogen

(14N)atomsintheearth'satmosphereandform14C.Thisradioactiveisotopeofcarbonenterslivingorganisms,suchasplants,whereitcanbemeasured.TheGCR
fluxatthesurfaceoftheearthissubjecttotemporalchangesbecauseitcanbeeffectivelyshieldedfromtheearthbythevaryinglevelsofthemagneticfieldsassociated
withsolaractivityvariations.Forthisreason,14Ctreeringdataareanticorrelatedwithsolaractivity.Itthereforeseemsverylikelythattheionizationofthepolar
atmospherebysolarparticlesfromtheauroralzonedowntothestratospherenotonlyplaysamajorpartintheproductionofnitrogenoxides,butultimately
contributestothedownwardfluxofNO3(Barth1992Garciaetal.1984).CloudmicrophysicsprocessesinthemiddleatmospheremakethispossibleviaPSCs
(polarstratosphericclouds)andternarycompositiondroplets.TheconversionofgaseousHNO3totheliquidorsolidphaseresultsinaerosolparticlesofnitricacid
thatcanbedepositedwiththesnowonthepolaricesheets.

ThisconcepthasbeentestedfurtherbycorrelatingsatellitemeasurementsofsolarparticlefluxinspacewiththeNO3fluxmeasurementsonthesurfaceofthepolarice
sheets.VeryhighresolutionsequencesfromAntarctica(DreschhoffandZeller1990)andrecentlyfromGreenland(DreschhoffandZeller1994Zellerand
Dreschhoff1995)revealclearevidencethatthesnowcontainsachemicalrecordofionizedchemicalspeciesresultingfrominteractionwithchargedparticlesfrom
individualmajorsolarprotonevents.Sucheventsrepresentshortpulses(timescalesofonetoafewweeks)ofsharplyincreasedlevelsofNO3concentrations,upto
sevenstandarddeviationsabovethemeanofthecompletesequence.

Inthe415yearNO3recordfromGreenland(Summitsite),variationcausedbythe11yearsolaractivitycycleislessdramatic,butclearlypresent,asarelonger
periodsoflowsolaractivity,suchastheDaltonminimum(18001835A.D.)andtheMaunderminimum(16451715A.D.)Duringtheseperiods,occurrenceof
anomalousincreasedvaluesarereducedtoaboutonethirdoftheaverageoccurrenceintheremainingNO3(ZellerandDreschhoff1995).

Unfortunately,ultrahighresolutionmeasurementsoftheNO3nutrientlevelsinicesheetshavebeenobtainedforonlythepastfewhundredyears.Thereisarealneed
todeterminetheNO3concentrationsduringtheintervalneartheendofthelastglacialperiod.HighlevelsofNO3havebeenreportedintheVostokicecorefrom
AntarcticainicedepositedthroughthelatePleistocene/earlyHolocenetimeinterval(Legrandetal.1988).Theseconcentrationsincreasebyafactorofaboutsix
throughthisperiodofseveralthousandyears(seeFigure10).Theselargeincreaseshavebeeninterpretedasbeingtheresultofdepositionofnitratesaltsfrom
terrestrialsources.

AnothersourceofsuchincreasesinNO3verywellcouldhavebeentheoceanitself.Ashasbeenreported(Graneshrametal.1995),thenutrientinventoryofthe
oceanmayhavebeensuchthatNO3levelsweremuchhigherduringglacialperiodsthanduringnonglacialtimes.AnattempttocomparetheNO3concentrationsfrom
twodeepicecoresfromtheicesheetsofbothhemispheresshowsthatmajordifferencesexist.Forexample,theGreenlanddatabetween10and30kaB.P.(Figure
9)failtoshowthelargeincreasesthatcharacterizetheVostokcore(Figure

 Page56

Table2.
SummaryofnitrateconcentrationsinPleistoceneandHoloceneicefrombothpolarregions.DatafromClausenand
Langway(1989)DelmasandLegrand(1989)Legrandetal.(1988)andMayewskietal.(1994)
Site HoloceneandPreindustrialConcentrations LastGlacialMaximum
ng/g(NO3) Concentrationsng/g(NO3)

Greenland: Dye3 52 40
Crete 60
Summit 70 >70(~1540kaB.P.)

CampCentury 71 2060

Average 63 ~50

Antarctica:
SouthPole 74
Vostok* 54
Vostok** 15 ~87(>150at~30kaB.P.)

Byrd 40 49

Average 46 ~68

ng/g(NO3)=nanogramspergramofnitrate *Clausen **Legrandetal.1988

and
Langway
1989,

10)atthesametimeperiod.AccordingtoMayewskietal.(1994),preHoloceneNO3,aswellasNH4data,displayrelativelysmallvariations.Thereasonsforthese
differencesarenottheprimaryconcernofthispaper.Rather,weareconcernedwiththeNO3variability,andaccumulationinthepolaricesheetsthatmakesNO3
availableasnutrientsatthetimetheicesheetsmelt.

Table1presentsasummaryofglobalproductionofNO3atdifferentlatitudes.Contributionstothehighlatitudesmayvaryaccordingtothedifferentsourceregions.
Forexample,theestimatesofcontributionsfrombiomassburningandlightningtothehighlatitudeswillhavetobereducedconsiderablybelowthefiguresinthe
summary.InthecaseoftheproductionofNO3formedintheupperatmosphereabovethecentralGreenlandicesheet(Table1),contributionsfromlargesolarproton
events(SPEs)areverysmall,ascomparedwithtotalglobalandyearlyproduction.Theyrangefromabout7percentto34percentoftheyearlyNO3valuedeposited
onthecentralGreenlandicesheet(ZellerandDreschhoff1995).However,thecomponentofNO3fromSPEscanbedominantforashortperiodoftime,onthe
orderofonetotwomonths.Althoughsuchincreasesareshortterm,transient,orirregularevents,atincreasedlevelsofsolaractivitytheymaycontributesignificantly
toavailablenutrientlevelswhenmeltinginglaciersoricesheetsoccurs.

DistributionandUtilizationofPlantNutrients

FIXEDNITROGENISABSOLUTELYessentialtosoilfertilityandtothegrowthandreproductionofbothplantsandanimals.Thishasbeenrecognizedbyagriculturalistsfor
thousandsofyears,aspeopleincentralTurkeyintentionallyhaveinterplantednitrogenfixingplants(legumes)withcerealgrainstoreplacethenitrogendepletedfrom
thesoilbythesegrainssinceatleasteightmillenniaago(Gimbutas1991:19).Plantsandanimalscannotexistwithoutnitrogen(SchreinerandBrown1938:361).
InsufficientNO3causespoorcolor,poorquality,andlowproductioninplants,whereasasufficientsupplyofavailableNO3allowsearly,rapidgrowthwithgoodcolor
andgoodhealth.PlantswithsufficientNO3alsoaremuchbetterabletoutilizePandKinthesoil(SchreinerandBrown1938,p.370).Nitrogenwouldhaveactedas
theprimarylimiterofplantproductivityinthePleistocene,asitdidintheHoloceneanddoesinthepresent.

DistributionofNitrates

SOMEPLANTS,SUCHASlegumes,havetheabilitytofixNasNO3directly,butmostplantsaredependentuponexternalsourcesofthisnutrient.Forexample,ineach
specificyear,atmosphericfalloutequivalentrangesfrom500to800kgofNaNO3/km2/yrintemperatezones(SchreinerandBrown1938:364).Microorganismsand

 Page57
2
legumebacteriaaddanaverageequivalentofabout12,000kgofNaNO3/km /yrinwellvegetatedareas.Inanotherrecentestimate,intheabsenceofhumanactivities
thebioticfixationasaprimarysourceofnitrogenisreportedtoamountto90130Tg(N)/yronthetotalcontinentalareasoftheworld(Gallowayetal.1995).Ifthis
amountweretobedistributedasfalloutovertheentireearth,thefluxwouldbe176255kg/km2/yr.ThisamountismuchlargerthantheNO3fixationthatoccursfrom
thechemicalprocessesactiveinboththetroposphereandthestratosphere.ActualmeasurementsofNO3inpolariceindicatefalloutintwoofthemajoricesheets
(seeTable2forcomparisontotheestimatesabove).

Theestimateof7.4Tg(N)peryearfortheworldatmosphericproductionmaybeexcessive(Parkeretal.1978a,1978b).Asitisrecognizedthatthestratospherein
thepolarregionsplaysamajorroleasasourceofreactivenitrogenfordepositioninthepolaricesheets(Delmas1994Wolff1995),furtherdataareexaminedand
presentedwhichreflectinputsfrompurelyatmosphericprocesses.

TheNO3producedinthestratospherespiralsdownbygeneralcirculationinonehalfyearorsototheloweratmosphere.Generalwesttoeastcirculationofthe
atmospherewilldistributethisNO3aroundthepolarareasoftheworld,andthentothesurfacebywayofrainandsnow,largelyinthepolarregions.Although
stratosphericNO3isspreadbyatmosphericcirculation,thereisstillsufficientconcentrationintheareasofproductionthatmostoftheNO3producedintheauroral
ringwouldprecipitateoutinthegeneralareasundertheauroralring.Thenetdownwardfluxofreactivenitrogenfromthestratospheretothetroposphereaverages
0.45Tg(N)peryear(MurphyandFahey1994).Thisvaluecomparesquitewellwith0.64Tg(N)fromN2Ooxidationinthestratosphere(MulvaneyandWolff1993).
Ifthisamountweredistributedevenly,theglobalfluxwouldbeabout1.25kg(N)/km2/yearhowever,asdiscussedabove,itisnotevenlydistributed.

Thistypeofstratosphericfixednitrogenwillcontribute,byprecipitationanddrydeposition,tothebackgroundvaluesastheyarefoundintheyearlysnowlayersofthe
polaricesheets.InTable2theNO3concentrationsfoundinAntarctica(mostlycentrallocations)andGreenlandarelisted.AsshownbyClausenandLangway
(1989)andseeninTable2,theaverageannualdepositionofHNO3isclearlyhigherinGreenlandthaninAntarcticaforperiodsoftimewhentheanthropogenic
contributionsinGreenlanddidnotplayarole.ThisiscausedinpartbythegeographicalpositionofGreenland,downwindfrommajorcontinents(EurasiaandNorth
America),ascomparedwiththeisolationofAntarctica.Theselocationaldifferencesleadtomajordifferencesinwindcirculationandatmosphericdynamicconditions
betweentheArcticandAntarctic.IftheNO3concentrationsinTable2areconvertedtofluxvalues(amountsthatfalltoearth),theyarefoundtorangefrom18to26
kg(NO3)/km2/yr(4.15.9kg(N)/km2/yr)inGreenlandand15kg(NO3)/km2/yr(0.291.23kg(N)/km2/yr)inAntarctica.

PolaricehasbeenfoundtocontainsubstantialamountsoftheNH4ion,whichisthoughttobefromorganicsources,becauseitisnotknowntobeformedbychemical
reactionsintheatmosphere.FixednitrogenfromNH4ionsourcescanbeshowntomakeacontributionofupto70percentoffixednitrogentotheNO3budgetinthe
ice(Parkeretal.1978a,1978b).Asamatteroffact,atotalinputof46,100metrictonsoffixednitrogenfromNO3NandNH4Ntotheicesheetsperyearhasbeen
estimated,ofwhich27,300metrictons,ormorethanhalf,resultfromNO3N,oranestimatedfluxofabout2kg(N)/km2/yr.Thisfluxvaluecanrangesubstantially,
notonlyacrosstheicesheet,butalsothroughoutdifferenttimeperiods.Onshorttimescales,suchasseasonalvariations,ionizationintheatmosphereofthepolar
regionscanplayaverysignificantrole,particularlyduringperiodsofincreaseinsolarcosmicrays.AlthoughN2Ooxidationusuallyisthelargestsourceofreactive
nitrogeninthepolarstratosphere,Vitt(1994)hasshownthatN2Ooxidationissurpassedbyafactorofmorethan30duringperiodsofunusuallylargesolarproton
events.Evenifonlyafractionofthisincreasereachestheground(ZellerandDreschhoff1995),theseeventswilladdrelativelylargeNO3valuestotheNO3
backgroundinshortperiodsoftime.

ThespatialdistributionofNO3fluxtothehighpolarplateau,inassociationwiththeauroraloval(ZellerandParker1981),isfoundtobecharacterizedbyhigherNO3
valuesunderzonesofmaximumauroralactivity(Qinetal.1992).Thisiscalledtheauroralfootprint.Thedifferenceinfluxbetweenthemaximumfalloutzonesand
thoseoutsidetheauroralzoneisclosetoafactoroftwo,withthehighestvaluebeing4.4kg/km2/yr.Othermechanisms,suchastransportfromoceans,seemtobe
importantatsomecoastalstationsontheAntarcticPeninsula,whereNO3fluxvaluesashighas9kg/km2/yrcanbereached(Qinetal.1992).Asimilarresultmaybe
expectedinassociationwith

 Page58

Figure12.
EarlyPleistoceneageterminalmoraineinKansas.DiagrammaticcrosssectioninthevicinityoftheUniversityofKansas,
showingtheterminalmoraineofanearlyPleistoceneicesheet,theprojectedprofileoftheicesheetadvancingfromthenorth,
andthelensoffossilgroundwaterintheterminalmoraine.Verticalblackcolumnsbelowthelandsurfacerepresentwaterwells.
[Basedonpersonalcommunication,Dr.FrankFoley,UniversityofKansas,1962].

thenorthernauroralovalintheNorthernHemisphere(Figure11).However,aseriesoftraversescollectingfrequentsamplesfromdeepsnowpits,equivalenttothose
intheAntarctic,hasnotyetbeenaccomplished.

Theseaveragevaluescanbeconsideredasaminimumfalloutrateforfixednitrogencompounds,anditishighlyunlikelythatanyoftheicesheetsthatcoveredportions
ofNorthAmericaduringthePleistocenewouldhavehadaccumulationrateslowerthantheaccumulationratesduringtheHolocene.Nitrateaccumulationsanalyzedin
icecoresrecoveredfromPleistoceneiceinGreenlandandAntarcticashowlevelsashighorhigherthanNO3inHoloceneiceinthepolarregions(Figures9and10).
ThisisparticularlythecaseforthedeepVostokcore(Legrandetal.1988),wherethefactorof5.6forNO3valuesbetweentheLGMandtheHhasbeenreported.
ThisconclusioncannotbeappliedtootherareasinAntarctica,asotherlocationsdonotshowsuchlargeincreasesduringtheLGM.TheLGM/HratioforNO3is
aboutoneinGreenland,andtheNH4contentinGreenlandicefortheHoloceneisappreciablyhigherthanfortheLGM(seeFigure9).

Generally,itcanbeconcludedthatNO3accumulatesinsubstantialquantitiesinthepolaricesheets(ZellerandParker1981).Thismeansthatpolaricesheetsacted,
andcontinuetoact,ascoldtrapsthataccumulatevolatilenitrogencompoundsbyfreezingthemoutoftheairasinclusionsinsnowgrainsformedintheatmosphere.It
isimportanttorememberthatoncefixednitrogenisdepositedinanicesheet,itispreservedwithoutsignificantchemicalbreakdownuntilitisreleasedtothe
environmentbymelting.

NutrientTransfertoGlacialMargins

THENO3THATFALLSOUTOnglaciersisnotdegradedorchanged,butisdeliveredtotheglacialsnoutormarginbynormalglacialmovementtowardthemarginsandby
meltwaterflowinthesamedirection.Attheglacierandicesheetmargins,NO3inthemeltwaterissupplementedbyNO3inlocalrainandsnowfalls.Theentiremass
offixednitrogennutrientsisconcentratedalongtheglacialmargins,inglacialoutwash,inglacialfills,inproglaciallakes,andinrunoffwaterchannels(Figures7and8).
ThisconcentrationofNO3isparticularlyhighalongstableorretreatingicemargins.Glacialtillswithveryhighconcentrationsoffixednitratehavebeennotedinatleast
twoplacesinNorthAmerica:

(1)InsouthernAlberta(Hendryetal.1984),tillsdepositedbyPleistoceneiceandassociatedgroundwaterhavebeenfoundtocontainhighlevelsoffixednitrogen
and

(2)InKansas(Dr.FrankFoley,UniversityofKansas,personalcommunication1962),ahighconcentrationoffixednitrogenwasfoundinanearlyPleistocene
terminalmoraine(Dort1985)immediatelysouthoftheUniversityofKansas(Figure12).

 Page59

Discoveryofthisoccurrencewastheresultoftheinvestigationofnumerousdeathsofinfantsonfarmslocatedontheterminalmoraine.Itwasfoundthatartificial
fertilizerwasnotthesourceofthenitrate.Itwasdeterminedthathighnitratewaterusedformakingthebabyformulawasfromwellstappingfossilgroundwater
derivedfromglacialmeltwaterfromtheearlyPleistoceneicesheet.Theinfantsbeingfedliquidformulamadewithlocalgroundwaterdiedofbluebabysyndrome,a
typicalreactiontohighintakeofnitrate,whilethosethatwerenursedsurvived.

IcesheetsduringlatePleistocene(Wisconsinan)time,andprobablyalsoduringpriorglacialperiods,usuallywereindynamicstatesofadvanceorretreat,asaresult
ofongoingclimaticchanges.SomeoftheseclimaticchangesaresummarizedbyMayewskietal.(1981:Figure23,Table21)andbyAndersen(1981:Table11).

Duringperiodsoficesheetstability,whentherateofadvanceisequaltotherateofmeltoff,thefixednitrogencontributiontothemarginalenvironmentwillbe
proportionaltothemassoficethatmeltseachyear,plustheadditionalatmosphericfalloutthatoccursduringtheyearonthemarginalzone.Duringperiodsofactual
icefrontretreat,itmightbepossibletomeltinasingleyearthetotalamountoficethatwouldhaverequiredmanyyearstoaccumulate.Inthiscase,thetotalfixed
nitrogencontributiontotheenvironmentwouldrepresenttheaverageyearlyaccumulation,timesthenumberofyearsmobilizedbymelting.Therefore,theicesheet
itselfcanberegardedasareservoiroffixednitrogenthatreleasesitssupplyofthisnutrientindirectproportiontothetemperaturealongtheicefront.Thisresultsin
increasedfixednitrogenreleaseatpreciselythetimewhenplantgrowthismostrapid.

Greenlandpresently,andasanaverageforthelast1,000years,receivesabout1535kg(NO3)/km2/yroffixednitrogenfromallsources(ClausenandLangway
1989).ItislikelythattheefficiencyoffixednitrogenaccumulationinthePleistoceneNorthAmericanicesheetswouldhavebeengreaterthanfortheHolocene
GreenlandicesheetbyaboutafactoroftwobecauseoftheirlocationsrelativetotheNorthGeomagneticPole.TheNorthGeomagneticPoleissurroundedbyaring
ofmaximumstratosphericionizationthatresultsfromincomingchargedparticlesfromsolarandgalacticsourcesandfromelectronprecipitationfromradiationbelts
surroundingtheearth(Figure11),andaremajorlociofatmosphericNO3production.ThisauroralringwouldhavebeenessentiallyoverheadatthemainNO3
precipitationandaccumulationcentersoftheicesheetsineasternNorthAmericaduringtheIceAges,whiletheGreenlandicesheetwasnotdirectlyundertheauroral
ringduringthelateHolocene.

Inastableicesheet,thedischargeofNO3atthemarginwillbeequaltotheaverageannualinfallofNO3overtheentireicesheet.Inanexpandingicesheet,themargin
isadvancing,andthetotalvolumeoficeisincreasingandmeltingisminimal.Thus,duringexpansion,thefixednitrogendischargedatthemarginwillbelessthanthe
averageinfallovertheicesheet.Inashrinkingicesheet,themarginisretreatingandthetotalvolumeoficeisbeingreduced,sothat,duringshrinkage,thefixed
nitrogendischargedatthemarginwillbegreaterthantheaverageinfall.

Fixednitrogendischargewillnotbeevenalongtheicesheetmargins,butwillbehigherinareasofrapidmelting(DentonandHughes1981)orinareasofice
streaming(Hughesetal.1981:Figure66Mayewskietal.1981:141157,Figure22MonaghanandLarson1986Monaghanetal.1986Soller1992,1993,
1997,1998Stuiveretal.1981:417431).Inareasoficestreaming,largerquantitiesoficearedeliveredperkmoftheicemarginthaninareasbetweenicestreams.
Thefixednitrogendischargeatanyspecificpointalongthemarginwillbeindirectratiototheareaoftheicesheetsurfaceupstreamfromthemargin.

Ratesofmotionforiceinmajorexistingicesheetsarebeingmeasured,butoverallaverageestimatesarestillpreliminary.Icevelocitiesof510m/yrhavebeen
modeledforinteriorportionsoftheWestAntarcticicesheet(Buddetal.1985).MuchhighervelocitieshavebeenmeasuredforsomespecificplacesinAntarctica
forexample,thevelocityinIceStreamCinAntarcticais6.1m/yr,andicemotionintheRossiceshelfinAntarcticarangesfrom200to600m/yr.(Bindschadleretal.
1987).Theeffectoftheseslowvelocitiesisthatmoretimeisavailableforaccumulationofnitratesintheicesheetsandquantitiesofnitrateswouldbehigherthanfora
fastermovingicesheetinthesamelocation.

TheicesheetsinAntarcticaareextremelycoldandthereforemovemuchmoreslowlythanisthoughttohavebeenthecaseforthewarmerNorthernHemisphereice
sheetsinthetemperatezoneduringthePleistocene.TheotherpresentlyexistingmajoricesheetisonGreenland.Thisicesheethassurfacevelocitiesfromnearzeroin
thecenterofaccumulationto100m/yearnearthemajoroutletglaciers(Radok

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etal.1982:Figure4/9followingp.168).FortheLaurentideicesheetofNorthAmericaatitslastmaximum(about18kaB.P.),thedistancefromthecentersof
accumulationtothesouthernmarginsinthenorthcentralUnitedStateswasabout3,000km(FultonandAndrews1987).Icespeedrangedfromnearzeronearthe
centersofaccumulationtoestimatesofseveralkmsperyearneartheterminioffastmovingicestreams.EstimatesofthetotalvolumeoftheLaurentideicesheet
(BuddandSmith1981,1987)areabout30x106km3,andthetotalvolumeoftheNorthernHemisphereicesheetsandiceshelves(Grosswald1988)wasabout60x
106km3.ThisNorthAmericanicesheetoflatePleistocenetime,andearliericesheetsinthesamearea,servedasenormousreservoirsofnitrate.

TheAntarcticairmassthatnourishesthepresentAntarcticicesheetsprobablyislowinfixednitrogenfromnonsolarparticlesources.Theicesheetsareathigh
averageelevationsandthetrendforprevailingwindsoverAntarcticcoastalregionsisprimarilyoffshorethusmarinefixednitrogendoesnottransfereasilytoice
sheets.BiogenicfixednitrogentendstobeprecipitatedoutoftheatmospherebeforereachingtheAntarcticfromitscontinentsoforigin.Anothersource,atmospheric
fixednitrogenfromelectricaldischargessuchaslightning,isverylowaroundAntarctica.BecausethenorthernicesheetsofthelatePleistoceneextendedtomiddle
latitudesandwerelargelysurroundedbylargelandmasses,theywouldhavehadappreciableinfallfromterrestrialsources,inadditiontothesolarterrestrialsources,
causingincreasedtotalaccumulation.Therefore,itisverylikelythatthenorthernicesheetshadahigheraverageNO3contentthanthepresentAntarcticicesheet
becauseoftheadditionalcontributionsfromloweratmospheric,terrestrial,andmarinesources.

TheamountofNO3thataccumulatedoneachkm2oficesurfaceofthePleistoceneicesheetseachyearwasrelativelysmall,butsignificant,becausethisannual
incrementremainedinthesnowandiceandwassupplementedbytheincrementofeachsubsequentyear.Icemovinggraduallytowardthemarginoftheicesheetwas
uptoseveralkmsthick.InthecaseoftheLaurentideicesheet,itisestimatedtohavebeen4.5kmthick(BuddandSmith1987:284)atitsmaximumatapproximately
21to17kaB.P.(Mayewskietal.1981:144148).Thisrepresentedsome10,000yearsofsnowfall(VincentandPrest1987:Figure4).TheAntarcticicesheet,a
modernapproximateequivalentoftheLaurentideicesheet,ismorethan4kmthick(Stuiveretal.1981:385),andhasbeencalculatedtohavebeenatleastthatthick
duringthePleistocene(Hughesetal.1981:269Stuiveretal.1981:376).Thus,eachkm2oftheLaurentideicesheetwasthetipofaseveralkmtallcolumnofice
containingsome10,000yearsofnitrateinfallandrepresentingabout400900Tg(N)offixednitrogen.

Thesnowandicefromtheinterioroftheicesheetwascarriedtowardthemargin,asifitwereonaconveyerbelt,inawideningandthinningwedge(Hughes
1981:Figure55).Thesurfacewasreducedbyablationoftheiceparticles(directtransferfromsolidtogasphases),causingconcentrationofthenitrates.Inother
words,thevolumeoficeinthishypotheticalkmsquarecolumnwasconstantlyreduced,butcontinuedtocontainallitspreviouslyacquirednitrate,plusanadded
annualincrementonthetop.Bythetimeitreachedthemeltingmargin,theentirecontentofnitrate,representing10,000+yearsofnitrateaccumulation,wasavailable
fordischargewiththemeltwateralongthefrontoftheicesheet.Onlyinperiodswhentheicesheetwasexpandingandtheicefrontadvancingwouldtheamountof
nitratedischargedbereducedinproportiontotherateofadvance.

NutrientEnvironmentoftheGlacialMargins

STUDIESOFTHEGEOLOGYofthesouthernmarginsoftheNorthAmericanicesheetsandotherglacialmarginenvironments(MonaghanandLarson1986Monaghanetal.
1986Teller1987,1989Watson1980)showthatmeltwaterdischargeatthemarginwasdistributedbroadlyacrossgroundmorainesandoutwashplainsuntil
channeledbyearliermoraineslocatedfartheroutinthedirectionoftheiceflow.TheVatnajkullinIcelandisamodernicesheetintheNorthernHemispherethatlies
onrelativelyflattopography,similartothetopographyalongthesouthernmarginsoftheLaurentideicesheet.TheVatnajkull,whichisabout2,000mhighinits
interior,hassurgedanumberoftimesatvariouspointsalongitsperiphery.ThesouthernmarginofVatnajkullshowsabroad,braidedoutwashplain(Grove
1988:Figure2.16)thatmaybesimilartothatofthesouthernmarginsoftheLaurentideicesheetinNorthAmericaduringthePleistocene.Insomeareasalongthe
frontsoftheLaurentideicesheetandothercontinentalicesheets,geologicalstudiesshowthat

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therehavebeenicestreamsthatadvancedmorerapidlyandfartherthaniceinadjacentareas.

TheDesMoineslobeoftheLaurentideicesheetadvancedseveralhundredkmsouthofthemainicefront,intowhatispresentlyWisconsinandIllinois,duringlate
Wisconsinantime(Fryeetal.1965Wright1980:15WrightandRuhe1965).Thismayrepresentamegasurgeoftheicesheet.Suchextensionsoftheicefronts
wouldhavechannellediceandrelatedmeltwaterintorestrictedzonesalongtheicemarginalareas.Formerdrainagepatternsbeyondthemarginsoftheicesheet,even
inareasthathadnotbeenrecentlydirectlyglaciated,weredisruptedandfloodedbyexcessglacialsedimentsandmeltwaterthatcausedglacialdischargetospread
acrosswideareasonoutwashplainsandoutwashvalleytrains.Nutrientrichdischargewaterthusspreadwidelyoverazoneborderingtheicesheet.Thismarginal
zoneoccupiedwidthsofsomefewkilometers(Wright1980)tohundredsofkilometersalongcontinentalscaleicesheets(Fryeetal.1965:47,5358Goldthwaitet
al.1965WayneandZumberge1965WrightandRuhe1965).TheLakeMichiganicelobe(Monaghanetal.1986)thatcoveredtheareabetweenpresentday
ChicagoandPeoria,Illinois,duringthelatePleistocene(Figure8)leftanextensiveandcomplexsystemofmoraines,glacialoutwash,andmeltwaterlakesthatserved
asdistributariesandreservoirsfornitraterichwater.This,alongwithothersimilaricelobesalongthesouthernfrontoftheLaurentideicesheet,hasbeensuggestedto
havebeentheresultoficesheetsurges(Kemmisetal.1994MonaghanandLarson1986).

ThedischargewatersfromtheicesheetweresupplyingbroadareaswithNO3inamountsmanytimeshigherthantheNO3availabletogrowthareasunaffectedby
glacialmeltwaterfartherfromtheicesheet.Asaresultofhighsummertemperatures,icesheetmeltingoccurredduringtheprimarygrowingseasonofeachyear.

WithessentiallyunlimitedNO3,P,K,otheressentialelements,andH2O,plantgrowthinthisglacialmarginzonewouldhavebeenveryrapid,totalproductionwould
havebeenveryhigh,andthegrowingplantswouldhavebeenmuchmorenutritiousperunitofarea.Asaprobableresult,DelcourtandDelcourt(1991:6769)
indicatethatreestablishmentofvegetationindeglaciatedareasofcentralMinnesotawasveryrapid,evenbeforethecompletemeltingoficeblocksremainingafter
regionaldeglaciation.Thus,thecarryingcapacityforherbivorousanimals,suchasmammoths,mastodons,bison,etc.,wouldhavebeenproportionallyhigher
(SchreinerandBrown1938:370).ThiseffectofNO3fromtheicemayhavebeensignificantevenduringaperiodofrelativestabilityofanicesheet,asduringthe
periodofmaximumdevelopmentoftheNorthAmericanicesheetsinWisconsinantime(~2117kaB.P.)Duringaperiodofmajorclimaticchange,asfromthelate
WisconsinantotheearlyHolocene(~129kaB.P.),theeffectofNO3fromthemeltingicewouldhavebeenexaggerated.Thisisbecauseoff(1)greaterrateof
dischargethanrateofaccumulationbytheicesheet,thereforehigherNO3contentofthedischargeand(2)despitehighertemperaturesandhigherplantstressover
nonglacialNorthAmerica,therewouldhavebeenonlyminimaltemperaturechangealongtheglacialmargin,becausethepresenceoftheicesheetbufferedthe
temperaturechangesalongtheglacialmargin.

ItmaybeusefultocomparetheNO3yieldofmeltingglacierswiththatusedinmodernfarmingmethods,wheremaximumcoarsegrainproductionisachievedwitha
onetimenitrogenapplicationof20,000kgNO3/km2(SoilConservationService,U.S.D.A.,Lawrence,KS,personalcommunication,April1992).Efficiencyofplant
utilizationofthisNO3isloweredbythefactthattheapplicationsusuallyareperformedinasinglestageandnotspacedoutoverthegrowingseason,aswouldbethe
casewithglaciermeltwater.However,weestimatethattheplantdensityintheicemarginenvironmentwouldhavebeenonlyaboutonefifththedensityofplantsina
moderncornfield,becausemodernfarmingusesspeciallybredcornfordenseplanting,highgrowthrates,andhighyields.Usinganestimateof6kg(NO3)/km2/annual
icelayer,themeltingofanaccumulationofabout28yearsoficeinasingleseasonwouldsupplyatotalfluxof~150kg(NO3)/km2.However,thespikelike
preferentialconcentrationofnutrientsduringspringmeltwouldincreasethisamountto~500kg(NO3)/km2(byassuming3x6kg(NO3)/km2inspringmelt).Thisis
comparabletocurrentnitratefalloutintemperatezones.Itisimportanttonotethatthisillustrationcomparesthefixednitrogenyieldfrom1km2oficesurfacewiththe
biologicaldemandfor1km2ofglacialmarginterrain.

Inreality,thetotalareaofthemeltingcontinentalglacierwouldhavebeenmuchlargerthanthetotalareaoftheadjacentmarginalzone.A1kmwidthoficefront
representsanaverageofa0.5kmwedgeoficebetweenthecenterofaccumulationandtheicemargin(Hughes1981:237).Anadvancerateof500m/yr=1/4km
(advance)x1/2km(width)/yr=1/8

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2 2
km /yrx3kg(N)/yr/km x10,000yrs=3,750kg(N)/kmfront/yr.ThepeakcontributionduringthespringmeltcouldhaveincreasedtheNO3levelduringthegrowth
periodbyafactorof~3to~18.Ifthemarginalzoneofdisrupteddrainagewere100kmwide,theaverageNO3introducedtothemarginalzoneunderthese
conditionswouldbe37kg(N)/km2(~150kgNO3/km2)ofmarginalzone.EventhisconservativeestimateindicatesmorethanadequateNO3availabletoallow
immediateproductionoflushnutrientplantgrowthatthecriticalgrowthtimeoftheyear,thespring.

Precipitationoffixednitrogencompoundsfromthetropospherealongtheglacialmarginzonewouldhavebeenenhancedbecauseoftheaddedprecipitationcaused
byupslopeeffectsandcoolingrelateddirectlytotheicefront.Therealsoisevidencethatnitrogencompoundsmayserveasnucleationcentersforindividualice
crystalsunderthelowtemperatureconditionsthatprevailedovercontinentalicesheets.Theseinfluencesalsowouldhavecontributedtoageneralenrichmentoffixed
nitrogenintheportionoftheicesheetthatwasadjacenttothemarginalzone.Itisimportanttonotethatthepoordrainageconditionsthatcharacterizetheterrainleft
behindbyretreatingicemassesfrequentlyincludekettleholes,marshes,lakes,andpondsthatwouldprovideafavorableenvironmentforsometypesofbluegreen
algaeandlegumescapableoffixingnitrogen.Thesealgaeandhighernitrogenfixingplantswouldcontributeheavilytothenitrogenbudgetinareaswheretheycould
grow.Thedistributionoffixednitrogenfromthesesourceswouldbesubstantiallylessuniformthanthatprovidedbyglacialmeltwater,butwouldcontributetothe
overallbiologicalproductionoftheicemarginzone.Inaddition,bacteriainthegutoftheanimalsthatfeedontheplantswouldprovideanadditionalsourceoffixed
nitrogenintheformofbothnitrateandammoniumcompounds.Animalsalsoserveasanefficientdistributionmechanismforfixednitrogenpresentintheplantresidues.

AnumberofproxieshavebeenusedtoestimatetemperaturesinthePleistoceneandearlyHoloceneinthevicinityoftheicesheets.Alongseriesofdatahavebeen
derivedfromradiocarbondatedbeetlefossilsinNorthAmerica(Eliasetal.1996)thatshowthatsummertemperatures,ingeneral,startedtoriseby~13.7kaB.P.,
althoughsitesthatwereneartheicewereabout5Ccoolerthansitesawayfromtheice.Summertemperaturespeakedbetween12and11kaB.P.,whilewinter
temperaturesreachedmodernvaluessometimeafter10kaB.P.

ThecloseofPleistoceneclimaticconditionsandtheonsetofHoloceneconditionsincludedseverechangesinaveragetemperaturesofupto7Cinaslittleasthree
years,ascalculatedfromanalysesoftheGreenlandicecores(Kerr1993).Thesechangeswouldhavehaddrasticmodifyingeffectsontheoverallenvironment,but
wouldhavehadtheleasteffectontheanimalsandplantsoftheicemarginzoneascomparedwithmodificationtotheenvironmentawayfromtheice.Arapidrisein
temperaturewouldhaveresultedinincreasedmeltingoftheice,witharesultingincreaseinthesupplyofwater,K,P,andNO3tothemarginalzone.Therenutrients
wouldcontinuetobeinexcessoftheneedsforplantgrowthinthemarginalzone.Inaddition,therewouldbeamodulationofthetemperatureriseinthemarginalzone
asaresultoftheproximityoftheicesheetandthekatabaticwindsflowingdownofftheiceandacrossthemarginalzones.Therelativelycool,moist,lushmarginal
zonewouldactasalong,broad,marginalzonerefugiumforanimalsandplantsthathadbeenadaptedtothePleistoceneenvironmentofNorthAmerica.Here,during
periodsofabruptwarming,theywouldcontinuetofindacongenialandprobablysuperiorenvironment,incontrasttotherapidlydesiccatingareastothesouth.
Modelsbasedonplantfossilsandgeologicalstudies(Hilletal.1991Jacobsonetal.1987)indicatethatabeltoftundrawaspresentalongthesouthernfrontofthe
Laurentideicesheet,andthatsouthofthatwasawidezoneofborealforest,asshowninFigure13.At~12kayrB.P.inthevicinityofOttawa,Ontario,theicefront
wasneartheSt.LawrenceRiver,andmuchoftheareatotheimmediatesouthwasoccupiedbyaproglaciallakeandanherbshrubtundraenvironment(Anderson
1989:4445).ThesemarginalzonerefugiawouldhavebeenmaintainedalongtheshiftingicefrontduringtheearlyHolocene,andtheecologicalenvironment,with
someofitsbiota,wouldhavefollowedtheretreatoftheicesheetmarginnorthwardastheicemeltedinreactiontotheincreasinglywarmerclimate.

DiscoveriesofremainsoflargePleistoceneherbivoresandcarnivoresalongtheicefrontsfromlatePleistocene/earlyHolocenetimesarenotuncommonand
demonstratetheexistenceandoccupationofsuchrefugia.Enoughsitesofearlyhumanoccupationhavebeendescribedatornearicesheetmarginstosuggest
stronglythattherealsoweresignificanthumanpopulationsinthesemarginalzones(Bonnichsen1987,1988Bonnichsenetal.1987).Someofthesesitesinclude
caribouat~10,000yrB.P.

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Figure13.
Extentofice,tundra,andborealforestalongthesouthern
marginoftheLaurentideIceSheet.Modelsbasedonstudies
offossilpollen,plants,andgeologyoutlinetheextentof
tundraandborealforestenvironmentssouthoftheLaurentide
icesheetinthenortheasternUnitedStates.Duringthemaximum
extentofthelatePleistoceneglaciation,shownhere,thesezones
wereseveralhundredkmswide,andwerehabitatforaniceage
floraandfauna.Withwarmingandmeltingofthemarginsof
theicesheets,thesezonesnarrowedandmovednorthwiththe
retreatingicemargin,butcontinuedtoactasrefugiaforthecold
adaptedplantsandanimalsofthePleistocene.
[ModifiedafterHilletal.1991:7.]

(Jackson1989)andhumansat~10,100yrB.P.(Jackson1989Juligetal.1987)fromnorthernOntariocaribouandhumansfromalateglacialmarginalenvironment
ininteriorsouthcentralOntario(JacksonandMcKillop1987)anearlyPaleoindiansiteinsouthwesternOntario(DellerandEllis1992)humansinanareaof''high
resourceproductivity,biomass,anddiversityduringtheearlypostglacialperiod"insouthwesternNewEngland(Nicholas1987:21)evidenceofcachingof
proboscideanmeatbyhumansinlatePleistocenepondsandbogsattheHeislersiteinsouthernMichiganintheGreatLakesregion(Fisher1989,1995),andabout
100lateglacialproboscideanfossilsfromanumberofsitesinsouthernOntario(Jackson1987).AttheArcsite,infarwesternNewYork,humanartifactsarefound
insedimentsofprobableYoungerDryas(~11kaB.P)age,withinanareathathadbeencoveredbytheLaurentideicesheet~2kabefore(Ennisetal.1995).
Nearby,attheHiscocksite,humanandmastodonevidencearefoundthatyielddatesof~11to~9kaB.P.(Laub1995Smith1995TomenchukandLaub1995).
Amastodont,withpossiblehumanassociation,hasbeenexcavatedatHallsville,Ohio,fromaWisconsinanagekamecomplex(Hansen1993),andhumanoccupation
at12kaB.P.hasbeenrecordedineastcentralOhioattheEppleyRockshelter(Brush1993)andinHolmesCounty,Ohio(BrushandSmith1994).Overstreetetal.
(1993)reviewmanyoftheknownassociationsofmammoth,mastodons,andhumansinthesouthwesternLakeMichiganbasininlatePleistocenecontext.Blackand
Wittry(1959)indicatethatexcavationsat"theRaddatzRockshelter,Sk5,beneaththenaturalbridgeinSaukCounty,Wisconsin,establishman'spresenceatthe
closeoftheValderssubstageandsuggesthispresencealongthefrontofCaryice."Uncorrected14Cdatingsuggestshumanoccupationthereat11,611yrB.P.Direct
associationofmastodonsandhumansisshownbycachesofmastodonmeatinsouthernMichigan(Fisher1989).InIrelandthereweregiantelk(stag)livinginthe
glacialenvironmentduringtheperiodimmediatelyfollowingtheglaciationofIrelandbytheScandinavianicesheet.ThegiantIrishelkrequiredthehighphosphorus
contentofwillows,whichwereabundantonglacialoutwashdeltasandalluvialdeposits(Geist1986).Therewasalsolushgrowthofwillowsinglacialenvironments
alonglakeshores,alongglacialmeltwaterchannels,andonloessplainscreateddownwindoftheglacialout,rash,indicatingthehighproductivityofthisicemarginal
zone.Withthedisappearanceoftheglacialenvironmentanditsplantswithhighphosphoruscontent,thegiantIrishelkbecameextinct.

However,someglacialmarginareasintheinterioroftheicesheetenvironmenthadlowproductivity,forexample,inthenarrow,socalled"icefreecorridor"between
theLaurentideandtheCordilleranicesheets.Thismayhaveresultedinabiomassforhumanstopreyuponthatwouldhavebeentoosmalltoallowasociallyviable
humanpopulation,becauseofthelinearlyconstrictedenvironmentofthecorridorduringthe1813kaB.P.timeinterval.After~12kaB.P.thecorridorbecamewide
enoughtoallowaviableenvironmentforpreyanimalsandhumans(Mandryk1992).

Similarnutrientrichenvironmentsalsoarefoundintheoceanadjacenttodrainageareasofmodern

 Page64

glaciers(Apollonio1973Iversonetal.1974),wheretheypromotethegrowthofArcticphytoplankton.Suchnutrientrichenvironments,whereglacialmeltwater
drainedintotheoceans,probablyalsoexistedinthePleistocene.

InstabilityoftheGlacialMargins

INNORTHAMERICA,thesouthernicemarginsretreatedrapidlynorthwardinlatePleistocenetimes,probablyasaresultofrapidlyincreasingtemperatures.Andrews
(1987:2831)suggeststhatintheSt.LawrenceValley,forexample,theicefrontwasrelativelystablefrom3014kaB.P.,butwasdeglaciatedrapidlyfrom13.4ka
to12kaB.P.HereportsaniceretreatrateoftheiceonthenorthshoreinQuebecof160m/yr.andintheOttawaValleyof500m/yrduringthisperiod.Deglaciation
ratesontheprairiessouthoftheCanadianborderwere1,700m/yr,withretreatsof300m/yrduringthelast2,000yearsoftheicesheethistory.Therapidfluctuations
oftheicefrontsresultedinadvancesandretreatsofupto500kminafewhundredyears.EvidenceofsucharetreatandreadvanceispresentatTwoCreeksin
WisconsinatthetimeoftheBollingretreat(Twocreekiansubstage)andatthetimeoftheYoungerDryasadvance(Valderansubstage)(Fryeetal.1965).

Majorglaciallakes,withverycomplexhistories,formedalongthesamemarginsduringdeglaciation.Amajorseriesoflakesformed~14kaB.P.aroundthesouthern
GreatLakesat~11.7kaB.P.thesouthernterminationoftheicewasinLakeAgazzis,withwaterofconsiderabledepthanddimensionsat10kaB.P.theicefront
wasonthePrecambrianShieldat9.9theiceadvancedonabroadfrontintosouthernCanadaandnorthernMichiganandforthenext2katheiceretreated1,000
km(anaverageofabout500m/yr).

RapidClimateChange

RESULTSFROMICECOREStakenintheGreenlandicesheetindicatetemperaturechangesbothincreasesanddecreasesofasmuchas7Coverrelativelyshorttime
periods(Alleyetal.1993Kerr1993).SuchchangesseemtohaveaffectedmuchofthehigherlatitudeareasoftheNorthernHemisphere.Thesouthernmarginsof
theLaurentideicesheetwereaffectedprofoundlybydramaticchangesinclimateduringtheperiodof15kato9kaB.P.(Peteet1994).Mostprominentofthese
climatechangeswereanabruptriseintemperatureat~13kaB.P.(onsetoftheBollingevent),asubsequentdropat~12kaB.P.(onsetoftheYoungerDryasevent)
(MarchittoandWei1995),andasharpriseat11.5kaB.P.(thebeginningofHolocenetime)(Johnsenetal.1992).Recentworkonpatternsofdustdepositionand
onthestudyofannuallayersintheGreenlandiceindicatethatsomeofthetemperaturechangesoccurredoverperiodsofaslittleas20yearsandpossiblyaslittleasa
singleyear(Alleyetal.1993Alley,personalcommunication,March6,1996Mayewskietal.1996).Thesechangesappeartohaveoccurredacrossmuchofthe
higherandmidlatitudes.Suchrapidclimatechangeswouldhavebeenespeciallysevereonbothterrestrialanimalsandplants,althoughthebiotaofrefugiaalongthe
icesheetfrontswouldhavebeenmuchlessseverelyaffected.

Atemperatureriseof~7Cwouldhavecausedextensivemeltingofthesurfacesoftheicesheetsnearthemarginsandpossiblenearsurfacerisesinthetemperature
oftheiceitself.Addedwarmthintheiceandaddedmeltwaterinandundertheicewouldhavecontributedtoinstabilityinthemarginalzonesoftheicesheets,with
resultingcollapseandrapidadvanceoftheicefronts.Theresultingflowofmeltwater,releasedasaresultofwarmingoftheicewouldalsohavebroughtaboutarisein
sealevel.Thiswouldhavecausedbuoyantinstabilityinthosepartsoftheicesheetthatwerebasedbelowsealevel.Resultingcollapseoficeintotheseawouldcause
furtherriseofsealevelandapositivefeedbackofmoreicesheetcollapse.TheresultofacomparableseriesofeventsduringthelatterpartofthePleistocenewas
rapidcollapseofmajorpartsofseveralofthePleistoceneicesheets(DentonandHughes1981).Theconcurrenteffectontheicesheetswastoincreasethegradient
oftheicesurfaceneartheicemarginsandtoincreasethevelocityoficeflowtothemarginsoftheicesheets.

RetreatofMarineBasedIceFronts

ANALYSESOFICECORESfromGreenlandsuggestthatclimateoscillations,althoughoflowermagnitude,occurredatintervalsof500to1,000yearsintheNorthern
Hemisphere(Kerr1993).Warmerclimatescausedicemeltingandrelatedsealevelrises,destabilizingoceanbasedicemargins.Astheiceonoceanmargins
advanced,itbrokeoffasicebergs.Manyoftheicebergscarriedrockdebristhatwasdroppedto

 Page65

theoceanbottomasthebergsmelted.Layersofsedimentswithhigherthanusualproportionsofrockfragments,foundinAtlanticdeepseacores,indicatelarge
numbersoficebergsfloatingacrosstheAtlanticduringrestrictedtimeperiods.RecentstudiesofseasedimentsconfirmtheclimateswingsreportedfromtheGreenland
icecoredata(Monastersky1995).Largenumbersoficebergsevery2,000to3,000yearscarriedrockdebrisfromtheIcelandicesheetandfromtheLaurentideice
sheetbywayoftheGulfoftheSt.Lawrenceanddistributedthisdebrisontheoceanbottom.VerylargeicebreakupeventsfromtheLaurentideicesheet,surging
intotheHudsonStraitandAtlanticOceanevery7,000to10,000years,alsospreadrockdebrisacrosstheNorthAtlanticOceanbottomandareknownasHeinrich
events(BondandLotti1995).Heinricheventsareattributedtoperiodsofrapidadvanceoftheicesheetmargins(AndrewsandTedesco1992Andrewsetal.1994
Bondetal.1992Dowdeswelletal.1995).Thus,intheNorthernHemisphereinthelatePleistocenetherewereperiodsofclimaticequilibriumbrokenbyshort
periodsofdisequilibrium.

Periodsofchangefromoneclimaticequilibriumtoanotherappeartohavebeenperiodsofunusuallyhighvariabilityinclimaticconditions.Suchperiodsofhigh
variabilitywouldhavebeenstressfultothebiota.SuggestionsofsuchinstabilityappeartobeevidentduringthetransitionfromtheglacialperiodofthePleistoceneto
theinterglacialoftheHolocene.Bonnichsenetal.(1987:418420),usingdataderivedfromVernekar(1968),showthatthe"greatestvaluesforseasonalitysincethe
Sangamoninterglacial(about80ka[B.P.])occurredabout11ka[B.P.],"ataboutthetimeofthetransitionfromglacialtointerglacialtimes.DatafromtheGreenland
icecoresindicatethatthistransitionwasextremelyrapid,probablyintheorderof20yearsorless(Dansgaardetal.1989).Lamb(1977:384)indicatesthatinearliest
postglacialtimestherewasgreatvigoroftheatmosphericcirculation,differentfromnow,beingespeciallygreatinsummer.Alongsomeriversandstreamsflowingout
oftheeasternfrontofthenorthernRockyMountainsintheUnitedStates,forexample,thereisgeologicevidenceofmassivefloodsatabouttheendofthe
Pleistocene.TheseincludeSouthForkEversonCreek,southwesternMontana(Turneretal.1991:119122),areasofnortheasternWyoming(LeopoldandMiller
1954),andtheHellGapSite,ineasternWyoming(Richmondetal.1965:1720).

HoloceneClimateChanges

WINKLERANDWANG(1993:254255)discussrapidandsignificantchangesintheearlyHoloceneofChina,anareathatevincedincreasedseasonalitydespitethe
absenceofanearbyicecap.MajorshiftsinthejetstreamsatthetimeofthereductionofthesizeoftheicecapsofNorthAmericaandSiberiamayhavebeen,in
part,responsibleforsuchinstability.Thompsonetal.(1993:504)andWebbetal.(1993b:516)suggestshiftsinthejetstreamandtherelatedprevailingwinds,with
theglacialanticyclonecontinuingthrough9kaB.P.TheanticycloneandtheicesheetscontinuallyshrankinareaduringtheearlyHolocene.Similarinstabilityis
suggestedbytheresultsofpollendistributionstudiesneartheNorthAmericanicesheet(Overpecketal.1992Webbetal.1993aWinkler1992),alongwith
derivedplantdistributions,meanJanuarytemperatures,meanJulytemperatures,andprecipitation.Lambalsodiscussesperiodsofmajorfloodingandrainfallvariation
duringperiodsoftransitionfromwarmtocoolandcooltowarmclimatesat3300to3100yrB.P.(Lamb1977:2:215217).Thistimeperiodisapproximatelythatof
theLobbenglacialepisodeofEuropeandthebeginningoftheTempleLakeglacialepisodeinNorthAmerica(DentonandKarlen1973Grove1988:300Heuberger
1974).

UtilizationandSignificanceofNutrientsfromtheIceSheets

PLANTPRODUCTIVITYisthebaseofsupportforthetotalfoodsupplyforbothherbivoresandcarnivores.Inthehighnitrogenareasalongthemeltingmarginsofthe
Pleistoceneicesheets,plantgrowthwouldhavestartedmorequickly,proceededmorerapidly,andthenutrientvaluetoherbivoreswouldhavebeenhigh.Becauseof
thereadysupplyofthenecessarycomponentsofplantgrowth,therewouldhavebeengreaterbulkproductionandahighernutrientvalueperunitofplantmaterial
consumed.Theresultwouldhavebeenahighercarryingcapacityofherbivoresandtheirpredators,includinghumans,alongthefrontsoftheicesheets.

Nitratefillingonnormallandsurfacesisusedimmediatelybygrowingplants,withlittletononeretainedforplantgrowthinsubsequentyears.Utilizationofatmospheric
fixednitrogenbyplantsandanimalsisdependentupontotalprecipitationonayearlybasis.Additionalfixednitrogenisfurnishedbybacteriainthesoil.Inotherwords,
substantialstorage

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ofthisplantnutrientdoesnotoccurinnormallandsurfaces,butitisconstantlycycledthroughthebiotaandoutofthesystemthroughwaterdrainage.Environmental
stressisenhancedinnonglacialareasbecauseofthelackofconstancyinnutrientsupply.Bycomparison,thePleistoceneglacialmarginareaswouldhavebeen
saturatedbytheplantnutrientsupplythatwouldhaveassuredhighproductivitywithlessyearlyvariation.

Loess

ANATURALBYPRODUCTofcontinentalglaciation,especiallyduringthePleistoceneglacialepisodes,istheproductionofloess(Smalley1966).Loessisprimarilywind
blown,finelydividedrockparticles(rockflourorglacialflour)thathavebeencarriedawayfromtheicefrontbyglacialmeltwater.Itisdepositedonthewide
floodplainsofmeltwaterrivers.Asthesiltleftonthefloodplainsdries,theNO3intheinterstitialwaterattachestothesiltandclayparticles.Alargeproportionofthis
finesiltandclayispickedupbythekatabaticandcyclonicwindssweepingoverthefloodplainsandisdepositeddownwindaswidespreadsheetsofloess.Thick
depositsofloess,derivedfromPleistoceneglacialoutwash,arepresentoverlargeareasofcentralAsia,Europe,andNorthAmerica.

Loessdepositshavemostofthesamecriticalfactorsforhighorganicproductivitythataretobeexpectedintheimmediateglacialmarginenvironment.Theopenloess
grasslandsallowsufficientlighttoreachgrowingplants.Waterfromrainandsnowisadequateinmostloessregionsforplantgrowth.Summerwarmthisgenerally
high.Inloess,themineralfragmentsarefreshlybrokenbyglacialgrindingandcontainaveryhighproportionofnewfracturefaceswithbrokenmolecularbonds.
Solutiononthesurfacesofthemineralgrainsis,therefore,veryrapid.Althoughmostloessiscomposedpredominantlyofquartz,manyothergrainsofminerals
containingKandParealsoavailableinverylargequantities.

Loess,withahighcontentofavailableK,P,andNO3,asaresultofitsorigin,producednotablygoodgrazinghabitatformegafaunaduringthePleistoceneand
Holocene,aswellasexcellentfarmlandduringpastandpresenthumanoccupation(Bogucki1996).Therefore,itisprobablethatduringicesheetaccumulation,
climax,anddisintegration,theicemarginenvironmentwouldhavebeenhighlyproductiveandhighlyattractivetomegafaunainthespring,summer,andfalloftheyear.
Thenearbyaccessibleloessareas,withabundantsummergrowthofgrassesfornaturalwinterhay,wouldhavebeenrefugiatowhichthesesamemegafaunamigrated
duringthewinter.Excavatedsitescontainingremainsoflargeherbivores,withevidenceofhumanpresence,havebeenfoundacrosstheloessareasoftheU.S.mid
continentandthegrasslandsofSouthAmerica,forexample,asreportedbyBrunswigandFisher(1993),Hilletal.(1993),andJohnsonandPolitis(1993).

Icemarginenvironmentsandthenearbyloessareas,withtheirunusuallyhighbiologicalproductivity,wouldhavebeenextraordinarilyfavorableforhuntingand
foraginghumanpopulations,asshownbythelargenumberofearlysitesthathavebeendiscoveredintheseenvironments.Itshouldnotbesurprisingthatearlypeoples
exploitedtheseconditions,anditislikelythatevidenceofextensivehumanoccupationalongtheicemarginsandontheloessplainswillcontinuetobediscovered.

Thetemperatureandprecipitationshiftsthatoccurredduringtransitionperiodsfromwarmtocoldorviceversawouldhaveaffectedlivingconditionsforplantsand
animalsadversely,becauseadaptationsthathaddevelopedwouldnolongerhavebeenappropriatetothechangedconditions.Thegreaterthemagnitudeandthemore
rapidthechange,thegreaterthestressonthebiota.

MigrationofFauna

GRADUALCHANGESINCLIMATEwouldmodifyicemarginalareasandloessplainsinwaysthatmightleadtoadaptivechangesinthelocalplantsandanimalsorleadto
gradualchangesindistributiontomorecompatibleareas.Abruptchangesinclimatewouldchangetheenvironmentoficemarginalareasandloessplainsinwaysthat
wouldleavetoolittletimeforadaptation,migration,orchangesindistributionforsomespecies.Speciescapableofadaptingtothenewconditionsorofmovingto
newareasofcompatibleenvironmentswouldcontinuetocolonizerefugiaalongtheicesheetfrontorontheloessplains(Vrba1994).Catastrophicchangesinthe
positionoftheicemarginalsowouldleadtochangesinthelocationanddimensionsoftheicefrontrefugiaandloessplainsrefugia,andthesupplyofNO3todifferent
areasoftheicefrontareas.ThepaleopresenceofsuchanimalsascaribouandmuskoxalongthesouthernicesheetfrontsduringthePleistoceneandtheirpresence
during

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currentinterglacialtimeinthehighArcticenvironmentsuggestthattherefugiaremainedintactduringthenorthwardshiftoftheicefronts.SomeWisconsinanrefugia
wereinexistenceoverlongenoughtimeperiodstoallowsubspeciesoflargermammalstoevolve,asdiscussedbyRogersetal.(1991:626627).Caribou,muskox,
andotherhighmobilityanimalswereabletofollowtherefugia,evenduringrapidretreatoftheicefrontsduringtheearlyHolocene(Grahametal.1996).

BirdsthatpresentlymigratetoareasofhighproductivityintheArcticforsummernestingmayhavemigratedduringthePleistocenetosimilarenvironmentsofhigh
productivityintheicefrontrefugiaareas.Theyalsohadsufficientmobilitytofollowtherefugianorthwardduringtherefugia'srapidmovementtothenorthduringthe
earlyHolocene.Otherspeciesofplantsandanimalswerenotsufficientlyadaptiveormobiletofollowtherefugiatonewareas.Theybecameeithertotallyorlocally
extinct.

Conclusions

ITHASBEENWIDELYBELIEVEDthattheareasalongthefrontsoftheextensivePleistoceneicesheetswerecold,sterile,inhospitableareasthatwerelargelyuninhabitedby
plantsandanimals,includinghumans.Extensiveexaminationoftheproblemhasledtheauthorstobelievetheopposite.Thispaperisprimarilyanoutlineofourfindings
andconclusionsontheenvironmentandlifealongthePleistoceneicesheetmargins.Theevidencepointstonutritiousandproductivemarginalzonesduringthe
Pleistocene.DuringthedrasticchangesofclimatethatoccurredduringthelatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenethesezonesactedasrefugiaforsomeoftheplantsand
animalsthathadadaptedtotheclimatesofthePleistocene.

Allessentialplantnutrientsareavailablefrompastandpresentglacialmeltwateranddepositsofglacialsediments.Phosphate,K,andotheressentialmineralelements
arederivedfromthebedrockundertheglacieroricesheetbysolutionofthefreshlygroundrock.Theauthorsbelievethatalargeamountofthefixednitrogeninthe
upperatmosphere,whichdescendstothesurfaceinthehigherlatitudes,isofinorganicoriginandcomplementstheabundanceofotheressentialelements.The
biologicalandnaturalhistoryliteraturehaveemphasizedtheorganicoriginsoffixednitrogenandhavenotindicatedawarenessoftheinorganicoriginsofasignificant
portionofthefixednitrogenproducedintheupperandmiddleatmosphere,especiallyathigherlatitudes.Nitratesareandweredepositedontheicefromthe
atmosphere.DuringthePleistocene,whenlargeicesheetscoveredmajorpartsofthenortherncontinentsandAntarctica,thesenutrientswerecarriedalongtothe
glacialfrontwithoutfurtheralteration.TheNO3were,inpart,fromorganicandinorganicsourcesnearthebaseoftheatmosphereandfromorganicprocessesinsoil
andsurfacebiotaand,inpart,fromsolar/terrestrialprocessesthattookplace,andcontinuetotakeplace,intheupperatmosphere.Thenutrientsreleasedfromglacial
iceattheicefrontwereavailableinthemarginalzonealongthefrontoftheglacieroricesheettobringaboutrapiddevelopmentofnutritiousplantgrowthinthe
marginalzone.Thisearlydevelopmentofvegetationinthemarginalzoneofglaciersandicesheetswouldhavepromotedearlyinvasionbyanimalsandhumansand
mayexplainthefrequentdiscoveryofevidenceoflargemammalsandhumansnearthefrontsofpastglaciersandicesheets.Inaddition,siltcarriedbyglacial
meltwateranddepositedalongfloodplainsofglacialdrainagewaysalsocarriedadsorbedNO3.Upondryingofthefloodplains,theNO3remainedandwasattached
tosiltgrains.ThisNO3bearingsilt,composedofmineralgrains,includingapatiteandfeldspars,waspickedupbywindsblowingacrossthefloodplains.Thiswind
blownsilt,plussiltfromothersources,wasdepositedasloess.Glaciallyderivedloessisrichinallofthenutrientsessentialforplantgrowth,andthusformedareas
supportingnutritiousandproductiveplantlife.

Manyoftheloessareasoftheworldaretreelessprairieareas,suchastheuppermidwestoftheUnitedStatesandtheloesssteppesofthesouthernformerU.S.S.R.
(Ranov1987:25).DuringthePleistoceneandHolocene,theseloessareascarriedheavypopulationsofplanteatinganimalsandtheirpredators.Atthepresenttime
theseareasareamongthemostproductiveindomesticanimalsandgraincrops.DuringthePleistocene,loessareas,withtheirplantrequirednutrients,wouldhave
actedasouterextensionsoftheicemarginalenvironmentandaswinterrefugia.Thecombinationofsummerrefugiaalongtheicefrontsandwinterrefugiaontheloess
prairieswouldhaveallowedannualmigrationsofthemegafaunaanddependenthumanstoutilizeanutritious,productive,iceageenvironmentduringglacialclimates
andintotheinitialstagesofadrasticclimaticchangeofthetypethatoccurredatthebeginningofthepresentinterglacial(theHolocene).Loessenvironments

 Page68

supportedhumansandlargenumbersoflargeandsmallherbivoresandpredators,suchasattheBrokenMammothsiteinAlaskaat11.8kaB.P.(Crossenetal.
1992).SuchrefugiawouldhavebeenpresentduringeachmodificationofclimateduringthePleistocene.IntheNewWorld,themajoraddedfactoratthebeginningof
thecurrentinterglacial,incontrasttoearlierinterglacials,wasthepresenceofbiggamehuntinghumans,includingpeopleoftheClovisandFolsomcultures.Withthe
helpofsuchrefugia,themegafauna,whichwereunderintensesurvivalpressurefromtheclimaticshifts,hadweatheredpreviousinterglacialsandinterstadials.The
megafaunaduringthelatePleistoceneandearlyHolocene,however,sufferedanadditionaltollbythenewandefficientcarnivore(humans).Thismayhavecontributed
tothefurtherextinctionofmanyofthemegafauna(MartinandKlein1984MartinandNeuner1978MartinandWright1967).

Approximately90percentofPleistocenetimehadaclimateandarelatedphysicalenvironmentthatwasgenerallycoolandmoistandincludedthepresenceof
extensiveglacialice,butwasinterspersedwithrapid,shorttermswingsoftemperature.Muchofthistime,icesheetswerepresentoverthenorthernandcentralparts
ofthecontinentsoftheNorthernHemisphere.ThemegafaunaandmicrofaunaofthePleistocenewereadaptedtothiscolderenvironment.Biotaaremorestressedby
environmentalchangethanbyasteady,harshclimate.Onceadaptedtowhatmaybeconsideredbyusnowtohavebeenharshconditions,plantsoranimalsmayhave
beenmuchmorestressedbychangestowhatwemightconsidersubjectivelytobemilderconditions,thantheyweretothemaintenanceoftheoriginalharsh
environment.DuringWisconsinantime,anenvironmentwasdevelopedthatwasmaintained,withmodestchanges,forabout40ka.Inotherwords,thepresent
interglacialenvironmentofthelast10kaisverylimitedinduration.Itis,ineffect,extremelyharshandstressfultothebiotathatwereadaptedtotheaverageglacial
environmentofthePleistocene.EachoftheinterglacialsthathaveoccurredduringthePleistocenehavebeenequallyshort,harsh,andstressfultotheaverage
Pleistocenebiota.Evolutionarychangeisproportionaltoenvironmentalstress.Evolutionofthemegafaunawouldnotbesufficientlyrapidtoadjusttotheabrupt
climaticshiftwithoutthepresenceofinterglacialrefugia,suchasthosealongtheicesheetmargins.

ThemegafaunainNorthAmericabecameextinctrelativelyquicklyduringtheshiftfromglacialtointerglacialconditions.Presentevidenceindicatesthemegafaunain
SouthAmericabecameextinctmuchmoregradually,finallydyingoutcompletelyatabout8kaB.P.InSouthAmerica,biggamehunterswerepresentfromatleast
12kaB.P.However,inSouthAmericatherewerenocontinentalsizeicesheets,andsurgesintheexistingicesheetswouldhavebeenunlikelytohaveaffectedthe
entireperipheryoftheexistingicesheets(HollinandSchilling1981:190).Therefore,icemarginrefugiainSouthAmericaprobablywerenotdestroyed
catastrophicallyandprobablyexistedwellintointerglacialtime.

Atabout12kaB.P.therewasamassiveandrapidcollapseoftheLaurentideicesheet.Thiscollapsehasbeenpostulatedtohavebeentheresultofwarming,the
UpperDryas(Boelling)warmingofEurope.ThemassivereleaseoficeintotheNorthAtlanticmayhavecausedthesubsequentcoldYoungerDryaseventthat
affectedEuropeandNorthAmerica.SurgesalongthesouthernmarginsoftheLaurentideicesheetwouldhavecarriedglacialicerapidlysouthwardsomehundredsof
kilometers.ThelocationofthesouthernmarginsoftheLaurentideicesheetduringthisperiodofgeneralretreatfluctuatedrapidlyasaresultofmelting,surging,
reboundoftheland,andthedevelopmentoficemarginallakes(Teller1987,1989).Onlyanimalscapableofrapidseasonalmigrations,suchasbirds,oranimals
capableofsurvivingthewinterstressesofnorthernicemarginalzones,suchascaribouormuskox,wouldhavebeenabletoadapttotherapidlyshiftingrefugia.

BiggamehuntinghumanswerepresentinbothNorthandSouthAmericaduringtheearlytransitionperiodfromthelastglacialtothesubsequentinterglacial,at~12
11kaB.P.Whydidtheextinctionofthemegafaunatakeplaceatdifferentratesindifferentgeographicregionsandatdifferentratesfordifferentgroupsof
megafauna?Theremusthavebeendifferentfactorsatworkthanmerelythepresenceorabsenceofhumanbiggamehunters.

Wepostulatethatthepresenceofshiftingrefugiaintheicemarginalzonesandthesuddenperiodicdestructionofsuchrefugiaundercertainconditions,aswellasthe
developmentorimmigrationofbiggamehuntingculturesatthetimeoftheinitiationofthelastinterglacial,weremajorcontributingfactors.Marginalenvironments
wouldhavebeendestroyedmorerapidlythannewandsimilarmarginalenvironmentscouldhavedeveloped.Megafaunaadaptedtotheglacialperiodenvironment
thathadbeenpreservedwithintheicemarginalzonewouldhavebeendisplacedintozones

 Page69

withconditionsrelatedtothenewinterglacialclimaticenvironments.Thesezoneswouldhavebeendryerandwarmer,unsuitabletomostofthemegafaunaadaptedto
glacialperiodenvironmentsandtothedestroyedicemarginalenvironment.Themegafaunathereforewouldhavebeenunderintensestressandparticularlyvulnerable
topredators.Theaddedpresenceofparticularlyefficientpredatorshumansduringtheglacialinterglacialtransitiontippedthebalancealittlefurther,leadingtothe
extinctionofmanyofthemegafaunathatwereadaptedtotheglacialenvironment.Wesuggestthatthemigratorybirdsthatmakeupamajorpartofthepresent
flourishingArcticbiotaadaptedduringthelatePleistoceneorearlierfrombirdswithshortmigrationpatternstothesummericemarginenvironments.These,anda
limitednumberofverymobilemammals,weretheonlyanimalsthatwereabletomaintaintheirmigrationpatterns,asthemigrationdistancesbecamegreaterduringthe
developmentoftheHoloceneenvironments.ManyoftheotheranimalsthatsharedthePleistoceneicemarginenvironmentsduringthesummereitherbecameextinct
oradaptedtoadifferentannuallifepatternatthebeginningoftheHolocene.

Acknowledgments

WewishtothankDr.ScottElias,ResearchAssociate,INSTAAR,UniversityofColorado,forthecomputerpreparationoftheillustrationsinthispaper.Partial
fundingfromtheCarlA.HarvisScholarshipFundfortheresearchonthissubjectisverymuchappreciated.

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PeriglacialEcology,LargeMammals,andTheirSignificancetoHumanBiology
V.Geist

Abstract

Thediversity,largesize,andluxuryorgansoflargemammalsinperiglacialenvironmentssuggestgreatresourceabundanceandlongperiodsofannualbodygrowth.
CharacteristicsofIceAgemammalsarereviewedbrieflyandcomparedtohumancharacteristics.Hominidsintheirlateevolutionduplicatedothermammalianfamilies,
evolvingecologicallyspecializedresourcedefendersinthetropicsandhypermorphicformswithlargeluxuryorgansinperiglacialenvironments.TheterminalIceAge
hominidspecies,Homosapiens,iscomparabletootherterminalperiglacialspecies.Noveltyislinkedtosocialselectionduringexplosivecolonizationefficiency
selectiononecologicaladaptationsgeneratesgradualism.Anecologicalreconstructionindicatesthatontheleesideofglaciers,meltwater,loessandsilt,katabatic
winds,andsunshineproduceyoung,productive,pulsestabilizedecosystems.Currentperiglacialecosystemsaremoreproductivethantundraatcomparablelatitudes.
Colonizationofcoldenvironmentsbyhumansshouldproceedfromperiglacialtoarcticenvironments.Largemammalsmayhavebeennotonlyanopportunityforearly
humans,butalsoaliabilityincolonizingNorthAmerica.Suchcolonizationprobablytookplaceonlyaftermegafaunapopulationscollapsed,accompaniedbythe
extinctionoflargercarnivores.TheexceptionalphenotypicdevelopmentofhumansintheUpperPaleolithicsuggestsdeliberatephenotypemanipulation,andthrough
this,selfdirectedevolution.

Introduction

THEEVOLUTIONOFICEAGEmammalsandthenatureofperiglacialenvironmentsshedslightontheevolutionofhumans(Geist1978).FromthelateTertiaryonward,aset
ofremarkablemammalsevolvedconcurrentlywiththeincreasedseverityofseasonallycoldclimates.Theyevolvedintohypermorphscharacterizedbyluxurious,often
morphologicallybizarregrowth,associatedwithprogressivecolonizationoftropical,temperate,periglacial,alpine,andarcticlandscapes.Thesespeciesusuallydiffer
instructurefromtheirtropicalancestorsinincreasedbodysizeandelaboratedsocialorgans,andalsoinanumberofecologicalandphysiologicalattributesthatare
notirrelevantinaconsiderationoftheirconservation(Bailey1980Geist1985,1988).Comparedtoothermammals,HomosapiensisaclassicIceAgemammal,
analogoustootherterminalperiglacialspecieswithindifferentlineages,suchastheIrishelk(Megalocerosgigantheus),thewoolymammoth(Mammuthus
primigenius),cavebear(Ursusspelaeus)ortolivingrepresentativessuchasAlces,Ovibos,Thalarctos,andothers.AnoverviewofIceAgemammalsandtheir
characteristicsisprovidedheretoaddressaspectsofhumanevolution,asrelevanttothePleistocenepeoplingofNorthAmerica.

QuestionsregardingPleistocenepaleontologicalreconstructionsmaybeaddressedthroughtheapplicationoftestableecologicalhypotheses.Thereisalinkbetween
thepastandthepresentinthestudyofIceAgemammals:first,ifoneprojects,forinstance,thepatternofCervidaeevolutionovergeologictime,theorderofspecies
appearanceparallelscurrentbiologicaldistributionsalonglatitudinal,altitudinal,andclimaticgradients(Figure1).Thisdistributionalpattern,notexclusivetothe
Cervidae,isrepeatedbyothermammalianfamiliesthroughtime.Progressivecoolingofglobalclimatesisparalleledbytheappearanceofevermorebizarrelarge
mammalsinthepaleontologicalrecord,andisanalogoustomodern

FacultyofEnvironmentalDesign,UniversityofCalgary,Alberta,Canada

 Page79

Figure1.
ThepatternofevolutiontypicalofIceAgemammals,illustrated
byextantandfossilOldWorlddeer.Theevolutionaryprogression
movesfrombottom(oldforms)totop(latestforms).Theevolution
ofthesedeerispacedbytheirantlerstructure,beginninginrow
BDwithatwoprongedplanMiocene),andendinginrowNPwith
asixprongedplan(latePleistocene,exceptfor0).Eachantlerplan
isfoundinsimpleform(left),withsupernumarytines(middle),and
withpalmation(right).TheprogressionfromAthroughtoNPalso
isanecologicalonefromtropicalforeststoperiglacial,subalpineor
coldsteppeenvironments.A)anOligocenetuskeddeer,hypothetical
ancestorB)Eustylocerus,midMioceneC)Dicrocerus,early
MioceneD)Stephanocemas,midMioceneE)Axis,earlyPlioceneF)
Rucervus,latePleistoceneRecentG)Cervavitus,lateMioceneH)Sika,
VillafranchianJ)Anaoglochis,VillafranchianK)Cervuselaphus
acoronatus,earlyPleistoceneL)C.e.elaphus,midPleistoceneM)
Dama,midPleistoceneN)C.e.canadensis,latePleistoceneRecentO)
Eucladoceros,VillafranchianP)Megalocerosgigantheus,late
Pleistocene.

zoogeographicmammaliandistributions.Second,remnantsofperiglacialenvironmentsanalogoustothelastIceAgeexistalongthegreaticefieldsoftheSt.Elias
RangeintheYukonTerritoryandGreenland,representinglocaleswhereperiglacialecologycanbedirectlystudied(Geist1978:185210).Otherstudiesshedding
significantlightonperiglacialenvironmentsincludeGuthrie's(1989)treatmentofthe"mammothsteppe"andPielou's(1991)popularreconstructionofecological
extentsfollowingcontinentaldeglaciation.

CharacteristicsofIceAgeMammals

HYPERMORPHICICEAGEmammalsdifferfromTertiaryorxerothermicmammalsthroughthedevelopmentofhypertrophiedorluxurioussocialorgansandbehavior
including:antlerandhornweaponsusedprimarilyforwrestlinganddisplayandaconcomitantreductionindaggerlikeweapons(Figure2)veryplasticbodygrowth
relativelylargerbrainslarge,seasonalfatdeposits(Geist1978:116144,185210,1987a)goodinsulation(i.e.,fur)(Irving1972)enlargedhairstructuresusedto
dissipatesocialscent(MuellerSchwarze1987)ageneralincreaseinchromosomesgreaterplasticityinfoodhabitsincreasedadaptationtoopen,treeless
landscapesandalowresistancetopathogensandparasitestransmittedfromrelativesinmoresoutherlylatitudes.Thusfar,emphasishasbeenplaceduponthe
hypermorphs,whichchangeintheaforementionedcharacteristicswithlatitude.Briefattention,however,shouldbegiventofouradditionaltypesofmammalian
species,whichalsounderwentevolutionarychangeduringthePleistocene.Theseare:

(1)Thepaedomorphicislanddwarfs,whichevolvedwithoutpredators,developedorgansthatenhancedfoodacquisitionandprocessingattheexpenseofanti
predationadaptations(Geist1987a)

(2)Theecologicalspecialists,usuallysympatric,retainphysicalfeaturesdevelopedinadaptationtoaspecificclimaticzone(seeVrba1980).NoteinFigure3thatthe
sympatricdeerofIndiaarerepresentativeoftheprimitivetwoandthreeprongedantlervarieties.Howeversimilarinmorphology,thedeeroccupyseveraldifferent
ecologicalniches,allowingfortheexploitationofdiversefoodresources,rangingfromcoarseforagetoyoungshootsandfruit.Thispatternalsoisseenamongtropical
anthropoids

(3)Thehybridspecies,differingfromthatofbothparentforms,isseeninspeciessuchasthemuledeer,whichapparentlyevolvedduringpostglacialconditionsfrom
crossesofmaleblacktailedandfemalewhitetaileddeer(Carretal.1986,Cronin1986,Geist1990,Lingle1989)and

 Page80

Figure2.
Comparisonof(top)anancient,solitary,tropicalforestdwelling,
warcolored,andresourcedefendingcaprid,theserow(Capricomis
sumatrensis)ofSEAsiawith(below)anIceAgecoldandalpine
adapted,gregariousdesertcaprid,theMongolianargaliorgiant
sheep(Ovisammondarwini)fromcentralAsia.Theserowcarries
daggerlikehornsthatareusedasweaponsofoffenseonly.The
sheep'shornsalsoserveduringparryingasorgansofdefenseand
asluxuryorgansinsociallife,symbolicofthemale'sabilitytoprocure
forage.

(4)Thepaedomorphiccontinentaldwarfsthatarosebyararereversedpatternofgeographicdispersal,namelyfromcoldtowarmclimates,andrepresentthe
antithesisofhypermorphicevolution(Geist1987a).

ThelargesocialorgansofhypermorphicPleistocenemammals,mostnotablythecerebralcortex(butnotthebrainstem)andfatsupporteddisplaystructuresare
formedfrombiologicallyexpensivetissuesoflowgrowthpriority(Hammond1960).Suchfeaturesdeveloptotheirfullestextentonlyafterothertissuesare
developed.Largequantitiesoflowgrowthprioritytissuematerialaredevelopedinresponsetoanabundanceofrarematerialresources.Theseresourcesinclude
scarcemasternutrients,suchasrareaminoacids,whicharevitaltothegrowthofantlers,horns,andpatternsoflonghair,utilizedforbehavioraldisplaysorinsulation.
Althoughfatretainstwicethecaloriesofproteinandcarbohydrates(Brody1945),inproportionitisdepositedforenergystorageororgansupportwithgreat
inefficiencyeverycaloriestoredasfatrequirestheexpenditureofatleastonecalorieduringthelipogenesisprocess(Blaxter1960).Onlywhenenergyandnutrient
resourcesarehighlyabundantduringseasonsofgrowthcanthefullexpressionofaspecies'geneticpotentialforsizeberecognized(Waddington1957),andsuch
traitsaresubjectedtonaturalselectionmechanisms.IceAgemammalsareinvariablyamongthegiantsintheirfamilies,Withtheirbiologylinkedtoanabundancein
environmentalresources.IceAgebodysize,althoughindicativeofaneffectivenessofresourceexploitation,alsoimpliesthepresenceofunusuallyfertileenvironments,
suchaswereuncommonotherwise.Sincelargemammalswerelargerduringglacialperiodsthanduringinterglacials(Edwards1967Guthrie1984Kingand
Saunders1984Wilson1980),andsincemammalsdonotsimplyincreaseinbodysizewithincreasingcoldasclaimedbyBergmann'sRule(Geist1987c),itwould
appearthatglaciersareassociatedwithfoodabundance.Thisimplicationisvalidglaciersareindeedsourcesoffertility,generatingnutrientrichlandscapes,as
contrastedtotheold,leachedsoilsoftropicalenvironments(Geist1978:199207).

LuxuryOrgans

LUXURYORGANSARECONSIDEREDtobethoseaccuratelyreflectingtheavailabilityofscarceresourcesintheenvironment.Deerantlers,forexample(Figure4),grow
maximallyonlywhenrequiredprotein,mineral,

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Figure3.
SympatricecologicalspecialistsbuiltonthesameprePleistocenebodyplan,exemplifiedhere
bytropicaldeerfromIndia:A)themuntjac,specializedinfeedingondiminutivebitsofsoftplant
foodB)thehogdeer,hider,specializedinfeedingongrassC)thespotteddeer,gregarious,
specializedincollectingshortsproutinggrassesavailableincoverlesspasturesD)theswamp
deer,gregarious,specializedinfeedingontallgrassesonswampygroundE)thesambar,hider,
specializedinfeedingontoughfiberedvegetation.

andenergyresourcesarefreelyavailable(Goss1983Vogt1936,1948,1950)and,consequently,areanindexoftheforagingsuccessofmales.Aswithhornsin
mountainsheep(Bunnell1978),antlersreflectannualandregionalvariationsinnutrition(Goss1983).Antlermassincreaseswithantlercomplexityfromabout1g
(Wtkg)1.35insmalltropicaldeerwithshortantlersto2.54.5g(Wtkg)1.35insubtropicalthreeprongeddeer,5.07.0g(Wtkg)1.35intemperateandcoldzone
deer,reaching8.015.0g(Wtkg)l.35inthelargestantleredformssuchasreindeer,butalsoinfallowdeer(Dama)andprobablyMegalocerosgigantheus(Geist
1987a,1987b).Currentresearchindicatesthat,interspecifically,antlersizevarieswiththecourtshipdisplayofthemaletothefemale,thoughnotwiththedisplaysof
malestowardrivals(Geist1991a).Antlermassislargestincursorialdeerandtracksthefemale'sabilitytoproducelargeyoungatbirthandmilkhighinsolids.Thisis
necessaryforrunnersiftheiryoungmustoutrunswiftpredatorssoonafterbirth(Geist1986,1987a,1987b).Notsurprisingly,hugebodysizeandenormousantlers,
horns,ortusksarefoundinpreywheretherearelarge,cursorialpredators,suchasintheRancholabreanfaunaofNorthAmerica.Thebetweenlatitudevariationin
antlermassalsoappearstorelatetothedurationoftheproductivitypulseofvegetation(Figure5).Thatis,thelargestluxuryorganscanexistwherethereisthelongest
seasonalfreedomfromnutritionalwant.Sincethedurationoftheproductivitypulseiscurvilinearwithlatitude,weexpectbodysizeinlargemammalsalsotovary
curvilinearlywithlatitude(seeFigure6).Itisexpectedthatluxuryorganswillvaryinthesamefashion,butnoadequatedataexisttotestthishypothesis.Luxuryorgans
alsoarerepresentedbyhornlikeorgansotherthanantlersandincludethehugetusksoftheextinctcoldadaptedelephantsandmastodons,thehornsoflargerhorned
bovidsandrhinos,and,inhumans,thelong,evergrowingheadhairandfatsupportedsecondarysexualorgans.

Weapons

INASOUTHTONORTHdirectionofdispersal,largemammalslosephysicalweaponstypicalofmaterialresourcedefense,suchascombatcanines(cervids,equids,suids,
anthropoids),slashingincisors(rhinos),daggerlikehorns,ossicones,andantlers(bovids,giraffids,cervids),andinsteadevolvewrestlingstyleweapons(Figure2).
Thisisanindicationofanenhancedgregariousexistenceinopenlandscapes,inwhichindividualsformcoordinatedherdsforsecurity(Geist1978:7480).

 Page82

Figure4.
AntlerevolutionintheAlcini(moose):A)smallVillafranchianmooseadaptedtospeedy
running,probablyadwellerofshrubsteppesB)giantmidPleistocenebroadfronted
moose,theancestorofC)theAmericanstagmooseandD)therecentmoose,allof
whichspecializedastrottersoverrough,swampy,andsnowyterrain.Antlersize
symbolizesabilitytoprocureresourcesinexcessofneedandisapparentlythe
consequenceoffemalechoice
(sexualselectionGeist1986,1987a).

Figure5.A)
Graphicrepresentationoftheannualproductivitypulsein
relationtoannualforageneedsformaintenanceandgrowth
andB)theproductivitypulse,asrealizedintropical,
temperate,andArcticenvironments
(Geist1987a).

 Page83

Figure6.
RelativebodymassplottedinmembersofAmericanNew
Worlddeer.Thisisbasedonskulldata,wherethelargest
skulllcouldfindwasrated1.0.Maximumsizeisreached
around60Nlatitudeanddeclinesthereafter
(Geist1987c).

FatStorage

LARGEMAMMALSFROMCOLDclimatestendtoseasonallyaccumulatelargeamountsoffattobeusedbymalesinrutting,byfemalesinproducingyoungandmilk,andby
alltosubsidizefoodshortagesinwinterortopermithibernation.Seasonalexcessesinfoodarethusstoredtosubsidizeexistenceinseasonsofnutritionalshortage.
Thisisincontrasttotheirtropicalandsubtropicalrelativesthatdepositverylittlefat(GrafandNichols1967LedgerandSmith1964),bututilizefoodmoreefficiently,
bypassingthelipogenesisprocess.Theinefficiencyofmuchlipogenesisispermissibleonlywherethereisaseasonaloverproductionoffood.Inadditiontofatstorage,
therealsoareseasonalstoresofmineralsinbonesandvitaminsintheliverandfat.Seasonalavailabilityofresourcesgeneratesaseasonalrebuildingofthebodyand
reducestheoccurrenceofacutedemandforscarcenutrients.Forexample,annualreplacementofthehaircoat,whichoccursatmuchthesametimeasantlerand
bodygrowth,generatesagreatneedforsulfurbasedaminoacidssuchascysteineandmethionine.Theseaminoacidscanbegrownbythedigestivemicrofloraof
ruminants,providedinorganicsulfurisavailable.Sulfurisavailableinmanyminerallicks(JonesandHanson1985),includingthosefoundatthemarginsofglaciers
(Geist1978:200201).

Karyotype

THEKARYOTYPEORCHROMOSOMALarchitectureofaspeciesvariessothatthediploidnumberincreasesinrelationtoclimaticseverity,beinglowestinthetropics.Thisis
illustratedwellbyOldWorldandNewWorlddeer.Thenombrefondamental(NF)ofchromosomesintheCerviniappearstobe70,alittlelessthantheNF74in
theNewWorlddeer(Baccusetal.1983GustavsonandSundt1968),buttheactualdiploidnumberisafunctionoffusions.OldWorldspeciesfromcoldclimates,
suchasred,sika,andfallowdeer,have2n=68thecoldadaptedwhitelippeddeerfromTibethasareduced2n=66(Wangetal.1982).Withtheexceptionofthe
hogdeer,whichhasadiploidnumberof2n=68,thereisanobservedreductioninthediploidchromosomenumberintropicaldeer,associatedwithanincreasein
metacentricandsubmetacentricautosomalchromosomes(inparentheses):theaxisdeerhas2n=66(4),thesambar2n=6265(85),theTimordeer2n=60(10),the
Eld'sdeer2n=58(12),andthebarasingha2n=56(14).Themuntjacsareevenmoreextremeinchromosomereductions,from2n=47inElaphodusand2n=46inM.
reevesi,themostcoldadaptedmuntjacs,to2n=8inM.m.muntjakand2n=6inM.m.vaginalisinthetropics(seeGoss1983GrovesandGrubb1987).Similarly
inNewWorlddeer,thenormaldiploidnumberintemperateorcoldadaptedubiquitousspeciesis2n=70,asseeninwhitetailedandblacktaileddeer,theAmerican
moose(Alcesa.americana),reindeer,thewaterdeer(Hydropotes),andthenorthernmostandmostubiquitousbrocketMazamaamericana.InthemontanePudu,
thediploidvalueis2n=69/70,andinthecoldadaptedEuropeanmoose,itis2n=69.ThecoldadaptedEuropeanroedeer(Capreoluscapreolus)hasanumberof
2n=74,whiletheSiberianroedeer(C.pygargus),whichisadaptedtoevencolderenvironments,hasadiploidnumberof2n=80.However,intropicalspecies,
reducedvaluesareseen:inOzetoceros2n=68inBlastocerus2n=66inMazamagouazoubria2n=63/64andinMazamaamericanatemama2n=50(see
GrovesandGrubb1987).Apossiblecauseofchangeinchromosomalarchitectureisfoundintheprocessofdispersalevolution(Geist1987a).Thechromosomal
structureisrearrangedduringthedispersalphaseofspeciation,sothatallspeciesinvolvedinadispersalepisodewilldiffergeneticallyfromancestralpopulations.That
is,weexpectparallelchangestooccurinchromosomalarchitectureinrelationtothegeographicaldistributionofspecies.Thisisindeed

 Page84

foundincaprids(Nadleretal.1973a,1973b)andinOldWorlddeer.Formsderivedfromprimitivestemsappeartohavereduceddiploidnumbersintropical
environments,irrespectiveoftheirdispersal.Thus,thegregarious,savannahdwellingRusatimorensisretainsadiploidnumberof2n=60(Neitzel1982WangandDu
1982),comparedtothesolitarythicketdwellerRusaunicolormariannuswith2n=64/65(HsuandBenirschke1973)orR.cambojensiswith2n=62(WangandDu
1982).Themuntjacsareanotherexample,withthetemperatedwellingspecieshaving2n=46andtheIndianmuntjac2n=6.Thisalsoisseenbetweenthechital
(2n=66)andthehogdeer(2n=68).AcasehasbeenmadeforOdocoileusastheancestorofallSouthAmericancervids(Brokx1972).Ifso,derivedSouth
Americanspeciesshouldhavereduceddiploidnumbers.Thishasbeenobservedtobetrue.Wealsofindthatincapridsderivedformshavereduceddiploidnumbers,
althoughlinkedheretodispersalevolution(Geist1987a,1987c).Whiletherelationshipbetweenspeciationandchromosomalarchitecturewasdiscussedlongagoby
Goldschmidt(1940),themechanismsofchromosomalevolutionremainuncertain(GrovesandGrubb1987).

Ecology

ECOLOGICALLY,ICEAGEmammalsdifferfrompostglacialspeciesbypossessingplasticfoodhabits,adaptabletoseasonalvariations.Thelargescalevariationsin
seasonaltemperaturefromwintertosummerrequiremammalstopossessamultithermicecologicalcompetence.Theyarecapableofchangingthemorphologyoftheir
digestivesystemstosuitseasonalneeds(Hofmann1983),andtheyrarelydevelopextremelyspecializedfoodrelatedadaptations,suchashypsodontdentition,which
isverycommonintropicalruminants.Astheyarespecificallyadaptedtodiverseenvironments,andnottoenvironmentalconstancy,theyarenotexpectedtosucceed
againsttheirspecialistrelativesinmoresoutherlylatitudes.Therefore,theycannotsuccessfullypopulateecosystemswithmorebenignclimates,exceptwhere
ecologicalspecialistsareabsent.Inrecenttimesthiswasshownbythemanyunsuccessfulattemptstointroducelargenorthernreddeer(wapiti)orSiberianroedeer
intosouthernlatitudes,wheretheydidcompetewithsouthernrelatives,orbythefateofNorthAmericanandEurasianungulatesintroducedintoNewZealand(Benide
1937StubbeandPassarge1979Wodzicki1950).ThesuccessoflargemammalsofSiberianorigininNorthAmericacanbeattributedonlytomegafaunalextinction
thatsweptawaytheecologicalspecialists,butleftbehindthespecialistsinnoncompetition.Examplesofsuchspecialistsincludemobilerstrategists,thatis,species
withhighreproductiverates,short,individuallifeexpectancies,andexcellentmechanismsofjuveniledispersal,suchaswhitetailedandblacktaileddeer,pronghorn,
blackbear,peccaries,andcoyotes(Geist1985).

Figure7.
Smallforestdeerfromwarmtemperateclimates,asikastag(A),
besideacloselyrelatedhypermorphicIceAgegiant,thewapiti
(B),fromtheopenplains.Thesikadeerisa"jumper"whichruns
tohideandhaslittleendurance.Thewapitiisthemosthighly
evolvedcursor,thatis,aspeedy,highendurancerunneramong
OldWorlddeer.Thebodyandlimbproportionsrevealthisdifference
(Gambaryan1974)

 Page85

Security

ASTOSECURITYSTRATEGIES,IceAgemammalsoftenarecursors(Gambaryan1974)thatis,speedy,enduringrunnersthatneedspacetoeludepredators(Figure7).
Thisprobablyisrelatedtothepreponderanceoftreelesslandscapesduringstadials.Inconsiderationoftherelationshipbetweenenvironmentandsecuritystrategies,
thecursorialadaptationsofseveralspeciesarenoted:RangiferthenorthernmostNewWorlddeerandthemostcursorialextantcervid,wapitithemostcursorial
OldWorlddeer,ortheIrishElk(Megalocerosgigantheus)themostcursorialdeerevertoevolve(Geist1986).Othermammalianlineagesalsopossesscursorial
opencountryadaptations,asecuritymeasurethatappearstopredominateinIceAgeenvironments.

PhenotypePlasticity

ALTHOUGHCURRENTLYSPECULATIVE,ithasbeensuggestedthatPleistocenemammalsarephenotypicallyplasticandhavetheinnateabilitytoreadilychangetheirbodysize
throughtime(seeGeist1978:116144and1989forreviewEllenberg1978Hammond1960).Greatreductionsinbodysizeundergonebylargemammalssincelate
glacialtimeshavebeenobserved(Edwards1967Guthrie1982,1984KingandSaunders1984Wilson1980).However,sizevariationofthesameorderorgreater
characterizescurrentpopulationsofsomemammalianspecies.ThisisbestexemplifiedbythefivefolddifferenceinmassamongpopulationsofEuropeanreddeer
(Figure8),from70kgforstagsoftheAustrianWeilhartpopulationto350kgforCarpathianstagsofthesamespecies(Wagenknecht1981).Experimentally,size
differencesof2.2foldhavebeendemonstratedforreddeerandroedeerbyVogt(1948,1950).However,Vogtbeganhisstudieswithdeerofaboveaveragesize.
Phenotypeplasticityconfoundstaxonomy,asillustratedbythehaplesscaseofthe''woodbison,"a"phantomsubspecies"basedonhaircoatcharacteristicsthatare
environmentallymalleableratherthangeneticallyfixed(Geist1991).

DiseasesandParasites

INVESTIGATIONSOFWILDLIFEparasitesanddiseases(Anderson1972AndersonandLankester1974Goodson1982Samuel1979),andalsoofnativeAmericanpeople
(Baruzzietal.1977Cook1973Dobyns1983Joralemon1982Neel1979),indicatethatepidemiologically,IceAgemammalsarehighlyvulnerable.Suchspecies
havealonghistoryoflifeinseasonalenvironmentswithlong,cold,drywintersthatarenotconducivetotheexistenceofmostparasitesandpathogens.Consequently,
theseanimalsarenotwelladaptedtohandlethediseasesandparasitesofrelativesevolvedinmilderclimates.ThiscausesdifficultiesforIceAgeoralpinemammals
thatmoveintolowerlatitudesandaltitudes.Suchmigratoryeventsaresuccessfulonlyduringanabsenceofindigenousrelatives,asoccurredinNorthAmerica
followingmegafaunalextinctionswhenSiberianspecies,previouslyexcludedbythedenselypackedRancholabreanfauna,floodedsouthafterthelossofspecialists.
Today,diseasepromotingparasitespresent

Figure8.
Environmentalconditionscangrowfromsimilargenomesinto
vastlydifferentphenotypes.A)Thisistheefficiencyormaintenance
phenotypeofreddeerthatlivedforgenerationsonpoorforage.Stags
mayatminimumadultsizeweighonlyaboutonefifthasmuchas(B)
dispersalphenotypeslivingunderluxuriousnutritionalconditions.

 Page86

severeproblemsinNorthAmericanwildlifeconservationeffortsowingtotheintroductionofnonnativebiggamespeciesforcommercialgameranchesandhunting
enterprises(Geist1985,1988).Poorresistancetodiseasesandparasitesandacompetitiveinferioritycausedbyabroadbasedecologicaladaptationindicatethatthe
evolutionanddispersionofIceAgemammalsoperatesmostsuccessfullyinaunidirectionalmanner:fromclimaticallybenignbutbiologicallydemandingenvironments
toclimaticallydemandingbutbiologicallybenignregions(Geist1978).

HomoSapiens:AnIceAgeMammal?

HomosapiensFOLLOWEDcloselythepatterndiscussedsofarforIceAgemammals,asdetailedinGeist(1978):

(1)Therewasadispersalofanthropoidsfromclimaticallybenigntoclimaticallydemandingenvironmentsasrevealedinthefossilrecord.Intropicalenvironments,
ecologicallyspecializedanthropoids,possessingweaponsandbehaviorforclassicresourcedefense,rangeinsizefrommidgettogiant(gibbon,chimpanzee,
orangutan,andgorilla).Theirbodyplans,evolvedinthemidTertiaryperiod,areindicativeofadaptationtoasubtropicalenvironment.Australopithecus,a
subtropicalform,branchedoutontoitsowndivergentevolutionarypathinthelateTertiary.Itsmorphologysuggestsadependencyuponclimbingforsecurityandan
adaptationtoasavannahenvironment.Ithadlostitscombatcaninesandgreatmuscularstrengthandhadincreasedbrainsize,characteristicssuggestingagregarious
existencewithina"selfishherd"andareducedemphasisuponthedefenseofmaterialresources.Australopithecuswassucceededatthebeginningofthemajor
glaciationsbyHomoerectus,whichdispersedintotemperateclimatesandwascapableoflifeinthesteppe,awayfromtrees,andrepresentswhatwasmostlikelythe
firsthumanspecies.H.erectuswasfollowedinlatePleistocenetimesbyHomosapiens,largerstillinbodyandbrain,whichsuccessfullyoccupiedperiglacial
environmentsasNeanderthal(Geist1981)andCroMagnonforms.Thisbasicpatternofgeographicevolution,fromclimaticallybenigntosevereenvironments,isthus
thesameasseeninotherIceAgemammals.

(2)Hominids,likecervids,equids,andrhinos,underwentareductioninsizeoftheircombatteeth(canines),whichcurrentlyremainunchangedinallextantresource
defendingtropicalanthropoids.Theuseofteethandbitingwereabandonedinfavorofotherweapons.

(3)Homosapiensremainsoneofthelargestoftheextant160speciesofprimatesaswellasfossilforms.

(4)Homosapienshasthelargestbrainoftheanthropoids.(Forthosedelightingininvidiouscomparisons,itmaybepointedoutthattheallometricincreaseinhominid
brainsizeisthesameastheincreaseinantlermassinIrishelk).

(5)Homosapiensisaveryfatspecies.Normalmalesaverageabout15percentbodyfat,whilethereproductiveabilityoffemalesishinderedwithoutabodyfat
percentageinexcessofca.25percent(Frisch1978,1988).Thispercentageisthreetofivetimestheamountoffatfoundinsomelargetropicalmammals(Ledgerand
Smith1964)afactdeservinggreaterattention.

(6)Homosapienspossesseshighlydevelopedluxuryorgansascomparedtootheranthropoids.Weareendowedwithlong,evergrowinghaironpartsofthehead,
largebreastsandbuttockssupportedbyfattytissues,eyeswithenhancedpupilsduetoawhitesclera,andlipsthatarelargeandwellmarked.Distinctbehavior,
owingtovocalandvisualmimicryabilities,andasophisticatedculturalenhancementofbiologicaldisplaysalsodefinesourspecies.TheeconomistThorsteinVeblen
(1899)longagorecognizedthatmuchofthebiologicaldisplayisrelatedtothepossessionofmaterialresources(aluxurytrait)hetermedsuchbehavior"conspicuous
consumption."ThelinkbetweenbiologyandcultureinhumanbehavioristreatedindetailinGrist(1978).

(7)Ecologically,humansaretrulygeneralistslackinganEltoniannicheasaspecies,wehavenobiologicalprofession,andoureconomicactivitiesarediverse.We
couldhardlybemoreunspecialized.Elton'snichedefinesaspeciesecological"profession"(i.e.,woodpeckerniche)Hutchinson'snichedescribespreciselythe
outcomeofaspeciesprofessioninspaceandtime.Thesearecomplementaryconceptionsoftheecologicalniche,withEltonemphasizingprocess,andHutchinsonthe
results.

(8)Humansexhibitgreatvariabilityofbodysizebetweenpopulationsinbothspaceandtime.Ithasbeennotedthatthephysical,mental,andsocialdevelopmentof
humansisstronglylinkedtonutrition(seeGrist1978:141Huber1968Steffensen1958Tanner1962Wercinska1978).AspredictedbytheDispersalPhenotype
Model(Geist1978:116144),severaleventsoccurwithimprovednutrition:anincreaseinbodysizewithmaterialwealthisobserved

 Page87

concurrentchangesinpersonalityoccurfrombirthonward(ChauvezandMartinez1979)anincreaseinperformanceofsocialbehavior(Marmotetal.1984Young
andWillmott1973)andanincreaseinhealth(StottandLatchford1976).Contrarytothemodel,reproductionisnotobservedtoincrease,andconsequently,
longevityismaintained.Thereproductiveeffortofwomen,asexpected,isinverselyrelatedtolongevity(KitagawaandHauser1973)andisindependentofincome.

(9)Theimmunesystemofhumansevolvedduringlateglacialtimes,incoldclimates,andisthussusceptibletodiseasesofmoresoutherlyrelatives(Baruzzietal.
1977Cook1973Dobyns1983Joralemon1982Neel1979).Inshort,humansappeartobegoodexamplesofIceAgemammals.

PeriglacialEcology

WHILETHEREMAININGperiglacialenvironmentsvarygreatlyandarelargelyunsuitableanalogiesformodelingprocessesastheyoccurredalongPleistocenecontinental
glaciers,someextantperiglacialregionsarerelevant.AnunderstandingofthemannerinwhichPleistoceneglaciersgeneratedfertileenvironmentsandincreasedplant
productionmustbeattained,foronlysuchasituationcouldhaveledtotheevolutionoflargemammalianhypermorphs.WorkintheIceFieldRangesoftheYukon
providesthebasisforunderstandingperiglacialecosystems,(Geist1978:194201):

(1)Periglacialenvironmentsareseasonallypulsestabilizedecosystems,characterizedbyannualproductionoffertilemineralmaterialintheformofnutrientrichsiltand
loessdeliveredbyglaciofluvialprocesses.Thiscreatesavigorouslyproductiveecosystemwithmanypioneeringplantspeciesandahighproportionofreproductive
tissuerelativetosupporttissues.Glacialmeltwatersgenerateexpansesofalluvium,creatingfens,marshes,andfloodplainmeadows,whileeolianprocessesgenerate
loesssteppeenvironments.

(2)Theleesideoftheglacialsystemischaracterizedbywinds,frequentlykatabaticinnature,andabundantsunshine.Thisdownwindareaisofgreatestinterest
becauseglacialconditionstherecreateenvironmentswheremammalianlifeshouldbemostabundant.

(3)Sharpcontrastsindiurnalandseasonaltemperatures,coupledwiththenearunidirectionaldistributionofloess,produceamosaicofsharplydelineatedhabitats.
Closetoandwellabovetheglacier,inareaswithoutloessdeposition,tundraenvironmentscanbefound(probablyaveryrareecosysteminglacialtimes).Inareas
withloessdeposition,theformationofperiglacialloesssteppefollows.Asasoilconstituent,loessintroducesimportantdrainageandthermalproperties.Withthe
additionofscatteredpocketsofspruceandlowlandfloodmeadows,asystemofhabitatsinjuxtapositionallowsforagreatdiversityofplantandanimalspeciesthat
todayarewidelyseparated(Geist1978:205207).

(4)Thedissolutionandevaporationofsaltsgenerateminerallicksatthemeltoffedgeoftheglacier.Thesemineralpansareavidlysoughtbylargemammals(Geist
1978:199202).Theirvisitsareparticularlynumerousandlengthyinthespringandearlysummer,atimethatcoincideswiththemaximumavailabilityofyounggreen
forageandwithaperiodofintensebodyandhairgrowth,lategestation,andlactation.Themineralwealthattheedgeorinthevicinityoftheglacierisexcavatedby
animalsfrombelowitsloesscovering,followingglacialretreat.Thesulfursaltsgainedhereareneededfortheproductionofvitalaminoacidsthatareessentialforthe
growthofhair,horn,andconnectivetissues(JonesandHanson1985).Theacquisitionofotherminerals,suchassodiumandmagnesium,alsoarcseasonallyimportant
inregulatingphysiologicalprocesses.Magnesiumisavitalantidotethatcounteractshighlevelsofingestedpotassiumcontainedinsproutingspringforage(Jonesand
Hanson1985).Apreliminaryapproximationoflargemammalbiomassderivedfromaconsiderationofninespecies,includingferalhorses,intheperiglacialregionof
theSt.EliasRange(Geist1978:195,204),suggestsacarryingcapacityof89kg/100ha.This,althoughaconservativeestimate,isaboutfivetimesgreaterthantundra
environmentsatcomparablelatitudes.WithPleistocenemegaherbivoresandpredatorsinplace,thebiomassvaluewouldhavebeenevenhigher.Themodernspecies
diversityinthisareaincludes34speciesofsmallmammalsand13largemammalspecies.Fifteenadditionallargemammalspeciesbecameextinctinthepostglacial
period.Inperspective,however,predatorpreyratioshaveremainedunchanged.InthemodernYukon,onefindsroughlyonewolfper122largemammals,thesame
asthatobservedintheAlaskanfossilrecord(Guthrie1968).Inessence,glaciersareakintooceantides,withtheperiglacialareascomparabletotheintertidalzones
whereinthemovementofdiversenutrientsinconcertwithenergypulsesgeneratesproductivity.Theannualglacialmeltwatersandtheconcomitantintroductionof
fertile

 Page88

Figure9.
Threespeciesthatchangewithdistancedispersed.Bottomrowistheprimitiveconditionfor
sheep,goat,andreddeer(urial,markhor,andKashmirstag,respectively).Somedistanceeast,
inTurkey,onefindsthemorehighlyevolvedAnatolianmouflon,thebezoargoat,andthearal
stag(middlerow).Furthestwest,inthewesternlevant,onefindsanevolvedmouflon,Spanish
ibex,andwestEuropeanreddeer(toprow).Notethechangesonmarkings,pelagepatterns,
andantlerbranching.

 Page89

siltcreateaperpetuallyyoung,productiveecosystem.Itisonlywithintheserichecosystemsthathumanscouldhaveadvancedalongrivervalleysandsubsequently
adaptedtothearctic(seeGeist1978).

HowIceAgeMammalsEvolve

ALTHOUGHOTHERMECHANISMSareinvolvedintheevolutionaryprocess,onlythefactorsinvolvedinthecreationoflatitudinalhypermorphsthrough"dispersalevolution"is
ofconcernhere(Geist1971a,1971b,1978,1987a).Largemammalsformdistinctlydifferentphenotypesundertheextremesofnutrientandenergyavailability.
Periodsoflowavailabilitygeneratemaintenancephenotypes,specialistsincompetitionfortheefficientutilizationofscarcematerialresources.Severeresource
shortagesgenerateselectionforsmallersizedindividualswithincreasinglymoreefficientorgansforfoodacquisitionandprocessing.Efficiencyselectionshould
generateagradualismofphysicaltraitsinthefossilrecord,especiallythoseorgansdealingwiththedefenseofresources(teeth)andsecurity(e.g.,bodyformchanges,
mainlyofrunnersandjumpers).Whennutrientsandenergyaresuperabundant,whichonlyoccursinthecolonizationofanuninhabitedhabitat,alarge,luxurious,
mobile,strongphenotypedevelopsthat,intheprocessofmaximizingreproduction,competesnotformaterialresources,butformates.Thisisthedispersal
phenotype.Thusduringdispersalintouncolonizedregions,underseveresocialcompetition,isnoveltyandanenhancementofsocialorgansevolved.Whenahabitat
reachesitscarryingcapacity,individualsareselectedformaintenancephenotypesanddispersalevolutionaryprocessesarebroughttoahalt.Noveltyintheexternal
appearanceofspeciesevolvingduringperiodsofdispersalthroughintensesocialselectionisfollowedbyatimeofgradualism,wherebyfinetuningofthenew
adaptationsviaefficiencyselectionoccurs.Pulsesofdispersalevolution,rapidbutbrief,serveto"punctuatetheequilibrium,"whilesubsequentefficiencyselection
uponecologicaladaptationsinsuresgradualchangeswithimprovement.Dispersalevolutionisthusamechanismthatleadstotherapidevolutionofnovelty,changing
socialorganswithgeographicdistanceandaffectingallcomparablemembersofafauna(Figure9).Aconsiderationofthedichotomyofphenotypedevelopment,that
is,dispersalversusmaintenance,isvitaltoanunderstandingofthecharacteristicsofmodernhumans.

TheBodySizeProblem

FOURHYPOTHESESAREOFFEREDheretoaccountforthelargesizeofIceAgemammals:

(1)IceAgemammalsexperiencedaseasonalproductivitypulseofextendedduration(Geist1987a,Guthrie1984).Ithasbeenshownbythecurvilinearchangein
bodysizeinrelationtolatitude(Geist1987a)thatbodysizevarieswiththeduration,nottheheight,oftheproductivitypulse.Forextantspeciestogrowtothesizeof
theirglacialrelatives,anexceedinglylongpulsewouldberequired.

(2)Theperiglacialzoneswereexceptionallyproductiveanddiverselyvegetated(Guthrie1984).Diversityofforageisessentialtominimizetheeffectsoftoxic
secondaryplantcompounds,andthusmaximizetheintakeofdigestibleforage.Combinedwithalongproductivitypulse,thisgeneratesconditionsfavorablefor
maximumbodygrowth.

(3)Theproductivityofplantmatterwashighinproportiontoarea.Inayoungecosystemthisresultsinahighpercentageofreproductivetissueinproportionto
supporttissue.Thatis,thereisagreatavailabilityofhighenergyandproteinseedsorfloweringparts.Inopenareas,almostallofthephotosyntheticlayerisavailable
forgrazing,andalargeamountofreadilyobtainablehighqualityforageisathand.Conditionssuchasthesealsosupportmaximumgrowthandlactation.

(4)Attainablebodysizeisdependentuponthesizeofpredators.Thishypothesisispresentedonthefindingthatonislands,ungulatespecieslackingpredatorsshrink
insize(Azzaroli1982).Also,continentally,small,cullingpredatorsareassociatedwithsmallherbivores(e.g.,inSouthAmerica),whilelargepredatorsareassociated
withlargeherbivores(e.g.,Africa).IntheRancholabreanperiod,hugepredatorsandherbivoresexistedsidebyside(KurtnandAnderson1980).Relevanttothis
concernarethelargehornlikeorgansofRancholabreanruminants,suchasthoseofBisonlatifronsorCervalces.Thesizeofthesefeaturesisexpectedtoincrease
inresponsetopressurefromcullingpredators(Geist1986).Whycarnivoresincreaseinsizeremainstobeanswered.ThecarnivorousbearArctodus,forexample,
increasedinsizealongwithspecializationofitsjaws,fromtheIrvingtoniantotheRancholabreanperiod(KurtnandAnderson1980).Thatthesizesofwolvesalso
fluctuateinkindwiththesizeoftheirpreyisseeninthecurvilinearchangeinbodysizeinrelationtolatitude(Geist1987c).

 Page90

WereHumansKeptOutofNorthAmericabytheRancholabreanFauna?

APPARENTLYHUMANSAPPEAREDlateincentralNorthAmericawithotherSiberianmammals,suchasthewolf,grizzlybear,wolverine,wapiti,Siberianbison,andmoose
(Geist1989).ThisSiberianfaunaexpandedintothevacuumofNorthAmericaleftbythedyingmegafauna.Evidenceforhumanoccupationincreasesinstepwith
megafaunaldiebackoveraperiodofabout6,000years(Geist1989).Thereisnoevidenceandlittlereasontobelievethathumanscouldhavetackledthehuge
carnivorousbearArctodus.Armedwithprimitiveweapons,peoplehadconsiderabledifficultiesdealingwiththemuchsmallerbrownbearandinCaliforniawithdrew
fromareaswherebrownbearswerecommon.Kurtn(1976)arguesthatinEurasia,UpperPaleolithicpeopleswerecapableonlyofhuntingthebrownbearevidence
forthesuccessfulhuntingofthelargercavebearisnonexistent.TheoverlapbetweenhumansandArctodusappearstohavebeenminimal(JohnsonandShipman
1986).ItappearsthathumanscolonizedtheAmericasonlyfollowingthecollapseofmegafaunapopulations.TheeliminationofmegaherbivorepopulationsinNorth
Americawouldbeneededtotriggeracollapseinotherfaunalgroups(seeMartinandKlein1984OwenSmith1987).Thereafter,floristicchangeswouldfavorvery
large,destructivewildfireswhichwouldimpoverishfloraandfaunapopulations.Pressuresintroducedbyhumanhunterswouldhavehadlittleimpactwithoutadecline
inmegafaunasizeandanincreaseintheirvulnerability.Twofactorscouldhaveproducedthissituation.First,ifareassouthofthecontinentalicesheetexperienced
coolandsnowywintersanddry,coldsummers,therewouldbeatimeperiodwhensnowfallsandcolddidnotcoincide.IfanArcticairmassweretosettleovermuch
ofthecontinentduringanabsenceofsnowcover,thenallsurfacewaterwouldfreeze.Ifthesurfacewaterweretostayfrozenforacoupleofweeks,thenamass
mortalityofungulateswouldbeexpected.Second,Guthrie(1984)showsthatfloristicchangeswouldhavebeendetrimentaltolargecaecaldigesters(e.g.,
proboscideans,edentates,andequids)withtheirconservativeKstrategiesinreproductiondevelopedattheendofthePleistocene.TheKstrategymusthavebeen
pushedbyRancholabreanmegaherbivorestoextremesinresponsetopressuresfromdiverse,largebodiedpredators.Thatis,thenewbornyounghadtohavebeen
verylargeandinterbirthintervalsmusthavebeenextremelylong,evenundernormalconditions.Withadropinplantproductivity,reproductionmusthavebeen
curtailedevenmore,makingthelargemegaherbivoresunusuallysusceptibletoanyadditionalmortalityfactor.Massivepopulationlosseswouldhavebeendifficultto
restorerapidlyandtheweakenedorpoorlygrownsurvivorsquicklywouldhavefallenpreytopredators.IfincreasedaridityofthelatePleistoceneforced
megaherbivorestowardforestedareasforwaterandforage,thentheArctodusthreattohumanhuntersmighthavebeenminimized,ashunterscouldhaveescapedinto
thetrees.Also,Rancholabreanmegaherbivoresprobablywereundauntedbytherathersmallhumanpredatorandthereforewouldhavebeenrelativelyeasytohunt.
Withallthingsconsidered,humanhunterscouldhaveprovidedthelastlittlepushneededtosendthestrugglingmegaherbivoresintoextinction.

Phenotypefeatures

WHATISPUZZLINGiswhyPleistocenehuntersretainedtheirlargebodysizeforsolongatime,changingtothedistressinglypoorphysicaldevelopmentrepresentedby
Mesolithicpopulationsonlyduringpostglacialtimes.Theoretically,aftercolonizingandreachinganecologicalcarryingcapacity,humanpopulationsshouldhave
declinedfromapredominanceofdispersalphenotypestomaintenancephenotypesbecauseofresourceshortages.Instead,humansbehaved,overaspanofsome
25,000years,asifresourcesforontogeneticdevelopmentwereunlimited.Intheabsenceofcolonization,thisshouldoccuronlyiftherewereconsciousattemptsat
maximizingbodysizeandindividualdevelopmentattheexpenseofreproduction.Thiswouldbe,inessence,aculturallyenhancedKstrategyofhumanreproduction.
Theprocessofgeneratingmaximallydevelopedhumansisdifficultanddependsuponthesuccessfulmanipulationofthemother'sbodyfromatimepriortoconception
andthroughlactation.Herphysicaldevelopmentmustbeverygood,shemustpossessadequatefatresources,andherperiodoflactationmustbeprolonged.Not
onlydoesthisdemandadiethighinprotein,butalsoanexceptionallysupportivefamilymilieu.HerewenotethecomplexVenuscultpracticedbythemales.Isuggest
thatthisisnotacoincidence,butanexpressionofadeterminedattempttostructuretheenvironmentofthefemaletomaximizethephysicaldevelopment,andnotthe
number,ofchildren.Largebodysizemusthavebeenadesirabletraitandaprerequisiteforthehighlyathleticperformancesdemandedbythesuccessfuluseof
primitiveweaponstokilllarge

 Page91

mammals.LargebrainsizealsoisassociatedwiththediversityofcompetenciesmasteredbyPleistocenehumans.Thehighdeathrateofteenagemalessuggestsa
dangeroustestingprocessofadultcompetenceandskills.Consequently,itislikelythatwearefixedgeneticallyalongthesamelinesasweresuccessfulintheUpper
Paleolithic.Thesesuccessfulgenesmayhavebeenisolatedthroughmaximizingphysicaldevelopment,withmechanismsofselectionintroducedbytestinghuman
physicaltraitsagainstthedangersofthehunt.Onlythiscouldhaveledtotherapidgeneticfixationofcharacteristicsessentialtosurvivalinthatgame.Ifourancestors
consciouslystructuredindividualdevelopmentandseverelytestedtheproductagainstlargeprey,resultinginhighcasualtyrates,thenarewenotselfselectedinour
veryownimage?

TheImportanceofIceAgestoHumans

ITAPPEARSTHATTHEperiglacialenvironmentwasnotonlyimportant,butwasvitaltotheappearanceandcharacteristicsofmodernhumansandcontinuestoexertits
importancetothisday(seeGeist1978).Itisproposedherethatwewereshapedbyhypermorphicspeciation.Theperiglacialenvironmentwassofavorablethattwo
typesofhominidsflourishedduringthelastglacial:theNeanderthalinthelongstretchoftheearlyWrmfollowedbyCroMagnoninthelastglacialpulse.Both
groupssufferedduringdeglaciation,withtheNeanderthalsbecomingextinctintheinterstadialbetweenWrmIandII,andtheCroMagnonbarelysurviving
deglaciationandsufferingseverelyinthefollowingMesolithic.Incontrast,theUpperPaleolithicwasagoldenageforhominids,atimeofflourishingculturalexpression
asrevealedbythequalityofpaintings,carvings,andtools,andanageofexcellenthealthandphysicaldevelopmentofindividuals.Itislikelythathumanpopulations
werenotonlyshapedintopermanentdispersalphenotypes,butmayhaveshapedthem.Tothisday,periglacialenvironmentshavecontinuedtoshapecultures.Many
largeandimportantcivilizationswerebuiltuponglacialloess,takingadvantageoffertileenvironments.Mostculturesdevelopedalonglarge,floodingriversinopen
plains(Carneiro1970),withheadwatersoriginatingfromicefieldsandglaciersthatreleasedwaterandfertilizingsilttolandsdownstream(Geist1978).Weare
childrenoftheIceAges,relictsofculturesthatflourishedonthefertilityleftbehindbyPleistoceneglaciers.

Acknowledgments

ThisstudywassupportedbygrantsfromtheNaturalSciencesandEngineeringResearchCouncilofCanada.

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PleistocenePeoplesofJapanandthePeoplingoftheAmericas
TakeruAkazawa

Abstract

HomoerectusappearstohavebeenthefirsthominidtoleaveitsAfricanhomelandandexpandintoEurasia.WhetherthefirstoccupationoftheJapanesearchipelago
waspartoftheexpansionofHomoerectusduringthemiddlePleistocenehasbeendiscussedindetail,butinformationpertainingtothissubjecthasnotbeensufficient
andthereisstillmuchdebate.Recentexcavationdata,however,showalongseriesofPaleolithicmaterialsdatedfromabout200,000to30,000yearsago,lithic
materialsthataredefinitelyhumanmade.

ThermoluminescentdatesonvolcanicmaterialsassociatedwithculturebearingdepositssuggestthattheinitialcolonizationoftheJapanesearchipelagomayhave
beguninthemiddlePleistocene.Inthisstudy,IpresentahypotheticalmodeltoexplainthisnewevidencebasedupontheexpansionpatternsofPleistocenemammals
inEastAsiaandalsoattempttoexaminethepeoplingoftheAmericasasseenfromNortheastAsia.

JapanesePleistoceneHumanRemains

INTHELIGHTOFRECENTresearch(EndoandBabe1982Suzuki1981,1982a,1982b),ithasbeenconcludedthathumanskeletalremainsfoundatMikkabiand
HamakitainHonshu,andYamashitaandMinatogawainOkinawa,aremostprobablythoseofJapanesePleistocenehumans.TheYamashitaspecimenwasfoundina
depositdatedto32,0001000yrB.P.(TK78)andtheMinatogawaremains(seeFigure1)weredatedto18,250650(TK99)and16,600300(TK142)yr
B.P.ThesedatesindicatethatthefirstJapanesecamefromthecontinentoverlandbridgesduringtheupperPleistoceneperiod,around30,000yearsago.

Suzuki(1981,1982a),whoexcavatedandanalyzedtheseskeletalremainsstatedthattheearliestJapaneseshowstrongskeletalhomogeneity.Themoststriking
featureistheirsmallsize,referredtobySuzuki(1981)aspygmylike.HeconcludedfromhiscomparativestudiesofupperPleistocenehumansinJapanand
neighboringregions(Figure2)that:

Accordingtotheresultsobtainedfromthefactoranalysisontheaveragevaluesofcranialmeasurements,whichincludethosefromthePleistoceneagetothepresentday,the
morphologicalpositionoftheMinatogawaman,thePleistocenemaninOkinawa,islocatedmuchnearertotheLiukiangmanofSouthChinathantotheUpperCavemanofNorth
China...theMinatogawamancanpossiblyberegardedmorphologicallyasoneoftheremoteancestorsoftheJomonageman.Therefore,itwillbepossibletosupportthatthe
JomonagemanismuchcloseringeneralrelationshiptotheMinatogawamanandtheLiukiangmanthantotheUpperCaveman.Consequently,sofarastheavailableskeletal
materialisconcerned,about32,000yearsago,PleistoceneHomosapiensontheChinesecontinent,representedinthetermofgeneralizedprotoMongoloidpeople,cametoJapan
[Suzuki1981:5556].

Yamaguchi(1982:85)concurs,baseduponSuzuki'sstudies,that''suchdiminutivestaturesestimatedforearlyinhabitantsintheJapaneseislandssuggesttheirpossible
relationshipwiththesmallsizedUpperPaleolithicpopulationinthesoutheasternpartofAsia,asrepresentedbyLiukiangmanfromSouthChinaandNiahCaveman
fromBorneo."

Nevertheless,thequestionsofwhen,fromwhere,andoverwhichroutestheseearliestimmigrantscame

DepartmentofAnthropologyandPrehistory,TheUniversityMuseum,UniversityofTokyo,Tokyo,Japan

 Page96

Figure1.
JapaneseupperPleistocenehuman
skeletonfoundattheMinatogawasite
inOkinawa,datedtoabout20,000years
agobytheradiocarbonmethod.Thisis
thebestpreservedindividualdiscovered,
MinatogawaNo.1,amostlycomplete
skeletonofa153cmtallmale.

remainunanswered.ThePleistocenehumanremainsareoflowquantityandquality,andinsufficientnumbershavebeendiscoveredassociatedwithPaleolithic
material,althoughsomenewfindshavebeenlocatedinsouthwesternJapanincludingtheRyukyuIslands(Narasaki1986).Thiscausessomedifficultyindiscussing
theirrelationshiptolithicindustriesthatalreadyhavebeenorderedchronologically.

JapanesePaleolithic

SINCETHEFIRSTDISCOVERYoftheJapanesePaleolithicattheIwajukusite(about100kmNWofTokyo)in1949,hundredsofexcavationshavecontributedtoour
understandingoftheJapanesePaleolithic.However,despitethe40yearsofworksinceIwajuku,thedebateoverthebeginningoftheJapanesePaleolithiccontinues.

TheKantodistrict,themostintensivelyinvestigatedanddocumentedareaintheJapanesearchipelago,hasproducedmuchPaleolithicmaterialembeddedinthe
volcanicKantoLoamformations(e.g.,OdaandKeally1979,1986).TheKantoLoamisdividedintofourstratigraphicunitsfrombottomtotopthesearethe:Tama
(morethan130,000yrB.P.),Shimosueyoshi(ca.130,00060,000yrB.P.),Musashino(ca.60,00030,000yrB.P.),andTachikawa(ca.30,00010,000yrB.P.)
loamformations.PaleolithicremainshavebeenobtainedfromtheTachikawaLoamonly(OdaandKeally1979).Recently,stoneimplementshavebeenreportedin
Kantodepositsolderthan30,000years(Tatsuno1987),buttheiragehasnotyetbeenconfirmed.

PaleolithicassemblagesrecoveredfromtheKantodepositssofarcanbeexplainedwithreferencetothreedifferenttraditionaltoolmakinghabits(e.g.,Akazawaetal.
1980OdaandKeally1979,1986).Thefirst(ca.30,00027,000yrB.P.)chronologicallyisanassemblagecharacterizedbycoreblankproductionandseveral
typesofcoretools.Thisisfollowedbyasecondtradition(ca.27,00015,000yrB.P.),whichexhibitsahighfrequencyofflakeandbladeblanksproducedfrom
elaboratelypreparedcoresandawidevarietyofmodifiedflakeandbladetools,calledknifeblades.Thethirdtradition(ca.15,00010,000yrB.P.)ischaracterized
bythepopularityofmicrobladesandaremarkabledecreaseofflakeandbladetools.ThisKantoPaleolithicsequencehasbeenusedtoconstructaframeworkforthe
JapanesePaleolithicsequenceinotherregions.

WithrespecttohumancolonizationoftheJapanesearchipelagobefore30,000yearsago,interestingexcavationdatafromMiyagiPrefectureinTohokuhavebeen
appearingforseveralyears(Figure3).TheseconsistofalongseriesofPaleolithicmaterialsdatedfrom200,000to30,000yearsago(e.g.,Okamura1983,1985a,
1985b,1986a,1986b,1987OkamuraandKamata1980reviewedbyAnderson1987andReynolds1985).Amongthem,fivedifferentindustrieswereidentifiedin
depositsdatingfrombefore30,000yearsagoattheBabadanAsite.Lithicmaterialswere

 Page97

Figure2.
AmorphologicalcomparisonofEastAsianpeoplesfromtheupperPleistocenetothepresent
day(Suzuki1981).A)UpperPleistoceneB)JomonC)YayoiD)HistoricE)Present

foundindepositsbetweenvolcaniclayersandaredefinitelyhumanmodified.Datingofthedepositsproducingthelithicshasbeenobtainedbythermoluminescent
analysisofvolcanicmaterials.

Ifthesedatesarecorrect,wenowhaveanewpossibilityinJapanesearchaeologythatthefirstcolonizationofthisarchipelagobeganinthemiddlePleistocene.
Nevertheless,thereismuchdebateoverthebeginningoftheJapanesePaleolithicandtheearlyPaleolithicmaterialsthatareconsideredtobeolderthan30,000years.
Discussionofthiscontroversialsubjectcentersuponthreepoints:(1)stratigraphiccontext(2)antiquityand(3)themorphologicalfeaturesandinconclusiveformof
thematerial.AlthoughdebatecontinuesastowhethertheobjectsfromBabadanAandotherrelatedsitesinnorthernJapanwerefoundinstratifieddepositsdatingto
200,000and30,000yearsago(OdaandKeally1986),thereisnodoubtthatthesematerialswereproducedbyhumans.

Inthisstudy,IwouldliketodiscussahypotheticalmodelthatexaminestherecentfindsofJapaneseearlyPaleolithicmaterialbasedupontheexpansionpatternsof
threespeciesofPleistocenemammalianfaunainEastAsia.AsnotedbyAikensandHiguchi(1982)andShutler(1988),humanmigrationtoJapanfromtheAsian
mainlandseemstohavefollowedPleistocenemegafaunamigrations.

JapanesePleistoceneMammalianFauna

THISPAPERDEALSwiththethreekeyspeciesofmammalianfaunathataremostcommoninthePleistocenedepositsoftheJapanesearchipelagoandneighboringregions
incontinentalAsia:Palaeoloxodonnaumanni,Sinomegacerosyabei,andMammuthusprimigenius.AsshowninFigure4,theJapanesePleistocenemammalian
faunacanbedividedintotwomajortypescomprisingtemperateandborealelements.

PalaeoloxodonNaumanni

Palaeoloxodonnaumanni,alsoknownasNaumann'selephant,isthemostcommonandwelldocumentedspeciesoftheJapanesePleistocenefaunaandis
distributedthroughouttheJapanesearchipelago(e.g.,Hasegawa1972,1977Kameietal.1988Otsuka1987).Nevertheless,evidencetodatesuggestsits
distributionpatternshowsregionaldifferencesindensity.LocationsproducingNaumann'selephantremainsaremoreconcentratedinsouthwesternJapan,whereas
findsarescarcerinnortheasternJapan,especiallyHokkaido.

TheoriginsofNaumann'selephantarestillinquestion,sinceitsexistenceontheAsiancontinent

 Page98

Figure3.
DistributionofJapaneseearlyPaleolithicsitesproducing
lithicartifactsthatareconsideredtobeolderthan30,000yrB.P.
(ModifiedfromOkamura1987:Figure92.)

hasnotyetbeendocumented.Inthisconnection,weareabletoproposethreedifferenthypotheticalmodelstoexplainNaumann'selephantanditstaxonomicrelation
toPalaeoloxodonnamadicusonthecontinent(Figure4):

(1)PalaeoloxodonnamadicusandPalaeoloxodonnaumannioriginatedfromadifferentancestry.Inthismodel,theproblemofwhenandfromwhereNaumann's
elephantcametotheJapanesearchipelagoremainsunanswered,asdoesthequestionofwhyNamadicus'elephantisabsentthesequestionsmustbeexplained.

(2)Naumann'sandNamadicus'elephantsmightbeclassifiableasthesamespecies.Usingmolars,whicharethemostcommonfossilizedsampletobeanalyzed,
morphologicaldifferencesaretoosmalltodistinguishbetweenthesetwospecies(Inuzuka,personalcommunication1988).Thatistosay,thesetwogroupswere
originallythesamespecies,buttheyhavebeenwronglydividedintotwodifferentgroups:naumanniandnamadicus.

Figure4.
SitedistributionofthefourkeyspeciesofPleistocene
mammalianfauna,dividedintotemperate(Palaeoloxodon
naumanni,Palaeoloxodonnamadicus,andSinomegaceros
sp.)andboreal(Mammuthusprimigenius)elements.
(ModifiedfromHasegawa1977,Kameietal.1988,andOtsuka1987.)

(3)Thefinalmodelislinkedtotheprecedinghypothesis.ThegenusPalaeoloxodon,whichwaswidelydistributedinEastAsia,radiatedunderdifferentenvironmental
conditions.GroupsofPalaeoloxodonthatcametoJapanbecameprogressivelyinsularadaptedinthearchipelago,isolatedfromthecontinentafterthedisappearance
ofthelandbridges.Asaresult,twodifferentindividualspeciesevolvedPalaeoloxodonnamadicusandPalaeoloxodonnaumanni.

Ifthesecondand/orthirdmodelsareacceptable,Naumann'selephantcanbeexplainedasoneofthetemperateelephantsfoundintheJapanesePleistocenefauna.
Thisideaissupported,inadditiontotheregional

 Page99

distributiondifferencesinJapanmentionedearlier,bysamplesofbothPalaeoloxodonnamadicusandPalaeoloxodonnaumannithatweredredgedfromthe
bottomofthecontinentalshelfoftheEastChinaSea(Figure4).

ThenextpointtobeexaminedhereconcernsthetimeoftheexpansionofNaumann'selephantintotheJapanesearchipelago.AnumberofNaumann'selephantfossil
remainshavebeenfoundinstratifieddepositsdatingfromthemiddleandupperPleistoceneatdifferentlocationsinJapan.Fromthegeologicalcontextofthedeposits,
wecanpostulatethatNaumann'selephantdatesbacktothemiddlePleistoceneandthataround300,000yearsago,itcamefromthecontinentoverthesouthernland
bridge,persistingintotheupperPleistocene,ca.10,000yearsago(Kameietal.1988Otsuka1987).Also,othertemperatefaunasuchasthegeneraBubalus,
Bison,andCervusdiffusedtoJapan(Hasegawa1977Kameietal.1988),althoughwelldocumenteddataonthesetypesarenotyetavailable.

SinomegacerosYabei

SinomegacerosyabeiisawellknownJapanesePleistocenemammalthatwaswidelydistributedthroughoutthearchipelago,withtheexceptionofHokkaido.Thus,
itsdistributionpatterniscloselyrelatedtothatofNaumann'selephant(Figure4).Baseduponthisfact,thisspeciesalsomaybeasoutherntemperateformlike
Naumann'selephant,althoughitgenerallyissaidtobeaborealelementarrivinginJapanvianorthernroutes(e.g.,Hasegawa1977).

BaseduponthedistributionpatternofthegenusSinomegacerosincontinentalAsia,theJapanesespeciesSinomegacerosyabeiissaidtobeaborealelement
associatedwithMammuthusprimigenius(e.g.,Hasegawa1977).AlthoughitsdistributionpartlyoverlapsthatofMammuthus,thecontinentalspeciesaremore
concentratedinthetemperatezonebetween30and40Nlatitude,mostlyparalleltotheJapanesearchipelago,excludingtheRyukyuIslands.

Fromthegeologicalcontextofthedepositsyieldingthefossilsamples(Kameietal.1988),thefirstappearanceofSinomegacerosyabeidatesbacktothemiddle
Pleistocene,andtheyareknowntohavelivedfrom300,000to10,000yearsagointheJapanesearchipelago.

Mammuthusprimigenius

THEBOREALELEMENTistypifiedbytheexistenceofMammuthusprimigeniusfromtwolocationsinHokkaido,thenorthernextremityoftheJapanesearchipelago.The
Mammuthusgroups,originatinginsubSaharanAfricawitharapidnorthwardexpansion,becameprogressivelycoldadaptedinEuropeandnorthernAsia,andthe
woollymammothsurvivedintothelatestPleistoceneofbothEuropeandAsia(Maglio1973).

TherecanbenodoubtthatMammuthusprimigeniustravelledtoHokkaidofromnortheasterncontinentalAsiaviatheSakhalinlandbridge.Theproblemofwhen
MammuthuscametoHokkaidoisstillcontroversial.However,inlightofrecentresearch,ithasbeensuggestedthatMammuthusspreadintoHokkaidoduringthe
lateststageofthePleistocene,baseduponthegeologicalcontextofdepositsassociatedwithmammothremains(Kameietal.1988).Thisisstrengthenedby
acceleratorradiocarbondatesobtainedfromMammuthusremains(AkiyamaandNakai1988Akiyamaetal.1988NakaiandNakamura1988):20,243670yr
B.P.forasampleinHokkaido,and23,816884yrB.P.forasampledredgedfromtheJapanSea.

Althoughnotwelldocumented,borealelementssuchasUrsusarctos,Canislupus,Bisonsp.,Alcessp.,andothersmayhavediffusedtotheJapanesearchipelago
togetherwithMammuthus(Kameietal.1988).

Discussion

BECAUSEPLEISTOCENEMAMMALremainsarestilllowinquantityandquality,andbecausesofewhavebeendiscoveredassociatedwithPaleolithicmaterials,itremains
difficulttodiscusstheirrelationshiptothehumancolonizationoftheJapanesearchipelago.Thefinalconclusionsproposedherearederivedfromthechronological
contextofPleistocenefaunaandtheirrelationtogeologicalandradiocarbondataobtainedtodate.

(1)DuringthemiddlePleistocene,thefirstemigrationfromtheAsiancontinenttotheJapanesearchipelagobysouthernroutesseemstobestaccountforthe
distributionofPalaeoloxodonnaumanni.Althoughthegeographicoriginsofthisspeciesareunknown,itcrossedoverlandbridgesintotheJapanesearchipelago.
PalaeoloxodonnaumannispreadintoJapan,whereitiswelldocumentedinmiddle

 Page100

Figure5.
ProposedgeographicexpansionofthegenusPalaeoloxodonfromAfrica
toAsia(Maglio1973),showingthedistributionofupperPleistocenehuman
skeletalremainsintheJapanesearchipelagoandotherneighboringregions
referredtointhetext.

PleistocenedepositsofHonshuIsland.ThespeciesexpandedtobecomethedominantlargemammalofJapan,persistingintotheupperPleistocene.

(2)Ataboutthesametime,thegenusSinomegacerosexpandedinEastAsia,especiallysouthward,crossingintotheJapanesearchipelagooverlandbridgescovering
theEastChinaSea.Fromthislandbridge,thespeciesspreadfarthereastandnorthwardovermostoftheJapanesearchipelago,withtheexceptionofHokkaido.

(3)DuringthelateQuaternary,possiblyinthemaximumcoldstageoftheupperPleistocene,MammuthusprimigeniusspreadthroughoutnorthernAsiaandinto
NorthAmerica.OnebranchofthisspeciesadvancedsouthwardintoHokkaidoacrosslandbridges,whichseemedtohavebeenwidelyformedaroundSakhalin
Island.

Fromthesevariouslinesofdiscussion,wecanproposeahypotheticalmodeltoexplainthelinkbetweenthegeographicexpansionofsomePleistocenemammalian
speciesandthehumancolonizationoftheJapanesearchipelago.

HomoerectusappearstohavebeenthefirsthominidtoleaveitsAfricanhomelandandexpandintoEastAsia.ThedistributionofHomoerectussitesinEastAsia
indicatestherecanbenodoubtthatHomoerectuspenetratedasfaraslatitude40NaroundtheChoukoutien(Zhoukoudian)site.Homoerectuscouldhave
migratedtoJapanduringthemiddlePleistocene,sinceitscontinentaldistributionwasmostlyparalleltotheJapanesearchipelago.Quitepossibly,thismigrationwas
linkedwiththepresenceofNaumann'selephantthroughouttheJapanesearchipelagoduringthemiddlePleistocene,whichindicateslandconnectionswiththeAsian
mainland.

InAsia,NeanderthaloidtypehominidsevolvedfromHomoerectuspopulations,andtheirremainshavebeenfoundatseverallocationsinChina.Themigrationof
NeanderthaloidtypehominidstotheJapanesearchipelagocanbeunderstoodbythedistributionofPleistocenemammalianspecies,asinthecaseofNaumann's
elephantandHomoerectus.SinomegacerosyabeioccurredthroughouttheJapaneseislands.ThisspeciescametoJapanlaterthanNaumann'selephant,duringthe
upperPleistocene(Kameietal.1988).InthesamewayasHomoerectus,NeanderthaltypepeoplecouldhavemigratedtoJapanoverthelandbridgeformedinthe
EastChinaSeaduringtheupperPleistocene(Figure5).

 Page101

Figure6.
ProposedgeographicexpansionofthegenusMammuthus
fromAfricatoAsia(Maglio1973)anditsrelationtothe
distributionofmicrobladeculturesiteswithwedgeshaped
coresinNortheastAsia.

Untilnow,wehavenotobtaineddirectevidencetosupportthishypotheticalmodel.RecentdiscoveriesofJapaneseearlyPaleolithicmaterial,however,makeit
possibletoreconsiderthatthefirsthumancolonizationofJapanmayhavetakenplaceduringthemiddlePleistocene.Thus,Iproposethattheinitialhumancolonization
ofJapanoccurredbysouthernroutesassociatedwithtemperatezoneanimalspecies,whichweredominatedbyPalaeoloxodonnaumanniandSinomegaceros
yabeiduringthemiddleandupperPleistocene.

TheNeanderthaltypepeopleexpandedfurthernorththantheprecedingHomoerectus(Praslov1984).Althoughtheexacttaxonomicstatusofthesegroupsisstill
unclear,theyseemtohavepossessedthetechnologytopenetratefurthernorththantheirpredecessors.LithicassemblagesmorphologicallysimilartoMousterian
assemblageshavebeenfoundatseveralsitesinSiberianorthoflatitude50N(Praslov1984).Nevertheless,ithasnotyetbeenconfirmedthattheypenetratedinto
thecoldareasabovelatitude60N,thelatitudeoftheSiberianAlaskanlandbridge.AlthoughPaleolithicpeoplesexpandedintonorthernAsiaintheearlyandmiddle
Pleistocene,atpresent,thereisnoevidencethattheypenetratedfarthernorththanlatitude50NinSiberia(Praslov1984).

ItwasonlywiththeevolutionofHomosapienssapiensthathumanbeingsbegantomoveintofarnorthernEurasia.Itwashere,innortheasternSiberiaintheupper
Pleistocene,thatadistinctivemicrobladeculturewithwedgeshapedcoreswasdeveloped(e.g.,IkawaSmith1982Mochanov1977,1980Praslov1984).The
earliestsuchmicrobladesites,dating35,000to25,000yearsago,weredistributedinfarnorthernSiberia,betweenlatitude60to70N(Martin1984,Praslov
1982).Evidenceofhumanoccupationasearlyas30,000yearsagohasbeenlocatedatIkhineandUstMilintheAldanRiverregionatlatitude64N(Mochanov
1980seeFigure6).

Mostsitesofthesamemicrobladeculture,locatedinnorthernChina,theKoreanPeninsula,Japan,andAlaska,datetolessthan20,000yearsago(IkawaSmith
1982YiandClark1985).Forinstance,thewedgeshapedcoretraditionwasdevelopedinJapanaround15,000yearsagoandinAlaskaabout12,000yearsago.

EvaluatingtherecentSiberiangeoarchaeologicalandchronometricdata,YiandClark(1985)aredubiousthatthehumanoccupationofnortheasternSiberiaaround
theAldanregion(abovelatitude60N)datesbacktotheKargininterglacialage(35,00025,000yrB.P.).TheyconcludethattheDyuktaiculture,characterizedby
Siberianmicrobladeassemblages,appearedafterabout18,000yearsagothatis,duringtheearlySaltanglacialage.

Martin(1982),however,hassuggestedthatoccupationofnortheasternSiberiawouldhavebeeneasierduringtheinterstadial,whenwoodlandwasmorewidespread,
thanduringlaterglacialconditionswhenwoodlandwasmorerestricted.Ifthisistrue,itisprobablethatmigrationofsomehumangroupstoabovelatitude60N
occurredduringthelastinterstadial,morethan25,000yearsago.Theageoftherelatedprehistoricassemblageshasstilltobeconfirmed,however.Baseduponthese
data,threepointsbecomeclear:

(1)HomesapienssapienspenetratedintofarnorthernSiberiaabovelatitude60Npossiblyduringthelastinterstadial,morethan25,000yearsago.Occupation
wouldhavebeeneasierduringthisinterstadial,whenwoodlandwasmorewidespread,thanlater,duringglacialconditions,whenwoodlandwasmorerestricted,as
notedbyMartin(1982:404).

(2)Underthesecircumstances,theinitialimmigrantgroupsdevelopedaspecializedsubsistencesystem,

 Page102

heavilydependentuponmegafaunasuchasMammuthusandequippedwithdistinctivetoolkitsdominatedbymicrobladeassemblages.

(3)Theextremelycoldclimaticconditionsthatoccurredduringthelastglacialmaximumaround20,000to18,000yearsagoseemtohaveforcedcertaingroupsto
migratesouthtoChina,theKoreanPeninsula,andtheJapanesearchipelago,andnortheastintoAlaska.

(4)Forsomereasonwhichwedonotyetunderstand,certaingroupsseemnottohavemigratedfromSiberiaatthistime.Thesegroupsappeartohaveevolvedcold
adaptedMongoloidcharacteristicsduringthisstage.

Conclusion

THEEASTASIANPOPULATIONdoesnotseemtohavebeenabletopenetrateintothecoldareasaboveaboutlatitude60NbeforetheevolutionofHomosapiens
sapiens.ItthusseemshighlyunlikelythattheBeringianlandbridge,whichformedbetweenlatitude60and70N,couldhavebeencrossedbeforeapproximately
40,000to30,000yearsago.Infact,theactualmovementintoAlaskaandalsointotheJapanesearchipelagoappearstohavebeenapartoftheexpansionof
microbladeculturepeoplefromSiberia,associatedwithborealzonespeciesdominatedbyMammuthus,duringthelastglacialmaximum.Thus,drasticclimatic
changeattheendofthelastinterstadialseemstohavebeenresponsibleforthefinalhumanexpansionanddispersalsthatoccurredinthearcticregion.

Acknowledgments

IwouldliketothankparticularlyRobsonBonnichsen,whoreadthisstudyandpresentedthoughtfulandcarefulcomments.Iamalsogratefulforthecooperationof
MarkHudson,VisitingResearchAssociatefortheTokyoUniversityMuseum.

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1982bPleistoceneManinJapan.JournaloftheAnthropologicalSocietyofNippon90(supplement):1126.

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1987ProgressExcavationReportofNo.471Bsite,RTRama,Tokyo.MonthlyKobunkazai291:1723.

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1985The"DyuktaiCulture"andNewWorldOrigins.CurrentAnthropology26(1):120.

 Page104

TheColonizationofWesternBeringiaTechnology,Ecology,andAdaptations
TedGoebel1
SergeiB.Slobodin2

Abstract

CurrentlyinwesternBeringiathereare35archaeologicaloccupationsthatareconsideredtodatetothelatePleistoceneorearlyHolocene.Only15ofthese,
however,havebeenchronometricallydatedtobefore7000radiocarbonyearsago(yrB.P.),whiletherestaredatedsolelyontypologicalorstratigraphicgrounds.Of
theradiocarbondatedoccupations,threeareassignedtothePaleolithic(>10,000yrB.P.)and12totheMesolithic(90007000yrB.P.).Themajorityarelocatedin
theupperKolymabasininsouthwesternBeringiaandintheChukotkaPeninsulaoppositeAlaska.Thispaperreviewseachofthesesitesindetail,providingupdates
onoldsitesandintroductionstonewsitesnotpreviouslydescribedinEnglishlanguagepublications.

TheearliestevidenceforhumansinwesternBeringiadatestoabout14,000yrB.P.,asdocumentedbythebladeandbifaceassemblage(layerVII)atthestratified
UshkiIsite,centralKamchatka.SimilarassemblageshavebeenidentifiedatBerelekh,anUpperPaleolithiccampsiteinthelowerIndigirkaBasinradiocarbondated
toabout12,200yrB.P.,andEl'gakhchan,asitethatoccursinastratifiedcontextbuthasnotyetbeendated.TheUptarIsitealsocontainsabifacialindustrythat
maybelatestPleistoceneinage,butthissitehasonlyanupperlimitingdateof8260yrB.P.TogetherthesesitessuggestthepresenceinwesternBeringiaofapreI
1,000yrB.P.UpperPaleolithiccomplexcharacterizedbybladeandbifacetechnologies,whichmayberelatedtosimilarindustries(e.g.,theNenanacomplex)in
centralAlaska.

TheearliestclearevidenceformicrobladetechnologiesinwesternBeringia,againfoundatUshkiI,datestoabout10,700yrB.P.Nootherwedgeshapedcoreand
microbladesiteshavebeendirectlydated,andonlyone,Kheta,locatedintheupperKolymabasin,occursinadatablecontext.Nonetheless,manyundatedwedge
shapedcoreandmicrobladesiteshavebeenidentifiedintheKolymaandOmolonbasinsofsouthwesternBeringia,aswellasontheChukotkaandKamchatka
peninsulas,suggestingawidespreaddistributionofa"Diuktailike"complexverylateinthePleistoceneorearlyintheHolocene.

TheMesolithicofwesternBeringiahasaprobableageof90007000yrB.P.Duringthisinterval,conicalcoreandblade/microbladeindustrieslackingceramicsand
polishedstonetoolsdominatethearchaeologicalrecord.MostoftheknownMesolithicsitesoccurintheupperKolymaregion,buttheyalsohavebeenidentifiedon
ZhokhovIsland,locatedfartothenorthintheEastSiberianSea,andpossiblyatLakeTytyl'(interiorChukotka)andPuturakPass(ChukotkaPeninsula).These
industriesmaybetiedtotheSumnaginMesolithiccomplexoftheLenaRiverbasinwestofBeringia.
1
DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofNevada,LasVegas,4505MarylandParkway,LasVegasNV891545003
2
NortheastInterdisciplinaryScientificResearchInstitute,RussianAcademyofSciences,Magadan,Russia

 Page105

Introduction

THELATEPLEISTOCENEearlyHolocenearchaeologicalrecordofwesternBeringiaoffersauniqueperspectiveonthepeoplingoftheAmericasproblemhowever,the
PaleolithicandMesolithicsitesofthisareaoftenarenotconsideredwhenpeoplingmodelsareproposedandthetimingofmigrationsisdiscussed.Thisisduenotonly
topastlanguageandpoliticalbarriersseparatingthetwosidesoftheBeringStrait,butalsotothelackofreportedlatePleistoceneearlyHolocenesitesinfar
northeastAsia.EventodaythesampleofPaleolithicandMesolithicsitesinwesternBeringiaisexceedinglysmallwhencomparedtoneighboringAlaska,Yakutia,and
Japan.

WefollowHoffeckeretal.(1993)andYurtsev(1984)indrawingtheboundariesofBeringiaalongtheVerkhoianskRangeinthewestandthemaximumnorthwestern
limitoftheLaurentideicesheetintheeast.Bythisdefinition,westernBeringiaincludesnortheasternYakutia,MagadanOblast',ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug,
KamchatkaOblast',andnorthernmostKhabarovskKrai1 (Figure1).Duringthelastglacialmaximum(22,00018,000yearsago[yrB.P.]),2 theseregionswould
havebeencloselytied

Figure1.
MapofwesternBeringia,showinglatePleistocenegeographyandlocationsofarchaeologicalsitesdescribed
intext:(1)Kukhtui3,(2)UptarI,(3)Maltan,(4)Kheta,(5)Buiunda3,(6)Maiorych,(7)Kongo,(8)Siberdik,(9)
Shilo,(10)Zima,(11)UiI,(12)ZhokhovIsland,(13)Berelekh,(14)Bochanut,(15)DruchakV,(16)El'gakhchanI,
(17)Orlovka2,(18)Tytyl'I,(19)Kymyneikei,(20)Kym'ynanonvyvaam,(21)Ioni10,(22)Chel'kun,(23)
Chaatam'eI,(24)KurupkaI,(25)Marich2,(26)PuturakPass,(27)Ul'khumI,(28)AnanaiveemI,(29)Inas'kvaam
andTaliain,(30)Ushki,(31)Lopatka4.

 Page106

toAlaskaintermsofvegetationandfaunalcommunities.GlacierswererestrictedtomountainousareasliketheVerkhoiansk,Cherskii,andKolymarangesinthe
southwest,theAnuirangeininteriorChukotka,andtheKoriakandSredinnyirangesinKamchatka,whilemuchofthelowlandsofwesternBeringiaremainedicefree
andweresuitableforhumanhabitationinthelatePleistocene(Braitsevaetal.1968Isayeva1984Ivanov1986).Palynologicalandpaleontologicalevidencefromthe
Kolymabasinsuggeststhatfullglacialvegetationinmanyplaceswasdominatedbywormwood(Artemisia),variousgrasses,andtundraplants(Grichuk1984
Lozhkinetal.1993Ukraintseva1993).Asthelastglacialcametoaclose,theopenlandscapesofBeringiaweregraduallytransformedintothevegetationzones
existingintheregiontodayborealforestinthesouthgradingintoforesttundraandtundrainthenorth,andalpinetundrainhighmountainlandscapes.Regional
differencesbetweenwesternandeasternBeringiaemergedatthistime.

OthershaveusedabroaderdefinitionofwesternBeringia,referringtoanareaofnortheastAsiaincludingYakutiaandtheLenaRiverbasinalmosttoLakeBaikal
(Morlan1987West1981,1996).Thisideaofa''Megaberingia"canbeattributedtotherelativescarcityofPaleolithicsitesintheregionandtheneedtoinclude
surroundingareaswherePaleolithicsitesaremoreabundant.Largelywithinthelastdecade,however,Beringia(byourdefinition)hasbeguntoemergewithitsown
PaleolithicMesolithicarchaeologicalrecord,andthereislessofaneedtolookfurthersouthandwestinYakutia,centralSiberia,orJapanforevidenceindicating
whenhumanscolonizedtheBeringLandBridgearea.

ThepresentlyknownPaleolithicandMesolithicarchaeologicalrecordofwesternBeringiais,inlargepart,theproductofoneman,NikolaiDikov.From1956to
1976,Dikovandhiscrewsdiscoveredandstudiedover400prehistoricsites,rangingfromtheearlyRussianhistoricperiodtoasfarbackas14,000yrB.P.,fromthe
southerntipofKamchatka(CapeLopatka)tothenortheasterntipofChukotka(Uelen)(Dikov1977,1979a).TodayanewgenerationofRussianarchaeologistshas
succeededDikovinhislifelongquestforevidenceofearlyBeringians.Amongtheregion'scurrentlyactivearchaeologistsareA.Lebedintsev(SeaofOkhotskcoast),
I.Vorobei(Omolonbasin),M.Kir'iak(AnuiandOmolonbasins),A.Orekhov(BeringSeacoastsouthofAnadyr),V.Pitul'ko(EastSiberianSeacoast),T.Tein
(WrangellIsland),A.Ptashinskii(northcoastofKamchatka),andS.Slobodin(UpperKolymabasin).ByAmericanstandardsthisisarelativelysmallcadre(8)of
archaeologists,consideringthatthetotalareastudiedislargerthantheStateofAlaska.Nonetheless,archaeologicalworkinwesternBeringiacontinuesatarecord
pace,andasresultsofthisresearchbecomeavailable,ourunderstandingofthelatePleistoceneearlyHolocenerecordoftheareagrowsandchanges.

Inthispaperwereviewthearchaeologicalrecordsof35sites(Figure1)andpresentacompletelistofradiocarbon(14C)determinations(Table1).Wedividewestern
Beringiaphysiographicallyintothefollowingprovinces:(1)SeaofOkhotskCoast,(2)UpperKolymaMountains,(3)IndigirkaKolymaLowlands,(4)Western
InteriorChukotka,(5)ChukotkaPeninsulaandBeringSeaCoast,and(6)KamchatkaPeninsula.Thefollowingbroadquestionsareaddressed:Whendidthefirst
humansappearinwesternBeringia?Isthereevidencefora"premicroblade"UpperPaleolithiccomplex,asdescribedfortheearlyAlaskanrecord(Hoffeckeretal.
1993)?WhendolateUpperPaleolithicwedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladetechnologiesappear?HowcanwecharacterizelatePleistocenehumanadaptations?And
howcanwecharacterizeMesolithic(i.e.,90007000yrB.P.)technologyandsubsistenceinwesternBeringia?WhileacknowledgingthatwesternBeringian
archaeologyisstillinitsinfancy,theexistingarchaeologicalrecorddoespermitustoformulatehypothesesthatwillguideresearchintheregionintothenextcentury.

NorthernSeaofOkhotskCoast

THENORTHERNSEAofOkhotskCoastisthemaritimeregionofsouthwesternBeringia,stretchingfromOkhotsk(KhabarovskKrai)toKamenskoe(Kamchatka
Oblast').ThisareaisdominatedbythesouthernflankoftheKolymskoeRange,withpeaksrisingtoabout2,000m.Manysmallriverswithnarrow,steepsided
valleysflowsouthoutofthesemountainsintotheSeaofOkhotsk(Figure2).Lebedintsev(1990)hasreportednumerouslateHolocenesitesfromalongthecoast,but
earlierPaleolithicMesolithicsitesarerare.Atthetimeofthiswriting,onlytwosuchsites,Kukhtui3andUptar1,havebeendiscoveredanddescribed.

 Page107

Kukhtui3

KUKHTUI3(1,FIGURE1)islocatedalongtheleftbankoftheKukhtuiRiver,1.5kmfromtheSeaofOkhotsk,nearthetownofOkhotsk,KhabarovskiiKrai(59
26'N,14313'E).Mochanov(1972,1977)discoveredandexcavatedthesitein1970briefEnglishlanguagedescriptionscanbefoundinKozlowskiandBandi
(1984),West(1981),Michael(1984:2021),Morlan(1987),andMochanovandFedoseeva(1996b).AlthoughinitiallyassignedtothePaleolithicbyMochanov
(1977),morerecentanalysessuggestalateHoloceneage.

Kukhtui3isamulticomponentsitesituateduponthe25mterraceoftheKukhtuiRiver.LithicartifactsassignedbyMochanov(1977:87)tothePaleolithicoccurata
depthofabout90cmbelowthemodernsurface.Sedimentsareheavilydisturbedbyicewedgepseudomorphspenetratingtoadepthofover1m(Mochanov
1977:8788).Thesite'ssingleradiocarbondetermination,4700100(LE995)yrB.P.,reportedlywasassociatedwithaNeolithiccomponentsituatedabout50cm
abovethePaleolithiccomponent(Mochanov1977:87).

ArtifactsassignedtothePaleolithicbyMochanov(1977:88)makeupa"heterogeneous"assemblage.Rawmaterialsincludeblackchert,silicifiedslate,andsilicified
limestone.Artifactsinclude19flakes,onediscoidalcore,onesidescraper,twoflakeknives,twoovalbifaces,onebifacefragment,twobifacepreforms,onebifacial
point,andonewedge(orbipolarcore).Wedgeshapedcores,microblades,andburinsareabsent.Basedonthepresenceofovalbifaces,however,Mochanov
(1977:90)assignstheindustrytothelatePaleolithicDiuktaiculture.

OthershavequestionedtheassignmentofKukhtui3tothePaleolithic.Dikov(1979a:30,103104)arguesthattheassemblageismoresimilartomidHolocene
industriesontheupperKolyma(e.g.,theMaltanculture),andLebedintsev(1990:2427)pointstosimilaritieswiththeTokarevculture,alateHolocenemaritime
complexfoundalongthenorthernSeaofOkhotskshore.AccordingtoLebedintsev(1990:2526,179),Mochanov'sPaleolithicartifacts(scrapers,flakeknives,oval
bifaces)arecommoninTokarevsitesdatingtolessthan3000yrB.P.Giventheproblemswithstratigraphyandassemblageinterpretation,theassignmentofKukhtui
3tothelatePleistoceneorevenearlyHoloceneremainsequivocal.

Figure2.
MapofupperKolymaSeaofOkhotskregion,showing
locationsofsitesdescribedintext.

Uptar1

UPTAR1(2,FIGURES1AND2)islocatedabout50kmnorthofMagadan,alongtherightbankoftheUptarRiver,atributaryoftheKhasynRiver,nearthetownof
Sokol,MagadanOblast'(5954'N,15042'E).Slobodin(1990)discoveredthesitein1985andconductedlimitedexcavationsthrough1988.In1990,Slobodin
andGoebelexcavatedanadditional1m2areatocollectradiocarbonandtephrasamples.Todate,approximately35m2havebeenexcavated(Slobodin1990:6566,
SlobodinandKing1996).

Uptar1issituatedonthethirdterraceoftheUptarRiver,45mabovethemodernriverfloodplain.Thesite'ssingleculturalcomponentoccursinanorangecolored
sand1035cmbelowthemodernsurface.ThecomponentisstratigraphicallysealedbytheElikchantephra(Slobodin1990J.Begt,personal

 Page108

Table1.
RadiocarbonAgesfromWesternBeringiaArchaeologicalSitesDiscussedinText.
Site Material LabNo. Date Ref.
Kukhtui3 charcoal LE995 4700100 1
UptarI charcoal MAG1262 8260330 2
Maltanupper charcoal KRIL247 445050 3
Maltanupper notreported MAG361 3800100 4
Maltanupper charcoal KRIL246 369050 3
Maltanupper charcoal KRIL316 364045 3
Maltan,upper notreported MAG915 277050 5
Maltanupper notreported MAG914 272050 5
Maltanupper charcoal MAG605 215050 5
Maltanupper charcoal MAG607 212050 5
Maltanupper hearthcharcoal MAG195 179025 6
Maltanupper notreported MAG767 1300200 5
Maltan,lower charcoal MAG183 749070 7
Maltan,lower notreported notreported 6950250 8
Buiunda3 charcoal GX17064 8135220 9
Buiunda3 charcoal LE3991 7790190 9
Buiunda3 charcoal GX17065 7510205 9
Buiunda3 charcoal LE3898 5610110* 9
Kongo,layer2 charcoal MAG196 2 10
8655220
Kongo,layer2 charcoal MAG4063 8080500 10

Kongo,layer3 charcoal KRIL314 9470530 3

Kongo,layer3 charcoal KRIL313 9020510 3
Kongo,layer3 charcoal KRIL315 8850500 3
Kongo,layer3 charcoal MAG595 8700400 5
Siberdik,layer1 notreported MAG363 64040 4
Siberdik,layer1 notreported MAG385 64040 4
Siberdik,layer2 charcoal MAG408 6590250 10
Siberdik,layer2 charcoal KRIL248 60301704 3

Siberdik,layer2 charcoal KRIL253 5530170 3

Siberdik,layer2 hearthcharcoal MAG1021 442060 5
Siberdik,layer2 hearthcharcoal MAG1022 4720100 5
Siberdik,layer3 notreported MAG916 13225230* 5
Siberdiklayer3 hearthcharcoal MAG1019 9700500 5
Siberdiklayer3 charcoal KRIL249 8480200 3
Siberdik,layer3 charcoal MAG606 8130100 5
Siberdik,layer3 charcoal KRIL250 8020280 3
Siberdiklayer3 charcoal MAG184 7865310 11
Siberdiklayer3 charcoal KRIL251 7080600 3
Siberdiklayer3 charcoal MAG130 4570370 12
Zima charcoal MAG1260 707060 13
Ui1 charcoal GX17067 8810235 9
Ui1 charcoal GX17066 8695100 9
Ui1 charcoal LE3990 8370190 9
Ui1 charcoal LE3900 195090* 9

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page109

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

Site Material LabNo. Date Ref.

ZhokovIsland wood GIN6399 820040 14
ZhokovIsland bone GIN6400 793040 14
ZhokovIsland charcoal LE3527 8560180 14
ZhokovIsland wood LE4048a 7880160 15
ZhokovIsland wood LE4048b 8930180 15
ZhokovIsland bone LE4533a 10810390 15
ZhokovIsland bone LE4533b 7940170 15
ZhokovIsland wood LE4534a 7450200 155
ZhokovIsland wood LE4534b 7890150 15
ZhokovIsland wood LU2432 787060 14
ZhokovIsland wood LU2433 785040 14
ZhokovIsland wood LU2499 802050 14
ZhokovIsland woodbelowlayer LU2502 879090 14
Berelekhcemetery softtissue MAG114 1370080 16
Berelekhcemetery mammothtusk LU149 12240160 17
6 wood MAG117 1187060 12
Berelekhcemetery
6 wood LU147 11830110 1
Berelekhcemetery
6 wood MAG119 10440100 12
Berelekhcemetery

Berelekhcemetery6 wood MAG118 10260155 12

Berelekh wood IM1521 3420200 1

Berelekh wood GIN1021 1293080 1
Berelekh wood LE998 1060090 1
Berelekh7 soildetritus LE1112 >42,000 1

Chel'kun4 hearthcharcoal MAG719 8150450 18

Ananaiveem1 notreported LE2791 841080 23
Ushki1,layer7 charcoal GIN168 14300200 14
Ushki1,layer7 notreported MAG550 14200700 198
Ushki1layer7 notreported MAG522 13800500 19
Ushki1layer7 charcoal GIN167 13600250 209
Ushki1layer7 charcoal MAG637 9750100* 21
Ushki1,layer6(?) charcoal GIN186 21000100* 14
Ushki1,layer6b charcoal MAG400 10860400 1010
Ushki1,layer6 notreported MAG518 10790100 19
Ushki1,layer6 carbonizedclay MAG219 10760110 6
Ushki1,layer6a charcoal MAG401 10360220 10
Ushki1,layer6 charcoal MO345 10360350 10
Ushki1,layer4 hearthcharcoal MAG132 4200100 11
Ushki1,layer2 notreported RKHL607 244080 19
Ushki1,layer2 notreported MAG5 2160290 19
Ushki1,layer2 notreported MAG32 105225 22
Ushki1,layer1 notreported LE70 67580 19
Ushki1,layerla notreported MO353 235145 19
Ushki5,layer2 charcoal MAG220 77030 6
Ushki5,layer5 notreported MAG321 8790150 19
NotesandReferencesonfollowingpage

 Page110

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

NotestoTable1
*Aberrantdate.
1
MethodofaveragingdescribedinLongandRippeteau(1974).
2
DatereportedbyLozhkinetal.(1980)as8600220.
3
Dikov(1985)assignsthisdatetoSiberdik,notKongo.
4
ReportedinDikov(1977),Dikovetal.(1983:25),andKrushanov(1989:34)as6,3001700(KRIL248).
5
LE4534areportedbyKuzmin(1994)aswood,notbone.
6
Samplecollected20cmabovebonebearingdeposit.
7
Samplecollectedfrombaseofprofile,farbelowartifactbearingdeposit.
8
MAG550isreportedbyDikov(1985)as14300200.
9
GIN167isreportedbyDikovandTitov(1984)as14300200,butbyDikov(1986)andCherdintsevetal.
(1969)as13600250(GIN167).
10
Michael(1984:51)questionswhetherthisdateisfromlayer6atUshki1orUshki5.
ReferencestoTable1
(1)Mochanov1977.
(2)Slobodin1990.
(3)StarikovandZhidovlenko1987.
(4)Shiloetal.1977.
(5)LozhkinandTrumpe1990.
(6)Lozhkinetal.1980.
(7)Dikov1977.
(8)Dikov1983:25.
(9)Thisstudy.
(10)Shiloetal.1979.
(11)Lozhkinetal.1977.
(12)LozhkinandParii1976.
(13)Slobodin1991b.
(14)Kuzmin1994.
(15)Pitul'koetal.1990.
(16)Lozhkin1987.
(17)VereshchaginandUkraintseva1985.
(18)Lozhkin1985.
(19)DikovandTitov1984.
(20)Cherdyntsevetal.1969.
(21)LozhkinandParii1985.
(22)Titov1980.
(23)Dikov1993.

communication1996),avolcanicashdatedelsewhereintheOkhotskregionto8800100(MAG978)and8500100(MAG976)yrB.P.(Begtetal.1991,
Lozhkin1987:153).Awoodcharcoalbulksamplerecoveredfromthelowercontactofthetephrayieldedaconventionalradiocarbondeterminationof8260330
(MAG1262)yrB.P.(Slobodin1990,1991a).Lithicartifactswerefoundatandbelowthiscontact,indicatingthatthisdateservesasanupperlimitingageforthe
Uptar1culturaloccupation.Someartifactsalsowerecollectedfromsedimentsdisturbedbybulldozeractivity.

TheUptarlithicassemblageismadeupofmorethan2,000piecesmostareflakesandtinyretouchingchips.Theindustryischaracterizedbyflakeandbladeprimary
reductiontechnologies3 (onlyfivemicrobladeshavebeenfound),unifacialandbifacialsecondaryreductiontechnologies,andatoolassemblage(n=45)ofbifacial
points,miscellaneousbifaces,sidescrapers,endscrapers,cobbletools,andapossibleburin(Figure3af)(Slobodin1990,1991a).Mostoftheprojectilepointshave
pointedtosharplyconvexbases(Figure3bc),andoneappearstobefluted(KingandSlobodin1996).The"flute"onthispointappearstobeadeepbasalthinning
flakethatwasremovedrelativelyearlyinthereductionsequence.Twosmall,abradedpendantsalsohavebeenrecovered(SlobodinandKing1996).Neitherfaunal
remainsnorfeatureswerediscoveredduringexcavations.TheUptarindustryappearstobeearlyHolocenetolatePleistoceneinage,basedonitsstratigraphic
positionbelowtheElikchantephraandsimilaritiesinbifacialpointstyleswiththeSiberdiksites(SlobodinandKing1996)andpossiblytheOsipovkasiteontheAmur
RiverintheRussianFarEast(Slobodin1995).

 Page111

Figure3
(facingpage).LithicartifactsfromUptarI(af),Kheta(gl),andBuiunda3(mr)[a,d:sidescrapersbc,
e,ij:bifacesf,mn:bladeletsg:wedgeshapedcoreh:stonependantk,endscraperI:transverse
burino:crestedbladepr:prismatic,pencilshapedcores].

 Page112

UpperKolymaMountains

THEUPPERKOLYMAREGION(Figure2)includesthevastwatershedoftheupperKolymaRiver,includingitsmajortributaries.Theseriversdrainthenorthslopesofthe
KolymskoeandCherskiimountainranges.MountainpeaksintheCherskiirangereach2,500mmountainvalleysarenarrowandsteepsided.Mucharchaeological
researchhasbeenaccomplishedinthevalleysanduplandsoftheUpperKolymabasin,initiallybyN.Dikov,andmorerecentlybyS.Slobodin.Theireffortshave
broughttolightatleasteightsitesthoughttodatetobefore7,000yrB.P.:Maltan,Kheta,Buiunda3,Kongo,Siberdik,Zima,andUi1.Twoothersites,Maiorych
andShilo,wereoriginallyproposedbytheirexcavatorstodatetothePaleolithic,buttheseageassignmentsaretenuous.

Maltan

MALTAN(3,FIGURES1AND2)islocatedalongtheMaltanRiver,MagadanOblast'(6055'N,15125'E).Dikov(1977:223)excavatedthesitein19741975,
exposingmorethan100m2andidentifyingtwoculturallayers.

Thesiteissituateduponaprotrudingledgeofthe8mterraceoftheMaltanRiver(Dikov1977:223,1995a).Sitestratigraphyischaracterizedbya2050cmthick
mantleofyellowtogreyyellowsandyloamoverlainbythemodernsoil.Thelowerculturallayeroccursintheunweatheredsandyloamasampleofwoodcharcoal
fromahearthfeatureyieldedaconventional14Cdeterminationof749070(MAG183)yrB.P.(Dikov1977:225).Theupperculturallayeroccurswithinthe
modernsoil.Tenconventional14Cdeterminationsfromtheupperlayerrangefromabout450050to1300200yrB.P.(Table1)(Dikov1977:223Lozhkin
1985LozhkinandProkhorova1980LozhkinandTrumpe1990:177)andmayindicatemultipleoccupationsorthedatingofnaturalcharcoal.

ThelithicindustryforthelowerculturallayerhasbeenbrieflydescribedbyDikov(1979a:100).Primaryreductiontechnologiesaredominatedbytheproductionof
bladeletsandmicrobladesfromconicalandprismaticbidirectionalcores(Dikov1979a:100).Rawmaterialsincludegreyandblacksilicifiedtuffandslate,yellow
chert,andchalcedony.Thetoolassemblageischaracterizedbyretouchedbladesandmicroblades,endscrapers,sidescrapers,backedknives,dihedralburins,leaf
shapedbifaces,smalltriangularprojectilepoints(foundonthesurfacealongtheedgeoftheterrace),andlargecoarselygroundandflaked"scraperlikeadzes"(Dikov
1979a:100).Alsoidentifiedinthelowerculturallayerarethreepossiblestoragepitsandeighthearthstainswithassociatedlithicdebris(Dikov1977:224).Dikov
(1979a:100)assignsthisoccupationtoanearlyphaseofthe"KolymaPreceramicNeolithic,"buttheprincipalcharacteristicsoftheMaltanlowerculturallayercan
alsobeseeninlateHolocenecomplexesfromtheUpperKolyma(Slobodin1995).

Kheta

KHETA(4,FIGURES1AND2)islocatedattheconfluenceoftherightandleftKhetarivers,nearthevillageofAtka,MagadanOblast'(6058'N,15148'E).Thesite,
situatedonthethird(1520m)terraceoftheKhetaRiver,wasdiscoveredbyS.Slobodinin1990(SlobodinandGlushkova1992).Excavationscontinuedthrough
1992(KingandSlobodin1994SlobodinandKing1996).

Artifactsoccurbeneathvolcanicashandredsandinagravellagdepositabout20cmbelowthemodernsurface(SlobodinandGlushkova1992SlobodinandKing
1996).Upperdepositshavebeenremovedbybulldozeractivity.TheashisthoughttorepresenttheElikchanTephra(SlobodinandGlushkova1992),absolutely
datedelsewheretoabout8500yrB.P.(Lozhkin1987).Thesandisconsideredareworkedeoliandepositandismaskedbyapossiblepaleosolhorizon(Kingand
Slobodin1994).SlobodinandKing(1996)assignthesandtotheterminalPleistocene.

Thelithicassemblage(around500pieces)includesawedgeshapedmicrobladecore,microblades,endscrapers,bifaces,atransverseburin,andnumerousflakes
(Figure3gl)(SlobodinandGlushkova1992KingandSlobodin1994).Thewedgeshapedcoreisbifaciallyworked,hasabeveledplatform,andappears
exhausted.Bifacialartifactsincludealargeovalbifaceandtwoleafshapedpointfragments.Alsopresentareapolishedstonebeadandapolishedstonependant
eachhasabiconicallydrilledhole(SlobodinandKing1996).

SlobodinandGlushkova(1992)comparetheassemblagetothosefromDiuktaiCave,Yakutia,andUshki1(layerVI),Kamchatka,andassignalatePleistocene
(>10,000yrB.P.)age,althoughchronometricageestimatesareneededtoconfirmthis.GivenitsoccurrencebelowthepresumedElikchantephra,however,the
Khetaoccupationalmostcertainlydatestobefore8500yrB.P.

 Page113

Buiunda3

BUIUNDA3(5,FIGURES1AND2)islocatedalongtheOkhotskKolymadivide,attheheadwatersoftheBuiundaRiver(6051'N,15324'E).Thesitewasdiscovered
andtestedbySlobodinin1990.In1993,testexcavationswereconductedbySlobodinandM.L.King.Todate,anareaof5m2hasbeenexcavated.

Thisburiedsitecontainslithicartifactsandastonelinedhearthpit4080cmbelowthemodernsurface.Theartifactsoccurwithinandaroundaconcentrationof
charcoalfromthehearth(Slobodin1995,1997).Samplesofthischarcoalyieldedfourconventionalradiocarbondeterminationsof8135220(GX17064),7790
190(LE3991),7510205(GX17065),and5610110(LE3898)yrB.P.Thelatterdateisdiscordantlyyoungandprobablyaberrant.Assumingthecharcoal
samplesdatedareassociatedprimarilywiththelithicartifacts,thisindustrycanbeassignedtotheearlyHolocene(83007500yrB.P.).

Alithicassemblageofmorethan2,000pieceshasbeenrecovered.Primaryreductiontechnologiesarerepresentedbyconicalbladeandmicrobladecores,somewith
circumferentialbladedetachmentsgivingthemapencillikeappearance,coretablets,crestedblades,numerousnarrowbladesandmicroblades,andassociated
debitage(Figure3mr).Toolsarelimitedtoahandfulofutilizedormarginallyretouchedblades,angleburins,endscrapersonblades,andabifacialadze.Slobodin
(1995)assignstheindustrytotheSumnaginMesolithiccomplex.

Maiorych

MAIORYCH(6,FIGURES1AND2)wasdiscoveredbyIu.A.Mochanovin1970.ThesiteislocatednearthevillageofDebin,alongtheleftbankoftheKolymaRiver,
MagadanOblast'(6442'N,15055'E).Itissituatedonthe14m,first(lowest)terraceoftheKolymaRiver,onabluffoverlookingtheconfluenceoftheKolyma
RiverandMaiorychCreek.Mochanov(1977)collectedapossiblecoreandseveralretouchedpiecesfromsurfaceblowoutsalongtheedgeoftheterrace.Thecore
isdescribedasbeingmanufacturedonachertplateandhavingawedgeshapedcrosssectionandsteeplybeveledplatform(Mochanov1977).Toolsincludea
combinationknife/endscraperonabladeandautilizedflake.EnglishlanguagedescriptionsofthesitecanbefoundinMichael(1984:21)andMochanovand
Fedoseeva(1996c).

Mochanov(1977)comparestheMaiorychfindstypologicallytoartifactsfoundatVerkhneTroitskaiaontheAidanRiver,Yakutia.Basedontypologicalsimilarities,
heassignsthemtotheDiuktaicultureandsuggestsanageofbetween30,000and12,000yrB.P.forthesite.Kashin(1983a),however,arguesthatthecoreisnota
clearwedgeshapedcore,thatits"platform"istoobeveledtobeconsideredaplatform,andthatitsfrontdoesnotdisplayanyobviousmicrobladeremovals.Thus,it
maybetterbedescribedasabifacefragmentorperhapsacorepreform.InKashin's(1983a)opinion,theundatedMaiorychsiteshouldnotbeconsideredPaleolithic,
letaloneDiuktai,becausebifacefragmentsandbladeslikethosefromMaiorychoccurthroughouttheregion'sMesolithicandNeolithicperiods.

Kongo

THEKONGOSITE(7,FIGURES1AND2)islocatedalongtheupperKolymaRivernearthemouthofKongoCreek,inthefloodedzoneoftheKolymaReservoir,Magadan
Oblast'(6157'N,14954'E).Dikov(1977:2212221995c)discoveredKongoin1971testexcavationsin1973revealedarchaeologicalmaterialsinaburied,
stratifiedcontext,andexcavationsin19731975uncoveredtwoearlyHoloceneculturalcomponentsacrossanareaofmorethan275m2.

TheKongositeissituateduponthe14mterraceoftheKolymaRiver.Terracemantlingsedimentsreach1.5mindepthandconsistofalternatingloams,sandy
loams,andsands(Figure4).Thelowermostcomponent,culturallayer3,occursinthelowestbandofahumifiedredbrownloam(Dikov1977:222),presumablya
paleosol.Fourwoodcharcoalsamplesyieldedconventional14Cdeterminationswhichrangefrom9470530to8700400yrB.P.(Table1)(Dikov1977:222
Kuzmin1989).Abovethisisculturallayer2,situatedinunweatheredroseandgreysandbands.Woodcharcoalsamplescollectedfromhearthfeaturesyielded
conventional14Cdeterminationsof8655220(MAG196)(Dikov1977:222Lozhkinetal.1980:204)and8080500(MAG406)yrB.P.(Shiloetal.1979:10
LozhkinandTrumpe1990:177).Culturallayer1isundescribedbutdeterminedstratigraphicallytodatetothelateHolocene.

OnlycursorydescriptionsofarchaeologicalfindsfromKongoareavailable(Dikov1977,1979aDikovetal.1983).Forculturallayer3,Dikovetal.(1983:23)
describeasingleconicalmicrobladecoreandatool

 Page114

Figure4.
StratigraphicprofileofKongosite,showing
provenienceofculturallayersandradiocarbondates
(afterDikov1977).

assemblagecharacterizedby"primitive"cobblechoppers(retouchedunifacially),retouchedbladeletsandmicroblades,andangleburinsmadeonlargebladelike
flakes(Figure5b,ef,hi).Thelithicassemblagefromculturallayer2alsohascobblechoppers,bifacialleafshapedpoints,andbladeletsandmicroblades(some
retouched)(Figure5a,cd,g),butnoburins(Dikov1977:222).Dikov(1977:222)alsonotestheoccurrenceofsmallspallsofburntbone,severalhearthstains,and
discernibleactivityareasinbothculturallayers,andapossiblestoragepitinculturallayer2.Dikovassignsculturallayers3and2tothe"SiberdikRelictPaleolithic
culture,"alocalearlyHolocenecomplex.

Siberdik

SIBERDIK(8,FIGURES1AND2)islocatedattheconfluenceofMalyiSiberdikCreekandtheDetrinRiver,inthefloodedzoneoftheKolymaReservoir,Magadan
Oblast'(6136'N,14944'E).Thesitewasdiscoveredin1971(DikovandDikova1972:252)andexcavatedbyDikov(1977,1979a,1985a1995d)in1971
1974.Excavationsuncovered800m2andrevealedthreestratigraphicallydistinctculturalcomponentsspanningtheHolocene.

Siberdikissituatedonaprotrudingknobofthe14mterraceoftheDetrinRiver(Dikov1977:213).Bedrockismantledbya1mthickbedofcobblealluvium,inturn
overlainbya2mthickmantleofalternatingsand,sandyloam,andloam(Figure6).Thesemantlingsedimentscontainthreeseparateculturalcomponents.Cultural
layer3occursina"peatyhorizon"mixedwithsandyloamabout1mbelowthesurface(Dikov1977:218).Eightradiocarbondeterminationsrangefrom13,500to
4570yrB.P.(Table1)(LozhkinandProkhorova1980LozhkinandTrumpe1990Lozhkinetal.1977Shiloetal.1976).Theoldest(13,225230)andyoungest
dates(4570370)arediscordanttheremainingsixdeterminationsrangefrom9700to7080yrB.P.andindicateanearlyHoloceneage.4 Culturallayer2is
situatedwithinawhiteloam5080cmbelowthesurface(Dikov1977:214215).Thiscomponenthasfiveradiocarbondeterminationswhichrangefromabout6590
to4420yrB.P.(Table1).Culturallayer1,theuppermostcomponent,occursinthemodernsoilandhasbeenradiocarbondatedtoabout600yrB.P.(Table1)
(LozhkinandProkhorova1980).Dikov(1977:213)assignsittothelateNeolithic.

Onlytheassemblagefromculturallayer3isdiscussedhere.Primaryreductiontechnologyischaracterizedbythemanufactureofflakes,blades,andmicrobladesfor
useastools.Onewedgeshapedmicrobladecorewasfoundinadensescatteroflithicdebris(Dikov1977:220).Unifacial,bifacial,andburinsecondaryreduction
technologiesalsoarepresent.Thetoolassemblageismadeupofanvilstones,hammerstones,cobblechoppersandpicks,sidescrapers,endscrapers(manyon
massiveblades),"flakepoints,"knives,aburinhaltedinabonehandle,andbifacialleafshapedpoints(Figure5jr)(Dikov1977,1979a).Faunalremainswere
recovered,butdetailedidentificationshavenotbeenpublished.Dikov(1977:218221)describesonlyahorsetooth,deerantler,andherbivorescapula.

Althoughmuchoftheareahasbeendeformedbyfrostcracksandicewedgepolygons,severalfeaturesarepresentinculturallayer3.Dikov(1977:218220)
describeshearthsconsistingofcharredstones,calcinedbones,andheatedlithics.Severalstoneworkingareasor"workshops"alsowereidentified,andastainofred
ochremayrepresentthepoorlypreservedremainsofahumanburial(Dikov1977:218).

Dikov(1977:96,1985a:176)assignsculturallayer3tothelateSiberdikRelictPaleolithicculture,basedontheapparentearlyHoloceneageofthecomponent

 Page115

Figure5.
LithicartifactsfromKongo(culturallayers3[b,ef,hi]and2[a,cd,g])andSiberdik(jr)(afterDikov1977)[a,
k:bifacesb:conicalcorece,mp:bladeletsf:bladeg,q:retouchedbladeshi:burinsj:cobbletoolsI:end
scrapern:microbladecorer:sidescraper].

 Page116

Figure6.
StratigraphicprofileofSiberdiksite,showingprovenienceof
culturallayersandradiocarbondates(afterDikov1977)
[asterisksdenoteaberrantdates].

andthepresenceofbifacialleafshapedpointsandawedgeshapedcore.

Shilo

SHILO(9,FIGURES1AND2)islocatednearthesourceofShiloCreek,atributaryoftheupperKolymaRiver,about80kmsouthwestofSusuman,Magadan
Oblast'(6211'N,14642'E).Thesitewasdiscoveredin1970byV.I.Gerasimchuk,whosurfacecollectedanendscrapermadeonablade(Dikovand
Gerasimchuk1971).Noexcavationswerecarriedout,butthescraperisheavilypatinizedandconsideredUpperPaleolithicinappearance(DikovandGerasimchuk
1971).Mochanov(1977:94),however,arguesthat''intensivepatina"isnotagoodindicatorofgreatantiquity,andthatendscraperslikethatfromShiloarecommon
intheregion'sNeolithicandearlyIronAge.Withoutfurtherinformation,thesiteshouldnotbeconsideredpartoftheearlyprehistoricrecordofsouthwesternBeringia.

Zima

ZIMA(10,FIGURES1AND2)islocatedalongtheleftbankoftheZimaRiver,asmalltributaryoftheMomontaiRiver,6kmdownstreamofLakeMomontai,Magadan
Oblast'(6343'N,14810'E).Slobodindiscoveredthesitein1986heconductedexcavationstherein1987and1988(Slobodin1991b,1995).

Zimaisasmall,shallowlyburiedsitewithsomediscerniblestratigraphy.Itissituateduponalow(20x30m)knobofthefirst(lowest),2mterraceoftheZimaRiver.
Thesurfaceofthesiteisdevoidofvegetationmorethan100lithicartifactswerecollectedfromthesurface.Excavationsrecoveredadditionalartifactsinashallow
(<25cm)context.Thesite'ssingleculturallayeroccursbeneaththemodernsoilinabandofgreysandyloam713cmthick.Woodcharcoalcollectedfromthisgrey
sandyloaminassociationwithlithicartifactsyieldedaconventionalradiocarbondeterminationof707060(MAG1260)yrB.P.(Slobodin1991b).

Thelithicassemblage(collectedfromthesurfaceandinsitu)ischaracterizedbyconicalcores,bladesandmicroblades,andatoolassemblageofendscrapers(some
onlargeblades),retouchedbladesandbladelets,adihedralburin,bifacialprojectilepointfragment,andpossiblehammerstone(Figure7ah).Excavationsrevealeda
100cmdiameterringof10stones.Thisfeaturemaybetheremainsofahearth(Slobodin1991b)butwasdevoidofcharcoal.

Giventhesmallsizeoftheassemblageandtheuncertaintyindating,itisdifficulttoassigntheZimaindustrytoaspecificearlyHoloceneBeringiancomplexhowever,
therearesomesimilaritieswiththeundatedTytyl'complexofinteriorwesternChukotka(Kiriak1988)(discussedbelow)andtheSumnagincultureofYakutia
(Mochanov1977).

Ui1

UI1(11,FIGURES1AND2)islocatedalongthenorthsideofLakeUi,asmalllakethatemptiesintotheOzernaiaRiver,atributaryoftheMomontaiRiver,Magadan
Oblast'(6345'N,14755'E).Slobodindiscoveredthesitein1987,andexcavationstookplacefrom1989through1991.Todate,atleast60m2havebeen
excavated(Slobodin1995,1996).

Ui1issituatedupona3mlaketerraceabout50mfromthewater'sedge.Lithicartifactsoccurinagreybrownsoilhorizonatadepthof1to14cmbelowthe

 Page117

Figure7.
LithicartifactsfromZima(ah)andUiI(iu)[a,u:pencilshaped,conicalcoresb:burincd,qs:microbladesbladelets
e:retouchedbladefh,mo,t:endscrapersi:bifacialendscraperjI:stemmedpointsonbladesp:birdornament].

 Page118

modernsurface.Associatedwiththeartifactsarenumerouslensesofcharcoalandashsamplesofthischarcoalyieldedconventionalradiocarbondeterminationsof
8810235(GX17067),8695100(GX17066),8370190(LE3990),and595090(LE3900)yrB.P.Theyoungestdetermination(LE3900)seems
discordanttheremainingthreeaverage864483yrB.P.

ThelithicassemblagerecoveredfromUi1through1990consistsof3,071flakes,1,572smallbladesandmicroblades,and120diagnosticartifacts.Primary
reductiontechnologiesarerepresentedbyconicalcoresinvariousstagesofreduction,coretablets,andcrestedblades(Figure7u).Rawmaterialsincludecherts,
basalt,andrhyolite.Thetoolassemblageismadeupofendscrapers(onebifaciallyworked),smallsidescrapers,unifacialknives,retouchedbladesandmicroblades,
angleburins,cobbletools,bifacefragments,andbifacialpoints(Figure7it).Pointsaremadeonblades,oftenonlymarginallyretouched,andhavebasalstemsand
shoulders(Figure7jl).Theoneexceptionisinvasivelyretouchedandlanceolateshaped.Otheritemsincludeabifaciallyworkedbirdlikeornament(Figure7p)
(Slobodin1995,1996).

AlthoughstemmedpointslikethosefoundatUi1havebeenfoundatothersitesinNortheastAsia(Kashin1983bMochanov1977:247),nonehavebeendated
absolutely.Kashin(1983b)originallysuggestedanearlyHoloceneageforthesesites,andthetightclusterofradiocarbondeterminationsfromUi1corroboratesthis
interpretation.

IndigirkaKolymaLowlands

THEINDIGIRKAKOLYMALOWLANDSofnorthwesternBeringiaconsistofabroadplainstretchingfromthemouthoftheLenaRivereasttothemouthoftheKolymaRiver.
Itischaracterizedbylakesandbogsandtundravegetation.DuringglacialperiodsoftheUpperPleistocene,thisplainextendednorthwardacrosstheEastSiberian
Seaplatform,connectingWrangellIslandandtheNovosibirskIslandstothemainland.ThisregionisalmostentirelywithinYakutia.Archaeologicalresearchhasbeen
undertakenbyIu.MochanovandmorerecentlybyS.Kistenev(1988).However,onlytwounequivocalarchaeologicalsitespredating7000yrB.P.havebeenfound
inthisregion:BerelekhandZhokhovIsland.Athirdsite,Bochanut,isanaccumulationoflargemammalboneswhichprobablywasnottheproductofhumanhunters.

ZhokhovIsland

THEEARLYHOLOCENEZhokhovIslandsite(12,Figure1)islocatedinthesouthwesternpartofZhokhovIsland,approximately120kmnortheastofNewSiberianIsland
and500kmnorthofthemouthoftheIndigirkaRiver(7614'N,15240'E).Thesitewasdiscoveredduringthe1960s(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:31),butwasnot
investigatedthoroughlyuntil19891990(GiriaandPitul'ko1994Pitul'ko1993Pitul'koetal.1990).

TheZhokhovIslandsiteissituatedupona1015mterracealongtheedgeofasmallcreekvalley,notfarfromtheseashore(Pitul'koetal.1990:259260).Thewell
drainedterraceedgeisadjacenttoahighhillthatformedabarrieragainststrongnorthernwinds(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:31Pitul'koetal.1990:260).Cultural
remainswerecollectedfromthesurfaceandduringtheexcavationofaburiedculturallayer(Pitul'koetal.1990:260).Sitestratigraphyhasnotbeenpresentedin
detail.Aseriesof12radiocarbondeterminationsonwood,bone,andcharcoalapparentlycollectedfromtheburiedculturallayerrangefrom10,810390to7450
200yrB.P.,butthemajority(eight)clusterbetween820040and785040yrB.P.(Table1).Athirteenthdateof8790wasproducedonwoodimmediately
belowtheculturallayer.AccordingtopalynologicaldatafromnearbyKotel'nyiIsland,vegetationatthistimewasdominatedbyshrubvegetationandheaths
(Ericaceae),suggestingalandscapesimilartothemodernsoutherntundrazone(Pitul'koetal.1990:261).

TheartifactassemblagefromtheZhokhovIslandsitehasbeendescribedindetailbyGiriaandPitul'ko(1994).Morethan1,200lithicpieceshavebeencollected
fromthesurfaceofthesiteandexcavations(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:32),andthesearetreatedasasingleindustry.Locallyprocuredrawmaterialsincludeavarietyof
cherts,silicifiedtuffs,sandstones,andchalcedoniesfourobsidianmicrobladesegmentsarefromanunknown,presumedexotic,source(Pitul'koetal.1990:260).
Primaryreductiontechnologyisbasedontheproductionofbladeletsandmicroblades(Figure8fg)frompolyhedralcoreswithwideandfiatfaces,orfrom
"end"[tortsovyi]coreswithbladelets/microbladesremovedfromanedgeratherthanaface(Figure8ce).Manymicrobladesaresegmented,intentionallyshaped
throughbacking,andinsetintolaterallygroovedbone,antler,orivorypoints(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:3237)(Figure8ab).Edgedamageisapparentonseven
isolatedsegments(Figure8hk)andonmanyofthesegmentsstillinsetinthepreserved

 Page119

Figure8.
ArtifactsfromZhokhovIsland(ak)afterGiriaandPitul'ko(1994)andBerelekh(Io)afterMochanov(1977)and
VereshchaginandUkraintseva(1985)[ab:slottedbonepointswithinsetsce:prismaticcoresfk:
bladeletsmicrobladesI,no:bifacesm:retouchedblade].

 Page120

groovedpoints.Theirlengthsrangefrom11to25mm.Interestingly,20othersegmentswithoutwearrangefrom5.3to8.3mm,suggestingthatlongermicroblade
segmentswereselectedovershorteronesforuseasinsets(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:37).Otherretouchedlithicartifactsincludetwolargechippedandgroundaxelike
implementsfoundonthesurfaceofthesite(Pitul'koetal.1990:260).

TheZhokhovIslandsitealsohasyieldedanumberofwellpreservedbone,antler,andivory(fossilmammothandwalrus)implements,including13unilaterallyslotted
points,12bilaterallyslottedpoints,andtwomassive"hoeliketools"(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:3234Pitul'koetal.1990:260).Allofthebilaterallyslottedpointsare
symmetricalandhaveconcavoconvexcrosssections,whiletheunilaterallyslottedpointsaremuchmoreheterogeneous,withsymmetricalandasymmetricalshapes
andconcavoconvex,planoconvex,orlenticularcrosssections(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:3234)(Figure8ab).Almostallofthepointshavegroovesthatextend
alongaportionoftheirlateralmargins.

Thesite'sfaunalassemblageof906specimensincludesreindeer(49.7percent),polarbear(43.8percent),andisolatedbones(6.5percent)ofseamammals,birds,
andwolf(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:32Pitul'koetal.1990:261).Reindeerteethsuggestanautumnoccupationofthesite,whileassociatedantler(ifnotcollectedafter
beingshed)suggestsawinteroccupation(Pitul'koetal.1990:261).Furtherdetailshavenotbeenreported.

Pitul'koetal.(1990:261)alsodescribe13naturalthermokarstdepressionsthatappeartohavebeentransformedbyhumansintocircularhousepits34min
diameter.TheavailableevidenceindicatesthattheZhokhovIslandsitewasafallwintervillageoccupiedbyearlyHolocenehuntersofterrestrialmammals,particularly
reindeerandpolarbear(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:32).TheMesolithicqualityofthesite'slithicandorganicartifactassemblagessuggeststieswiththeYakutian
Sumnagincomplex(GiriaandPitul'ko1994:44).

Berelekh

THEBERELEKHMAMMOTHcemeteryandarchaeologicalsite(13,Figure1)arelocatedalongtheBerelekhRiver,atributaryoftheIndigirkaRiver,Yakutia(7050'N,
14530'E).BothlocalitieshavebeenthesubjectofmuchinterestamongpaleontologistsandarchaeologistsEnglishlanguagedescriptionscanbefoundinHopkinset
al.(1982:440),KozlowskiandBandi(1984:367368),Larichevetal.(1992),Michael(1984:1820),Morlan(1987:280),andSoffer(1985:304308).

TheBerelekhMammothCemetery.ThemammothcemeterywasdiscoveredbyGrigor'evin1947andexcavatedbyVereshchaginin1970,1971,and1980
(Vereshchagin1974,1977VereshchaginandUkraintseva1985).Excavationsresultedinanextensivefaunalassemblagefromadistincthorizon3.5mbelowthe
modernsurfaceextendingalongthebankoftheriverforabout150m(VereshchaginandMochanov1972VereshchaginandUkraintseva1985).Boneandsoft
tissuesamplesyieldedconventionalradiocarbondeterminationsof13,70080(MAG114)and12,240160(LU149)yrB.P.(VereshchaginandUkraintseva
1985Lozhkin1987),respectively,andwoodsamplesfromsedimentsimmediatelyoverlyingthebonebedledtoconventionalradiocarbondeterminationsof11,870
60(NIIDVNTSANSSSR),11,830110(LU147),10,440100(MAG119),and10,260155(MAG118)yrB.P.(VereshchaginandUkraintseva1985).

Theagentsresponsiblefortheaccumulationofthemammothcemeteryarenotwellunderstood.Mochanov(1977)andHopkinsetal.(1982:440)suggestthatthe
denseconcentrationofmammothtuskandboneisaculturalfeaturecomparabletothecollapsedmammothbonedwellingsoftheRussianPlainUpperPaleolithic
(Soffer1985).Noartifacts,however,havebeenfound,leadingVereshchagin(1974:7)andVereshchaginandUkraintseva(1985)tosuggestthatthebones
accumulatedthroughsomenaturalphenomenon.Perhapstheboneaccumulationistheresultoflongtermfluvialactivity(Vereshchagin1974:7),butmammoth
mortalityprofilesappeartorepresentacatastrophicevent,perhapsthesimultaneousdeathofanentireherdwhilecrossingthiniceonanewlyfrozenriver
(Vereshchagin1977).

BerelekhArchaeologicalSite.ThearchaeologicalsiteatBerelekhislocated130mdownriverfromtheprincipalareaofthemammothcemetery(Vereshchaginand
Ukraintseva1985).Ittooissituated12mabovethemodernriverfloodplain.ThesitewasdiscoveredbyVereshchaginin1970,andexcavationswereconductedin
19711973byMochanov(1977),andagainin1981(MochanovandFedoseeva1996a).Archaeologicalmaterialsincludestonetoolsanddebitageandabundant
faunalremains.

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Figure9.
StratigraphicprofilefromBerelekharchaeologicalsite,showing
provenienceofculturallayerandradiocarbondates
(afterMochanov1977).

Geologicstratigraphyconsistsofinterbeddedloamsandsandyloamsupto12mthick(Figure9).Thetopoftheprofileconsistsofthemodernsoil(layer1)andan
unweatheredyellowbrownsandyloam(layer2).Underlyingthisisaseriesofgreysandsinterbeddedwithgreybrownsandyloamstogetherupto400450cmthick
(layer3),followedbyaseriesofyellowsandsinterbeddedwithgreybluesandyloamsupto700750cmthick(layer4).Layers1and2appeartobeeolianinorigin
andHoloceneinage,whilelayers3and4arealluvialandlatetomidUpperPleistocene(Mochanov1977).D.M.Hopkins(personalcommunication1996)suggests
thatthestratigraphicprofilerepresentsathawlakesequence.TheculturaloccupationatBerelekhhasbeendeformedbyapolygonalnetworkoficewedgesspanning
thesiteandpenetratingupto4mbelowthemodernsurface.

Paleolithicartifactsoccurintheupper1moflayer3.Threeconventionalradiocarbondeterminationsonwoodinapparentassociationwithlithicartifactsrangefrom
13,420200to10,60090yrB.P.(Table1)(Mochanov1977VereshchaginandUkraintseva1985).Mochanov(1977:77)alsoreportsaninfiniteradiocarbon
determinationof>42,000(LE1112)yrB.P.fromnearthebaseoftheprofile.

Theexcavatedlithicassemblageincludes64flakes,44tinyretouchingchips,fourblades,onecore,10tools,andfourstonependants(withbiconicallydrilledholes)
(Mochanov1977:79VereshchaginandMochanov1972)(Figure81o).Rawmaterialsincludecherts,silicifiedslate,andsilicifiedlimestone.Mochanov(1977:79)
describesthecoreasamicrobladecoremadeonaflake,butalsosuggestsitcouldbeamultifacetedangleburin.Italsocouldbeabipolarcore.[Mochanov
(1977:79)describesasecondcorefoundalongtheterraceedge,butKozlowskiandBandi(1984:368)identifyitasa"scaledpiece"(bipolarcore).]Thefourblades
maybemicroblades,but,contrarytoMorlan(1987:280),Mochanov(1977:79)doesnotcallthemsuch.Oneis0.7cmwideandhasapartiallycorticaldorsal
surface,whiletheotherthreeare>1cmwide.Secondaryreductiontechnologiesincludeunifacialandbifacialretouch.Thetoolassemblageincludesthetipfragmentof
abifacialpoint,twobifacefragments,andsevenretouchedbladelikeflakesandflakes.Mochanov(1977:79)alsoreportsthediscoveryof49workedpiecesof
mammothboneandivory.

Morerecently,VereshchaginandUkraintseva(1985)discoveredabifacialteardropshapedpointfromalongthebluffedgenearMochanov'sexcavations(Figure8n).
Other"new"findsfromBerelekhareillustratedbyMochanovetal.(1991:214216),butwithnocorrespondingdescriptionsordetailsofprovenience.Theseinclude
whatappeartobeawedgeshapedcore,tangedbiface,andstonependant.

FaunalremainsrecoveredfromtheculturalcomponentatBerelekhinclude78bonesofmammoth,threeofbisonorhorse,oneofreindeer,827ofhare,92of
ptarmigan,andtwooffish.Someofthesearecharredandassociatedwithhearthfeatures.Possiblysomeofthemammothremainswerescavengedfromthenearby
mammothcemetery(Abramova1989:232Vereshchagin1974:10).

Mochanov(1977)andothers(KuzminandTankersley1997Powers1996)assigntheBerelekhlithicindustrytotheDiuktaiculture,basedonitsageandthe
presenceofbifacesandaputativemicrobladecore.However,microbladesareabsent,themicrobladecorerecoveredduringMochanov'sexcavationmaynotbea
microbladecore,andtheoneunequivocalwedgeshapedmicrobladecorewasnotfoundinsitu.Theotherrecentfinds,especiallytheteardropshapedpointand
tangedbiface,althoughnotrecoveredinsitu,areintriguing.Tangedbifaceshavebeenfoundinthe"premicroblade"industryfromUshki1(layerVII),

 Page122

Kamchatka,andteardropshaped,"Chindadn"pointsarecommonincentralAlaska'sNenanacomplex.Couldtherebetwoseparateculturaloccupationsat
Berelekhonenonmicrobladeand13,000yrB.P.,andtheothermicrobladeand10,000yrB.P.?Additionalfieldworkisnecessarytoclearupthisissue.

Bochanut

THEBOCHANUTSITE(14,Figure1)islocatedonLakeBochanutinthelowerKolymabasin,80kmnortheastofthevillageofSrednekolymsk,Yakutia(6824'N,156
10'E).In1972,geologistA.Miziskiidiscovereda15mhighexposurecontainingbonesofwoollymammoth,woollyrhinoceros,bison,horse,muskox,reindeer,and
moose(Mochanov1977:93).Theirstratigraphiccontexthasnotbeenreported.AbriefEnglishlanguagedescriptionofBochanutcanbefoundinMichael(1984:21).

OnseveraloftheBochanutbones,S.Semenovidentifiedtracesofwearpresumedtorepresenthumanactivity(Mochanov1977).Nolithicartifactsnorunequivocal
boneartifactswererecovered.Untilprovenotherwise,theBochanutfaunalassemblageshouldbeviewedasanaturalaccumulationofbones,notaPaleolithicsite
(Mochanov1977:93).

WesternInteriorChukotka

THEAREAREFERREDTOHEREasWesternInteriorChukotkaincludestheOmolon,Bol'shoiAnui,andMalyiAnuirivers,threemajorriversthatflowintotheKolymaRiver
nearwhereitemptiesintotheEastSiberianSea(Figure1).TheOmolonRiverdrainsthenorthernslopeoftheeasternKolymamountains,whiletheAnuiriversempty
theAnuirangeandthewesternslopeoftheAnadyrPlateau.I.VorobeiandM.Kir'iakrecentlyconductedarchaeologicalresearchintheOmolonandAnuibasins,
respectively.Foursites,includingDruchakV,El'gakhchan1,Orlovka2,andTytyl'l,havebeenassignedtotheearly,pre7000yrB.P.period.Unfortunately,none
ofthesesiteshasbeenradiocarbondated.

DruchakV

DRUCHAKV(15,Figure1),discoveredandstudiedbyVorobei(1992),islocatedalongtheupperDruchakRiver,140kmnorthoftheSeaofOkhotskcoast,
MagadanOblast'(6319'N,1598'E).DruchakVissituateduponthe23mterraceoftheDruchakRiver,andlithicartifactsoccurinaburiedcontext,withina
sandyloamvaryingfrom0.15to1.3mthick(Vorobei1992).Theculturalcomponenthasbeenheavilydeformedbycryogenicactivity.Althoughdatingis
problematic,pollendatasuggestanageof10,0008000yrB.P.(Vorobei1992).

TheDruchaklithicassemblageischaracterizedbybladeandmicrobladeprimaryreductiontechnologies.Bladesaredetachedfromunidirectionalandbidirectional
monofrontalsubprismaticcores,whilemicrobladesaredetachedfromsmallwedgeshapedcores(Figure10h,k).Unifacial,bifacial,andburinsecondaryreduction
technologiesalsoarerepresented.Thetoolassemblageconsistsofbifacialpointfragments,miscellaneousbifaces,retouchedbladesandflakes,sidescrapers,end
scrapers,transverse,dihedralandangleburins,cobbletools,notches,andgravers(Figure10eg).AccordingtoVorobei(1992),the"triad"ofwedgeshapedcores,
transverseburins,andbifacialpointsindicatesaffinitieswiththeAlaskanPaleoarctictradition,theKamchatkanUshkilayerVIcomplex,andtheYakutianDiuktai
culture.

El'gakhchan1

EL'GAKHCHAN1(16,Figure1),discoveredin1980,islocatedattheconfluenceoftheBol'shoiEl'gakhchanandOmolonrivers,approximately600kmnortheastof
Magadan(643'N,16058'E).Todate,anareaof97m2hasbeenexcavated(Kir'iak1990,1992,1993).

El'gakhchan1issituateduponahighbluffoverlookingtheOmolonRiverfloodplain.ItisamulticomponentsitewithNeolithicandpossiblePaleolithicculturallayers
buriedwithinamantleofloosesedimentsreachingathicknessof1m.Thestratigraphicprofileischaracterizedbyaseriesofsandyloamsofvaryingcolors(Kir'iak
1990).Neolithicartifactsoccurinthesoilprofile414cmbelowthesurfacepresumedPaleolithicartifactsoccurinunweatheredsandyloamapproximately40cm
belowthesurface(Kir'iak1990).Therearenoradiocarbondatesfromthesite,butthepresenceofacharcoalrichsandyloamdepositimmediatelybelowthe
Paleolithiccomponentmayinthefutureprovidealowerlimitingdeterminationfortheoccupation.

 Page123

Figure10.
LithicartifactsfromDruchakV(eh,k)(notdrawntoscale),El'gakhchan1(bd,ln),El'gakhchan2(a),Tytyl'1
(ij,ou)(afterKir'iak1988,1990Vorobei1992)[a,c:stemmedbifacialpointsb,g:bifacesde,mn,t:end
scrapersf,I:burinsh,k:wedgeshapedcoresij,o:bladeletspq:pencilshaped,conicalcoresr:endcore
s,u:scrapers].

 Page124

ThelowerEl'gakhchanlithicindustryincludes1,338items(Kir'iak1990,1996).Rawmaterialsincludesilicifiedslate,basalt,argillite,obsidian,chalcedony,and
cherts.Primaryreductiontechnologiesarecharacterizedbysubprismaticbladecoresandpreparedflakecores.Bladesandflakebladesarethemostprevalenttool
blanks,whiletoolsmadeonflakesandcobblesareuncommon.Microbladecoresareabsent,althoughseveralmicroblades(0.51cmwide)occurintheassemblage.
However,Kir'iak(1990)notesthatthesemicrobladeswerefoundconcentratednearthebluffedgewheresedimentsthinconsiderably,andshesuggeststhattheir
presenceisaproductofmixingbetweenthetwootherwisestratigraphicallyseparateculturallayers(Kir'iak1990).Secondaryreductiontechnologiesincludeunifacial,
bifacial,andburinretouch.Burins,however,are"atypical"(Kir'iak1990).Thetoolassemblageincludessidescrapers,endscrapers,anendscraper/burin,leaf
shapedbifacialknives,andbifacialpoints(Figure10ad,ln).Fourofthepointsarestemmedandoneisleafshaped.Kir'iak(1990)alsoreportsasinglebonetool.
Faunalremainsandfeatureshavenotbeenreported.

Kir'iakconsiderstheEl'gakhchanindustrytobecloselyrelatedtotheUshki1layerVIIindustry,pointingtosimilaritiesinstemmedpointsandthesupposedabsence
ofmicroblades.Further,Kir'iak(1990:51)writes,"thestoneinventoryofBol'shoiEl'gakhchan1bearsstrikingsimilaritieswiththeWalkerRoadassemblagefromthe
NenanaValley,Alaska."Stemmedpoints,however,havenotbeenfoundatWalkerRoad(Goebeletal.1991).Lackingradiocarbondatesandaclearlydescribed
stratigraphiccontext,suchconclusionsaretentative.

Kir'iak(19901996)alsoreportsthediscoveryoftwoadditionalPaleolithicsitesintheEl'gakhchanvicinity.Atoneofthese(El'gakhchan2),wedgeshapedcores,
microblades,andstemmedpointswerecollectedfromadeflatedsurface.

Orlovka2

ORLOVKA2(17,FIGURE1)islocatedalongtheOrlovkaRiver,asmalltributaryoftheBol'shoiAnuiRiver,ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug(6655'N,1655'E).The
sitewasdiscoveredandtestedin1980(Kir'iak1985).Orlovka2issituatedupona120mhighterraceabout2kmfromtheleftbankoftheOrlovkaRiver.Lithic
artifactsoccurinaburiedcontext710cmfromthemodernsurfacehowever,manywerecollectedfromthesurface(Kir'iak1985).

Thelithicassemblageincludestwosubprismaticbladecoresoncobbles,fourlargebladefragments,twolargeflakeblades,twoendscrapers,onesidescraper,one
chopper,andthreeburins(Kir'iak1985).Allofthesearemanufacturedoncoarsechertordiabase,andmanyarepolishedfromsandblasting.Faunalremainshavenot
beenpreserved.Kir'iak(1985:22)suggeststhattheOrlovka2industryistechnologicallyandtypologicallyclosetotheMiddlePaleolithicofsouthernSiberia
however,duetotheuncertaintiessurroundingthestratigraphicandchronometricageofthissite,aswellasthelackofdiagnosticartifacts,assignmenttothePaleolithic
seemsunwarrantedatthistime.

Tytyl'1

TYTYL'1(18,FIGURE1)islocatedalongthesouthwesternshoreofLakeTytyl',ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug(676'N,16910'E).Thesitewasdiscoveredand
excavatedin1973(Kir'iak1979:39).Thesiteissituateduponan1820mhighknobofglacialdriftoverlookingLakeTytyl'(Kir'iak1989:6).Someartifactswere
collectedfromsurfaceblowoutswhileotherswereencounteredbeneathathinsoilmantlelessthan10cmfromthesurface(Kir'iak1979:42).

TheTytyl'1lithicdebitageassemblageconsistsof103largeflakesandseveralhundredsmallflakesandotherdebitagepieces(Kir'iak1979:42).Primaryreduction
technologiesarerepresentedbytwoconicalmicrobladecoresand14bladeletsandmicroblades(Kir'iak1979:42)(Figure10oq).Rawmaterialsincludegreytuffite,
obsidian,andchalcedony(Kir'iak1989:6).Thetoolassemblageincludesseverallargeendscrapersonblades(oneisnotched),"notchedknives,"andaburin(Kir'iak
1989:6)(Figure10ij,ru).Nobifacialtoolshavebeenfound.AninterestingfeatureatTytyl'1isthepresenceofanumberofcircularstonerings,whichKir'iak
(1988)interpretsasdwellingfeatures.Nosubsurfacestructuralelements,however,havebeenidentified.Thesefeaturesareundated.

Kir'iak(1979:43)comparestheTytyl'1industrytotheYakutianSumnaginculture,butalsopointsoutthatmanydiagnosticSumnagintooltypesincludingtruncated
bladelets,endscrapersonbladelets,prismaticburins,andengravers(rezchiki)areabsentatTytyl'1(Kir'iak1989:7).Shenonethelessassignsthesitetothe
Mesolithicontypologicalgrounds,andassignsittotheperiodof11,0007000yrB.P.(Kir'iak1989,1993).

 Page125

ChukotkaPeninsulaandBeringSeaCoast

THECHUKOTKAPENINSULAisthenortheasternmostpointofAsia,amountainousareawithpeaksreaching1,800minthewestand1,000mintheeast.Tundra
vegetationdominatesthelandscape.OwingprimarilytotheworkofN.Dikov,wecanidentifyatleast14archaeologicallocalitiesontheChukotkaPeninsulathatare
possiblyPaleolithicinage:Kymyneikei,Kym'ynanonvyvaam,Kus'iuveem,Ioni10,Chel'kun2,Chel'kun3,Chel'kun4,Chaatam'e1,Kurupka1,Marich2,
PuturakPass,Ul'khum1,Inas'kvaam,andTaliain(Figures1and11).Noneofthesesites,however,hasbeendirectlyradiocarbondated,andonlyone,Kymyneikei,
occursinastratifieddatablecontext.Kymyneikei,though,maynotbeanarchaeologicalsiteatall.AssignmentoftherestofthesitestothePaleolithicisbasedsolely
ontypologicalgrounds.

Kymyneikei

KYMYNEIKEI(19,Figures1and11)islocatedalongtheKymyneiveemRiver,about75kmsouthofthevillageofVankarem,ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug(6727'N,
17741'W).ThesitewasrecentlydiscoveredbyS.A.Laukhin,duringgeologiccoringofUpperPleistocenemorainaldepositswestofthebay(Laukhinetal.1989).
Sevenartifactswerediscoveredinaburied,stratifiedcontextatadepthofabout33mfromthesurface.

Laukhinextractedtheflakesfromcorespoils.Theywerefoundtooccurinmorainesedimentsoverlyingapeatdepositradiocarbondatedto40,170620and
39,3001130yrB.P.(labnumbersnotreported).AccordingtoLaukhinetal.(1989),thesedatesindicateanearlySartanage(around25,000to20,000yrB.P.)
forthemoraine.

Laukhinetal.(1989)describethesevenartifactsasawedgeshapedcoreandsixflakes.Inalaterreport,LaukhinandDrozdov(1990)refertothecoreasa
"wedgeshapedartifact."TheylinkthesitetotheprotoDiuktaicomplexofYakutia,pointingtosimilaritieswiththelithicassemblagefromEzhantsy,whichisthought
byMochanov(1977)todatetotheearlySartanaswell.

AccordingtoR.Powers(personalcommunication1991),theartifactsfromKymyneikeimaynotbeflakes,butmerelybrokencobbleswithsharpedges.Their
geologiccontext,fromwithinaglacialmoraine,alsocallsintoquestionthevalidityofthefinds.Clearly,thesespecimensshouldnotbeconsideredasevidenceofan
earlySartanhumanpresenceinwesternBeringia.

Kym'ynanonvyvaamandKus'iuveem

TheKym'ynanonvyvaamsites(20,Figures1and11)arelocatedalongtheUliuveemRiversouthofKoliuchinskiiBay,ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug(6600'N,
17573'W).Dikov(1990b)describestwosetsofsites,whichheassignstothePaleolithic.ThefirstincludesKym'ynanonvyvaam9,Kym'ynanonvyvaam12and
Kym'ynanonvyvaam13.ThesesitesarelocatedonahighterraceoftheKym'ynanonvyvaamRiver.Surfacecollectedassemblagesarecharacterizedbylarge"axe
liketools"manufacturedon"jasperchert"procuredatanearbyoutcrop(Dikov1990b:26).Similarcobbletoolswerealsofoundattwootherlocalitiesinthe
Uliuveemskiilowland,Kus'iuveem4andKus'iuveem6.Dikov(1990a:25,1990b:26)assignsthesesitestoanancientstageofthePaleolithicandidentifiesCalico
HillsasapossibleNorthAmericananalog.Someoftheseprobablyarenotartifactsatallothersprobablyareroughedoutbifacesthatcouldbeanyage.

ThesecondKym'ynanonvyvaamcomplexincludesthelocalitiesKym'ynanonvyvaam8andKym'ynanonvyvaam14(Dikov1990b:26).Surfacecollectedlithic
assemblagesarecharacterizedbywedgeshapedmicrobladecores,endmicrobladecores,slenderbladesandmicroblades,bifaces,scrapers,andburins.
TypologicallytheyappeartobelatePleistoceneearlyHoloceneinage.

Ioni10

IONI10(21,Figures1and11)islocatedalongthenorthshoreofIoniLake,ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug(6549'N,17443'W).Dikov(1990b:17)discovered
thesitein1981.Artifactscollectedfromthesurfaceofthelake's2530mterraceincludeanendmicrobladecoreonaflake,microblades,burins,scrapers,and
severalbifacefragmentsmanufacturedonchertorgreyslate.TheageoftheseartifactsisunknownbutpresumedtobelatePleistocene(Dikov1990b).

 Page126

Figure11.
MapofChukotkaPeninsulashowinglocationsofarchaeologicalsitesdescribed
intext.

Chel'kun

THECHEL'KUNLOCALITIES(22,Figures1and11)arelocatedneartheconfluenceoftheChel'kunandIoniveemrivers,ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug(6531'N,173
57'W).Atleastthreeofthesesites,Chel'kun2,Chel'kun3,andChel'kun4,havebeenassignedtothelatePaleolithicorMesolithicbyDikov(1980,1985a,
1990b).

Chel'kun2liesuponthe12mterraceoftheIoniveemRiver.Thesitewasdiscoveredin1979(Dikov1980:6)andfurtherinvestigatedin1982(Dikov1985a:10).
Artifactscollectedfromthesurfaceoftheterraceincludeasubprismaticbladecorefragment,anendscraper,andseveral''stemmedandpointed"flakes(Dikov
1980:78,1985a:10,1990b:22).

Discoveredin1979,Chel'kun3issituatedimmediatelyabovethemouthoftheChel'kunRiveronartisolatedspurofthe8mterrace(Dikov1980:6).Lithicartifacts
collectedfromthesurfaceincludeanumberofflakebladesandflakes,severalsidescrapersandpossibleburins,aleafshapedbifacefragment,anda"stemmedand
pointed"flake(Dikov1980:67)(Figure12ab).

Chel'kun4issituateduponthe8mterraceoftheIoniveemRiver.Dikov(1980:5,1985b:10,1990b:10)discoveredthesitein1979andconductedtestexcavations
therein1982.Asmallnumberoflithicartifactswereencounteredwithinthemodernsoillessthan20cmbelowthesurface.Artifactsincludetwoprismaticbladecores
andanumberofnarrowbladesandmicroblades,allmanufacturedonayellowgreychert(Dikov1980:6).Dikov(1993:54)linkstheseartifactstocharcoalfroma
hearthradiocarbondatedto8150450yrB.P.(MAG719).

Chaatam'e1

CHAATAM'E1(23,Figures1and11),discoveredbyDikov(1985b:9)in1982,islocatedalongtheChaatam'eRiver,asmalltributaryoftheKurupkaRiver,Chukotka
AutonomousOkrug(6457'N,17400'W).Thesiteissituateduponthe50mterraceoftheChaatam'eRiver,andlithicartifactsoccuronthesurface.Collected
artifactsincludeanendmicrobladecore(onaflake)andpreforms,twosmallsidescrapers,andabifacialpointfragment(Dikov1985b:910,1990b:20)(Figure12c
d).

Kurupka1

KURUPKA1(24,Figures1and11)islocatedneartheconfluenceoftheChaatam'eandKurupkarivers,5kmsouthwestofChaatam'e1,ChukotkaAutonomous
Okrug(6456'N,1747'W).Thesitewasdiscovered

 Page127

Figure12.
LithicartifactsfromUl'khum1(ik),Chel'kun3(ab),Chaatam'e1(cd),Kurupka1(eh),PuturakPass(mo),
andTaliain(1)(afterDikov1990b,Dikovetal.1983)[a:"stemmedflake"bc,h:bifacesde,1:wedge
shapedmicrobladecoresf,k:endmicrobladecoresg:burini:stemmedbifacialpointj:endscraperm:
pencilshapedmicrobladecoreno:retouchedblades].

 Page128

byKazinskaiain1978andinvestigatedbyDikovin1980and1982(Dikov1990b:12,21DikovandKazinskaia1980).

Kurupka1issituateduponthe20mterraceoftheKurupkaRiver(Dikov1990b:12).Mostlithicartifactswerecollectedfromthesurfaceoftheterrace,butsome
wereencounteredduringtheexcavationofseveralsmalltestpits(Dikov1990b:12).Twohorizontallydefinedartifactclustersoccur.Thefirstischaracterizedby
Neolithicartifactsincludingconicalcoresandseveralsherdsofcoarseblackceramic(Dikov1990b:15).Thesecondclusterofartifactsismoreextensiveandthought
todatetothePaleolithic(DikovandKazinskaia1980).Lithicartifactsincludethreewedgeshapedmicrobladecores,numerousmicrobladesandassociateddebitage,
dihedralandangleburins,sidescrapers,endscrapers,andbifacialknives(Figure12eh).Rawmaterialsincludelightgreysilicifiedslate,yelloworredchert,pink
chalcedony,andwhitetufa(DikovandKazinskaia1980:25).Alsoreportedareseveralfragmentedreindeerbones(DikovandKazinskaia1980:25)andapossible
charcoalhearthstain(thelatterassociatedwithawedgeshapedcore)(Dikov1990b:15).

Marich2

THEMARICH2SITE(25,Figures1and11)islocatedalongtheMarichRiver,ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug(6500'N,17309'W).Thesitewasdiscoveredin1983
duringareconnaissancesurveyconductedbyDikov(1990b:22).Artifactscollectedfromthesurfaceofthe25mterraceoftheMarichRiverincludenumerousflakes,
leafshapedbifaces,andapossibleskispallfromawedgeshapedcore.Dikov(1990b:22)describessimilarsurfacescattersatthenearbyterraceedgelocalitiesof
Igel'khveem5,Igel'khveem9,Igel'khveem15,Igel'khveem20andIgel'khveem22.

PuturakPass

PUTURAKPASS(26,Figures1and11)islocatedatthedivideseparatingtheTkachenandItkhatRivervalleys,about20kmwestofCapeChaplina,Chukotka
AutonomousOkrug(6449'N,17227'W).Dikov(1990b)discoveredthesitein1985andexcavatedatotalof10m2in1985and1986.

ThePuturakPasssiteissituatedonafiatknoll(about100mindiameter)elevatedalmost20mabovethesourcesoftheadjoiningrivers.Lithicartifactswere
collectedfromtheexposedsurfaceoftheknollaswellasfromaburiedcontextinasandyloamdepositreachingadepthof60cm(Dikov1990a,1990b:30,1995b).
Besidesnumerouslithicartifacts,Dikov(1990b:30)reportsthepossibleremainsofadwelling,consistingofacircularcharredareaandaringofstonesforminga
hearth,andfiveothersmallcharredhearthstains.

Nearlyallartifactsweremanufacturedona"fragile"lightgreysilicifiedslate.Theassemblageisdominatedbyblades,bladelikeflakes,bladelets,andtoolsmadeon
blades:scrapers,knives,engravers(rezchiki),andmarginallyretouchedblades(Figure12no).Mostofthesewereremovedfromlargemonofrontal"cylindrical"and
"subcylindrical''coresorsmallsubconicalcores(Dikov1990a)(Figure12m).AccordingtoDikov(1990a,1990b:31),PuturakPasshasnoanaloginAsianBeringia,
butdoesdisplaysimilaritieswiththelithicindustriesfromGallagherFlintStationinnorthernAlaskaandAnangulaintheAleutianIslands.Basedonthesesimilarities,he
assignsthesitetotheMesolithic.

Ul'khum1

UL'KHUM1(27,Figures1and11)islocatedalongthelowerUl'khumRiver,themajortributarydrainingintoLakeNaivan,10kminlandfromCapeChaplin,
ChukotkaAutonomousOkrug(6448'N,17225'W).Dikov(1985b,1990b:17,2127,1995e)discoveredthesitein1981.Surfacecollectionsandtest
excavationswereconductedin1982and1985.

Ul'khum1liesuponthe12mterraceoftheUl'khumRiver(Dikov1985b:3).Mostartifactswerecollectedfromthesurfaceoftheterrace,butsomealsowere
encounteredinathinsoilmantledownto20cmbelowthesurface(Dikov1990b:17,21).Artifactshavebeenrecoveredthatareassignedontypologicalgroundsto
thelatePaleolithic,Neolithic,anda"latermaritimeculture"(Dikov1990b:30).

ThePaleolithicassemblageincludeswedgeshapedmicrobladecores,endmicrobladecores,microblades,smallblades,flakes,bifacialknifes,bifacialstemmedpoints,
burins,scrapers,andasmallcobblechoppingtool(Figure12ik).Mostofthesearemadeonagreysiliceousslate(Dikov1985b:3).Alsocollectedwereseveral
smalltriangularshapedflakeswithstems.Dikov(1985b,1990b)assignsthisassemblagetotwophasesofthelatePaleolithic,withthestemmedpointsandflakes
correspondingtotheUshki1layerVIIindustry,

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andthemicrobladecores,microblades,andassociateddebitagecorrespondingtotheUshki1layerVIindustry.

Ananaiveem1

ANANAIVEEM1(28,Figures1and11)islocatedalongtheleftbankoftheAnanaiveemRiver,uponasouthfacingbluff8mabovethemodernriverfloodplain(65
21'N,17345'W).Dikov(1993:16)discoveredthesitein1984.Excavationsreachinganareaof14m2uncoveredastonelinedhearth,smallconvexscraper,and
bonefragments,someidentifiedasreindeer(Dikov1993:56).Dikov(1993:149)reportsasingleradiocarbondeterminationof841080(LE2791)forthesite,but
doesnotdescribethematerialdatedorprovenienceofthesample.HetentativelyassignsAnanaiveem1totheMesolithic(Dikovetal.1983:57,149).

Inas'kvaamandTaliain

ALONGTHEBERINGSEAcoastsouthofthetownofAnadyr',twopossiblePaleolithicsiteshavebeeninvestigated.AtInas'kvaam(29,Figure1)(6216'N,17255'E),
Dikovcollectedanobsidianwedgeshapedcore,alanceolateprojectilepointbase,andaretouchedbladefromthesurfaceofahighterrace(Dikov1990b).At
nearbyTaliain,alsoasurfacesite,anobsidianwedgeshapedcoreandbimarginallyflakedendcorewerecollected(Figure121).

KamchatkaPeninsula

DURINGTHELATEPLEISTOCENE,glacialicecoverednearlyallofthecentralchainofmountainvolcanoes(Braitsevaetal.1968)formingthebackboneoftheKamchatka
Peninsula,thesouthernmostareaofwesternBeringia.ArchaeologicalsitesthoughttodatetothelatePleistoceneearlyHolocenehavebeenfoundalongthe
KamchatkaRiverinthevicinityofUshkiLake,aswellasatCapeLopatka,thesoutherntipoftheKamchatkaPeninsula.

UshkiLakeSites

THESOUTHERNSHOREofUshkiLakeintheKamchatkaRivervalley,locatedabout18kmnorthofKozyrevsk,KamchatkaOblast'(5606'N,15954'E),containsfour
latePleistoceneearlyHolocenearchaeologicalsites:Ushki1,Ushki2,Ushki4,andUshki5(30,Figure1).Themostcompletestratigraphicandculturalsequenceis
foundatUshki1,whichservesasareferenceprofilefortheotherUshkisites.Geologicalandarchaeologicallayersatthesitescanbecorrelatedbasedonaseriesof
walldefinedtephras(DikovandTitov1984Ivanov1990).TheUshki1latePleistoceneearlyHolocenesequenceisdescribedindetailbelow,andtheotherUshki
sitesaredescribedbrieflywithreferencetotheUshki1sequence.

GeomorphologyoftheUshkiLakeareahasbeenpresentedbyTitov(1980),DikovandTitov(1984),andIvanov(1990).Thelakeitselfappearstobearemnant
oxbowlakecutofffromtheKamchatkaRiverbythesecondalluvialterrace,thoughttohaveformedduringthelateMiddlePleniglacial(oxygenisotopestage3),
around25,000yrB.P.(Ivanov1990:166)(Figure13).Atthattime,thelakeprobablywaslargerthanitistoday(Ivanov1990:167).Duringthelastglacialperiod,
between22,000and17,000yrB.P.,expandingglaciersdidnotreachbeyondthehighmountainvalleysoftheKliuchevskiimountainsfartotheeast(Ivanov1990).
ContrarytoTitov(1980),Ivanov(1990:167)arguesthatthereisnoevidencethatthealluvialsedimentssurroundingthelakewerereworkedatthistimeby
fluvioglacialorfrozengroundprocesses.LatePleistocenesedimentsshownocryogenicfeatureslikefrostcracksoricewedgepseudomorphs.Thelakepersisted
throughthelastglacialintotheearlyHolocene,butby8000yrB.P.theKamchatkaRiverhadcutthroughthesecondterrace,madethelakeitsactivechannel,and
floweduptothesouthernmarginoftheformerlake(Ivanov1990:168).Soonthereaftertheriverchannelshiftedtothenorth,andthefirstalluvialterraceofthe
KamchatkaRiverwasdeposited,formingthepresentUshkiLake(Ivanov1990:168).Throughallthis,theUshki1siteanditslatePleistoceneculturaloccupations
weresparedfromtheextensivecuttingandfillingoftheriver.

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Ushki1

USHKI1ISSITUATEDuponCapeKamennyi,a4mhighbedrockknobjuttingintoUshkiLake.Dikov(1977:43)discoveredthesitein1961excavationshavebeen
conductedperiodicallyfrom1962intothe1990s(Dikov1977,1990a).

ThegeologicandculturalstratigraphyoftheUshki1sitehasbeendescribedbyDikov(1977)andDikovandTitov(1984).Thesiteliesonvolcanicbedrockthatis
mantledbya3mthicksetofalternatingbandsofsandyloam,loam,andtephra(Figure14).Cryogenicdisturbancesarcabsentfromtheentireprofile,andseven
stratigraphicallydistinctculturallayershavebeenidentified(Dikov1977)(Figure14).Thelowerthreeculturallayers(VII,VI,andV)predate7000yrB.P.andare
discussedbelow.

CulturallayerVIIisthelowermostculturallayeridentifiedatUshki1.Fourconventional14Cdeterminationsaverage13,980146yrB.P.(Table1).Artifacts
occurwithinasetofloam,sandyloam,andsanddeposits210220cmbelowthemodernsurface(Dikov1977:48)(Figure14).Inplaces,culturallayerVIIappears
asathinfloorofredochre,especiallyinandaroundtheremainsofahumanburialandseveraldwellingstructures.AtthetimeofthelayerVIIoccupation,Ushki1
wassituatedalongthemarginoflatePleistoceneUshkiLake(Ivanov1990).Palynologicalanalysissuggeststhatduringthistimelocalvegetationwasdominatedby
birchandalderforest,standsofwillow,andpocketsoffernsandgrasses(Ivanov1990:168).

Figure13.
UshkiLakegeomorphology
(afterIvanov1990).

ThelithicassemblagefromculturallayerVIIhasbeendescribedcursorilybyDikov(1977:5051,1979a:3338,1985a:174,1990a).Itischaracterizedbybladeand
flakeprimaryreductiontechnologies,andunifacial,bifacial,andburinsecondaryreductiontechnologies.Microbladecoresandmicrobladesareabsent(Dikov
1979a:33).Bladesweredetachedfromsubprismaticbladecores,whileflakesweredetachedfromminimallypreparedflakecores(Dikov1979a:33).Amongthe
toolsaremorethan50bifaciallyworkedstemmedpointsandnumerousleafshapedandteardropshapedpointsandbifaces(Dikov1979a:34,1990a)(Figure15af,
h).Mostofthestemmedpointsarelessthan5cmlongandappeartohavebeenmadeonflakes.Teardropshapedpointsalsoaresmallandmadeonflakes.Two
"stemmedflakes"alsohavebeendescribed(Figure15i)thesearethoughtbyDikovetal.(1983:11)tobe"prototypes"orpossiblypreformsofthefinishedUshki
stemmedpoints.Endscrapersandsidescrapersarefoundinhighfrequencies(Figure15jl),asareretouchedblades,flakeblades,andflakes(Dikov1979a:34).
Angleburinsalsooccur,butlessfrequently(Dikov1979a:34).OtherfindsfromculturallayerVIIincludenumerousstonebeadsandpendants,aswellaschalcedony
graversapparentlyusedtoinciseholesintothebeadsandpendants(Dikov1979a:3435).

FaunalremainsfromculturallayerVIIhavenotbeenstudiedthoroughly.Theonlytaxonreportedismoose(Alcessp.)(Dikov1977:50).Twelvearchaeological
features,however,havebeendescribed(Dikov1968,1977,1990a),includingonehumanburialpitand11dwellingstructures(Figure16,Table2).Theburialpit
wascircular,1.8mindiameter,andfilledwithstones,redochre,andmorethan800tinystonebeads(Dikov1968:197199).Tracesofhumanbonesinterredinthe
gravewerebarelyperceptible(Dikov1968:199).Theremainsof11structuresrangedfrom8to10m2inarea.Thelargeststructure(Feature9)appearstohavebeen
adoubleroomedsemisubterraneandwellingwithsixseparatehearths.Itsfloorwasstainedbycharcoalandredochre,andlitteredwithstonetools,cores,debitage,
pendants,grindingplates,amooseantler,andbonesofunidentifiedfauna(Table2).Asecondtwochamberedstructurealsowasexcavated(Feature7).The
remainingninestructureswereovalshapedandhadatleastonecentralunlinedhearth.Severalhearthscontainedmultiplelayersofashandburnedbone,suggesting
longterm,repeateduseofthesite(Dikov1990a).

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Figure14.
StratigraphicprofilefromUshki1site,showing
provenienceofculturallayersandradiocarbondates
(afterDikov1977).

CulturallayerVIliesabout190180cmbelowthemodernsurface(Dikov1977:52)(Figure14).ItisstratigraphicallyseparatedfromlowerlyingculturallayerVII
byabout35cmofinterbeddedsandsandsandyloams.Thereisnoindicationthatthetwoculturallayershavebeenmixed,redeposited,ordisturbedby
postdepositionalprocesses(Dikov1977,1990a).Fiveconventional14CdeterminationsforlayerVIaverage10,64368yrB.P.(Table1).Atthattime,thesitewas
situatedalongtheshoreoflatePleistoceneUshkiLake.Localvegetationconsistedofamosaicofbirchalderforest,withgrassymeadowssurroundingthesite(Dikov
1979a:54Ivanov1990).

ThelayerVIlithicindustryischaracterizedbybothwedgeshapedcore/microbladeandprismaticcore/bladeprimaryreductiontechnologies(Dikov1979a:57,Dikov
andKononenko1990)(Figure17c,g),aswellasburin,bifacial,andunifacialsecondarytechnologies.Thetoolassemblageconsistsoflanceolateandleafshaped
bifacialpoints,bifacesofvariousshapes,transverse,angle,anddihedralburins,endscrapers,sidescrapers,groovedpumiceshaftstraighteners,largechoppingtools,
hammerstones,anvilstones,andretouchedblades,bladelikeflakes,andflakes(Figure17ab,df,hk)(Dikov1977:56,1979a:57,60).Stonependantsalsohave
beenrecovered,ashavethreesandstoneplatesonewithincisedpitsthoughttorepresentalunarcalendar,andtwowithincisedlines,oneofwhichisinterpretedto
beaconicalhut(Dikov1979a:60).Dikov(1979a:63)alsodescribesa32cmlongshovellikeobjectmadeontheboneofabison,anochrefishprofileonastone,
andseveralsteatitelabrets.

Faunalremainshavenotbeenstudiedthoroughly,butVereshchagin(1979)notestheoccurrenceofdomesticateddog(Canisfamiliaris),steppebison

 Page132

Figure15.
LithicartifactsfromUshki1layerVII[ad:stemmedbifacialpointse:teardropshapedpointf,h:bifacesg:end
scraperi:"stemmedflake"jl:scrapers].

 Page133

Figure16.
Ushki1layerVIIfeaturemap.

(Bisonpriscus),mountainsheep(Ovisnivicola),lemming(LemmusorDicrostonyxsp.),andhorse(Equuscaballus).Dikov(1977:5556)alsodescribesbonesof
birds(forthemostpartduck[Dikov1990a])andfish,presumablysalmon.

Remainsof41dwellingstructureshavebeenuncovered(Figure18,Table3).Interpretationsofthesedwellingsfallintothreecategories.Type1structures(features1
12)aredescribedasroundsemisubterraneandwellingswithnarrowentrancecorridors.Theserangedinsizefrom9to44m2,andapparentlyweresupportedby
woodenposts.Dikov(1977,1990a)reportsthediscoveryofcharredremainsofseveralpostsinstructures5and6,andpostholemoldsinthefloorsofstructures1,
5,6,7,and8.Allofthetype1structureshadcentrallylocatedstonelinedhearths.Oneofthesealsocontainedtheremainsofadogburialpit(Dikov1979b).Type2
structures(features1427)werecircularorirregularlyshapedsurfacedwellingsfrom3to27m2insize.Theydidnothaveentrancecorridorsbuttheircentrally
locatedhearthswereusuallystonelined.Type3structures(featuresIXIV)

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Table2.
DescriptionofFeaturesfromUshki1LayerVII.
Feature Year Grid Size(m2) Description Reference
Number Excavated Location
Burial 1964 11Z 80 Roundburialpit1.8mindiameter,.7mdeep,filled 1,2,4
withstones,redochre,humanbonespoorly
preserved,800stonebeads,burinlikeawls,2
stemmedpointsonedgeofpitburialsurroundedby
ochrestainedgrounddatesof13600250and14300
200runoncharcoalfromfillofburialpit.
1 1964 24L 18 Smallovalshapedsurfacestructuremarkedby 2,4
charcoalstain.
2 1964 27K 50 Elongateovalshapedsurfacestructurewithlarge(4 2
3m)hearthpitstonetools,stonebeadsand
pendants,chalcedonyburinawls,leafshapedpoints
andbifaces,stemmedpoints,scrapers,flakes,and
blades.
3 1964 26Zh 8 Smallovalshapedsurfacestructurewithlargehearth 2,4
pit.
4 1978 24B 47 Irregularovalshapedsurfacestructurewithlarge 4
hearthpitcharredbirdandanimalbones,ochre,leaf
shapedbifaces,stemmedpoint,endscrapers.
5 197879? 24b 20 Smallovalshapedsurfacestructurewithpossible 4
centralhearthmarkedbydensecharcoal
concentration.
6 1979 19e 18 Partiallyexcavatedsurfacestructurewithmultilayered 4
hearthandpit5cmdeepand15cmindiameter
charredbones,hematite,ochre,flintknife,flake.
7 1979 13b 75 2chamberedsurfacestructurewith2hearthsochre, 4
hematite,3stemmedpoints,grindingstone,chopping
tools,flakes,charredclay,animalbones,gizzard
stones.
8 after1977 2b 16 Smallovalshapedsurfacestructurewithpossible 4
hearthmarkedbydensecharcoalstain.
9 1974 3d 100 2chamberedsemisubterraneanstructure(c.20cm 2,3
deep)eachchamberwith23hearthsfloorcharcoal
stainedochre,hematite,23stemmedpoints,17leaf
shapedbifaces,endscrapers,sidescrapers,cores,
preforms,3stonependants,grindingplates,moose
antleranimalbones.
10 1989 7m 75 Ovalshapedsurfacestructurewithcentralhearth1.7 4
1.2minsizetools,stemmedpoint,flakes.
11 1989 3m 42 Ovalshapedsurfacestructurewith2largehearthpits 4
charredbones,8stemmedpoints,debitage.
References:
(1)Dikov1968(2)Dikov1977(3)Dikov1979a(4)Dikov1990a.

 Page135
2
werelargeirregularlyshapedsmearsofcharcoalrangingfrom30to152m insize.

DuringthetimeofthelayerVIoccupation,theUshki1siteappearstohaveservedasasemipermanentvillagewherehunting,gathering,andfishingtookplace.Type
1andtype2structuresprobablyarecontemporaneous,butDikov(1990a)notesthattype3structuresarepositionedstratigraphicallybelowallofthetype1andtype
2structures,sothattheymayrepresentanearlieroccupation.Thepresenceofmultiplelayeredfloorsandhearthsinmanyofthetype1and2dwellingsindicatesthat
theywererepeatedlyoccupied.UsingcontemporarySiberianandNorthAmericanarcticandsubarctichuntergatherersasanalogs,thelarge(averaging22m2insize)
semisubterraneandwellings(type1)mayrepresentwinterhuts,whilethelesssubstantial(averaging13.5m2)surfacedwellings(type2)mayrepresentsummerhuts.
Thishypothesisrequiresverificationthroughotherindicatorsofseasonality.

CulturallayerVissituatedinthelowerpartofasandyloamdepositc.130150cmbelowthemodernsurface(Dikov1977:58)(Figure14).Itisseparatedfrom
lowerlyingculturallayerVIby4050cmofhorizontallybeddedsandyloam(Dikov1990a)andissealedbyatephraband(Dikov1977).ThelayerVoccupation
hasnotbeenradiocarbondatedatUshki1,butatnearbyUshki5,DikovandTitov(1984)reportadateofabout8800yrB.P.fromasimilarindustryinthesame
stratigraphiccontext(discussedbelow).

Atthetimeofthisoccupation,latePleistoceneUshkiLakehadbeenreplacedbyachanneloftheKamchatkaRiverwhichflowedalongthenorthernmarginofthesite
(Ivanov1990).Palynologicalstudiesindicatethatclimaticconditionsweresomewhatmilderthanduringpreviousoccupationsatthesite,withconiferousforests
dominatingthelandscape(Ivanov1990).

TheculturallayerVlithicassemblageisrelativelysmall,butsimilartothatoflayerVI.Primaryreductiontechnologiesinvolvetheproductionofmicrobladesfrom
relativelywidewedgeshapedcores,andbladesfrom"crudely"fashionedprismaticcores(Dikov1990a).Secondaryreductiontechnologiesincludeunifacial,bifacial,
andburintechniques.Thetoolassemblageconsistsofleafshapedbifacialpoints,bifaces,endscrapers,sidescrapers,sandstoneshaftstraighteners,andburins(Dikov
1977:5860).Faunalremains(fishandmammal)havebeenrecovered,buttaxonomicidentificationshavenotbeenreported(Dikov1977).Excavationsthrough1977
uncoveredtheremainsoffoursurfacedwellingstructureswithcircularoutlinesandstonelinedhearths(Dikov1977:5860).

Ushki2

USHKI2ISLOCATEDabout500meastofUshki1(Figure13).In1962and1964,atotalareaof260m2wasexcavated(Dikov1977:65),revealingthepresenceof
culturallayerV,situatedwithinagreyloamabout170cmbelowthesurfaceandsealedbya24cmthicktephra.Noradiocarbondateshavebeenreported,butthe
stratigraphicpositionofthisculturallayersuggeststoDikov(1977)anageofabout8000yrB.P.Lithicartifactsincludewedgeshapedcoresandmicroblades,
minimallyworkedflakecores,bladelikeflakesandflakes,andafewretouchedpiecesincludingnarrowleafshapedbifacialpoints,endscrapers,andalargeside
scrapermadeonafiatcobble(Dikov1977:68).Theseartifactswereconcentratedaroundahearth(Dikov1977:68).

Ushki4

THEUSHKI4SITEislocatedon"PervyiCape,"abouthalfwaybetweenUshki1andUshki2(Figure13).Excavationsinthe1960srevealedtwoareasoflate
PleistoceneearlyHoloceneculturalremains,knownastheEastLocusandWestLocus(Dikov1970,1977:7579).Occupationsstratigraphicallyassignedtocultural
layerVIoccuratbothloci.Neither,however,hasbeenradiocarbondated.

AttheEastLocus,culturallayerVI(datedtoabout10,000yrB.P.)occursatthebaseofagreyloamthatissituatedabout150cmbelowthemodernsurfaceand
sealedbyatephra(Dikov1977:76).Lithicartifactsrecoveredfroma64m2excavationincludewedgeshapedcores,microblades,flakes,leafshapedbifacialpoints,
bifaces,endscrapers,sidescrapers,coarsegrainedshaftsmoothers,cobbletools,andochrebits(Dikov1977:7678).Poorlypreservedfaunalremainswerenot
retrievable(Dikov1977:77).Featuresuncoveredincludeasmallpitandhearth(eachabout50cmindiameter),andalarge(20m2)roundcharcoalstain,interpreted
tobethefloorofasurfacedwellingstructure,witha70cm2hearthstaininitsnorthernsection(Dikov1977:76).

 Page136

Figure17.
LithicartifactsfromUshki1layerVI[ab,df:endscrapersc,g:wedgeshapedmicrobladecoreshi:lanceolate
bifacialpointsj:retouchedflakek:biface].

 Page137

Figure18.
Ushki1layerVIfeaturemap.

 Page138

AttheWestLocus,Dikov(1970,1977:79)discoveredcharredcobblesandcharcoalerodingfromthebluffedgealongthelake.Excavationsin1966revealedthat
thesecamefromasetofbandedloamandsandlayerssimilartothatcontainingculturallayerVIatUshki1.Anexcavationof12m2yieldedatwolayeredcircular
surfacestructurewithtwostonelinedhearthssuperimposedoneontheother(Dikov1970).ThisstructureiscomparabletotheType2dwellingsfromculturallayer
VIatUshki1(Dikov1977:79).Lithicartifactsrecoveredfrombothfloorsofthedwellingincludewedgeshapedcores,microblades,narrowleafshapedbifacial
points,bifaces,scrapers,coarseshaftsmoothers,ochrebits,andplatesforgrindingochre(Dikov1970,1979b:79).

Ushki5

USHKI5ISLOCATEDabout250mwestofUshki1(Figure13).Dikov(1977:79)discoveredthesitein1964,butdidnotbeginexcavationsthereuntil1974.Atthis
locality,materialsassignedtoculturallayersVandVIIhavebeenidentified,whilelayerVImaterialsareabsent.Here,culturallayerVhasbeenradiocarbondatedto
8790150yrB.P.(MAG321)(DikovandTitov1984)(Table1).TheassemblagesfromUshki5includeonlychertandobsidianflakesfromlayerV(Dikov
1977:8182),andaplatformrejuvenationspallfromasmallprismaticbladecoreandastemmedpointfromlayerVII(Dikov1977:82,281).

Lopatka4

CAPELOPATKA(31,Figure1)islocatedatthesoutherntipoftheKamchatkaPeninsula,KamchatkaOblast'(5100'N,15845'E).Theareawasfirstinvestigatedin
1972byDikova(1979,1983),whodiscoveredfourarchaeologicallocalities.Sheassignsoneofthelocalities,Lopatka4(locus3),tothePaleolithic(Dikova
1983:16).Excavationswereconductedtherein1973and1975.

Lopatka4issituatedinthehightidalandtsunamizoneofthecape.Mostofthelithicartifactswererecoveredfromawinddeflatedsurface.Someartifactsand
charcoalwererecoveredfrombeneaththeexposedsurfaceduringexcavations,butcharcoalsampleswerenotlargeenoughtopermitradiocarbondating(Dikova
1983:1718).

Dikova(1979,1983:1825)characterizestheassemblageas''Paleolithic"inappearance.Rawmaterialsincludeandesiticbasalt,quartzite,andalowgradechert.
Thesewereprocuredlocallyfrombeachesintheformofhighlyroundedcobbles(Dikova1983:21).Coresaresimplyprepared,typicallywithsingleplatformsand
fronts.Toolsdescribedincludechoppingtools,choppers,scraperlikeunifaces,triangularpicks,retouchedflakes,and"leafshaped"bifacialpoints.Dikova(1983:24)
suggeststhatthebifacialpointsareintrusiveandrepresentalateroccupationofthesite.Theremainingartifacts,sheargues,haveadecided"primitive"appearanceand
areanalogoustoancientPaleolithicartifactsfromJapan,Mongolia,andVietnam,ortothecobbletoolsfromSiberdik(Dikova1983:24).Thisinterpretationistenuous
giventhelackofchronometricdatesfromthesite.

Discussion

WesternBeringia'sFirstHumanInhabitants

CURRENTARCHAEOLOGICALEVIDENCEindicatesthatthefirstinhabitantsofwesternBeringiawerelateUpperPaleolithicpeoples.Theoldestfirmlydatedoccupationin
westernBeringiaisUshkillayerVII,datingtoabout14,000yrB.P.InnorthernBeringia,theoldestsite,Berelekh,datestoabout12,200yrB.P.Claimsforan
earlierPaleolithicoccupationofBeringiahavenotbeensubstantiated:thearchaiclookingassemblagesfromOrlovka2,Kym'ynanonvyvaam,Kus'iuveem,and
Lopatka4havenotbeen(andprobablyneverwillbe)chronometricallyorstratigraphicallydated,andtheputative"protoDiuktai"artifactsfromKymyneikeiprobably
arenotartifactsatall.

ColonizationofwesternBeringiaafterthelastglacialmaximum(about22,00018,000yrB.P.)issupportedfurtherbyarchaeologicalevidenceintheLenaRiver
basin,westofBeringia,wheretheearliestunequivocalsitesdatetoaround18,00017,000yrB.P.UpperPaleolithichumanswerecampingatVerkhneTroitskaiaby
perhaps18,000yrB.P.(Mochanov1977,1978),andatnearbyEzhantsyby17,000yrB.P.(Kuzmin1990).5 Theearlier"ProtoDiuktai"sites,Ust'Mil'IIand
IkhineII,consideredbyMochanov(1977)todatetobetween35,000and20,000yrB.P.,remainproblematic.Stratigraphicprofilesatthesesitesarecomplexand
displayobviousdeformationfeatures,

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renderingtheproposedageoftheassemblagesquestionable(Hopkinsetal.1982:438Tseitlin1979YiandClark1985).

Mochanov(1988,1992,1993)recentlyhasreportedthediscoveryandexcavationofDiringIuriakh,apossibleLowerPaleolithicsitelocatedonanancientterraceof
theLenaRiver140kmsouthofYakutsk.Lithicartifactsoriginallywerereportedtodatetobetween3.2and1.8millionyearsago(Mochanov1988),butotherswho
haveinvestigatedthegeologyofthesitearemoreconservativeintheirestimatesofitsantiquity.Basedongeomorphologicalandsedimentologicalevidence,Ranov
andTseitlin(1991:86)suggestthatthesitemorelikelydatestobetween300,000and200,000yrB.P.,whileKuzminandKrivonogov(1994)arguethatthesitecould
evenbeasyoungasthelatePleistocene.Apairofsedimentsamplescollectedfromaboveandbelowthearchaeologicalcomponentyieldedthermoluminescence(TL)
ageestimatesofabout260,000and370,000yrB.P.,respectively(Waters1995Watersetal.1997).ThesedatespressthelimitofTLdatingandindicatethatthe
findsfromDiringdateto260,000yrB.P.orearlier(M.R.Waters,personalcommunication1996).Thelithicindustryonthesiteischaracterizedbycoresandflakes
(AckermanandCarlson1991)manufacturedthroughananviltechnique(R.E.Ackerman,personalcommunication1996).Mochanov(1992)reportsthatsomeofthe
clustersofbrokencobblesandspells,however,mayhaveformednaturallythroughthecryogenicprocessof"desquamation,"thepeelingandexfoliationofrockunder
theinfluenceofextremetemperatures.Further,manyoftheartifactsareheavilypolishedfromsandblasting(AckermanandCarlson1991),indicatingthattheyarenot
necessarilyinaprimarycontext.SomeoftheitemsfromDiringclearlyareartifactual(Waters,personalcommunication1997),butgiventheissuessurroundingtheir
originandcontext,recognitionofDiringasaMiddlePleistocenehominidsiteshouldremainprovisionaluntilmoredetailedsiteformationstudiesandtechnological
analysesarepresented.

PreMicrobladeIndustries

ARCHAEOLOGISTSHAVELONGrecognizedtheexistenceofalatePaleolithicnonmicrobladecomplexinKamchatka(Dikov1977,1979a).AtUshki1,culturallayerVII
yieldeda14,000yrB.P.lithicindustryofsmallstemmedandleafshapedbifacialpoints,bifaces,angleburins,endscrapers,sidescrapers,backedknives,and
retouchedbladesandflakes.Absentfromthislivingfloorarewedgeshapedcores,microblades,transverseburins,andlargelanceolatepoints.Asecondoccupation
assignedtolayerVII(althoughundated)wasuncoveredatUshki5.Here,too,microbladesareabsent.

ElsewhereinwesternBeringiathepresenceofapremicrobladecomplexislesscertain.TheBerelekhsitecontainsabifacialpointandbladeassemblagethatmaylack
wedgeshapedcoresandmicroblades,but,asdescribedearlier,reportshavebeenconflicting.Besidesbladeandbifacetechnologies,therecentdiscoveriesat
Berelekhofaleafshaped(Chindadn)pointandtangedbifaceindicatepossibleaffinitieswiththenonmicrobladeUshki1layerVIIassemblage.Interestingly,ofthe
threeradiocarbondatesfromBerelekh,twoarearound13,000yrB.P.andathirdaround10,600yrB.P.(Figure19).Perhapsthesedatesreflecttwodifferent,as
yetunrecognized,occupations,oneassociatedwiththebladeandbifaceindustry(13,000yrB.P.)andtheotherwiththerecentlydiscoveredwedgeshaped
microbladecore(10,600yrB.P.).

TheEl'gakhchansitelocatedalongtheupperOmolonRiveralsomaybeapremicrobladesite.Thelithicassemblagecontainsmanyofthesameelementsasthelayer
VIIassemblageatUshki1,includingstemmedbifacialpointsandendscrapers.Further,itlackswedgeshapedcoresandassociateddebitage,andthefew
microbladesintheassemblagemaybeintrusive.Radiocarbondatesareneeded,however,todeterminetheageofthisoccupation.ThebifacialpointindustryatUptar
1,whichcontainsapossibleflutedpointpreform,isdatedtobefore8250yrB.P.andmaybeanotherpremicrobladesite,butunfortunatelywemayneverknowits
preciseage.

Assemblagesthatfitthetechnological/typologicalpatternoflayerVIIatUshki1alsohavebeenidentifiedincentralAlaska,wheretheyareascribedtotheNenana
complex.TheNenanaassemblages,whilenearly3,000yearsyoungerthanUshkilayerVII,containsmallbifacialpoints,bifaces,unifaciallyretouchedpieces(i.e.,end
scrapers,sidescrapers,gravers,retouchedblades,andflakes),andcobbletools(Goebeletal.1991HamiltonandGoebel,thisvolumeHoffeckeretal.1993
PowersandHoffecker1989).Whilelackingstemmedpoints,theNenanacomplexexhibitsthesamebroadtechnologicalpatternfoundinthe14,000yrB.P.
occupationatUshki1.

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Table3.
DescriptionofFeaturesfromUshki1LayerVI.
Feature Grid Size Description Reference
Number Location (m2)
1 151 30 Roundsemisubterraneandwellingwithentrancecorridoronwestside 1,3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearthwith3successive
layersofashandbone7thinlayersofcharcoalinterdigitatedwith
sterileloamlayersinareaimmediatelysurroundinghearth8posthole
molds(1015cmindiameter)(4alongperimeter,2nearhearth,and2near
entranceproppedupbystones)5smallpits(5cmindiameter)near
hearthstoneanvil,hammerstones,scrapers,wedgeshapedcore,
microblades,leafshapedpoints,shaftsmoother,redochrebits,faunal
remains.
2 23Zh 17 "TheSorcerer'sDwelling"roundsemisubterraneandwellingwith 1,2,3
entrancecorridoroneastsideofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocated
hearth3layeredcharcoalflooraroundhearthseveralsmallposthole
moldsaroundhearthburialpitwithremainsofdomesticateddogin
"flexed"positionbiface,scraper,redochre,possiblehumanburialpit,
charredmatofdriedgrass,bisonscapulafor"fortunetelling."
3 2V 40 Roundsemisubterraneandwellingwithentrancecorridoroneastsideof 1,3
structurestonelinedhearthlocatedinsouthcentralareaofstructure,
burialpitofhumanchild(remainsnotintact)inflexedpositionunderthe
remainswasamatof>100lemmingincisorspitfilledwithochre,along
withbrokenpendant,wedgeshapedcores,microblades,groundstone
plates.
4 23B 44 Roundsemisubterraneandwellingwithentrancecorridoronwestside 1,3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearthbonesoffish,
presumablysalmon.
5 10v 13 Roundsemisubterraneandwellingwithentrancecorridoronsouthside 3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearthpostholemoldsin
floorremainsofseveralcharredwoodenpolespossiblecachepit(35
cmdeep,40cmindiameter)withgrindingstones,slateknife,burin.
6 15g 9 Roundsemisubterraneanstructurewithentrancecorridoronsouthside 3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearthpostholemoldsin
floorremainsofseveralcharredwoodenpoles.
7 20z 24 Roundsemisubterraneanstructurewithentrancecorridoronwestside 3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearthpostholemoldsin
floor.
8 26i 24 Roundsemisubterraneanstructurewithentrancecorridoronwestside 3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearthpostholemoldsin
floor.
9 26t 14 Roundsemisubterraneanstructurewithentrancecorridoronsouthside 3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearthseveralsmallposthole
moldsinflooraroundhearthcachepitwith10bifaciallyprepared
wedgeshapedcorepreforms.
10 19t 16 Roundsemisubterraneanstructurewithentrancecorridoronwestside 3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearthseveralsmallposthole
moldsinflooraroundhearthundescribedhumanburialpitlikethat
foundinFeature3.

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Feature Grid Size Description Reference

Number Location (m2)
11 8k 13 Roundsemisubterraneanstructurewithentrancecorridoronsouthside 3
ofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearth.
12 3r 17 Roundsemisubterraneanstructurewithentrancecorridoronnorthwest 3
sideofstructurestonelinedcentrallylocatedhearth.
13 Undescribed.
14 11k 7 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithstonelinedhearth. 3
15 1I 5 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithstonelinedhearth. 3
16 4zh 27 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithcentrallylocatedhearth. 3
17 2z 25 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithcentrallylocatedhearth. 3
18 2A 3 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithcentrallylocatedhearthand 1,3
dispersedclusterofstones.
19 2I 25 Partiallyexcavatedcircular,surfacestructurewithnumerousrocks 1,3
aroundperimetercentrallylocatedstonelinedhearth.
20 8D 19 Circularsurfacestructurewithstonelinedcentrallylocatedhearth. 1,3
21 12Z 7 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithstonelinedhearth. 1,3
22 14G 7 Circularsurfacestructurewithstonelinedcentrallylocatedhearth. 3
23 17z 15 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithstonelinedcentrallylocated 3
hearth.
24 24g 7 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithstonelinedcentrallylocated 3
hearth.
25 14z 17 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithstonelinedhearthand 3
sandstoneplatedepictingconicaltents.
26 18I 6 Circularsurfacestructurewithstonelinedcentrallylocatedhearth. 3
27 27a' 20 Irregularlyshapedsurfacestructurewithstonelinedhearth. 3
I 4v 152 Irregularlyshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure. 1,3
II 10V 46 Irregularlyshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure,with 1,3
anvilstonenearcenter.
III 18B 30 Irregularlyshapedcharcoalstainwithstonelinedhearthinterpretedto 1,3
besurfacestructure.
IV 27G 70 Irregularlyshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure,with 1,3
patchofredochre,unlinedhearthstain,wedgeshapedcore,biface,
blades,flakes,andsomeisolatedfrostcracks.
V 21d 143 Irregularlyshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure,with 3
threedenseconcentrationsofcharcoalinterpretedtobehearths.
VI 11b 57 Ovalshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure. 3
VII 14d 133 Irregularlyshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure,with 3
severalsmallhearthstains.
VIII 14m 47 Irregularlyshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure. 3
IX 8m 105 Ovalshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure,withtwo 3
stonelinedhearths.

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Feature Grid Size Description Reference

Number Location (m2)
X 16u 102 Ovalshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure,with 3
stonelinedcentrallylocatedhearth.
XI 24ch 116 Ovalshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure,with 3
isolatedrocks.
XII 18v' 70 Partiallyexcavatedirregularshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobe 3
surfacestructure.
XIII 12ch 53 Partiallyexcavatedirregularshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobe 3
surfacestructure.
XIV 7m 83 Irregularlyshapedcharcoalstaininterpretedtobesurfacestructure. 3
A 10z Hearthstain. 1
B 1II Hearthstain. 1
C 8A Hearthstain. 1
D 1A Pit. 1
E 18A Pit. 1
F 13E Pit. 1
G 4E Pitwithcacheofleafshapedbifacialpoints. 1
References
(1)Dikov1977(2)Dikov1979b(3)Dikov1990a.

TheoriginoftheBeringianpremicrobladeassemblagesisunknown.Twopossibleareasoforigin,though,canbesingledout:subarcticcentralSiberiatothewestand
theJapaneseArchipelagotothesouth.ThecentralSiberiansubarcticisavastinteriorregionstretchingfromtheYeniseiRiverinthewesttotheLenaRiverintheeast.
DuringthelatePleistocene,thisareamadeupamajorportionoftheflat,featurelessmammothsteppethatalsoencompassedpartofwesternBeringia.Paleolithicsites
inthisregionarescarce,probablybecausesolittlearchaeologicalsurveyhastakenplace.RecentstudiesalongtheNizhnaiaTunguskaRiverhaveledtothediscovery
ofseveralUpperPaleolithicsitesthoughttodatetobetween30,000and20,000yrB.P.lithicindustriesincludebladesandbifacesbutnowedgeshapedcoresor
microblades(Goebel1995).LateUpperPaleolithicsitespostdating18,000yrB.P.havenotbeenidentifiedinthisregion,butfurthersouthintheupperYeniseiand
LenaRiverbasins,aswellastotheeastintheAldanbasin,wedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladeindustriesappearasearlyas18,000yrB.P.4,000yearsearlier
thantheearliestknownnonmicrobladeinhabitantsofwesternBeringia(Goebel1995).OnlycontinuedworkinthecentralSiberiansubarcticwilldemonstratewhether
microbladeswerecommonacrossthemammothsteppesoonafterthelateglacialmaximum,orwhetherbladeandbifaceindustrieswithoutmicrobladespersisteduntil
lateinthePleistoceneastheymayhaveinBeringia.

InJapan,thearchaeologicalsequenceparallelsthatofwesternBeringia.Fromabout20,000to14,000yrB.P.theJapaneserecordisdominatedbyUpperPaleolithic
bladeandbifaceassemblages,withwedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladetechnologiesappearingafter14,000yrB.P.(Aikens1990:56AikensandHiguchi1982:91
ReynoldsandKaner1990:300).ThisparallelwiththeBeringianrecordisintriguing,andhintsatthepossibilitythatthepremicrobladeindustryatUshki1wasthe
resultofadispersaleventnorthwardfromHokkaidoviatheKurilIslands(Powers1990,1996).Thishypothesis,however,willremaintenuousuntiltheJapanese
PaleolithicrecordismorefirmlydatedanddetailedlithictechnologicalcomparisonsaremadebetweentheBeringianandJapaneseassemblages.

 Page143

WedgeShapedCoreandMicrobladeIndustries

THEEARLIESTMICROBLADESinwesternBeringiaoccurinthelayerVIassemblageatUshki1,centralKamchatka.Fiveradiocarbondatesonthislayeraverage10,643
68yrB.P.TheindustryischaracterizedbywedgeshapedmicrobladecoresproducedthroughtheYubetsubifacialtechnique,aswellassmallerendmicrobladecores
madeonthinflakes.Bifacialpointstypicallyaresmallandleafshapedorlanceolateindesign.Otherlithicimplementsincludeburins,bifaces,endscrapers,side
scrapers,groovedstones(shaftsmoothers)andothercobbletools,andretouchedbladesandflakes.Associatedwiththesearetheremainsofmorethan40dwelling
structures,aswellasstoragepits,ahumanburial,andadogburial.Faunalremainsincludelargeterrestrialmammals,waterfowl,andfish(possiblysalmon).The
diversityandrichnessofthesiteindicatealongterm,perhapsyearround,occupationofUshki1byarelativelylargebandofhuntergathererfishers.

ElsewhereinwesternBeringia,nootherunequivocalwedgeshapedmicrobladecoreassemblagehasbeenpreciselydated,andonlyone,Kheta,hasbeendetermined
onstratigraphicgroundstopredate8000yrB.P.TheremaininghandfuloflatePaleolithicmicrobladeindustries,includingDruchakV(upperOmolonRiver),Ioni10,
Kurupka1,Ul'khum1,Inas'kvaam,andTaliain(ChukotkaPeninsula),havenotbeendatedandoccurinsurfaceornearsurfacecontexts.Nevertheless,taken
together,thesesitessuggestthewidespreaddistributionofwedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladetechnologiesearlyintheHolocene(Dikov1990b).

InAlaska,securelydatedwedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladeindustriesaremorecommon.SiteslikeDryCreek(componentII),Akmak,andMt.Hayes111
documenttheemergenceofthesetechnologies

Figure19.
RadiocarbonchronologyoftheearlyHoloceneMesolithicsitesofwesternBeringia
(allareaveragedateswiththeexceptionUshki5layerV,Uptar,Chel'kun4,andZima).

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sometimeafter11,000yrB.P.(Anderson1970,1988HamiltonandGoebelthisvolumePowersandHoffecker1989West1981).AtDryCreekandotherwell
stratified,multicomponentsitesincentralAlaska,microbladesareabsentinthepre11,000yrB.P.culturalhorizons,whiletheyareabundantthroughouttheearly
Holoceneculturalhorizons,mirroringthesequenceincentralKamchatka.Contradictingthispattern,however,aretwosites,BluefishCavesandSwanPoint,which
maycontainmicrobladesolderthan11,000yrB.P.Thedatingofbothsitesisopentoquestion,however.AtBluefishCaves,microbladeswererecoveredfrom
heavilybioturbatedandcryoturbatedcavesediments(Ackerman1996CinqMars1979),andmicrobladesmayhavebeendisplaceddownwardthroughtheprofile
(D.M.Hopkins,personalcommunication1996).ThemicrobladesfromSwanPointwerecollectedfromcolluvialsediments(Holmesetal.1996),andassociated
charcoalsamplesyieldingdatesofabout11,600yrB.P.couldberedepositeddetritusfromanearlierfireofnaturalorhumanorigin(HamiltonandGoebel,this
volume).ButifthecontinuingexcavationsatSwanPointconfirmtheearlyexistenceofmicroblades,wemustacceptthatthelatePleistocenearchaeologicalrecordof
Beringiaismorecomplicatedthancurrentlythought.

Thebulkofthepresentevidence,then,indicatesthatmicrobladetechnologiesemergedinwesternBeringiasometimeafter11,000yrB.P.Theproximateoriginof
thesetechnologies,however,isunclear.InneighboringYakutia,microbladeindustries,labeledDiuktai,probablyappearedby17,000yrB.P.(AikensandDumond
1986Goebeletal.1991:76YiandClark1985),butdisappearedby10,500yrB.P.(Mochanov1977).InJapan,insularlyconnectedtosouthernKamchatkaby
theKurilIslands,themicrobladephaseofthelateUpperPaleolithicprobablybegansometimeafter14,000yrB.P.andcontinueduntilabout10,000yrB.P.(Aikens
andDumond1986AikensandHiguchi1982IkawaSmith1980ReynoldsandKaner1990).BothregionsarepotentialsourcesoftheearlyBeringianmicroblade
industries.

LatePaleolithicAdaptations

INFORMATIONONWESTERNBeringianlatePaleolithicadaptationscanbegleanedfromanalysisoffaunalremains,sitedistributionandsize,andsitefeatures.Whilethe
evidenceislimited,wecanbegintodiscernsomepatterns.

WellpreservedfaunalremainsarefoundonlyatBerlekhandtheUshkisites.Berelekhiscommonlyconsidereda"mammothhunter"site,butmammothremainsatthe
archaeologicallocalitydonotdominatetheassemblage.Instead,bonesofhareandptarmiganoutnumberthoseofmammoth,suggestingthatthelatePaleolithic
inhabitantsofBerelekhdidnotconcentratespecificallyonthehuntingoflargemammals.Someresearchers(Abramova1989Vereshchagin1974)haveeven
suggestedthatthemammothremainsatthearchaeologicallocalitywerescavengedfromthenearbymammothcemetery.OtherlargemammalbonesattheBerelekh
archaeologicalsiteincludethreespecimensofbisonorhorseandonespecimenofreindeer.AtUshki1,mammalremainsarerelativelyscarcebutincludemoosefrom
layerVIIandsteppebison,mountainsheep,lemming,andhorsefromlayerVI.AsatBerelekh,remainsofbirdsandfishoccurinlayerVI.Thepresentevidence,
then,suggeststhatlatePaleolithichuntergatherersofwesternBeringiaprocuredavarietyofresources,includinglargemammals,smallmammals,birds,andfish.
Thereislittleevidencetosuggesttheywerespecializedbiggamehuntersor"mammothpredators,"asothershavespeculated(Martin1982).

AnalysisofsitedistributionandsitefeaturesindicateslatePaleolithicwesternBeringiansinhabitedtwotypesofcamps.LayersVIIandVIatUshki1havealarge
numberofdwellingfeaturesthatareunquestionablytheremainsoflongtermvillages.Thetwodistinctivetypesofdwellings(semisubterraneanandsurface)inlayer
VIresemblethewinterandsummerdwellingsofethnographicallyknownarcticpopulations,andmayindicateyearroundoccupation.DuringthelatePleistocene,this
villagewouldhavebeensituatedalongthemarginofalake,andremainsoflacustrine/riverinefaunalresourcesarepresentinsomeofthedwellings.Otherwestern
BeringianlatePaleolithicsitesmayrepresentsmallcampswheremorespecificresourceprocurementactivitiestookplaceoverashorttime.TheseincludeBerelekh,
El'gakhchan,Kheta,andChel'kun4.Thesesitesaresituatedalongterraceedgesorotherpromontoriesandhaverelativelysmallscattersoflithicdebrisandlimited
setsoftools,suggestingtheyservedprimarilyasshorttermhuntingoverlooks.Interestingly,atBerelekh,presumablyashorttermcamp,faunalremainsindicatea
winteroccupation(Hopkinsetal.1982:440).Whileourevidenceislimited,itappearsthatlatePaleolithicsettlementpatternswerecharacterizedbyarelativelystable
villageorbasecampthatwasconnectedtonumerousoutlying

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Table4.
CharacteristicsofEarlyHolocene,MesolithicOccupationsinWesternBeringia.

 Page146

"spikecamps"wherespecificactivitiesrelatedtotheprocurementofresourcestookplace.Sucha"basecampspikecamp"patternhasbeensuggestedfor
PaleoindiansinAlaska(Guthrie1983,Yesner1996)andNorthAmericasouthoftheLaurentideicesheet(KellyandTodd1988).

MesolithicAdaptations

THEMESOLITHICOFWESTERNBeringiaisevenmorepoorlydefinedthantheregion'slatePaleolithic.Kir'iak(1988)definestheMesolithicastheperiodofprehistoryfrom
11,000to7000yrB.P.Weusetheterm"Mesolithic"todefinethegroupofarchaeologicalsitesdatingtotheearlyHolocene,betweenabout9000and7000yrB.P.
(Figure19)thatcontainconical,pencilshapedcoreandblade/microbladetechnologies.Theyalsolackelementscommonintheregion'sNeolithic,namelyceramics,
polyhedralburins,andpolishedstonetools.

Atleast12culturaloccupationshaveradiocarbondatesfallingwithintheintervalof90007000yrB.P.(Figure19)eightoftheseareintheKolymaarea.
Unfortunately,manyofthesesitesareinshallowstratigraphiccontexts,andcharcoalsamplesdatedarenotalwaysofclearculturalorigin,sosomeofthesesitesmay
notbeaccuratelydated.Chronological,technological,andothercharacteristicsofthewesternBeringianMesolithicarediscussedbelowandsummarizedinTable4.

ThetechnologicalinformationinTable4revealsthatwedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladetechnologies,socommoninthelatestPaleolithicofwesternBeringia,are
rareintheMesolithic.Siberdik(layer3)hasapossiblewedgeshapedcore,butsomedisagreementexistsaboutwhetheritreallyiswedgeshapedindesign(Slobodin
1995).OnlythelayerVassemblageatUshkiappearstobeatruewedgeshapedcoreindustry,perhapsindicatingthepersistenceoflatePaleolithictechnologiesin
theKamchatkaregion.AtothersiteslikeMaltan(lower),Buiunda3,Kongo(layers3and2),Zima,Ui1,Tytyl'1,andPuturakPass,primaryreductiontechnologies
aredirectedtowardtheproductionofslenderbladesandmicrobladesfromprismaticcoresreducedintheprocessofblade/microbladeremovaltosmallconical,
pencilshapedcores.AtZhokhovIsland,conicalcoresareabsent,andbladesandmicrobladesweredetachedfromsmall,moresimplypreparedprismaticcores.
SecondaryreductiontechnologiesrepresentedatmostofthewesternBeringianMesolithicsitesincludeunifacial,bifacial,andburintechniques.Segmentingand
backingofbladeshavebeennotedatZhokhovIsland,Ui1,andMaltan(lowerculturallayer).Toolassemblagesvaryintermsoftheformsandfrequenciesof
retouchedpieces,butnormallyincludeleafshapedbifacialpoints,bifaces,endscrapers(oftenonmassiveblades),burins,cobblechoppers,andothercobbletools.
TherealsoareisolatedoccurrencesoftriangularbifacialpointsandbackedKnivesatMaltan(lower),stemmedandshoulderedunifacialpointsonbladesatUi1,
scraperlikeadzesatMaltan(lower)andZhokhovIsland,andabirdlikeornamentatUi1.

TheMesolithicsitesoccurinavarietyofenvironmentsandtopographicsettings.Maltan,Kongo,Siberdik,andZimaaresituateduponlowterraces(214mhigh)
overlookingriverfloodplainsbutarchaeologicalfeaturesatthesesitessuggestdifferentlengthsofoccupation.Zima,Buiunda,andMaltancontaintheremainsof
hearths,andKongo,Siberdik,andMaltancontaintheremainsofstoragepits,workshopareas,andapossiblehumanburial(atSiberdik).Buiunda3islocatednear
thedivideoftworiverdrainagesonafossilbarofabraidedstream.Ui1,Tytyl'l,andUshki5aresituatedalongsidelakes,whileZhokhovIslandisclearlyina
maritimesetting.Remainsoffairlysubstantialdwellingswererecoveredatthelatterthree.Preservedfaunalremainshavenotbeenexaminedthoroughlyandreported,
butthereareindicationsoflargemammalhuntingatSiberdikandZhokhovIsland,andfishingatUshki1(layerv).

TherelationshipofthewesternBeringianMesolithictosimilarlyagedindustriesinYakutiatothewestisunclear.IntheLenaRiverbasin,theMesolithicperiodis
representedbytheSumnagincomplex.SumnaginoccupationshavebeenidentifiedataseriesofmultilayeredsitesintheAldan(i.e.,Ust'Timpton1,Bel'kachi1)and
othervalleyswheretheyrangeinagefromabout10,5006,000yrB.P.(Alekseev1987AlekseevandCherosov1990:64Argunov1990Mochanov1977Powers
1990,1996).Sumnaginlithicassemblagesaredominatedbybladesandmicrobladesstruckfromprismatic,conicalcores(AlekseevandCherosov1990:67
Mochanov1977:242).Bifacialtechniquesarerare,exceptintheflakingoflargecobbletoolsandsomecores(AlekseevandCherosov1990:67Mochanov1977).
SeveralMesolithicagedsitesinnorthernYakutiahavelongandslenderstemmedpoints,althoughthesearenotcommonlyassignedtotheSumnagincomplexbytheir
excavators(Argunov1990:86,97,151Kashin1983bKol'tsov1989:192

 Page147

Mochanovetal.1991:25).Thesepointstypicallyaremadeonbladesandonlypartiallybifaciallyretouchedonthedistalendtoformapointandontheproximal
endtoformshouldersandastem(Kol'tsov1989:191).Sumnagintoolassemblagesincludeburins,endscrapers(manyonlargeblades),backedblades,small
perforatorsandengravers(rezchiki),wedges(orbipolarcores),axes,adzes,andothercobbletools(Mochanov1977).Boneneedles,awls,andpoints(some
slotted)alsooccur(Mochanov1977).Faunalremainsindicatearelianceonlargemammalsandbirds(AlekseevandCherosov1990:6970Powers1990).Therole
offishingislessclear,butMochanov(1977:248)notesfishbonesatBel'kachi1.

Nearly20yearsago,Mochanov(1977:250253)concludedthatthewesternBeringianMesolithicdocumentedthespreadofSumnaginpopulationsfromtheLena
RiverbasinacrossnortheastAsiaasfareastastheSeaofOkhotskcoastandperhapseventheBeringStraitandAlaska.Thisscenariowasbasedoninformation
fromonlythreewesternBeringiansites(Kongo,Siberdik,andUshki)andtwositesinAlaska(GallagherFlintStationandAnangula).Dikov(1977),ontheother
hand,concludedatthesametimethatthewesternBeringiansiteshadnothingincommonwithSumnagin,andinsteadconstitutedalocal"RelictPaleolithic"complex.

Today,withmoresitesandmoredata,whatcanwesayaboutthesupposeddistributionoftheSumnagincomplexinwesternBeringia?Despitethefactthatbifacial
pointsappeartobemorecommoninthewesternBeringianMesolithicindustriesthantheyareinYakutianSumnaginindustries,thewesternBeringianassemblages
sharemanytechnologicalandtypologicalcharacteristicswiththeYakutianSumnagin,includingbladesandmicrobladesdetachedfromconicalcoresandinsetinto
slottedbone/antlerpoints,longandslenderbifacialstemmedpointsonblades,angleanddihedralburins,endscrapersonblades,andlargecobblechoppersoradzes.
Intermsofsubsistencestrategies,thewesternBeringianMesolithicoccupations,likethosefromYakutia,occurinavarietyoftopographicsituations(e.g.,onterrace
edgesnearthemouthsofrivers,alongtheshoresoflakes,inhighuplandpasses)andcontainevidenceoflargemammalhuntingandpossiblyfishing.Thepresent
evidence,then,doespointtothewidespreaddistributionofSumnaginlikeindustriesthroughoutnortheastAsiaduringtheearlyHolocene,asMochanov(1977)
suggestednearlytwodecadesago.WhetherthesepopulationsspreadfurtheracrosstheBeringSeatoAnangulaandKoggiunginsouthwestAlaskaisstilldebatable
(Ackerman1992Dumond1984Powers1990).

Conclusions

(1)TheearliestunequivocalarchaeologicaltracesofhumansinwesternBeringiadatetoabout14,000yrB.P.LayerVIIatUshki1,centralKamchatka,
datesto14,000yrB.P.Furthernorth,inthearcticofwesternBeringia,theoldestknownsiteisBerelekh,radiocarbondatedtoabout12,200yrB.P.Claimsforan
occupationpredating14,000yrB.P.havenotbeensubstantiated.

(2)AnUpperPaleolithicpremicrobladecomplexdatingbetweenapproximately14,000and11,000yrB.P.existsinwesternBeringia.Thebestdocumented
premicrobladeassemblagescomefromtheculturallayerVIIoccupationsatUshki1andpossiblyUshki5,centralKamchatka,thoughttodateto14,000yrB.P.
Theseassemblagesarebladeandbifacebasedandlackwedgeshapedcoresandmicroblades.SimilarindustriesmayoccurattheBerelekh,El'gakhchan,and
Uptar1sites,butadditionalexcavationsandchronometricdatesareneededtoconfirmthis.

(3)TheearliestoccurrenceoflateUpperPaleolithicmicrobladeproducingtechnologiesinwesternBeringiapostdates10,700yrB.P.However,theonly
directlydatedwedgeshapedcoreassemblageintheregionisUshki1layerVI.Allotherwedgeshapedcoresitesremainundated,andonlyone,Kheta,appearsto
beinadatablecontext.

(4)LateUpperPaleolithichuntergathereradaptationsappeartohavebeenbasedonbroadbasedsubsistencestrategiesanda"basecampspikecamp"
settlementstrategy.Subsistenceeconomieswerediversified,withlargeterrestrialmammalhuntingbeingcoupledwiththeprocurementofsmallmammals,birds,and
possiblyfish.

(5)Theemergingearl),HolocenerecordofwesternBeringiaindicatesthattheareawasoccupiedbyMesolithichuntergathererswithnewlithic
technologiesandlandusestrategies.TheMesolithictransformationintechnologiesmayrepresentaresponsetodramaticclimaticandenvironmentalchanges
however,similaritieswiththeSumnaginMesolithiccomplexofYakutiamayindicatethatthesenewtechnologiesspreadfromYakutiaintowesternBeringiaaround
9000yrB.P.Althoughevidenceofsubsistencepursuitsisrare,dataonsitelocationssuggestmoreintensiveanddiversifiedlandusepatternsthanintheUpper
Paleolithic.

 Page148

ThelatePleistocenearchaeologicalrecordofwesternBeringia,then,followssomeofthesamepatternsseeninneighboringAlaska.Bothregionsappeartohavebeen
occupiedbymodernhumansverylateintheUpperPleistocene,by14,000yrB.P.inthewestand11,700yrB.P.intheeast(HamiltonandGoebel,thisvolume).
Theseearliestinhabitantscarriedalithictoolkitbasedforthemostpartonbladeandbifacetechnologiestheydonotappeartohavemanufacturedorused
microblades.Theyhuntedlargemammalssuchasbison,smallmammalssuchashare,andbirdssuchasptarmigan.Theyalsomayhavefished.InwesternBeringia
andAlaska,microbladeproducingtechnologiesappearinthearchaeologicalrecordaround10,700yrB.P.Thesenewtechnologiesmaysignalthemigrationofa
secondlateUpperPaleolithicpopulationfromSiberiaorJapanintoBeringia.After10,000yrB.P.thesimilaritiesbetweenthewesternandeasternBeringianrecords
end.AnewMesolithiccomplexemergesacrossmostoftheregion.ThewesternBeringianMesolithiccomplexofsitesdatestobetween9000and7000yrB.P.and
ischaracterizedbyconicalcoreandblade/microbladetechnologiesthatmayhaveoriginatedfromtheSumnagincomplexofYakutia.Sitesassignedtothiswestern
BeringianMesolithiccomplexhavebeenidentifiedprimarilyintheupperKolymabasin,butalsohavebeenfoundonZhokhovIslandintheHighArctic,intheAnui
basinofwesternChukotka,andevenontheChukotkaPeninsulawithinsightofSt.LawrenceIslandandAlaska.InAlaska,ontheotherhand,wedgeshapedcore
andmicrobladeindustriescontinuethroughtheearlyHolocene,andonlyinsouthwestAlaskaisthereasuggestionthatSumnaginpopulationsortechnologiesever
crossedtheBeringStrait.

MajorshortcomingsstillexistinthewesternBeringianPaleolithicandMesolithicrecord.DatedPaleolithicsitesarerare.BesidesUshkiandBerelekh,nositeshave
beenradiocarbondatedtobefore9000yrB.P.Additionally,theregion'sMesolithiccomplexneedstobeexaminedmoreclosely,inordertounderstandsomeofthe
variationthathasbeennotedamongitsassemblagesandtobetterdefinetheirrelationtotheSumnagincomplexofYakutia.Clearly,manymoresitesandmorein
depthanalysesareneededtotestandrefinethescenariospresentedhere.AstheearlyarchaeologicalrecordofwesternBeringiacontinuestounfold,wewillbeable
toturnourattentiontootheraspectsoftherecord,includingsubsistence,settlement,andsocialorganization.Futurediscoveriesundoubtedlywillchangeour
interpretations,andwelookforwardtotheexcitingdiscoveriesthatwillbemadeinwesternBeringiaintheyearstocome.

Acknowledgments

FundingsupportforthisresearchwasprovidedbytheUniversityofAlaskaMuseumGeistFundandtheDeanoftheCollegeofLiberalArts,UniversityofAlaska
Fairbanks.WeareindebtedtoNikolaiDikov,MagaritaKir'iak,andAleksanderLebedintsevforallowingustostudysomeofthewesternBeringianartifact
assemblagesdescribedinthispaper.JohnCookwasinvaluableinprovidingsupportforradiocarbondating.Finally,wethankRobertAckerman,MelvinAikens,
ThomasHamilton,DavidHopkins,MaureenKing,andRogerPowersfortheirhelpfulcommentsonearlierdraftsofthiswork.Wededicatethispapertothememory
ofNikolaiDikov,whorecentlypassedawayinMagadan.

 Page149

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Notes

1.TheRussiantermsOblast',Okrug,andKraiareregionaladministrativeunitsthattranslateasprovince,region,andterritory,respectively.

2.Alldatesarepresentedinuncalibratedradiocarbonyearsbeforepresent(yrB.P.).Forthemostpart,contextualandanalyticalinformationondatesislacking,
makingitdifficulttojudgewhichdatesaremostaccurate.Inafewcaseswheredatesfromanoccupationcanbeevaluated,theyareaveragedaccordingtothe
methoddescribedbyLongandRippeteau(1994).

3.Primaryreductiontechnologyherereferstothetechniquesusedtoselectrawmaterial,preparecores,anddetachblanksfromthosecoressecondaryreduction
technologyreferstothetechniquesusedtochoose,shape,andresharpen/rejuvenateblanks.Theseareconsideredtobeidentifiablestagesinthereductionstreamof
stonetoolmproduction(BarYosefandMeignen1992Boda1988VanPeer1992).

4.KuzminandTankersley(1996:585)citetheearliestSiberdikdateasevidencethathumanswereintheKolymabasinbetween12,000and14,000yrB.P.,perhaps
notrealizingthatthisdatecomesfromthesameculturallayerasthesuiteofearlymidHolocenedatesforculturallayer3.

5.Kuzmin(1990)reportsaradiocarbondateof17,150135yrB.P.(IM459)fromEzhantsy.

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LatePleistocenePeoplingofAlaska
ThomasD.Hamilton1
TedGoebel2

Abstract

TheearliestfirmevidenceforhumansincentralAlaskadatestoabout11,800radiocarbonyrB.P.FourstratifiedarchaeologicalsitesintheNenanavalleyregion(Dry
Creek,WalkerRoad,MooseCreek,andOwlRidge)containartifactsascribedtotheNenanacomplex,abladeandbifaceindustrywithaprobableageof11,300
11,000yrB.P.Microbladetechnologiesareabsentfromtheseassemblages.InthenearbyupperTananavalley,threewellstratifiedsites(BrokenMammoth,Swan
Point,andMead)andashallowersitewithgreaterverticalmixture(HealyLaketypelocalityfortheChindadncomplex)containculturaloccupationsrangingfrom
11,800to11,000yrB.P.TheBrokenMammothandMeadsitescontainelementsoftheNenanacomplex,butatSwanPointandHealyLake,microbladesmaybe
associatedwithdatedcharcoalasoldas11,700yrB.P.TherelationshipoftheNenanaandChindadnassemblagestotheClovistraditionoftemperateNorth
Americaisnotwellunderstood,buttheNenanacomplexcoulddocumentPaleoindiansincentralAlaskaslightlybeforetheappearanceofClovisfarthersouth.

TheearliestclearevidenceformicrobladetechnologiesinwesternBeringiaandAlaskahasbeendatedtoaround10,600yrB.P.,butrecentdiscoveriesatSwanPoint
mightincreasetheirantiquitybyasmuchas1,000years.MicrobladetechnologiespersistedincentralAlaskathroughmiddleHolocenetime,probablyreflecting
environmentalstabilitythatcontrastsmarkedlywiththemoreextremefluctuationsofthelatestPleistocene.

TheMesasiteandotherhuntinglookoutsnorthoftheBrooksRangewereoccupiedbyPaleoindiansthatprobablyspreadnorthwardintosubarcticCanadaand
Alaskaabout10,500yrB.PFlutedpointsthroughoutnorthernAlaskaevidentlyalsodiffusednorthward,becausetheyappeartobesignificantlyyoungerthanin
temperateNorthAmerica.Incontrast,theprobablycontemporaneousAkmaktraditionshowscleartypologicalaffinitieswithwesternBeringia.

Recentfieldstudiesandradiocarbondatinghaveshownthatseveral"Pleistocene"archaeologicalsitesorlocalitiesfirstreportedfromnorthernandcentralAlaska
(e.g.,PutuandCampussitesTrailCreekCavesandTangleLakes)aresignificantlyyoungerthanpreviouslyclaimed.

OngoingexcavationsinsoutheasternAlaskahaveuncoveredhumanskeletalremainsdatingtoabout9800yrB.P.andanisolatedbonetoolthatmaybeabout500
yearsolder.MaritimeadaptationsofearlyHoloceneinhabitantsofsoutheasternAlaskaseemwellestablished,butevidenceforlatePleistocenearrivalviaacoastal
routeremainselusive.
1
.U.S.GeologicalSurvey,4200UniversityDrive,Anchorage,AK995084667.
2
.DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofNevada,LasVegas,4505MarylandParkway,LasVegasNV891545003

 Page157

Introduction

DURINGLATEPLEISTOCENEglacialmaxima,abouttwothirdsofthepresentlandareaofAlaskaremainedfreeofglacierice(Figure1).Althoughsomelocalitieswere
coveredbyglacierdammedlakesandactivesandsheetsordunes,mostunglaciatedareaswerevegetatedandsuitableforhabitation(e.g.,AndersonandBrubaker
1994Hamiltonetal.1993Pw1975).ThepositionofAlaskaattheeasternendoftheBeringplatformshouldcauseittobetheinitialpointofarrivalforpeople
enteringtheAmericas,andapparenthumanoccupationofthenorthernYukonspanningabout25,000to10,000yrB.P.(CinqMarsandMorlan,thisvolume)would
seemtosupportatimedepthatleastthisgreatforhabitationofAlaskaaswell.

Inthispaper,wereview22AlaskanarchaeologicalsitesofknownorallegedlatePleistoceneage(Figure1).Someofthesesitesarenowknowntobesignificantly
youngerthanoriginallyassumedothersareinshallow,frostchurnedsilt,whereradiocarbonagescommonlyarediscordantandmixingofculturalremainsishighly
likely.Fortunately,severalrecentlydiscoveredsitesaredeeplyburiedinthickloessthatcontainsundisturbedpaleosolandculturalhorizons.However,noneofthese
siteshaveradiocarbonagesolderthanabout11,800yrB.P.thatareclearlyassociatedwitharchaeologicalartifacts.TheapparentabsenceofoldersitesinAlaska
posesatroublingdilemmaforadvocatesofapreClovispeoplingoftheAmericas.

Thedevelopmentofacceleratormassspectrometry(AMS)radiocarbondating,whichrequiresonlyverysmallquantitiesoforganicmaterial,hasledtomajorrecent
breakthroughsinAlaskanPleistocenearchaeology.AMSdatinghasprovidedsetsofconcordant,replicableradiocarbonagesonrecentlyexcavatedsites,and
redatingofoldersitesbytheAMSmethodcommonlyhasclarifiedtheiroccupationalhistories.Inthispaperwereportallradiocarbonages,bothconventionaland
AMS,asradiocarbonyearsratherthanconvertingthemtocalendaryears.Useof"radiocarbonyears"allowsdirectcomparisonswiththesitereportsonwhichour
reviewisbased,aswellaswithotherradiocarbondatesanddatelistselsewhereinthisvolume.

Thispaperwaswrittenin1989andupdatedin1995,butunfortunatelyhasbeenstillfurtherdelayedinpublication.Wehaveattemptedtoupdateallsectionsthrough
1997,butcouldnotdoasthoroughajobofresearchasfortheinitialversionandrevision.Weapologizetothoseworkerswhoserecentsitesorstudiesmayhave
beenneglectedinthisrevision.

NenanaValleyRegion:TheNenanaandDenaliComplexes

THENENANARIVERFLOWSnorthfromtheAlaskaRangeandcrossesa30kmwidebeltoffoothills,whoseparallelridgesbearvegetationtransitionalbetweenthe
sprucehardwoodforestoftheTananaRivervalleyandherbaceoustundraoftheAlaskaRange(Hoffecker1988a).Alongitscoursethroughthefoothills,theNenana
RiverisborderedbyspectacularflightsofalluvialterracessomeconstructedofoutwashfromlatePleistoceneglaciersandothersformedwhenstreamsdowncut
followingglacialrecession(Ritter1982RitterandTenBrink1986).TheoldestdatedarchaeologicalsitesinthefoothillssectorsoftheNenanavalley(DryCreek,
WalkerRoad,MooseCreek,andPanguingueCreekFigure2)andtheneighboringTeklanikavalley(OwlRidge)occurinloessandeoliansandwhichcapalluvial
terraces(Hoffeckeretal.1988).Allfivesitesaresituatedonouterterracemarginsadjacenttosidevalleyravines(PowersandHoffecker1989).Theyaredeeply
stratifiedandcontainapparentlyunmixedartifactassemblagesassignabletotwoseparatelatePleistocenecomplexesNenanaandDenali(PowersandHoffecker
1989).TheNenanacomplex,whichoccursstratigraphicallybrowtheDenali,isoneoftheoldestwelldocumentedculturalhorizonsinAlaska.

DryCreek

THEDRYCREEKARCHAEOLOGICALsitewasdiscoveredin1973byC.E.Holmesandwasexcavatedduring19731977byW.R.Powers.A2msectionofloessand
eoliansand(Figure3a)overliesoutwashgravelona25mbluffalongthenorthsideofDryCreek(PowersandHamilton1978ThorsonandHamilton1977).The
outwashsurfacewasweatheredpriortoloessdepositionclastswereabradedandpolishedbywindandfracturedbyfrostaction.Loessdepositionbeganabout
12,000yrB.P.,probablyasstrongkatabaticwindsfromglaciersintheAlaskaRangeweakenedfollowingrapidrecessionoftheglaciers(ThorsonandBender1985).

LoessdepositionatDryCreekalternatedwithdepositionofeoliansandandformationofthinsoilhorizons.Thelowestsandunitmaybearegionalfeaturethatformed
duringanintervalofincreasedwindvelocity(Bigelowetal.1990).TheoverlyingsandunitsprobablyformedbystrongwindsscouringtheblufffaceattimeswhenDry
Creekwaserodinglaterallyintothebluff,causingittobeunstableandunvegetated

 Page158

Figure1.
EasternBeringiaatheightoflateWisconsinglaciation,showingmarineandglaciallimits,
principaldrainages,andarchaeologicalsitesreviewedinthispaper
(afterHamilton1994,MannandHamilton1995,Pw1975).

 Page159

Figure2.
DetailmapshowingarchaeologicalsitesincentralAlaskainrelationtolast
major(lateWisconsin)glaciationofAlaskaRange(shaded).

(ThorsonandHamilton1977).ThethreeoldestpaleosolsareimmaturetundrasoilsofatypethatdoesnotformintheDryCreekareatodaytheytypicallyconsistof
darkorganicAhorizonsoverlyingmottledloess.ThetwouppermostsoilsaretypicaloftheSubarcticBrownForestsoilsthatpresentlyareformingintheborealforest
ofinteriorAlaska.Thesearerelativelythickandcontinuous,withprominentreddishbrownoxidizedhorizons.Twelveconventionalradiocarbondatesoncharcoal
fromtheDryCreeksitearemutuallyconcordant,butfiveotherdateswithlargecountingerrors(450yearsormore)areolderthanexpectedfromtheirstratigraphic
positions(Figure3aandAppendix,A).Thesesamplesyieldedverysmallamountsofdatablecarbonafterpretreatmentandpossiblyhadproportionallylargevolumes
ofrecycledancientcarbonfromtheTertiarycoalandlignitebearingformationsoftheNenanavalley(ThorsonandHamilton1977).Thebasalloessunithasa
preliminarythermoluminescenceagebetween11,000and13,000yearsago(PowersandHoffecker1989).

SixAMSradiocarbonagesrecentlywereobtainedfromthelowestpaleosolhorizonsattheDryCreeksitebyN.H.BigelowandW.R.Powers(1994).Theage
determinationswereonplantremainsorcharcoalfromnaturalwildfiresthatwererecoveredfromthesuitesofthinorganichorizonsthatcomprisePaleosols1and2
(Figure3a).Threedatesfromthelowestsetofrecognizableburiedsoils(Paleosol1)areabout8915,10,060,and10,615yrB.P.agesfromPaleosol2areabout
9340,9690,and10,540yrB.P.Thedatesshowtroublinginternaldiscordanceswithineachpaleosolsetandvirtuallytotaloverlapbetweenthetwopaleosols.
However,theAMSagesseemtoconfirmtheoriginalconventionalradiocarbonagedeterminationsofabout10,690and9340yrB.P.forPaleosols1and2,
respectively(ThorsonandHamilton1977),andtheyindicatethatthetwopaleosolsprobablyrepresentelementsofasinglesoilcomplex(BigelowandPowers1994).
TheAMSagesalsoconfirmthattheoriginalageassignmentofabout10,700to9300yrB.P.fortheDenalicomplexatDryCrock(Powersetal.1983)probablyis
correctandthatthesitehasintractabledatingproblems(ThorsonandHamilton1977).

ArchaeologicalcomponentIatDryCreekcontainsapoorlypreservedfaunathatisrepresentedprimarilybydentitionofDallsheepandwapiti.Theassociatedlithic
assemblageconsistsof4,468debitagepiecesand56retouchedpieces(i.e.,tools)(Table1).Primaryreductiontechnologywasdirectedtowardthemanufactureof
bladesandflakesfromsmallcobblesofcryptocrystallinesilicatesandcoarsegrainedquartzites.Asinglebipolarcorewasfoundindicatingtheinfrequentuseofthe
blockonblock(bipolar)technique.Mosttoolswereretouchedunifacially(86percent),butsevenbifaciallyworkedpiecesandoneburinatedendscraperalsooccur.
Endscrapers,marginallyretouchedbladesandflakes,cobbletools(choppersandquadrilateralplane),sidescrapers,bifaces,projectilepoints,gravers,andnotches
makeupthetoolassemblage(Goebeletal.1991).The

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Figure3.
Stratigraphyandradiocarbonages,latePleistocenearchaeologicalsitesintheNenanavalleyregion.
WeatheredfacesarenotshownforMooseCreekandPanguingueCreekbecausetheylacknaturalexposures.
SeeAppendicesAEforadditionaldataonradiocarbonages.

 Page161

Table1.
ArtifactsreportedfromAlaskanarchaeologicalsitesdiscussedinthispaper.

completeandfragmentedprojectilepointsaresmall,straightbased,andtriangular.Thisoccupation,radiocarbondatedtoabout11,100yrB.P.,appearstorepresent
atemporaryhuntergatherercampwherelithicimplementsweremanufacturedandcurated,andperhapsanimalcarcasseswerebutcheredandprocessed(Hoffecker
1988b).IthasbeenassignedtotheNenanacomplex(PowersandHoffecker1989).

ComponentIIatDryCreekcontainsteethofDallsheepandsteppebison(Bisonpriscus).Theassociatedlithicassemblage(over28,000debitageand330
retouchedpieces)principallyrepresentsamicrobladeindustrybasedonwedgeshapedcores(Table1).Otherprimaryreductiontechnologiesincludethesimple
preparationofbladeandflakecoresonsmallnodulesofcryptocrystallinesilicates,quartzites,andobsidian.Mostretouchedpiecesarebifaciallyworkedorburinated
however,unifacialretouchingalsoiscommon.Toolsincludeburinsandburinspalls,bifaces,projectilepoints,marginallyretouchedflakes,microbladesandblades,
sidescrapers,cobbletools(choppingtools,choppers,hammerstones,andaretoucher),gravers,notches,denticulates,andanendscraper.Projectilepointstypically
arelanceolateorbipointed.Duringthistime,theDryCreeksiteappearstohavebeenusedrepeatedlyasahuntingcampwherelithicimplementsweremanufactured,
utilized,andcurated.Whetheranimalcarcasseswerebutcheredandprocessedhereaswellisdifficulttotell,giventhepoorpreservationoffaunalremains(Hoffecker
1988b).Thisoccupationisradiocarbondatedto10,7009300yrB.P.andascribedtotheDenalicomplex.

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WalkerRoad

THEWALKERROADSITEwasdiscoveredin1980byJ.F.Hoffeckerandexcavatedfrom1985to1989byW.R.Powers.Sitestratigraphyconsistsofabout0.9mof
loessandeoliansandabovefluvialgravel(Figure3b).Thebasal50cmofeoliansedimentshowslittleweathering,butitsupperpartcontainsatundrasoilcomplex
thatrecordsmultipleepisodesofsoilformationabout8700yrB.P.(Goebeletal.1991).Overlyingloessandeoliansandbearstronglyoxidizedsoilsthatformed
underborealforestvegetation.Deformedloessandpaleosolsindicatemassmovementoftheeolianmantletowardthefaceofthebluff(Bigelow1991Waythomas
1989).Twoculturalcomponentshavebeenidentifiedatthebaseandtopoftheloessmantle.Fourradiocarbondatesonculturalcharcoalfromtwohearthsin
componentI(thelowercomponent)average11,33080yrB.P.(Goebeletal.1991).Threeacceleratoragesclusterbetweenabout11,300and11,000yrB.P.,
butaconventionalradiocarbonageisslightlydiscordantat11,820120yrB.P.(Appendix,B).Thediscordantagecouldindicatecontaminationbyrecycledancient
carbon.

Twocircularclustersofculturaldebris,eachroughly5mindiameter,containhearths,abundantstonetools,andpossibleredocherthesecircularfeaturesmay
representformerdwellings(Goebeletal.1996,Powersetal.1990).Thelithicassemblageincludes4,762debitageand209retouchedpieces(Table1).Flakesand
bladesweredetachedfromsimplypreparedcoresofcryptocrystallinesilicates,basalt,quartzite,andobsidian,aswellasfromeightchalcedonybipolarcoresthrough
theblockonblocktechnique.Mosttoolsareretouchedunifacially,althoughbifacialtoolsarepresent.Thetoolassemblageconsistsofmarginallyretouchedflakes
andblades,endscrapers,sidescrapers,cobbletools,projectilepoints,bifaces,gravers,notches,denticulates,andaknife.Thisindustryhasbeenascribedtothe
Nenanacomplex,duetoitsageanditstechnologicalandtypologicalsimilaritieswiththeDryCreekcomponentIassemblage(Goebeletal.1991).Thesiteappearsto
havefunctionedasashorttermcampwherestonetoolsweremanufactured,used,andrecycled.Thediscreteclustersofartifactsandaccompanyinghearthssuggest
thesitewasoccupiedonlyonce.

MooseCreek

THEMOOSECREEKSITEwasdiscoveredin1978byJ.F.HoffeckerandC.F.Waythomas,testedbyHoffeckerin1979and1984,andexcavatedbyG.Pearsonin
1996.Thissiteissituatedonastreamcutremnantofanancientglaciatedsurface210maboveMooseCreeknearitsconfluencewiththeNenanaRiver.Itcommands
anexcellentviewsouthandwestacrosstheNenanavalleyandprobablywasalookoutsite(Hoffecker1985).Thestratigraphicsectionconsistsof1.8mofloessand
sandabovealluvialgravel(Figure3c).Thebasalloessisagrayishbrownmottledsiltthatcontainssomepebblesthatwereelevatedfromthegravelsurfacebyfrost
activity.Theloessiscappedbythreeormoreburiedorganicsoils,1to3cmthick,whichformedasloessdepositionwaned.Fourconventionalradiocarbondateson
unidentifiableorganicmaterialfromtheburiedsoilsrangefromabout11,700to8200yrB.P.(Hoffecker1985)andexhibitsomestratigraphicinconsistencies(Figure
3candAppendix,C).Pearson(personalcommunication1996Hall1997)reportsanewAMSdateof11,19060yrB.P.(Beta96627)onhearthcharcoalfound
inthelowestburiedsoil.Thebasalloessisoverlainbyathicklayerofyellowishbrownfinetomediumsandthatcontainsasinglediscontinuousreddishbrown
paleosolatabout70cmdepth.Theupperloess,whichalsocontainspaleosols,coarsensupwardintoasiltysand,thenfinestoorganicrichsiltthatunderliesthe
modernsodcap.

ArtifactsfromcomponentIatMooseCreekareconcentratednearthebaseofthelowersilt(W.R.Powers,personalcommunication1989),butmostofthecultural
remainsclusternearthebluffedge,wheretheloessmantlethinstolessthan1m.Morethan2,200debitagepieceswererecoveredfromHoffecker'searly
excavationshowever,theonlyretouchedpiecesarefourbifacefragments,twolanceolatepointfragments,onesidescraper,andseveralretouchedflakes(Table1).
Apossiblemicrobladefragmentalsohasbeenreported(PowersandHoffecker1989).Duetoitsstratigraphicpositioninthebasalloessandthelackofmicroblades
intheassemblage,PowersandHoffecker(1989)initiallyassignedtheassemblagetotheNenanacomplex.Thisassignmentwaslaterquestioned(Hoffeckeretal.
1993a,1993b),becauselanceolatepointshavenotbeenfoundinotherNenanacomplexassemblages(Goebeletal.1991Hoffeckeretal.1993b).

Pearson'srecentexcavationshavecleareduptheearlieruncertaintiesofMooseCreek'searly

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archaeologicalrecord.Twostratigraphicallyseparateculturalcomponentsareclearlypresentinthebasalloess(Pearson1996).Thelowercomponentcontaineda
hearthsurroundedbylithicdebitageandasmallsetoftoolsincludingaChindadnpoint,subtriangularpoint,andseveralsidescrapers.Microbladeswerenotfound.
CharcoalfromthehearthwasAMSdatedto11,200yrB.P.Theartifactassemblage,stratigraphicposition,andageofthislowestcomponenthasledPearson(1996
Hall1997)toassignittotheNenanacomplex.Thesecondcomponentfoundinthebasalloessoccurs15cmabovetheNenanacomplexoccupation.Lithicartifacts
recoveredin1996includeaclusterofmicrobladesandatransverseburin.Althoughundated,thesematerialsareclearlyassignabletotheDenalicomplex(Pearson
1996).TwolatercomponentsalsowereidentifiedhigherintheprofilethesearethoughttodatetothemiddleandlateHolocene.ThenewrecordforMooseCreek
replicatesthepatternseenatDryCreek:clearstratigraphicseparationbetweenNenanaandDenalicomplexoccupations,withtheformerdatingtoshortlybefore
11,000yrB.P.

PanguingueCreek

THEPANGUINGUECREEKSITEwasdiscoveredbyT.SmithandJ.Hoffeckerin1976,testedin1977byT.Smithandin1985byH.E.Maxwell(PowersandMaxwell
1986),andextensivelyexcavatedin1991byW.R.PowersandT.Goebel(GoebelandBigelow1992).ThesiteislocatedonthewestsideoftheNenanaValley,5
kmnorthwestoftheDryCreeksite.ItissituatedonasouthfacingpromontoryoftheHealyterrace,200mabovePanguingueCreeknearitsconfluencewiththe
NenanaRiver.Thestratigraphicsectionconsistsof1.82.0mofsandandloessabovealluvialgravel(Figure3d).Thebaseofthesand/loessmantleisagleyedsilt
loamaconventionalradiocarbondateofabout13,500yrB.P.wasobtainedonsoilorganicsextractedfromthisunit(C.L.Ping,personalcommunication1993).The
basalloessiscappedbya1mthickbedofmediumsandintercalatedwith2cmthickbandsofcoarsesand,pebbles,andgranules.Overlyingthisarealternating
layersofsiltloamandloamcontainingfourseparatepaleosols.Paleosol1isadiscontinuoussetoforganicstringersandhasnotbeendated.Paleosol2isanearly
continuousbutcontortedorganichorizonreaching10cmthick.Radiocarbondatesonnaturalwoodcharcoalfromthispaleosolrangefromabout10,200to8200yr
B.P.Paleosols3and4occurwithinthetop30cmoftheprofileandhavebeenradiocarbondatedtoabout8000and5000yrB.P.,respectively(Figure3dand
Appendix,D).

ArtifactsfromPanguingueCreekoccurinthreeculturalcomponents,thetwolowestofwhichareassociatedwiththesite'searlyHolocenepaleosols.ComponentI,
thelowermostcomponentandassociatedwithPaleosol1,consistsofabout60debitagepieces,onesubprismaticbladecore,andsixretouchedpieces(Table1).
Toolsincludetransversescrapersonshort,wideflakes,lanceolatebifacialpoints,andachitho(boulderspallscraper/knife).Nofaunalremainsorfeatureswere
recoveredfromthiscomponent.ComponentII,associatedwithPaleosol2,isthesite'smajoroccupation.Twoseparateactivityareas,each810mindiameter(one
withahearthfeatureofwoodcharcoalandcalcined/burnedbone),containalithicassemblageofmorethan5,000debitagepiecesand60retouchedpieces.Artifacts
includemorethan150microblades,sevenwedgeshapedandsubconicalmicrobladecores,lanceolateandovatebifaces,sidescrapers,endscrapers,cobbletools,
andretouchedflakesandmicroblades(Table1).GoebelandBigelow(1992)assigncomponentsIandIItotheDenalicomplex.

OwlRidge

THEOWLRIDGESITEissituatedonan80mterraceontheeastsideoftheTeklanikaRiver,about28kmnorthoftheAlaskaRange(Phippen1988).Nineconcordant
radiocarbondatesspantheintervalofabout11,340to930yrB.P.(Figure3eandAppendix,E)fourotheragesaretooyoungfortheirstratigraphicposition,
perhapsbecauseofcontaminationbyrootsorrootlets(Phippen1988).EoliansiltandsandatOwlRidgeformacapabout1.2mthickabovealluvialterracegravel
(Figure3e).Loessthatdirectlyoverliesthegravelhasanacceleratorageoncharcoalof11,300yrB.P.andcontainsarchaeologicalcomponentI,whichincludes
bifacesandbifacefragments,utilizedflakes,andbladelikeflakes(Table1).Theloessisoverlainbysandandsiltysandthatwaslargelyredepositedfromterrace
alluviumbystrongwindssweepingupthebluffface.ComponentIIispresentnearthetopofasubunitofthesandthataccumulatedslowlyovertheintervalofabout
9500to7000yrB.P.Itincludesapossibletentringcomposedofflatbasedcobblesthatreston

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peatdatedatabout9325to8130yrB.P.(Phippen1988)andasparseassemblageofbifaces,flakes,andamedialbladefragment(Table1).

Discussion

ALTHOUGHTHEOLDESTdocumentedhumanoccupationoftheNenanaRivervalleycommonlyhasbeenassumedtodatefromabout11,70011,800yrB.P.(Powers
andHoffecker1989),webelievethatitisactuallyabout500yearsyounger.TheoldestvalidarchaeologicaldateatDryCreekisabout11,100yrB.P.,andthisage
seemsconcordantwithAMSradiocarbondeterminationsatslightlyshallowerlevels.Aconventionalradiocarbonageof11,800yrB.P.nearthebaseoftheWalker
RoadsiteappearstobecontradictedbythreeconcordantAMSagesofabout11,00011,300yrB.P.atthesamestratigraphiclevel.Anageofabout11,300yrB.P.
alsoisassociatedwiththeoldestoccupationoftheOwlRidgesite.ThenewAMSageof11,190yrB.P.onhearthcharcoalattheMooseCreeksitefinallyprovides
clearevidencethatthebasaloccupationthereiscontemporaneouswiththebasaloccupationsatDryCreek,WalkerRoad,andOwlRidge.

ThebasalarchaeologicalindustriesatDryCreek,WalkerRoad,OwlRidge,andMooseCreek,consistentlydatedatabout11,300to11,000yrB.P.,havebeen
assignedtotheNenanacomplex(PowersandHoffecker1989).Thiscomplexcontainsabundantbifacialimplements,retouchedflakesandblades,endscrapers,and
sidescrapers.Projectilepointsincludesmalltriangularshapedformsandsmallteardropshaped''Chindadn"pointslikethosethatCook(1969)describedatHealy
Lake.Microbladesareabsent,andburinsarerare(Table1).Thisassemblage,theNenanacomplexofPowersandHoffecker(1989),representstheearliestknown
occupationofthenorthernfoothillsoftheAlaskaRange.Clovislikecharacteristics(i.e.,blades,bifaces,scrapers,andgravers)describedbyGoebeletal.(1991)
suggestthattheNenanacomplexcouldrepresentaregionalmanifestationofthePaleoindiantradition.

Ayoungersetofindustriesisdatedatabout10,700to9300yrB.P.atDryCreekabout8500to7500yrB.P.atOwlRidgeand10,000to9500yrB.P.and8600
to7000yrB.P.atPanguingueCreek.Theseindustriesarecharacterizedbyabundantwedgeshapedmicrobladecores,coretablets,microblades,andburins,and
alsobylanceolatebifacialpoints,bifaces,andboulderchipscrapers(Table1).PowersandHoffecker(1989)assignalloftheseindustriestotheDenalicomplex,
despitesometemporalvariabilityinmicrobladecorepreparationandbifacialpointmorphology.TheMooseCreeksitealsocontainsaDenalicomplexmicroblade
industrythatisstratigraphicallyyoungerthanthesite'sNenanacomplexcomponent,butradiocarbonagesforthisindustryhavenotyetbeenreported.

Despiteintensivearchaeologicalsurveyandtesting,nositesunambiguouslyolderthanabout11,300yrB.P.havebeenlocatedintheNenanaValleyregion.The
northernfoothillsoftheAlaskaRangemayhavebeenapoorlocalityforhumanhabitationpriortothattime,owingtolatestPleistoceneglacialreadvancesinnearby
mountainvalleys(Child1995a,1995bTenBrinkandWaythomas1985).Scouringbystrongkatabaticwindsfromtheglacierswouldhaveinhibitedsoilsand
vegetation(ThorsonandBender1985).Loesslaterbegantoaccreteastheglaciersrecededthefoothillsbeltcouldthenhavebecomearefugiumforlargegrazing
mammalsandtheirhumanpredatorsduringgeneraldeteriorationofthelateWisconsinsteppetundrabiome(Ager1975:8586).

TheTananaValley:MammothHuntersorScavengers?

THEOLDESTKNOWNarchaeologicalsitesintheTananaRiverValleyaretheBrokenMammoth,SwanPoint,andMeadsites,about100kmupvalley(southeast)from
Fairbanks,andtheVillagesiteatHealyLake,whichliesabout75kmfartherupvalley(Figure2).Allfoursiteshavegenerallysimilarhistoriesofeoliansandandloess
accumulation,andallhavebasalculturalcomponentsthatdatebetweenabout11,600and10,000yrB.P.ClosertoFairbanks,theChugwatersite,althoughina
shallowercontext,showsgoodcorrelationswithlowerculturalhorizonsattheothersites.Oneadditionallocality,theCampussite,wasformerlyassumedtobeoflate
Pleistoceneage.However,thissitenowappearstobeaseverelymixedassemblagethatisnoolderthanmiddleHolocene.

 Page165

BrokenMammoth

THEBROKENMAMMOTHSITEissituatedonaprominentbluffonthenorthsideoftheTananaRiver.ThebluffoverlooksabroadsectoroftheTananaRivervalleyaswall
asthelowerpartoftheShawCreekFlats,anextensivemarshlandalongthelowercourseofamajornortherntributaryoftheTanana.Thesitewasdiscoveredand
testedin1989byC.E.HolmesandD.McAllister,andexcavatedduring19901993byfieldcrewsdirectedbyHolmesandD.R.Yesner(Holmes1996Yesner
andCrossen1994Yesneretal.1992b).

Ablanketofeoliansandandsiltabout2mthickoverliesfrostshatteredandweatheredbedrockthathaswindpolishedventifactsdispersedacrossitssurface(Figure
4a).Interbeddedfinesandandsiltysandatthebaseoftheeoliansectionisoverlainbyathicksheetofnonbeddedsilt(loess)thatcontainsburiedsoils,cultural
horizons,andfaunalremains(Holmes1996Yesner1994).Upperandlowerunitsofloessareseparatedbyathin(15cm)sheetoffinesand.Theupperloess
containsthreeculturalhorizonsthatformedwithinthelast7700years(Holmes1996HolmesandYesner1992a).Thelowerloesscontainsthreepaleosol
complexescloselyspacedclustersofcontinuoustodiscontinuous,generallyundulating,organicrichlayers.Theupperpaleosolcomplexlacksevidenceforhuman
occupation,butthelowertwocomplexescontaincharcoal,bonefragments,artifacts,andlithicdebrisindicativeofsubstantialhumanusage.Eachofthetwolowest
paleosolsconsistsoftwotothreeindividualsoilsclusteredtogetherincomplexes310cmthick(T.Dilley,citedinHolmes1996).Sixradiocarbonagesonthelower
paleosolareabout11,280to11,770yrB.P.(Appendix,FFigure4a),andshowgoodinternalconcordance.Severalhearthsinthemiddlepartofthelowerpaleosol
evidentlywereusedabout11,500yrB.P.,andthelowerpartofthatpaleosolwasoccupiedabout11,800yrB.P.Hearthsinthemiddlepaleosolaredatedatabout
10,300yrB.P.,butaradiocarbonageofabout9310yrB.P.higherinthecomplexandtheremainsofredsquirrelandporcupinesuggestthatdevelopmentofthis
paleosolmayhavecontinuedintoearliestHolocenetime.Twobonesintheculturallysterileloessbetweenthetwopaleosolshaveagesofabout11,000and11,100yr
B.P.,providingfurtherevidencethatthestratigraphyatBrokenMammothisundisturbedandthatthesequenceofradiocarbonagedeterminationsisvalid.

Culturalzone4,thelowermostoccupation,isassociatedwiththelowerpaleosolcomplex.Thelithicartifactassemblagehasnotyetbeenfullydescribed,butconsists
ofnumerousdebitagepiecesandafewfinishedtools(Holmes1996).Althoughbifaceshavenotbeenfound,bifacialthinningflakesarepresent.Retouchedpieces
includemarginallyretouchedflakes,scrapers,andalargequartzcobbletool(Table1).Inaddition,taroivorypoints,apossibleivoryhandle,andseveral
proboscidean(probablymammoth)tuskfragmentswithscratchesproducedbystonetoolshavebeenrecovered(Holmes1996).Associatedfaunalremainsare
predominantlybirds,mostlyswans(Yesner1996).Othertaxaincludebison,elk,arcticfox,riverotter,hare,marmot,groundsquirrel,goose,duck,andptarmigan
alsoscalesofasalmonid,perhapsgrayling,havebeenfound(HolmesandYesner1992bYesner1996).Manyoftheseremainswereassociatedwithtwolarge
charcoalconcentrations("hearthsmears").

Culturalzone3,associatedwiththemiddlepaleosol,containsalargerassemblageofdiagnosticlithicartifacts(Table1).Technologicalaspectsofthisassemblagehave
notbeenreported,buttoolsincluderetouchedflakes,bifacefragments,bifacialpointfragments,hammerstones,andanvilstones(Holmes1996).Threeofthefour
bifacialpointfragmentshavediscernibleshapestwoareconcavebasedandathirdistriangular.Thenonlithicartifactassemblageincludesaneyedboneneedle
(Holmes1996).Faunalremainsaredominatedbylargeungulates,mostlybisonandelk(Yesnor1996).Proboscideanivory,andtheremainsofsheep,canid,river
otter,porcupine,marmot,groundsquirrel,redsquirrel,swan,goose,duck,ptarmigan,andfish(perhapsarcticgrayling)alsoarepresent(HolmesandYesner1992b
Yesner1996).Theremainsofthreedifferenthearthfeatureswereidentifiedinculturalzone3.

WorkedpiecesoftuskarepresentinbothofthelatePleistoceneearlyHoloceneculturallayers,butadateof15,83070yrB.P.fromoneoftheivorypointsfrom
culturalzone4indicatesprobablescavengingofoldproboscideantusksasrawmaterialsfortoolmaking(Holmes1996).

SwanPoint

THESWANPOINTSITEissituatednearthenorthedgeofShawCreekFlatsabout7kmnorthnortheastofBrokenMammoth(Holmesetal.1994).Thesiteoccupiesa
prominentrockcoredknollthatrisesabout25maboveabroadcomplexofstabilizedsanddunes,thawponds,andmarshlandsalongthelowercourscof

 Page166

Figure4.
Stratigraphyandradiocarbonages,latePleistocenearchaeologicalsitesintheupperTananavalleyregion.
SeeAppendix(FI)foradditionaldataonradiocarbonages.

 Page167
2
ShawCreek.ThesitewasdiscoveredbyR.VanderHoekandT.Dilleyin1991,andexcavatedduring1992,1993,and1995.Anareaoflessthan10m hasbeen
excavatedtodate(T.Dilley,personalcommunication1995Holmesetal.1996).

Sitestratigraphy(Figure4b)generallyissimilartothatofBrokenMammoth,buttheeoliansedimentcoverabovebedrockisabouthalfasthickbecauseSwanPointis
moredistantfromsourcesofwindblownsedimentsalongtheTananaRiveranditsglacierfedsoutherntributaries.GneissicbedrocksimilartothatatBroken
Mammothbearsscatteredslightlyventifactedandwindpolishedpebblesonitsfrostbatteredsurface(Holmesetal.1994,1996).Depressionsontheirregular
bedrocksurfacearefilledwithupto40cmofeoliansandthatcontainsrodentburrows(Figure4b).Alayerabout35cmthickofsmall,angulargneissfragmentsina
matrixofsandysiltcoverstheslightlyirregularsurfaceofbedrockandsand.Thisrubbleunithassharpupperandlowercontacts,andmusthaveformedascolluvium
transportedbyfrostcreep,sheetwash,orotherslopeprocessesfrombedrockirregularitiesontheknoll(Holmesetal.1994).Theuppermostsedimentisamassive,
nonbeddedloessthatbearsamodernforestsoilatitssurfaceandcontainsnumerousbuffedculturallayersandpaleosols(Holmesetal.1994).Thepaleosols,like
thoseatBrokenMammoth,arethinorganiclensesandstringersthatformedbyacombinationofnaturalsoilprocessesandaccumulationofanthropogenicdetritus
(Yesner1994).

Within35cmofitssurface,SwanPointcontainsfourarchaeologicalcomponentsofmiddletolateHoloceneage(Holmesetal.1994).Twolowercultural
components,datingtolatestPleistocenetime,formedatapproximatelythesametimesasthelowertwocomponentsatBrokenMammoth.Thebasalcomponent
occursonandwithinthecolluviallayeratthebaseoftheloess(Holmesetal.1994,1996T.Dilley,personalcommunication1996).Virtuallyidenticalradiocarbon
agesofabout11,600yrB.P.wereobtainedontwocharcoalfragmentsfromthislayer,andaslightlyolderdateof12,060yrB.P.wasobtainedonproboscidean
ivory(Appendix,G).Theoverlyingcomponent,associatedwithdiscontinuoushearthlike(lenticular)charcoalsmearsatadepthofabout55cm(T.Dilley,personal
communication1996),hasasingleradiocarbonageofabout10,230yrB.P.(Holmesetal.1994).

FaunalremainsfromSwanPointarenotaswellpreservedasatthenearbyBrokenMammothsite,butthelowestculturalcomponenthasyieldedremainsofgoose
andlargecervid,aswallaschopped,battered,andsplinteredivorytuskfragments,oneofwhichismorethan50cmlong(HolmesandVanderHoek1994C.E.
Holmes,personalcommunication1996).LithicartifactsfromthelowestSwanPointcomponentincludeasmallassemblageofmicroblades,blades,microbladecore
preparationflakes,dihedralburins,hammerstones,andsplitquartzcobbletoolscalledchoppersorplanes(HolmesandVanderHoek1994Holmesetal.1996Table
1).Onemicrobladewasfounddirectlyunderneaththelargesectionofmammothtuskdatedtoabout12,000yrB.P.(Hall1995Holmesetal.1994).

TheoverlyingculturalcomponentatSwanPointisradiocarbondatedtoabout10,200yrB.P.Thiscomponentincludesalithicassemblageofsmallbifacialpointswith
convex,straight,andconcavebases,spurredgraversmadeonbrokenbifacialpoints,andquartzcobblechoppersorhammerstones(HolmesandVanderHoek1994
Table1).Faunalremainsarepresentbutforthemostpartunidentifiable(C.E.Holmes,personalcommunication1996).

TheMeadSite

THEMEADSITEislocatedabout1kmnorthofBrokenMammothonthebluffsoverlookingthewestsideofShawCreekFlats.Thesiteinitiallywasaborrowpit
exposureabout50mlongthathadbeenmappedbyT.L.Pwin1964(Pw1965:4849PwandReger1983:3339).Thatsectionexhibitsfracturedbedrock
andsolifiuctiondebrisoverlainbycrossbeddedsandthatiscappedbyabout2mofloess.Astratigraphicprofileoftheexposureshowsaproboscideantusk
fragmentatthecontactbetweenthesandandtheoverlyingloessmantle(PwandReger1983:38).

ArchaeologicaltestingattheMeadsiteduringtheearly1990s(C.E.Holmes,personalcommunication1996)exposedanundisturbedstratigraphicprofileanalogous
tothatfromBrokenMammoth.TwostratigraphicallyseparatepaleosolsorganichorizonssimilartothoseatBrokenMammothandSwanPointoccurinthebasal
0.5moftheloess(Figure4c).Thelowestpaleosolisdatedtoabout11,600yrB.P.bytwoconcordantAMSradiocarbonages(Appendix,H).Archaeological
materialsfromthispaleosolincludeasmallpointpresumablymadefromthetipfragmentofaproboscideantusk(Yesneretal.1992a),stoneflakes,andfragmentsof
abifaceandscraper(Holmes,personal

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communication1996Table1).Otherpresumablyscavengedfragmentsofivoryalsooccuratthislevel,oneofthemdatingabout17,370yrB.P.Theoverlying
paleosol,acomplexofmostlydiscontinuousorganiclayersandlenses,hastwoconcordantAMSradiocarbonagesofabout10,400yrB.P.nearitscenteranda
conventionalradiocarbonageofabout10,760yrB.P.nearitsbase(Figure4candAppendix,H).Youngerculturalcomponents,datingwithinthelast6,100years,
arefoundwithinandnearthebaseofaforestsoilprofilenearthetopofthesection.

TwoconventionalradiocarbonagesontheMeadsitearediscordantandappeartobespurious(C.E.Holmes,personalcommunication1996).Dispersedcharcoal
fragmentscollectedfromtheinitialtestpitatthesitehadanageofabout7600yrB.P.,andaverysmallcharcoalsamplenearthebaseoftheupperforestsoildates
about9200yrB.P.withaverylargecountingerror.

TheHealyLakeVillageSite

HEALYLAKEWASFORMEDwhenthelowercourseoftheHealyRiver,atributaryoftheTananaRiver,wasdammedbyalluviationoftheTanana(Ager1972).Theageof
thiseventisuncertain,butanancestrallakemayhaveexistedduringlateWisconsintime,owingtoalluviationoftheTananaRiverbyoutwashfromtheAlaskaRange.
Althoughthelakeoccupiesaforestedlowland,alpinetundraoccursinuplandsonly10kmtothenortheast.TheVillagesiteislocatedatanabandonedAthabaskan
villagesituatedonthetipofabedrockridgespurthatprojectsintothelakenearitsoutlet(Cook1969,1989).Thesitewastestedin1966byJ.P.Cook,R.A.
McKennan,andothers,andwasexcavatedbyCookduring19681972(Cook1996).

ShallowunconsolidateddepositsabovebedrockattheVillagesiteareonly0.5to1mthick,buttheycommonlyaredivisibleintofourunits(Figure4d)(Ager
1972:6064).Thebasalunitconsistsof20cmormoreofangularrockparticles(grus)thatformedfromtheweatheringofunderlyingbedrock.Manyoftherock
fragmentsattheuppercontactofthisunithavebeenpolishedandabradedbywindtoformventifacts.Thegrusisoverlainbyadiscontinuousprobablebeachdeposit
ofpebblysandasmuchas15cmthickthatcontainsunidentifiablebonefragments.Thetwogravellyunitsareburiedbyeolianfinesandthatfinesupwardintosandy
loessandthenintosiltyloess,forminganunstratifieddepositasmuchas75cmthickthatcontainssoilhorizons,frostcracks,animalburrows,andclaybands.The
basalsandypartoftheeolianunitisculturallysterile,butitcontainsfilledburrowsthatdonotoccurhigherintheeolianunit.Theupper60cmofthedepositcontains
charcoal,thinorganichorizons,andartifacts.Aburiedpodzolicsoiliswidelypresentatthesite.TheBhorizonofthispaleosol,azoneofoxideandclayaccumulation
1520cmthick,extendsdownwardfromathinleachedhorizon2530cmbelowthetopoftheloess(J.P.Cook,personalcommunication1996).Theorganicmat
thatcapsthesectionaverages10cmthickandconsistsofplantfragments,roots,andrecentAthabaskanculturaldebris.Becauseofthegenerallynonstratifiednature
oftheloess,theVillagesitewasexcavatedin5cmlevelsbeginningatthebaseofthesurfacesod.

ThirtytworadiocarbonagesinitiallywereobtainedattheVillagesite(Erlandsonetal.1991),and12AMSageshavesubsequentlybeenaddedtotheradiocarbon
record(J.P.Cook,personalcommunication1996seeAppendix,I).Mostofthedateswereoncharcoal,whichgenerallywascollectedfromhearthsorhearthlike
accumulations.Theconventionalradiocarbonagesshowedageneralincreasewithdepth,butindicatedseveremixingatalllevels(Figure4d).TheAMSagesalso
showsignificantmixing,butaremoreclearlyseparatedintodifferentagepopulationsaboveandbelowthetopoftheburiedpodzol.IftheAMSagesarecorrect,they
indicatethattheloesscoveratHealyLakebegantoaccumulateshortlybefore11,500yrB.P.,andthatwindblownsiltcontinuedtoaccreteuntil10,000or9000yr
B.P.Asubsequenthiatus,markedbytheburiedpodzolicsoil,lasteduntil4500to3500yrB.P.,whenrenewedloessaccretionmusthaveaccompaniedintensified
glaciation(Neoglaciation)intheAlaskaRange(Calkin1988).HealyLakemayhavebeenrebornatthistime,assuggestedbyAger(1972:8389),becauseof
renewedalluviationbytheglacierfedTananaRiver.

TheHealyLakeVillagesitecontainsthreerecognizedculturalcomponents,theearliestofwhichincludesartifactsrecoveredfromexcavationlevelsgreaterthan25cm
belowtheorganicmat(Cook1969).Thisearlycomponentsubsequentlywastermedthe"Chindadncomplex"(Cook1975,1996CookandMcKennan1970
Dixon1985MorlanandCinqMars1982).In1990Goebelconductedananalysisoftheretouchedpiecesandasampleofthedebitage.Inthesamplestudied,he
foundthatmorethanathirdof

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thetoolsaremadeonblades,althoughtherearenobladecoresintheassemblage.Asimplypreparedflakecore,wedgeshapedmicrobladecore,andseveralbipolar
cores(picessquilles),however,dooccur.MicrobladesarecommonthroughouttheChindadnlevels.Secondaryreductiontechniquesareunifacial,bifacial,and
burin.Thetoolassemblage(n=165)alsoconsistsofmarginallyretouchedbladesandflakes,endscrapers,sidescrapers,bifaces,bifacialpoints,burins(angle,
dihedral,andtransverse),gravers,andanotchedtool(Table1).Mostbifacesarebroken,butcompleteonesareoval,lanceolate,andtriangularinshape.Projectile
pointsareforthemostpartteardropshapedortriangular,butseverallanceolatepointsalsooccur.

Hearthlikeconcentrationsoffirereddenedearth,withcharcoalandcalcinedbone,arecommonintheChindadnlevels(Cook1969:240242personal
communication1996),asareflakeclustersandconcentrationsoffirecrackedrock.Thehearthlikefeaturesareabout1mindiameterby10cmdeeptheir
boundariesarediffusebutnotcontortedorintermixedwithadjoiningsediments(J.P.Cook,personalcommunication1996).Mostofthebonesareofsmallmammals
andbirds,presumablywaterfowltakenalongtheshoreofancestralHealyLake.Someruminant(caribouorsheep)remainsalsoarepresent(J.P.Cook,personal
communication1996).

TheradiocarbondatedtimespanoftheChindadncomplexatHealyLakeisequivalenttotherangeofNenanaandDenalicomplexoccupationsidentifiedelsewhere
incentralAlaska.TheChindadnassemblagealsoshowsmanyaffinitieswithbothofthesecomplexes.TheassociationofChindadnpointsandsmalltriangularpoints
withmicrobladesandburins,whichdoesnotoccurinthemoredeeplystratifiedsitesintheNenanaValley,suggeststhatsomepostdepositionalmixingofartifactsmay
haveoccurredattheVillagesite.MoredetailedstudiesoftheChindadnartifactsandtheirrecordedproveniences,aswellasrenewedtestexcavations,areneededto
clarifythisissue.

TheChugwaterSite

THECHUGWATERSITEissituatedalongthecrestofMooseCreekbluff,anisolatedbedrockridgethatrises67mabovetheTananaRiverfloodplain,35kmeast
southeastofFairbanks.ThesouthfacingedgeofthebluffoverlookstheTananaRivervalleyandthefloodplainofMooseCreek,aclearwaterstreamthatflowsinto
thesiltladenTanana.Artifactsarepresentinthin(1540cm)loessthatoverliesweatheredbedrockanddiscontinuousbodiesofeoliansandandcolluvium.Theloess
locallycontainsaconvoluted,dark"markerline"thatisenrichedinoxidesofiron,manganese,magnesium,andaluminumthatmayhavebeendepositedfrom
percolatingsoilwaterataformerfrosttableorwatertable(Lively1988).Twentyradiocarbondatesfromthesiterangefrommodernto9460130yrB.P.,butonly
fourdatesareolderthanabout2500yrB.P.(Appendix,J).Thedatesshowpoorcorrelationwithdepthbelowsurface.Somesamplesmaybefromburnedroots,
whichcommonlycanbetraceddownwardfromthesurfacetoweatheredbedrockthatunderliesthesite.Twocharcoalsamples3cmbelowthe"markerline"have
AMSradiocarbonagesofabout8960and9460yrB.P.ArtifactsofcomponentI,whichunderlietheoldestdatedcharcoal,includesmallteardropshapedand
triangularpointsandendscrapers(Table1)thatarecorrelatedwithartifactsoftheChindadncomplexatHealyLakeandtheNenanacomplexintheNenanavalley.
ComponentIIartifacts,whichareassociatedwiththedated(8960to9460yrB.P.)horizon,includemicroblades,bifacialpointsorknives,andcrestedscrapers
(Table1)thatarecorrelatedwiththeDenalicomplex.

TheCampusSite

LOCATEDONTHEUNIVERSITYofAlaskacampusnearFairbanks,theCampussiteoccupiestheedgeofasoutheastfacingbluffthatrises20mabovethebroadfloorof
theTananaRivervalley.Thesitewasdiscoveredin1933andexcavatedintermittentlyfrom1934until1971(Mobley1990),withfurtherexcavationin1996by
PearsonandPowers(1996).Forseveraldecadesafteritsdiscovery,theCampussitewasbelievedtobetheoldestknownarchaeologicalsiteinAlaska.

Artifactsarepresentwithinthin(45cmorless)loessandcolluviumthatoverliesbedrockandiscappedbySubarcticBrownForestsoil.Bandi(1969:52)estimated
anageof8400yrB.P.basedonobsidianhydrationmeasurements,butmorerecentageestimatesutilizingthistechniquearebetween4500and1000yrB.P.(Mobley
1990).Threeradiocarbondatesoncharcoalfrom15to30cmdepthclusterbetween3500and2700yrB.P.,buttwootherdatesoncharcoalfrom20to30cm
deptharemodern(Appendix,K).Thesedatesshowthatrecentdisturbancehaspenetrated25cmormoreintoatleastthecentralpartofthesite(Mobley1990)and
thatnoneofthe

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occupationisdemonstrablyolderthanabout3500yrB.P.PearsonandPowers'(1996)workcorroboratesMobley'sconclusionthattheCampussitedatestothelate
Holocene.

ArtifactsfromtheCampussitehavebeendispersedinternationallyintoatleastfour(andpossiblysix)museumcollections,butanearlycompleteinventoryhasbeen
compiledbyMobley(1990).Tooltypesincludemicrobladesandmicrobladecores,largeblades,burins,lanceolateandsidenotchedprojectilepoints,andovaland
triangularbifaces(Table1).

Discussion

THEBROKENMAMMOTHandSwanPointsiteshaveprovidedtheearliestdirectevidenceforlatePleistocenehumansubsistenceactivitiesinAlaska.Ratherthanan
exclusivelybiggamehuntingculture,theemergingrecordpointstoasubsistencestrategydirectedtowardawiderangeofresourcesincludingsmallmammals,
waterfowl,ptarmigan,andfish,inadditiontolargemammalssuchasbisonandelk.Thesiteoccupantsalsowereprocuringfurbeatingmammalssuchasarcticfoxand
riverotter,andwerecollectingfossilivoryfromnearbyexposures.

Microbladesareabsentfromthelithicassemblagesofculturalzones4and3atBrokenMammoth,perhapsstrengtheningthecasethataNenanaChindadnlike
industrycharacterizedbysmallbifacialpoints,unifacialscrapers,andcobbletoolsexistedincentralAlaskapriorto11,000yrB.P.Althoughdiagnosticartifactsare
uncommonintheearliestculturalzone,abifacialindustryispresent,asareafewunifaciallyworkedscrapers.Theconcavebasedpointsfromculturalzone3,though,
aredistinct,andmayrepresentapreviouslyunrecognizedbifacialpointcomplexdatingtoaround10,300yrB.P.

However,atSwanPointthemicrobladeassemblageintheculturallayerdatedabout11,600yrB.P.isinconsistentwithculturalinventoriesfromallotherdeeply
buriedsitesofthisageintheNenanaandTananavalleys.ItalsowouldpredateallknownmicrobladeindustriesinwesternBeringia(eastoftheVerkhoianskRange).
Perhapsthemicrobladesandrelatedflakesweremixedwitholdercharcoalandotherculturalmaterialsduringandimmediatelyafterdepositionofthethinsheetof
colluvialdetritusandbeforeloessaccumulationbeganatthesite.Althoughatuskfragmentwasfounddirectlyaboveamicroblade,clearevidenceforscavengingof
oldivoryattheBrokenMammothandMeadsitesdemonstratesthatthisassociationcannotprovideanydirectageoragelimitonthemicrobladesatSwanPoint.On
theotherhand,the2025cmofloessthatseparatesthetwolowestculturalhorizonsatSwanPointlacksanyevidenceofcryoturbation,animalburrowing,orother
disturbance(Holmesetal.1994).Soilchemistryshowsnoevidenceformixing,andartifactshavenotbeenmixedintothis"sterile"zonefromeitherofthecultural
horizonsthatboundit(T.Dilley,personalcommunication1996).Basedonratesofregionalloessaccumulation,T.Dilley(personalcommunication1996)balievesthat
thesterileloessbeneaththe10,200yearoldhearthmayhaverequired1,0001,500yearstoaccumulate.Ifthisestimateprovestobecorrect,microbladeindustries
inAlaskawouldbesignificantlyolderthanpresentlybelieved.

TheAlaskaRange:DenaliComplexSites

FOURLOCALITIESWITHINandattheflanksoftheAlaskaRangehaveyieldedartifactsassignabletotheDenalicomplex.TheTangleLakes,DonnellyRidge,andTeklanika
WestlocalitiesarenearsurfaceorsurfacesitesCarloCreekisadeeplyburiedsite.AllfourlocalitiesoccurwithinthelimitsoflateWisconsinglaciers(Figure2),and
humanoccupationwasdominantlyofHoloceneage.

WeshalldiscussthegeologicsettingandgeochronologyoftheTangleLakesareainsomedetailbecauseofthegreatantiquityformerlyclaimedforsomeofits
archaeologicalassemblages.Thethreeotherlocalitiesaresummarizedonlybrieflyandrepresentativestratigraphicsectionsarenotillustrated.

TheTangleLakes

NUMEROUSARCHAEOLOGICALsiteswithDenalicomplexartifactsoccurattheTangleLakes,whereirregularknobsandridgesofsandandgravelinterspersedwithkettle
lakesmarkthepositionofstagnatingglaciericeduringlateWisconsindeglaciationatthesouthflankoftheAlaskaRange(Figure2).Theglacialdepositsprobably
wereexposedandbecamestabilizedsometimeafter13,500yrB.P.,whenrapidglacierrecessionbeganinthecentralAlaskaRange(TenBrinkandWaythomas
1985).Ahighlevelphaseofthelakecomplex,30m

 Page171

Figure5.
Stratigraphyandradiocarbonagesforthe
Mt.HayesIIIsite,TangleLakes(symbols
asinFigure4).SeeAppendix(L)foradditional
dataonradiocarbonages.

abovethesurfaceofthepresentdaylakes,developedabout11,800yrB.P.(Schweger1981)andpersisteduntilatleast7700yrB.P.(CampbellandBegt1989).
Tundravegetationcoveredtheareauntilabout11,000yrB.P.,thenwasreplacedbyshrubtundrawithabundantdwarfwillowandbirch.Populusarrivedatthe
TangleLakesabout9500yrB.P.andPiceaabout9100yrB.P.(AgerandSims1981Schweger1981).

AlloftheknownDenalicomplexsitesoccuronthewelldrainedcrestsofknobsandridgesjustabovethelimitsofthe+30mstandoftheancestralTangleLakes
noneoccurbelowthatformersurface(West1981:113135).Initialsitediscoverywasin1957additionalsiteswerediscoveredandexcavatedbyF.H.West
between1964and1974(Westetal.1996a,1996b,1996c).Subsequentsurveyshaveshownthatatleast20sitescontainingDenalicomplexartifactsoccurinthe
TangleLakesarea(P.M.Bowers,personalcommunication1989).Lithicassemblagesincludewedgeshapedandconicalmicrocores,subprismaticbladecores,
microbladesandlargeblades,burins,bifaces,andboulderchipscrapers(Table1).Twositesinparticular,PhippsandWhitmoreRidge,containDenalicomplex
occupationsthatmaydatetoabout10,000yrB.P.(Westetal.1996a,1996c).AnassemblagewithlargeandroughlyformedbifaceswastermedtheAmphitheater
MountaincomplexbyWest(1976),whobelievedthatitpredatedtheDenalicomplex.However,recentstudiesbyMobley(1982)haveshownthatsimilar
generalizedtoolsanddebrisarecharacteristicofquarryandworkshopsitesasyoungasmiddleHoloceneage(4300yrB.P.)intheTangleLakesarea.

DenalicomplexsitesattheTangleLakesrangefromsurfacescatterstoshallowloessaboveglacialgravel(Westetal.1996a,1996b,1996c).Inthecomparatively
scarceburiedsites,Denalicomplexartifactsoccurnearthebaseofapalcosolthatwasburiedbyrenewedloessdepositionbetweenabout7000and5000yrB.P.
(Figure5),presumablywhenthe+30mlakedrainedabruptlyandsiltwasredepositedfromnewlyexposedlakebeds(West1975,1981:133135).Onthebasisofa
limitednumberofradiocarbonages(Appendix,L),theDenalicomplexoccupationoftheareaisdatedfrom10,200toatleast9100yrB.P.byWest(1981:129),
between10,500and8200yrB.P.bySchweger(1981),andbetween10,200and8200yrB.P.byDixon(1985).

OtherSites

WITHINTHEALASKARANGE,theDenalicomplexprobablyisrepresentedattheCarloCreeksite,andpossiblyattheDonnellyRidgeandTeklanikaWestsitesaswell
(Figure2).ThedeeplyburiedCarloCreeksite,locatedclosetoaperennialspringneartheheadoftheNenanaRiver,containedwellpreservedremainsofbutchered
caribou,sheep,andgroundsquirrels(Bowers1980).Thesitewasfirstoccupiedabout8700to8400yrB.P.iftwodiscordantradiocarbonages(Appendix,M)can
safelybeignored.1 Theoldestcomponentcontainsasparseassemblageofbifacesandbifacefragments,retouchedflakes,andpossiblebonetools(Table1).

TheDonnellyRidgesiteoccursonendmorainesoflateWisconsinageatthenorthflankoftheAlaskaRange,about140kmsoutheastofFairbanks(West1967).
Theareatodayissituatedattheecotonewhereborealforestinterfingerswithalpinetundra.Someartifactswerefoundscatteredacrossthesurfacesofblowouts
otherswereburiedinthin(<25cm)loessthatoverliestheglacialdeposits.AccordingtoWest(1967),thearchaeologicalassemblageisdominatedbybifacialknives,
wedgeshapedmicrobladecores,bothlargebladesandmicroblades,andburins.Thesitelacksstratigraphy,andnohearthswerefound.Tworadiocarbonagesof
about1800yrB.P.areinterpretedbythesite'sexcavatortodatealatertundrafireandnottheculturalmaterials(West1967).However,somewedgeshapedcore
andmicrobladeassemblageselsewhereincentralAlaskahavebeenradiocarbondatedtothelateHolocene(i.e.,the"lateDenalicomplex"representedatLittle
PanguingueCreekintheNenanaValleyandtheCampussitenearFairbanks)(Mobley1990PowersandHoffecker1989).

 Page172

Therefore,alateHoloceneagefortheDonnellyRidgesiteshouldnotberuledout.

TheTeklanikaWestsitewasoriginallydescribedasshallowandnonstratified(West1967),andlaterdescribedasstratifiedandcontainingtwoculturalcomponents
(West1996).Thesitelacksanyhearthsorotherarchaeologicalfeatures.MorerecentgeoarchaeologicalresearchatTeklanikaWesthasindicatedthatuptothree
culturalcomponentscanbedelineatedinastratigraphicprofilereachingIminthickness(Goebel1996).ComponentIoccursatthebaseofthesectioninaloesslike
sedimentthatalsocontainsadiscontinuous,reworkedpaleosol.AnassociatedcharcoalfragmentproducedanAMSdateof7100yrB.P.(Appendix,N).
ComponentIImaterialswerefoundimmediatelyunderneathanunidentifiedtephrabandtwocharcoalsamplesassociatedwithlithicartifactsyieldedradiocarbonages
of5300and3300yrB.P.ComponentIIIoccursattheverytopoftheprofileinthemodernsoilandhasnotbeendated.Inalllikelihood,then,theTeklanikaWest
assemblageofWest(1967,1996)ismadeupofartifactsfromthreedifferentagedoccupationsspanningaperiodofmorethan5,000years.

Discussion

THEKNOWNARCHAEOLOGICALsitesfromtheAlaskaRangerecordlaterhumanoccupationthaninthefoothillsregionoftheNenanaValleyorintheTananaRivervalley.
Theoldestknownsites,TangleLakesandCarloCreek,containDenalicomplexindustriesandfitwithintheagerangeforDenaliwithintheNenanaandTanana
valleys.AlthoughtheTeklanikaWestandDonnellyRidgesitesareprobablyofmiddletolateHoloceneage,theycontainDenalielementssuchaswedgeshaped
cores,transverseburins,andlanceolatebifaces.TheapparentpersistenceoftheseelementssuggestscontinuityintheprehistoricpopulationsofcentralAlaskafrom
theearliestHoloceneuntilabout2000yrB.P.

NorthernAlaska:PaleoindiansoftheArcticFoothills

THEARCTICFOOTHILLScompriseaneastwesttrendingbeltofrockcoredridgesalongthenorthflankoftheBrooksRange(Wahrhaftig1965:20).Theregionis
underlainbycontinuouspermafrost(Ferrians1965)itsupportstreelesstundra,withriparianwillowshrubsalongthelargerdrainages.Fourradiocarbondated
archaeologicalsitesinthisregionhaveyieldedagesofabout11,700to9000yrB.P.(Figure1).ThreeofthesitesMesa,PutuBedwell,andHilltopcontain
lanceolatepointsandotherdiagnosticPaleoindianartifacts.Theremainingsite,GallagherFlintStation,isaquarryandlookoutsitewithmultipleoccupationsoflate
Holoceneagethatmayhavelargelyobliteratedolderarchaeologicalrecords.

TheMesaSite

THEMESASITE,onaprominentridgeofresistantigneousrockthatrises60maboveIteriakCreek(Figure6),offersacommandingviewofIteriakvalleyandadjoining
hills.Surfaceandnearsurfaceartifactsandshallowhearthsalongtheridgecrestwerediscoveredduringanarchaeologicalsurveyin1978(Kunz1982)thesitewas
testedin1979and1980,andexcavatedduring1989and19911997(KunzandMann1997KunzandReanier1994,1995).

Morethan20buriedhearthswithartifactconcentrationswerefoundatandnearthebaseofathin(30cmorless)layeroffrostmixedstonysiltthatoverliesfrost
shatteredbedrock(Figure7a).Thecharcoalrichhearthsgenerallyarelenticularincrosssection,andupto12cmthickand20cmindiametertheyaresurrounded
byhalos715cmwideofoxidizedreddishsoilwithcharcoalflecks(KunzandReanier1995).Artifactsincludeedgegroundlanceolateprojectilepoints,large
bifaces,gravers,andscrapersthatresemblePaleoindianimplementsfrommidcontinentalNorthAmerica(Table1).Theyarereportedtobe"Technologically...
closelyrelatedtotheAgateBasinComplexoftheNorthAmericanHighPlains"(KunzandReanier1995:22).Thesiteisconsideredtobeessentiallyasingle
componentPaleoindianoccupation,withadditionaluseevidentonlyasasinglesmallmicrobladelocality.

Twentysevenradiocarbonageshavebeendeterminedfromcharcoalthatisassociateddirectlywith19individualhearths(Appendix,O).Allbuttwooftheagesare
AMSradiocarbondeterminationswith

 Page173

Figure6.
Detailmapshowingarchaeologicalsitesinthearcticfoothills
ofnorthernAlaska.

closelyconstrainedcountingerrorstheothersareconventionalradiocarbonages.Oneoftheconventionalages,762095yrB.P.,isdismissedbytheexcavatorsas
"incorrectduetolaboratoryerror"(KunzandReanier1995:17).Anarchivedduplicatesamplewasredatedas10,06070yrB.P.(KunzandReanier1995).The
otherconventionalage,10,980280yrB.P.,isfromaverysmallsamplethatcouldbedatedonlywithdifficultybyusinganextendedcount(M.Kunz,personal
communication1995).ItwassplitfromasamplefromwhichanAMSdateof994575yrB.P.wasobtained,andtheAMSageisconsideredbyKunztobethe
morereliableofthepair.EighteenoftheAMSagesclustertightlywithina300yearinterval,10,2009900yrB.P.(Figure8).Fiveothersareslightlyyoungerand
older,butfourofthesearestatisticallyindistinguishablefromthe10,2009900yrB.P.agegroup.TheremainingtwoAMSages,11,19070and11,66080yr
B.P.,areseparatedfromtheyoungerclusterbysurprisinglylargetimegapsofnearly1,200and1,700years.Bothoftheseolderagesareoncharcoalfromasingle
hearthinthecentralpartofthesitethatisidenticaltoalloftheothersindepth,size,configuration,andassociatedartifacttypes.Implementsandwasteflakesaremuch
moreabundantaroundthishearththantheyarearoundtheothers(KunzandReanier1995).KunzandReanier(1994)believethatPaleoindianoccupationofthe
Mesasiteoccurredintwoseparateepisodes,withaninterveninghiatusbetween11,000and10,300yrB.P.thatcorrespondstoclimaticdeteriorationoftheYounger
Dryasinterval.

PutuBedwell

THEPUTUSITEISlocatedalongtheeastflankoftheSagavanirktokRivervalleynearthenorthflankoftheBrooksRange(Figure6).Itissituatedonalevelbenchabout
215mabovethevalleyfloornearthebaseofaprominentrockknobthatprovidesanunrestrictedviewacrossthevalleyanditsmargins.Thebenchisatorjustabove
themarginofglacialdepositsthatwerelaiddownduringashortlivedreadvanceabout13,000to11,500yrB.P.(Hamilton1978,1986).

Thesitewasdiscoveredin1970andexcavatedin1970and1973byH.L.Alexander(Alexander1987).Artifactswererecoveredfromunstratifiedstonyloessthat
overliesshalebedrockandiscappedbyaloosetextureddarkorganicsoilwithabundantrootlets(Figure7b).Mappedprofilesofthesite(Alexander1987:6)show
roundedglacialpebbles,cobbles,andsmallbouldersdispersedwithintheloessandconcentratedatitsbase,wheresomeclastsareembeddeddeeplyinthe
underlying"bedrock."Artifactswereconcentratedabout2to8cmabovethebaseoftheloess,buttheyalsoweredispersedhigherinthesite.Inseveralseparate
areas,fragmentsofanindividualartifactwerefoundnearthebaseoftheloessandnearthegroundsurface,wheretheyprobablyhadbeendisplacedbyburrowing
groundsquirrels.

Radiocarbonageswithinthelowerhalfoftheloessrangefromabout8450to6100yrB.P.,andcharcoalflakesfromanovalhearthlikefeature5cmabovethebase
oftheloesshaveanageof11,470500yrB.P.(Appendix,P).The11,500yrB.P.radiocarbonageonanapparenthearthhasbeenpuzzlingbecausethePutusite
atthattimeprobablywouldhavebeenatorjustabovetheflankofadisintegratingglacier.Theerraticradiocarbonagesanddiversetoolassemblage[seebelow]
reportedbyAlexander(1987),aswellasdispersedglacialstonesandverticalandhorizontaldisplacementofartifactfragments,seemtoindicateseveremixingatthe
site,probablybyfrostactionandburrowinganimals.Mixtureofglacialstonesintoweatheredbedrockfragmentsmayindicatedeepseateddisturbancebysolifluction
orotherslopeprocesses,perhapswhenthemarginofthereactivatedglacierwasadjacenttothePutulocality

AsreportedbyAlexander(1987:2533),thelithicassemblagefromPutucontainsabundantbladesandbladelikeflakeswhichwereproducedfrompolyhedral,
subprismaticbladecoresonlocallyprocuredcherts.Bladesareslightlylargerthanthemaximumsizedefinedformicroblades,andnoneofthecoresappeartobe
microcores.Unifacial,bifacial,andburin

 Page174

Figure7.
Stratigraphyandradiocarbonages,latePleistocenearchaeologicalsitesinnorthernandnorthwesternAlaska.
SeeAppendix(OT)foradditionaldataonradiocarbonages.

 Page175

Figure8.
AgedistributionofdatedcharcoalsamplesfromtheMesasite.

techniqueswereusedtosecondarilyshapeandresharpentools.Unifaciallyretouchedpiecesincludemarginallyretouchedflakesandblades,singleandmultispurred
gravers,severalendscrapers,andonesidescraper.Burinsarecommonlyangleordihedraltypes.Bifacesarelargeandleafshaped,whileprojectilepointsarechiefly
lanceolateorfluted(Table1)(Alexander1987:1220).

R.E.Reanier(1995)recentlyhasreexaminedthePutusite,studiedtheoriginalinvestigators'fieldnotes,andobtainedanadditionalAMSradiocarbonagefroman
archivedcharcoalsample.Reanier'snewAMSdate(Appendix,P)confirmsanoriginaldeterminationof8450130yrB.P.onaburiedhearthandappearstodate
anassociatededgegroundlanceolatepointbase.CarefulexaminationoforiginalfieldnotesledReanier(1995)toconcludethatthesuspect11,470yearold
radiocarbonagemayhavecomefromculturallysterilegravelatthebaseofthestonyloess.Itmaydatesurfacevegetationburiedbyloessorcolluviumatthetimeof
glacierretreatfromthesitearea.

Reanier(1995)alsoexaminedthe''Bedwellsite,"aprominentrockknobabout100mnorthofPutu,whereAlexanderhadfoundlanceolateprojectilepoints.Reanier
obtainedanAMSradiocarbonageof10,49070yrB.P.onanarchivedcharcoalsamplethatappearedtobeassociatedwithoneofthelanceolatepoints.

TheHilltopSite

ABEDROCKKNOLL17kmsouthwestofPutuhasyieldededgegroundlanceolatepointssimilartothosefromtheMesasite,inadditiontomultispurredgraversand
bifaces(Reanier1995Table1).Aconventionalradiocarbonageof6160130yrB.P.wasobtainedonmixedcharcoaland"blacksoil,"butlaterAMSdatingof
uncontaminatedcharcoalyieldedanageof10,36060yrB.P.(Reanier1995Appendix,Q).

GallagherFlintStation

THEGALLAGHERFLINTSTATIONislocatedontheflooroftheSagavanirktokRivervalley16kmnorthofthePutusite.TheGallaghersiteisonthecrestofalargekame,
closetothelimitoflateWisconsinglaciationintheSagavanirktokvalley(Hamilton1978,1979),thatprovidesaclearviewofthesurroundingvalleyfloor(Bowers
1983).Althoughitbegantoformduringglacialstagnation,probablysometimeafter17,000yrB.P.,thekamemusthaveremainedicecoredandunstablefor
thousandsofyearsthereafter.However,abundantwillowwoodandpeatinthissectoroftheSagavanirktokvalleyisdatedbyradiocarbonat11,800to12,800yr
B.P.(Hamilton1979),indicatingthatatleastpartsofthevalleyfloorhadstabilizedandbecomevegetatedbythattime.

TheGallaghersite,aquarryandlookoutsitewithmultipleoccupations,wasexcavatedin1970,1971,and1974byE.J.Dixon,Jr.(Bowers1983Dixon1975).
Artifactsoccurinfrostchurnedstonybrownloess20to28cmthickthatiscappedbyadiscontinuousorganicsoilupto5cmthick(Figure7c).Atleast13separate
artifactconcentrationsspaced1to50mapartoccuronthecrestandupperslopesofthekameandonabenchalongitssouthernflank(Bowers1983).Elevenofthe
concentrationscontaineitherundiagnosticquarrydetritusortoolassemblagesofmiddletolateHoloceneage.Sixoftheselocalitiesyieldedatotalof12radiocarbon
ages,allofwhicharebetweenabout3200and1000yrB.P.(Bowers1983).AnotherlocalitycontainsamixedartifactassemblagethatmayincludelatestPleistocene
orearlyHolocenematerial,butfourdatesfromthisconcentrationareallbetween2500and1100yrB.P.Theremaininglocality(Locality1)isdatedat10,540150
yrB.P.(Appendix,R)fromcharcoaldirectlyassociatedwithartifactsat2025cmdepthwithinloess(Dixon1975).

TheoccupationatLocality1isageneralizedcoreandbladeindustrythatincludescores,blades,

 Page176

microblades,platformflakes,andretouchedflakes,butlacksburins,bifaces,andscrapers(Table1).Thecoresareofdiversetypestabular,conical,andwedge
shapedandbladesandmicrobladeshaveinsomecasesbeenstruckfromthesamecore.Thisassemblagelargelyreflectsquarryactivityinwhichcoresand
microcoreswereroughedoutfromglacialgravels(E.J.Dixon,personalcommunication1989).

FollowingrenewedexcavationsattheGallaghersitein1995,D.E.Ferguson(1997a,1997b)hasquestionedDixon'sageassignmentoftheLocality1coreandblade
industry.FergusonmaintainsthatmostofthecoreandbladematerialoccursstratigraphicallyhigherthanthecharcoaldatedbyDixon,andthatthefewartifacts
recoveredfromlowerlevelsofLocality1weredisplaceddownwardbypostdepositionalprocesses.AccordingtoFerguson,artifactsidenticaltothoseatLocality1
aredirectlyassociatedwithcharcoaldatedat6960+90yrB.P.inanearbytestpit.FergusonbelievesthattheartifactsatLocality1aretypologicallyrelatedto
MesolithicindustriesofnortheastAsia,andhismidHoloceneradiocarbondateappearstosupportthistemporalassignment.

Discussion

THETIGHTLYCLUSTEREDAMSagesattheMesasiteandtheslightlyolderagesattheBedwellandHilltopsitesareverysimilartotheacceptedagerangeof10,500to
10,000yrB.P.fortheAgateBasincomponentofthePaleoindiantraditionintheGreatPlainsregion.2 ThetwoolderradiocarbondeterminationsfortheMesasite,
11,190and11,660yrB.P.,aremoredifficulttoaccept,althoughKunzandReanier(1994,1995)andReanier(1995)believethattheyarevalid.

Ifcorrect,thetwoolderdatesfromtheMesasitewouldimplythat:

(1)Thesitewasoccupiedintermittentlywithnodetectableculturalchangeoveranintervalofnearly2,000years

(2)Ahearthwasreusedaftera500yearinterval,showingnodetectableunconformitybetweenthetwooccupations

(3)Atimegapofnearly1,000yearsseparatestheoldestoccupationfromallotherdatedPaleoindianoccupationsattheMesasiteandelsewhereontheAlaskan
NorthSlopeand

(4)NonflutedlanceolatepointsandotherculturalelementsofthePaleoindiantradition,whichhavenoknownSiberianantecedents,originatedontheAlaskanNorth
Slope.

Inaddition,theapparentlyolderhearthshowsnoevidenceofunusuallyseverefrostdisruption,windscour,orotherperiglacialdisturbancedespitethe1,0001,500
yearsofharsh"YoungerDryas"conditionsthatKunzandReanier(1994)believemusthaveseparatedthetwoepisodesofPaleoindianoccupationatthesite.

The2,000yearculturalcontinuityimpliedbythetwoolderAMSagesattheMesasiteisdifficulttoacceptbecauseofthedramaticculturalchangesthatoccurredat
intervalsof500yearsorlessduringthetimespanofthePaleoindiantraditionelsewhereinNorthAmerica(KunzandReanier1995)andthesimilarlydramatic
environmentalchangesthattookplaceabout12,00010,000yrB.P.innorthernAlaska.Forexample,passesacrosstheBrooksRangemayhavebecomeicefreeat
orshortlyafter11,500yrB.P.(Hamilton1982,1986),andstandsofpoplarsandlargewillowsdatingabout12,00011,000yrB.P.werewidespreadacrossthe
AlaskanNorthSlopefromtheSagavanirktokvalleywestwardtotheEtivlukvalley(Hamilton1979Hopkinsetal.1981).Duringthefollowingmillennium,however,
vegetationcoverdecreasedaseoliansandbecamereactivatedonatleastpartsoftheNorthSlope(Carter1993).

AlthoughKunzandReanier(1995:15)rejectthisscenario,webelievethatburningof"recycled"woodisaplausibleexplanationforthetwodisparateAMSagesat
theMesasite.Becauseonlysparsesmallshrubsoccurintheareatoday,shrubsalsomayhavebeenlimitedinsizeandabundanceduringthesite'smainoccupation
around10,000yrB.P.Largerpiecesofolderwood,perhapsdatingfromthe12,00011,000yrB.P.growthepisode,mayhavebeencollectedbythesite's
occupantsfromexposuresalongerodingstreambanks.ThesemayhavebeencarriedtotheMesasiteoccasionallyforuseasfirewoodoraspolesfordwellingsor
otherstructures.Afteraperiodofsurfaceexposureorstructuraluse,thewoodwouldbecomewelldriedandsuitableforburning.Itmaybesignificantthatthehearth
withthemostintensivehumanuseyieldedtheoldestdates.Coulddepletionoftheusualsourcesofnearbyfirewoodperhapshaveledtoexploitationofunconventional
sources?AlthoughtheMesasiteisademonstrablyPaleoindiansitethatwasoccupiedduringatleast10,100to9900yrB.P.,weconcludethatsignificantlyolder
occupationofthesiteisunlikely.

 Page177

NorthwestAlaska:ThreeDiverseSites

THREEARCHAEOLOGICALSITESthatextendbackinagetotheearlyHoloceneorthelatestPleistocenearewidelydispersedacrossnorthwestAlaska(Figure1).Onion
Portage,adeeplystratifiedsite,issituatedontheKobukRivernearthesouthwesterncorneroftheBrooksRange.BatzaTnaconsistsofnumerousindividualshallow
tosurfacesitesassociatedwithanobsidiansourceneartheKoyukukRiver.TheTrailCreekCavesoccurinhillyterrainontheSewardPeninsula.

OnionPortage

THEONIONPORTAGEsiteislocatedatthesouthflankoftheBrooksRange,closetomajormountainpasses.ThesiteareawasnotglaciatedduringlatePleistocenetime,
butextensivesandduneswereactiveduringcold,aridepisodesandcausedalluviationoftheKobukRiver(Hamilton1984HamiltonandAshley1993Hamiltonet
al.1988).SprucecoveredriverfloodplainsaroundOnionPortagegivewaytoforesttundramosaicsonhigherpartsofthevalleyfloorandtoalpinetundraonthe
uplands.

HumanoccupationatOnionPortageoccurredatthebaseandcrestofasouthfacingriverbluff30mhighthatprovidesaclearoverlookacrosstheKobukvalley.
AlthoughtheKobukRivermeandersfreelyacrossawide(45km)floodplaininhighlyerodiblesand,thesiteliesatthedownstreamendofaresistantoutcropof
boulderyglacialtillthatprovideslocaldefenseagainstrivererosion.Lateprehistoriccomponentsofthesitewerediscoveredin1941byJ.L.Giddings,anddeeper
occupationlevelswerefoundbyGiddingsduringfurthertestingin1961and1963.ThemajorexcavationofthesitewascarriedoutbyJ.L.GiddingsandlaterbyD.
D.AndersonandR.W.Giddingsduring1965through1967(Anderson1988).

Thesitecontainstwoprincipalelements:(1)eightculturalstrata("bands")infansofstratifiedsandthatweredepositedatthemouthsofgulliesthatincisethebluffface
(Anderson1988:3047)and(2)theAkmakoccupationonabenchcutintothebluffface14maboveriverlevel(Anderson1970Hamilton1970).Thefansofsand
areasmuchas3.5mthickandcontainstackedoccupationsurfaces.Thesecultural"bands"aresecurelydatedbacktoabout8200yrB.P.by45generally
concordantradiocarbonagedeterminations(Anderson1988:48).Incontrast,theAkmaksiteisashallowoccupationfloorthatlacksdatableorganicmaterial.

TheKobukcomplex(Band8)isdatedbetweenabout8200and7900yrB.P.(Appendix,S).3 OccupationwasonmoistsiltyalluviumattheedgeoftheKobuk
River,andunlinedhearthsinterpretedassingleusefeaturesarethoseoftemporaryhunters'campsratherthanmorepermanenthabitation.Allidentifiedcharcoalisof
willow(Anderson1988:70),andpaleosolhorizonsarethoseofpoorlydrainedtundrasoilswithshallowpermafrost(Schweger1985).TheKobukcomplexartifacts
arcdominantlymicroblades(60percent),withflakes,utilizedflakes,blades,andburinspallsalsocommon(Table1).Mosttoolsareofblackorgraychertafeware
ofobsidian.

TheAkmaklocality,whichhasbeenpartlydestroyedbysubsequentgullyerosionandexcavationofahousepit,occupiesaremnantofthe14mbenchthatisabout
20m2inarea(Hamilton1970).Thesiteisburiedbeneath30to40cmofstructurelessfinesand,whichprobablywasscouredfromtheblufffacebystrongwindsand
redepositedonthebench.Thesandiscappedbysodandsandypeat15to20cmthick,andlocallybyathickerlensofspoilfromalateprehistorichousepit(Figure
7d).Itbearsawelldevelopedpodzolicsoilprofileinwhichanintenselyleachedhorizon10to15cmthickoverliesastronglyoxidizedhorizon(T.D.Hamilton,
unpublishedfieldnotes,1966).Akmakartifacts,whichoccuratthebaseoftheeoliansand,areofahighqualityblacktograychertwithafinegrainedglassy
textureadistinctivelithologywhosesourceisunknown(Anderson1988:60).Primaryreductiontechnologiesincludethemanufactureofbladesfromlarge"core
bifaces"andfiatfacedbladecores,andmicrobladesfromsmallwedgeshapedcores.Unifacial,bifacial,andburinsecondarytechnologiesarepresent,andthetool
assemblageconsistsofretouchedblades,bladelikeflakes,microblades,andflakes,sidescrapers,endscrapers,burins(angle,transverse,anddihedralforms),leaf
shapedbifaces,longitudinallygroovedstones(i.e.,"shaftsmoothers"),andbackedknives(Anderson1970)(Table1).Manyartifactsareunusuallylarge:corebifaces
andbladesareasmuchas11cmlong,andlengthsofscrapersandbifacesareasmuchas15cm.AccordingtoAnderson(1970:60),theAkmakoccupation
probablywasrelativelypermanent,withvariedactivitiessuchashidepreparation,butchering,woodworking,andweaponsmanufacturecarriedoutatthesite.

 Page178

ThegenerallyacceptedagefortheAkmaksiteof9570150yrB.P.(Anderson1988:5557)wasobtainedoncariboubonethatwasdepositedorredepositedin
thesamedeeplyburiedgullysystemthatyieldedredepositedAkmakartifacts(Anderson1970:70Hamilton1970).Thisageestimatewasonboneapatite(Appendix,
S)andmaybespurious,butevenavalidageestimatewouldnotnecessarilydateanyprimaryassociationwithhumans.

BatzaTna

MOSTOFTHEARCHAEOLOGICALobsidianinnorthernAlaska,includingthatfromtheOnionPortageandMesasites,isderivedfromtheBatzaTnaarea.BatzaTnais
locatedabout30kmsouthofHughesattheeastmarginoftheforestedfloodplainoftheKoyukukRiver(Figure1).Thisobsidiansource,althoughknowntolocal
natives,wasfirstreportedinthescientificliteraturebyPattonandMiller(1970).

InvestigationsbyD.W.ClarkandA.M.Clarkduring19691971documented89individualarchaeologicalsitesintheBatzaTnaarea(ClarkandClark1975,
1993).Mostofthesesiteswereflakeclusterssurroundedbywiderscattersoflithicdetritus,andwereprimarilyflakingstationswithsurfaceassemblagesonly(Clark
andClark1993:3539).TheClarksfoundthatobsidianwasobtainedfrombedrocksources,fromgravelbarsalonglocalrivers,fromcolluvium,andfromgravel
alongtheshoreofatleastonelake.Flutedpointswerefoundat10localities(wediscusstheseindetaillaterinthepaper).Lithicartifactsidentifiedinassociationwith
flutedpointsincludesparsesidenotchedandlanceolatebifacialpoints,aswellasnumerousbifaces,endscrapers,andretouchedflakes(Table1).Nodeeplyburied
siteswerelocated,andtheeightradiocarbondeterminationsfromtheBatzaTnaareaareall1500yrB.P.oryounger(ClarkandClark1993:25).

OtherapproachestodatinghumanuseofobsidianfromBatzaTnahaveincludedobsidianhydrationanalysis,typologicalcrossdatingofobsidianartifacts,anddating
otherarchaeologicalsitesatwhichtheobsidianhasbeenfound.Attemptstodirectlydateobsidianflakesandartifactsbyhydrationanalysishavebeeninconclusive
(ClarkandClark1993:2324Reanier1995).AlthoughtheClarks(1993:59)foundanageclusterofabout9000yrB.P.ononegroupofflutedpoints,boththeyand
Reaniergenerallyfoundhighlyvariablerindthicknessesattributabletoforestfires,localmicroclimates,measurementproblems,andothervariables.Someflutedpoints,
whicharewidelydistributedthroughnorthernAlaska(Clark1991Reanier1995),werefabricatedfromBatzaTnaobsidian.However,attemptsatdatingthefluted
pointshavesofarbeenunsuccessful(Clark1991ClarkandClark1993:8182Reanier1995).ThestrongestevidenceforantiquityofhumansatBatzaTna
currentlyisprovidedbytheBrokenMammothsiteintheTananaRivervalley,whereobsidianthatisidentifiedgeochemicallyasBatzaTnainoriginisclosely
associatedwithcharcoaldatedabout11,800yrB.P.(C.E.Holmes,personalcommunication1996).BatzaTnaobsidianhasalsobeententativelyidentifiedatthe
Mesasite(J.Cook,personalcommunication1996KunzandReanier1995),indicatingthatpassesthroughtheBrooksRangemayhavebeenopentohumansbyat
least10,000yrB.P.

TheTrailCreekCaves

THETRAILCREEKCAVESoccuralongthesteepsoutheastfacingflankofalimestoneridgeinnortheasternSewardPeninsula(Larsen1968).Theruggedand
unvegetatedridgefacehasnumeroussolutioncavities,andatleast13ofthesearelargeenoughtopotentiallyshelterhumans(Schaaf1988).Vertebrateremainsare
presentinabouthalfofthecaves(Schaaf1988),andninecavesshowevidenceofusebyhumans(Larsen1968).ThecaveswerefirsttestedbyD.M.Hopkinsin
1948,andtwoofthemwereexcavatedbyH.Larsenin1949and1950(Larsen1968).TheNationalParkServicetestedfiveoftheother11cavesin1985(Schaaf
1988).

Thecavescontainpoorlysortedbrecciathathasaccumulatedbyweatheringoftheirwallsandroofs.Stratigraphyofthesedepositsiscomplex,owingtodisturbance
byfrostaction,diggingbyanimals,rockfallsfromroofandwalls,gravitationalmovementsdownslopingcavefloors,activitiesofhumans,anddownwardmovementof
finedetritusthroughcoarseangularrubble.Basalclayeysedimentshavedeformedplasticallywherecompressedbeneathfallenrocksorwheresubjecttoflowdown
slopingsurfaces.

Larsen(1968:2227)definedfourprincipalstratigraphicunitsinCave2(Figure9).UnitsIandII,whichmergeintoasingleunitabout6minsidethecaveentrance
andwedgeoutentirelybeyond11m,containartifactsofHistoricthroughDenbighage(Larsen1968:6671).Theyprobablyspanaboutthe

 Page179

last4,100years(seeGiddingsandAnderson1986).UnitsIIIandIVinterpenetrate,owingtoplasticdeformationoftheclayeyunitIV.UnitIII,whichwedgesout
about12.5mintoCave2,containsmicrobladesandslottedantlerspearheads(Table1)anearbycaribouboneisdatedat9070150yrB.P.(Appendix,T).Unit
IV,whichprobablyisinsolubleresiduederivedfromsolutionofthelimestone,istheonlysedimentthatpersiststhroughoutthedeepestpartsofbothcaves.Bonesof
sheep,elk,horse,andbisonwererecoveredfromthislayer(Larsen1968:5763).SheeplivetodayonlyintheBendelebenMountains,50kmsouthoftheTrailCreek
Caves.ElkpossiblyrangedwidelythrougheasternBeringiaduringtheearlyandmiddleHolocenebutarenolongerpresentinthisregion.Horseandbison,which
werefoundoutsidetheentrancetoCave9,arediagnosticelementsofthelatePleistocenemegafauna.Afragmentofbisoncalcaneus(heelbone)thatLarsen
(1968:6163)believedwasbrokenbyhumanshasacollagenageof13,070280yrB.P.,andabrokenhorsescapulathatshowednosignofhumanalterationis
datedat15,750350yrB.P.DuringtheNationalParkServicestudyin1985,horseandbisonboneswerefoundintwoadditionalcaves,andoneofthosecaves
alsoyieldedremainsofsheepandaproboscidean(probablymammoth).Noneofthebonesshowedanyevidenceofbutchering(Vinson1988,1993).Larsenalso
reported"dog"teethinalllevelsofbothofthecavesthatheexcavated,butsubsequentstudieshaveshownthatthesearedeciduousbearteeththatwerelostnaturally
duringdenning(DixonandSmith1986Vinson1988).

Larsen'sargumentsforhumanmodificationofthebisoncalcaneuswereinitiallyacceptedbyarchaeologists,butrecentobservationshaveshownthatthisformof
breakageisacommonresultofgnawingbycanids(includingdogs,wolves,andfoxes)duringdismembermentofthehindlimbsofacarcass(S.C.Gerlach,personal
communication1989).Forthisreason,humanoccupationoftheTrailCreekCavesisnolongerconsidereddemonstrablyolderthanabout9100yrB.P.

Discussion

MAXIMUMAGESOFatleast11,800yrB.P.forBatzaTnaandabout9100yrB.P.fortheTrailCreekCavesseemwelldocumented,buttheAkmakcomponentat
OnionPortageremainsundated.TheAkmakassemblageissignificantbecauseofitsunusuallylargeartifactsfabricatedfromhighqualitychertfromanunknown
distantsource,andbecauseofitsprobablewesternBeringianaffinities.

Figure9.
Longitudinalprofile,TrailCreekCave2
(modifiedfromLarsen1968:PlateIX).

 Page180

AlthoughtheAkmaksitecannotbedateddirectly,anageestimatecanbederivedfrom(1)itspresenceonthe14mbench,(2)stratigraphicrelationstoBand8,(3)
typologicalrelationstoBand8artifacts,and(4)typologicalaffinitiestodatedoccupationsinnortheasternSiberia.RadiocarbonagesfromEpigurukBluff,6km
upvalleyfromOnionPortage,showthattheKobukRiveralluviatedtoaheightabout14maboveitsmodernsurfaceduringthelateWisconsinglaciation,butthatit
downcutabruptlyfromthatlevelabout18,500yrB.P.(Hamiltonetal.1993).Theriverremained6to7maboveitspresentleveluntilsometimeafter15,000years
ago,meanderingnorthacrossthevalleyfloortowardOnionPortage.TheKobukRiverthencutdowntoitspresentlevel,whichitreachedabout8500yrB.P.(see
Schweger1982:Figure2).TheAkmaksitecouldhavebeenoccupiedafter18,500yrB.P.,butitprobablywouldnothavebeenusedbyhumansuntilapproachedby
themeanderingKobukRiverafterabout15,000yearsagothefirmoccupationflooralsosuggeststhathabitationwasonamaturesurfaceratherthanfreshly
depositedsoftalluvium.Akmakartifactsaredispersedthroughoutthegullysystemtoitsmouth,wheretheyoccupyachannelfloordirectlybeneathBand8(Hamilton
1970:Figure64).TheabsenceofdiagnosticAkmakartifactsorlithologiesfromBand8andoverlyingculturallevelssupportsthestratigraphicevidencethatthe
AkmakoccupationprecededthatofBand8.TypologicalcomparisonsbetweenAkmakandBand8suggesttoAnderson(1970:70,1988:5572)thatthetwo
assemblagesmaybecloselyrelatedintimeandthattheybelongtogetherascomponentsoftheAmericanPaleoarctictradition.However,comparisonwithnortheast
SiberiansitessuggeststhatthosemostcloselyrelatedtoAkmakarenoyoungerthan10,500yrB.P.(Anderson1988:57).Specifically,themostcomparable
assemblagetoAkmakappearstobeUshkil,layerVI,alatePleistoceneoccupationincentralKamchatkadatedtoabout10,600yrB.P.LayerVIhasavast
inventoryofwedgeshapedmicrobladecoresandtheirpreforms(similarinsizeandshapetosomeoftheAkmakcorebifaces),fiatfacedbladecores(similartothe
Akmak"polyhedralbladecores"),burins,leafshapedpointsandbifaces,endscrapers,sidescrapers,andlongitudinallygroovedstones(Dikov1977,1979Goebel
andSlobodin,thisvolume).Whencomparedtothisassemblage,thedistinctivenessofAkmaklessens,suggestingthatitismorelikelytheresult:ofrawmaterial
availabilitythanculturalhistoricaldifferenceswithotherBeringianmicrobladeproducingindustries.Basedonstratigraphyandgeologichistory,theAkmaksitemust
havebeenoccupiedsometimebetween15,000and8200yrB.P.typologicalcomparisonssuggestaprobableagespanbetweenabout11,000and10,000yrB.P.

ArtifactsthatmayberelatedtotheAkmakassemblageinsize,typology,andlithicmaterialhavebeenfoundbyD.J.Stanfordattwootherlocalitiesinnorthwest
Alaska.AtWalakpaBay,ontheChukchiSeacoastabout18kmsouthwestofBarrow,D.J.Stanford(personalcommunication1989)foundAkmaklikeimplements
atthebaseofathin(12cm)organicmatonthecrestofalowriseonthenortheastsideofthebay.ThesecondpossibleAkmaklocality,discoveredin1989and
collectedin1992byStanfordandothers,isnearthemarginoftheKobukDunes,anactivedunefieldsouthoftheKobukRivernearOnionPortage.Implementsof
highqualitychert,whichoccuronthesurfaceinrecentsand"blowouts,"includeblades,microblades,largebifaces,endscrapers,sidescrapers,twotransverseflake
burins,andapossiblecoretablet(Stanfordetal.1990R.Gal,writtencommunication1996).ManyoftheimplementsfromtheKobukDunesmayberelatedtothe
KobukcomplexratherthanAkmak,however,andtheburinsresemblethosereportedfromDenalicomplexassemblagesincentralAlaska(R.Gal,personal
communication1996).

OtherConsiderations

INADDITIONTOTHEquestionofantiquity,othersignificantissuesinthepeoplingoftheAmericasinclude(1)originsofflutedpointsandotheraspectsofClovistechnology
and(2)feasibilityofearlyentryviacoastalroutes.BecauseoftheirlocationattheentrancetotheAmericas,Alaskanarchaeologicalsitesmightprovideinformation
relevanttobothoftheseissues.

FlutedPointsandClovisAffinities

ABOUT50FLUTEDPOINTShavebeenrecoveredfromnorthernAlaska(Clark1984,1987,1991),buttheirantiquityisstilluncertain.Mostofthepointshavebeen
recoveredfromsurfacesitesthatlackstratigraphyanddatableorganicmaterial(Clark1984)theothersarefromshallowsiteswhereverticalmovementsofartifacts
arelikely(Table2).Somereportedpointswithbasalthinning,asattheDryCreek,HealyLakeVillage,and

 Page181

Table2.
FlutedpointsitesinAlaska.SeeClark(19841991)foradditionalsurfaceornearsurfacesitesforwhichagesare
unavailable.
Locality Numberof Ageestimates(yrB.P.) Setting Reference
points
GirlsHill 4 444090(radiocarbon) Inshallow(<0.5m)loessaboverock 1
rubbledateisminimumlimit.
Putu 4 570011,470(radiocarbon) Shallowsiteinfrostmixedloess. 2
*
BonanzaCreek 3 7001800(obsidian) SiteK8,localitiesAandCatbase 3
ofsod.
BatzaTna 18 180021,600(obsidian) Surfacesitesnearridgetop. 4
NorthFork, 1 12,3001700(obsidian) Surfacesiteonhilltop. 5
KoyukukRiver
*SeeAppendix(N)
References:1.R.Gal,personalcommunicationReanier1995.2.Alexander1987Reanier1995.3.Holmes1971C.E.
Holmes,personalcommunication1989.4.ClarkandClark1993.5.M.Kunz,personalcommunication1989.

Mesasites(Clark1984,1991KunzandReanier1995),arenotconsideredtobetrueflutedpointsbymanyinvestigators.IfthebasallythinnedpointsfromDry
CreekandHealyLakearedisregarded,thenvirtuallyallknownflutedpointoccurrencesinAlaskaandtheYukonoccuratandnorthofabout66Nlatitude,and
mostaredistributedwithinorneartheflanksoftheBrooksRange(Clark1991:36).

Radiocarbonagesoncharcoalinapparentassociationwithflutedpointsrangefromabout11,500yrB.P.atthePutusitetomidHoloceneageatGirlsHillandPutu
(Table2seealsoClark1991),andapointwithaflutelikebasehasevenbeenreportedinalateHolocenePaleoeskimosite(Giddings1964:233235).Exceptfor
thediscreditedageestimateofabout11,500yrB.P.fromthePutusite(discussedpreviously),allradiocarbonagesareyoungerthantheacceptedagerangeof
11,300to10,900yrB.P.(Haynes1992)fortheClovishorizoninthewesternUnitedStates.ThepointsalsodiffertechnologicallyfromearlyClovisprojectilepoints
inthattheyhavetripleflutesofequallengthonbothfacesandconcavebasesformingdistinctcorner"ears"(Figure10),sotheagediscrepancywiththeClovishorizon
isnotsurprising.

Theobsidianhydrationmethodhasbeenusedbyseveralinvestigatorstoprovideageestimatesonflutedpointsfoundatorjustbelowthegroundsurface.Ageson
flutedpointsattheBatzaTnalocalitytendtoclusterbetweenabout8000and10,000yrB.P.(Table2),buttheyrangefrom1800to21,600yrB.P.(Clark1984,
ClarkandClark1993).Otherhydrationageestimatesareasyoungas700to1,800yrB.P.attheBonanzaCreeklocality,about250kmnortheastofBatzaTna,
whereforestfiresmayhavecausedspallingofhydrationrinds(Clark1984).Clarkconcludesthatobsidianhydrationisaffectedbytoomanyvariablestobeareliable
techniquefordatingindividualartifacts,butthatdateclusterssuchasthatatBatzaTnamaybesignificant.Amorerecentapproachtoobsidianhydrationage
estimatesutilizesburiedthermalcellstodetermineeffectivehydrationtemperaturesovertimespansofayearormore(M.A.Kunz,personalcommunication1989).
Thisapproachwasutilizedtoderiveanageestimateofabout12,2001700yrB.P.foraflutedpointfromtheKoyukukvalley(Table2),butthissingleage
assessmentcouldnotbeconfirmedbyadditionaldatingatthesite.BloodresiduefoundonseveralAlaskanflutedpointshasbeententativelyidentifiedasmammoth
(Dixon1993:107).Ifcorroborated,thisinformationmayindicatethatsomeAlaskanflutedpointsareoflatePleistoceneage.

ThereisincreasingevidencethatPaleoindianflutingtechnologiesspreadintoCanadafromthesouthsoonafter10,500yrB.P.astheLaurentideicesheetmeltedand
azoneofhabitablelandemerged.MultiplyflutedandearedpointssimilartothosefromnorthAlaskahavebeenfoundatsiteslikeCharlieLakeCaveinBritish
Columbia(10,500yrB.P.)andSibbaldCreekinAlberta(9500yrB.P.)(Carlson1991Clark1991Fladmarketal.1988Gryba1983).Thisinformationsupports
hypothesesthatflutedpointtechnologiesinnorthAlaskapostdate10,500yrB.P.andoriginatedinthesouth.

AlsoimportanttothisdiscussionistheabsenceofflutedpointtechnologiesinthelithicassemblagesofcentralAlaskathathavebeenshowntobecontemporaneousto
theClovishorizon.Goebeletal.(1991)recognizemanyClovislikecharacteristicsinthecomponentI(Nenanacomplex)assemblagesfrom

 Page182

Figure10.
FlutedpointsfromBatzaTna,northernAlaska
(a,bafterClark1991)
andBlackwaterDraw,NewMexico,thetypesitefortheClovistradition
(c,dafterGoebeletal.1991).

theDryCreekandWalkerRoadsites,andtheyconcludethat,exceptforprojectilepointforms,thetwostoneindustriesarevirtuallyidentical.However,flutedpoints
areabsentfromtheNenanacomplex,againsuggestingthatflutedpointtechnologiesdevelopedsouthoftheLaurentideicesheetandfromtherespreadnorthinto
Alaskasometimeafter11,50011,000yrB.P.AflutedbifacereportedlyhasbeenfoundatUptar1nearMagadan,Russia(KingandSlobodin1996),butthissiteis
notclearlydatedtothelatePleistoceneandthe"flute"maybejustanunusuallydeepbasalthinningscar(GoebelandSlobodin,thisvolume).

MaritimeAdaptations

SOMEWORKERSHAVEspeculatedthatthesouthcoastoftheBeringlandbridgewasrichinfoodresources(e.g.,Laughlin1967)andthatmarineadaptedhumansmay
haveoccupiedpartsoftheNorthwestCoastduringthelateWisconsinglaciation(Ackermanetal.1979Fladmark1978Josenhansetal.1997).Otherstudiesseem
toprovidelittleencouragementfortheseideastheyshowinsteadthat(1)thesouthshoreoftheBeringlandbridgeandthenorthmarginoftheGulfofAlaska
probablyhadinhospitableenvironmentsduringmuchofthelatePleistocene(2)theoldestknownarchaeologicalsitesincoastalsouthernandsoutheastAlaskaareof
earlyHoloceneage(3)coastalsitesofthisantiquityoccurtothesouthinBritishColumbia,butarenotknownnorthwardtowardtheBeringplatformand(4)human
adaptationstoasevereseaiceenvironmentmaynothavetakenplaceuntillateHolocenetime.

Sancetta(1983)andSancettaandRobinson(1983)believethattheBeringSeahadlonglastingseaiceandshort,coldsummersduringlatePleistoceneglacial
intervalsandpollenstudiesbyColinvaux(1981)andSancettaetal.(1985)alsohavedemonstratedthattheclimateoftheadjoiningsouthcoastoftheBeringland
bridgecouldnothavebeenappreciablytemperedbymaritimeinfluences.ReconstructionsbyD.H.Mann(MannandHamilton1995MannandPeteet1994)show
unbrokenglaciericealongthenorthernmarginoftheGulfofAlaskaduringthelastglacialmaximum(about22,00018,000yrB.P.).Thiscontinuousicemasswould
havedisintegratedassealevelsubsequently

 Page183

rose,butmajorglacialreadvancesintheregiontookplaceasrecentlyas11,700yrB.P.(MannandHamilton1995)andmusthaveseverelyimpactedlargesectorsof
thecoast.VegetationalsoremainedinalateglacialmodeuntilI1,00010,000yrB.P.,assummarizedbyAgerandBrubaker(1985),Heusser(1985),andHuetal.
(1995).CavedepositsonPrinceofWalesIsland,southeastAlaska,haveyieldedremainsofterrestrialfaunadatingtoabout44,00024,000and12,0007000yr
B.P.,butonlysealboneshavebeendatedtotheinterveningtimespanthatrepresentsthelastglacialmaximum(Dixonetal.1997HeatonandGrady1997Heatonet
al.1996).

DespiteintensivesitesurveysalongthesouthernAlaskacoast,noarchaeologicalsiteshaveyetbeendiscoveredthatpredate10,000yrB.P.,althoughanisolated
bonetoolmaybeslightlyolder.HiddenFallsandGroundHogBaywerefirstoccupiedabout95009000yrB.P.(Ackerman1988a,1988b,1996a,1996bDavis
1989,1996).OngoingexcavationsatPET408,acaveonPrinceofWalesIsland,haveuncoveredhumanskeletalremainsdatedatabout9800yrB.P.bytwo
concordantradiocarbonages(Dixonetal.1997Dixon1998).Twoisolatedbonetoolsinseparatechambersofthecavearedatedtoabout10,300and5800yr
B.P.(Dixon1998).PollenrecordsshowthatsprucehemlockcoastalforestdevelopedaboutthetimethatHiddenFallsandGroundHogBaywereoccupied
(Heusser1985),indicatingthathabitationprobablywasassociatedwithHoloceneforestsmuchlikethoseoftoday.Culturalinventoriesatthesetwositesinclude
wedgeshapedcores,microblades,andbifacialtools,assemblagessimilartothatoftheDenalicomplexofcentralAlaska(Ackerman1996b).Thisrelationship
indicatesgoodcommunicationwiththeinterior,andperhapsderivationfromaninland,ratherthanamaritime,population.However,occupationofbothsitesrequired
useofboatsandmarineresources,andobsidianobtainedfromnorthernBritishColumbiaindicateslongdistance(asmuchas550km)andpresumablywell
establishedcoastaltradeconnections(Ackerman1996a).Inaddition,astableisotope( 13C)valueonahumanbonefromPET408suggestsaprimarilymarinediet
(Dixon1998Dixonetal.1997).Theserelationssuggestsometimedepthtothemarineadaptation.4

TheskeletalremainsfromPET408representtheearliesthumanremainsyetfoundinAlaska,andtheirstudywillbeintegraltounderstandingrelationshipsofthese
earlysoutheastAlaskanswithlaternorthwestcoasthumanpopulations.

CoastalsitesasoldasthesoutheastAlaskasiteshavebeenreportedfromtheQueenCharlotteIslandsandcentralcoastofBritishColumbia(Ackerman1996a
ErlandsonandMoss1996Fladmark1982Josenhansetal.1997),buttheearliestknowncoastaloccupationwithintheBeringSearegionisthe8,400yearold
BladesiteonAnangulaIsland,oneoftheAleutianIslands(Ackerman1988bLaughlin1975).Theseagerelationssuggestthatearlyhumanpopulationsinsoutheast
AlaskamighthavebeenmorecloselyrelatedtomaritimepopulationstothesouthalongtheNorthwestCoast,thantothenorthinthesouthcentralAlaskaorBering
Searegions.

Anderson(1984)hasshownthatintensiveyearroundoccupationofthenorthernBeringSeacoastdatesonlyfromthebeginningofChoristime(about3600yrB.P.).
ThisextentmaymarktheinitialdevelopmentintheBeringSearegionofaneconomypartlydependentonseaicehunting,anditwouldseverelyconstrainpeoplingof
easternBeringiabymuchearliermaritimegroupsduringintervalsofsevereseaiceconditionsinthelatePleistocene.

IftheAmericaswereinitiallypeopledduringmiddleWisconsintime,movementofmaritimepopulationsthroughsouthernpartsofBeringiawouldbemorefeasible
duringthatinterval(Gruhn1994).CavedepositsonPrinceofWalesIslandhaveproducedadiversefaunaofmiddleWisconsinagethatincludesbrownandblack
bears,caribou,marmot,lemming,heathervole,andpossiblywolverine(HeatonandGrady1997).However,insomeplacesmiddleWisconsinglaciersprobably
wouldhaveblockedextensivestretchesofcoastline,andruggedfjordsandheadlandsalsowouldhaveimpededpassagebypopulationslackingsturdyandseaworthy
boats.IfglaciersremainedextensivethroughoutsouthernAlaskaduringthemiddleWisconsin,coastalroutesalmostcertainlywouldhavebeenlessfavorablefortravel
thanroutesfartherinland.

Synthesis

THEDEEPLYSTRATIFIEDandwelldatedarchaeologicalsitesfromtheNenanavalleyregionprovideanextremelyimportantperspectiveonearlyhumanoccupationof
centralAlaska.Thetwobasalcomponents,theNenanacomplex(about11,300to11,000yrB.P.)andtheDenalicomplex(about10,700to7000yrB.P.),are
clearlyseparated,andtheirartifactsseemtobeunmixed.Therecordappearstoshowthat

 Page184

severaltypesofunflutedbifacialpointswereearlyarrivalsincentralAlaskaandthatextensiveuseofmicrobladesandburinscamelater.Despitedeepburialandlittle
soilmixture,sixradiocarbondatesatDryCreek,fouratOwlRidge,andprobablyoneeachatWalkerRoad,MooseCreek,andPanguingueCreekareaberrant.The
suspectDryCreekagesbecomesystematicallyolderwithdecreasingsamplesize,suggestingcontaminationbyoldercarbon,buttheanomalouslyyoungagesatOwl
RidgeandtheoldestagesattheWalkerRoadandMooseCreeksitesaredistinguishedmainlybydeviationfromanotherwiseconcordantsuiteofages.Itisclearthat
noarchaeologicalsiteorculturalcomponentshouldbeconsideredtobe"dated"onthebasisofasingleradiocarbonageestimate.

WithintheTananaRivervalley,theBrokenMammothsiteandtheneighboringSwanPointandMeadsitesshowvirtuallysynchronouslatePleistoceneoccupations
theoldestbetweenabout11,800and11,000yrB.P.andtheyoungerabout10,8009300yrB.P.TheolderoccupationoverlapstheNenanacomplex,butit
evidentlybeganabout500yearsearlier.TheyoungeroccupationisgenerallycontemporaneouswiththeolderpartoftheDenalicomplexintheNenanaValleyand
AlaskaRange.ThecompressedrecordinthethinnerloessatHealyLakeshowsabroadlysimilarsequencetheChindadncomplex(fromabout11,500tobetween
10,000and9000yrB.P.)beingbroadly?equivalenttothetwooldestculturalhorizonsattheothersites.

ThepresentlyknownlatePleistoceneculturalsequencefromtheupperTananavalleyshowssignificantdifferencesfromthatintheNenanavalley.Giventherecord
providedbyDryCreek,WalkerRoad,andtheothermultilayeredsitesintheNenanavalley,wewouldexpecttofindbifacialpointindustrieswithoutmicroblades
predating11,000yrB.P.,followedbywedgeshapedcore,microblade,andburinindustriesafterabout10,500yrB.P.Althoughthelowestculturalhorizonat
BrokenMammothfollowsthispattern(itcontainsanonmicroblade,bifacialpointindustryandhasanageof11,80011,000yrB.P.),thenexthigherhorizondoes
not(italsocontainsanonmicroblade,bifacialpointindustrybuthasanage10,3009300yrB.P.).Furthermore,thelowestculturalhorizonatSwanPoint,datedto
about11,700yrB.P.,includesmicroblades,whereasthenexthigherculturalhorizon(about10,200yrB.P.)hasbifacialpointsapparentlywithfewornomicroblades.
ClearlythereismuchmorevariationinthelithicrecordoflatePleistocenecentralAlaskathantheNenanavalleymodelaccountsfor,andthedichotomybetweennon
microbladeandmicrobladecomplexesisnotwellunderstood.

ThefaunalremainsfromBrokenMammothandSwanPointalsodisprovethecommonsuppositionthatlatePleistocenehumansinAlaskaweredominantlybiggame
hunters(West1983).Forexample,theremainsofwapiti,steppebison,andDallsheepattheDryCreeksiteledtothesuppositionthathumanfoodquestinthe
Nenanavalleycenteredontheseasonalhuntingoflargemammals(PowersandHoffecker1989).Incontrast,bonesrecoveredfromtheBrokenMammothsiteshow
thatthisisjustonefacetoflatePleistocenesubsistence,andthatsmallmammals,waterfowl,ptarmigan,andfishalsowereimportantdietitems.Abroadfaunal
spectrumalsoisrepresentedattheUshkiandBerelekhsitesinwesternBeringia,whichalsopredate11,000yrB.P.AtUshki(layerVI)faunalremainsincludesteppe
bison,horse,mountainsheep,lemming,domesticateddog,waterfowl,andfishatBerelekh,theremainsofhare,ptarmigan,andmammothareprevalent,while
reindeer,bisonorhorse,andfishoccurinlowerfrequencies(GoebelandSlobodin,thisvolume).Vereshchagin(1974:10),VereshchaginandUkraintseva(1985:105),
andAbramova(1989:232)havesuggestedthatsomeoftheBerelekhproboscideanremainswerescavengedfromnearbymammothboneaccumulations,anactivity
thatalsotookplaceincentralAlaska.

MostlatePleistocenesitesintheNenanaandTananarivervalleysoccupyrivercutbluffsthatprovidesweepingviewsacrossadjoiningvalleyfloorsandthenearby
northernfoothillsoftheAlaskaRange.Mostofthesitesareinloessthatoverlieswindscouredbedrockandrockrubblecappedbywinddepositedsand.Loess
begantoaccumulateinpartsoftheTananaValleyatorshortlybefore11,80011,700yrB.P.andintheNenanaValleyby11,200yrB.P.,probablyasglaciers
retreatedandstrongkatabaticwindsfromtheAlaskaRangediminishedinintensity.TheBatzaTnaobsidianlocalityinnorthwestAlaskawasutilizedatleastasearly
as11,700yrB.P.,withobsidiandistributedatleastasfarastheTananaValleyatthattime.ObsidianfromtheWrangellMountainsalsooccursinthelowestcultural
layersatBrokenMammothaswellasincomponentIatWalkerRoad(J.P.Cook,personalcommunication1996),indicatingawidespreaddistributionnetwork
throughallofcentralAlaskabetweentheBrooksRangeandtheAlaskaRangeby11,700yrB.P.Theseobservationsimplythatolderarchaeologicalsitesmustbe
present,atleastincentralAlaska,buthaveyettobediscovered.Perhapsthose

 Page185

siteswereinwindshelteredlocationsonthevalleyfloorsorfarthernorthinuplandsmoreremotefromtheAlaskaRange.

Incontrast,thefoothillsandcoastalplainnorthoftheBrooksRangeshownounassailableevidenceforhumanoccupationolderthanabout10,500yrB.P.TheMesa
siteandotherhuntinglookoutsintheArcticFoothillswereoccupiedbyPaleoindiansabout10,50010,000yrB.P.,butprobablynotearlier.Lanceolatepointsat
thesehuntingstationsresemblethoseoftheAgateBasincomplexoftheGreatPlains,andwebelieveitmostlikelythatlatePaleoindianculturesspreadnorthwardinto
subarcticCanadaandAlaskasometimeafter10,500yrB.P.ThepresenceofBatzaTnaobsidianattheMesasite,ifverified,wouldindicatethatpassesthroughthe
BrooksRangemusthavebeenopenbyatleast10,000yrB.P.,whichisinaccordwiththeknownrecordoflatePleistoceneglaciation.TheMesacomplexreflects
littleculturallegacyfromtheearlierNenanaChindadncomplexofcentralAlaska.Forexample,thelanceolateshaped,concavebased,andedgegroundbifacial
pointsofMesahavenotbeenidentifiedinthecentralAlaskanassemblagespredating11,000yrB.P.Furthermore,bifacialpointscharacteristicoftheNenana
complexincentralAlaska(i.e.,smallChindadnandtriangularpoints)havenotbeenfoundnorthoftheTananabasin.Thismaybeanindicationthathumansincentral
AlaskawerephysicallyconfinedbytheglaciatedBrooksRangetothenorthaswellastheAlaskaRangetothesouthuntilabout10,50010,000yrB.P.

Flutedpointtechnologyalsoappearstopostdate10,500yrB.P.inAlaska,andthereforeissignificantlyyoungerthanintemperateNorthAmerica.Aswiththe
lanceolatepoints,flutedpointsevidentlyspreadnorthwardthroughCanadaintoAlaska.Whethertheyrepresentthesameoraseparatediffusionormigrationeventis
notpresentlyknown.Clearly,though,themultiplyflutedand''eared"basesoftheAlaskanflutedpointsaredistinctfromearlyClovispointsontheHighPlainsandare
morecloselyrelatedtolatePaleoindianflutedpointsfoundinwesternCanadaafter10,500yrB.P.

NodatesareavailableontheenigmaticAkmakartifacts,whichareknownfromOnionPortageandpossiblytwootherlocalitiesinnorthwestAlaska.Theuniqueness
oftheassemblagemaybeduetotheexceptionalrawmaterialsthatwereutilizedcorrelationswithKamchatkansitessuggestaprobableagespanbetween11,000
and10,000yrB.P.,andthereforeprobablecontemporaneitywiththeMesaPaleoindianstothenorthandtheDenalicomplextothesouth.AlthoughtheAkmak
assemblageisentirelydistinctfromMesa,thepresenceofawedgeshapedcore,microblades,andburinssuggestsomeaffinitiesbetweenAkmakandtheDenali
complex.

InadditiontoprovidinganageestimatefortheAkmakartifacts,thelatePleistocenehumanrecordfromwesternBeringiaprovidesothersignificantinsightsintothe
peoplingofAlaska.Forexample,theearliestevidenceofhumansinwesternBeringiadatestoabout14,000yrB.P.,suggestingthatAlaskacouldalsohavebeen
occupiedbythistime.ThebladeandbifacepatterndocumentedintheNenanavalleysitespredating11,000yrB.P.hasbeenreplicatedattheUshki1sitein
Kamchatka,andpossiblyattheBerelekhsiteinarcticnorthwesternBeringia.Atthesesites,bifacesandsmallbifacialpoints,retouchedblades,endscrapers,andside
scrapersarecommon,whilemicrobladesareabsent(GoebelandSlobodin,thisvolume).Ontheotherhand,flutedpointsandedgegroundlanceolatePaleoindian
pointslikethosefromMesahavenotbeenfoundanywhereinwesternBeringia,implyingthattheyweremorelikelyderivedfromcontinentalNorthAmericathanfrom
northeastAsia.Instead,asincentralAlaska,thepost11,000yrB.P.recordoflatePleistocenewesternBeringiaisdominatedbywedgeshapedcoreand
microbladetechnologies.

Acknowledgments

Wearepleasedtoacknowledgethefollowingindividualsforhelpfuldiscussionsandpatientanswerstoournumerousquestions:R.E.Ackerman,D.D.Anderson,N.
H.Bigelow,P.M.Bowers,J.P.Cook,T.Dilley,E.J.Dixon,R.Gal,S.C.Gerlach,R.D.Guthrie,J.F.Hoffecker,C.E.Holmes,D.M.Hopkins,M.L.Kunz,R.
D.Lively,C.M.Mobley,G.A.Pearson,W.R.Powers,R.Reanier,J.Schaaf,D.Stanford,R.M.Thorson,R.VanderHoek,andD.Vinson.Manyofthe
contributionsoftheseindividualsareacknowledgedas"personalcommunications"inthetext,butthisreflectsonlyasmallpartoftheirverygenerousassistance.

EarlierversionsofthisreportwerereviewedbyP.M.Bowers,L.D.Carter,J.P.Galloway,S.C.Gerlach,T.H.Heaton,J.F.Hoffecker,C.E.Holmes,D.M.
Hopkins,M.L.Kunz,R.M.Thorson,andW.B.Workman.Theircriticismsandsuggestionshelpedgreatlytoimprovethefinalpaper.

 Page186

Appendix
RadiocarbonagesfromAlaskanarchaeologicalsitesdiscussedintext.Symbols,references,andlaboratoriesare
listedatendofappendix.
RadiocarbonYearsB.P. LaboratoryNo. Material Provenience Reference
(c=charcoal) (co=component
cz=culturalzone
ps=paleosol)
A.DryCreek
modern SI1933A c ps4b 1
37540 SI1933B peatandroots ps4b 1
114560 SI2333 c ps4b 1
343075 SI2332 c ps4a 1
365560 SI1934 c ps4a 1
467095 SI1937 c ps4a 1
6270110 SI2331 c ps3 1
690095 SI1935C c ps3 1
8355190 SI1935B c ps3 1
8600460 SI2115 c ps3 1
10,600500* SI1935A c ps3 1
19,0501500* SI1544 c ps3 1
10,54070** AA11731 c uppermember,ps2 2
9340190 SI2329 c ps2coII 1
969075** AA11732 c middle,ps2 2
12,0801025* SI1936 c ps2 1
23,9309300* SI1938 c ps2 1
934095** AA11733 c lowermember,ps2 2
10,06075** AA11727 c uppermember,ps1 2
10,615100** AA11728 c lowermember,ps1 2
10,690250 SI1561 c ps1coII 1
891570** AA11730 c lowermember,ps1 2
11,12085 SI2880 c coI 1
B.WalkerRoad
381679** AA1693 c ps,~40cmdepth 3
441595 GX12875 soilorganics ps,~40cmdepth 3
8720250** AA1692 c ps,~5060cmdepth 3
11,010230** AA1683 c coI 3
11,170180** AA1681 c co1 3
11,300120** AA2264 c co1 3
11,820200 Beta11254 c co1 3
C.MooseCreek
8160260 A2168 soilorganics lowerpscomplex 3
8940270 A2144 soilorganics lowerpscomplex 3
10,640280 I11227 soilorganics lowerpscomplex 3
11,19060** Beta96627 c co1hearth 4
11,730250 GX6281 soilorganics lowerpscomplex 3
D.PanguingueCreek
451095 GX13011 c co111 5
562065 SI3237 c co111 5

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page187

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

RadiocarbonYearsB.P. LaboratoryNo. Material Provenience Reference

(c=charcoal) (co=component
cz=culturalzone
ps=paleosol)
7130180 Beta15094 c coII 5
7430270** AA1688 c coII 5
7595405 GX13012 c coII 5
7850180 Beta15093 c coII 5
8600200** AA1689 c coII 5
8170120*** AA1687 carbonized coI 5
sediment(?)
983662** GX17457 c coI 5
10,180130** AA1686 c coI 5
13,535+400/380 A6744 soilorganics basalloess 6
E.OwlRidge
93050 D3071 c uppersand 7
440070 Beta11080 c uppersand 7
1480180* Beta11082 c coIII 7
6900265 D3070 c coIII 7
7035380 GX13009 c coIII 7
2470120* Beta11081 c? coII 7
7230100 Beta11437 soilorganics coII 7
7660100 Beta11436 soilorganics coII 7
8130140 Beta5418 soilorganics coII 7
9325305 GX6283 soilorganics coII 7
238090* Beta11079 c? coI 7
9060410* Beta5416 c coI 7
11,340150 Beta11209 c coI 7
F.BrokenMammoth
204065 WSU4267 c cz1(upper) 8
2815180 UGA6255D c cz1(upper) 8
452590 WSU4458 c cz1(lower) 8
454590 WSU4457 c cz1(lower) 8
454090 WSU4456 c cz1(lower) 8
4690110 WSU4350 c cz1(lower) 8
7201205 UGA6281D c cz2 8
7600140 WSU4264 c cz2 8
770080 WSU4508 c cz2 8
9310165 WSU4266 c cz3(upper) 8
9690960 UGA6256Da c cz3 8
10,270110 WSU4263a c cz3 8
10,790230 WSU4019 c cz3 8
10,29070** CAMS5358 c cz3 8
11,04080** CAMS7203 largemammalbone cz3/4? 8
11,06090** CAMS7204 wapitibone cz3/4? 8
11,040260 UGA6257D c cz4(upper?) 8
11,280190 WSU4265 c cz4(middle) 8
11,42070** CAMS5358 c cz4(middle) 8
11,50080** CAMS8261 swanbone cz4(middle) 8

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page188

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

RadiocarbonYearsB.P. LaboratoryNo. Material Provenience Reference

(c=charcoal) (co=component
cz=culturalzone
ps=paleosol)
11,510120 WSU4262 c cz4(middle) 8
11,770210 WSU4351 c cz4(lower) 8
11,770220 WSU4364 c cz4(lower) 8
15,83070** CAMS9898 ivoryartifact cz4(lower?) 8
G.SwanPoint
122070 WSU4523 c co2 9
157070 WSU4524 c co2 9
167060 WSU4522 c co2 9
175080 WSU4521 c/resin? co2 9
740080 WSU4426 c co5 9
10,23080** CAMS4251 c co6 9
11,66070** CAMS4252 c co7 9
11,66060** CAMS12389 c co7 9
12,06070** CAMS17405 collagen(from co7 9
ivory)
H.Mead
143060 WSU4348 c upperforestsoilcz1 10
4050140 WSU4349 c middleforestsoil 10
6070170 Beta59115 c lowerforestsoilcz2 10
9220370* Beta59117 c base,forestsoilcz2 10
7620100* WSU4261 c psbulksamplefromtest 10
pit
10,41080** CAMS5197 c middlepscz3 10
10,460110** CAMS4876 c middlepscz3 10
10,760170 WSU4425 c lowermiddlepscz3 10
11,56080** CAMS5198 c lowerpscz4 10
11,60080** CAMS4877 c lowerpscz4 10
17,37090** CAMS17408 collagen(from cz4 10
ivory)
I.HealyLake
455130 GX2166 c level1(05cm) 11
90090 GaK1886 c level1 11
modern GX1945 c level1 11
38050** CAMS16521 plantmaterial level2(510cm) 12
90590 GX2160 c level2 11
136080 GaK1887 c level2 11
1655180 GX2168 c level2 11
2875140 GX2169 c level2 11
3850140 GX2165 c level2 11
3655426 AU4 c level2 11
446060** CAMS16524 plantmaterial level2 12
179050** CAMS16522 plantmaterial level3(1015cm) 12
2660100 GX2176 c level3 11
335050** CAMS15915 c level3 12
2150180 GX2161 c level4(1520cm) 11
302050** CAMS15916 c level4 12

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RadiocarbonYearsB.P. LaboratoryNo. Material Provenience Reference

(c=charcoal) (co=component
cz=culturalzone
ps=paleosol)
4010110 GX2163 c level4 11
8960150 GX1340 bone level4 11
modern GX2162 c level5(2025cm) 11
500060** CAMS16525 plantmaterial level5 12
511090 Beta76064 c level6(2531cm) 11
792090 Beta76062 soil level6 11
10,250380 GX2173 c level6 11
10,41060** CAMS15920 c level6 12
11,10060** CAMS15918 c level6 12
11,41060** CAMS15914 c level6 12
8655280 GX2171 c level7(3136cm) 11
8680240 GX2170 c level7 11
899060** CAMS15919 c level7 12
10,29060** CAMS15917 c level7 12
11,55050** CAMS16523 plantmaterial level7 12
9245213b AU1 c level7 11
9895210b GX2174 c level7 11
10,150210b SI737 c level7 11
11,090170 GX1341 bone level8(3641cm) 11
9401528c AU2 c level9(4146cm) 11
6645280c GX2159 c level9 11
8210155c SI738 c level9 11
10,434279d AU3 c level10(4651cm) 11
8465360d GX2175 c level10 11
10,040210d SI739 c level10 11
10,500280 GX1944 c level10 11
J.Chugwater
6260390 Beta7570 c uncertain 13
7760130 Beta7569 c uncertain 13
8960130** Beta18509 c 3cmbelow"markerline" 13
9460130** Beta19496 c 3cmbelow"markerline" 13
K.Campus
modern DIC2793 c 510cmdepth 14
650200** Beta10879 bonecollagen 1015cmdepth 14
2860180 Beta4260 c 1520cmdepth 14
modern** Beta10878 c 2025cmdepth 14
2725125 Beta7075 c 2025cmdepth 14
240120 Beta7224 c 2030cmdepth 14
3500140 Beta6829 c 2030cmdepth 14
L.TangleLakes
510060 SI2171B2 organicsoil(humic overlyingcz,Phipps(Mt. 15
acid) HayesIII)
5740110 SI2171B1 organicsoil(humic overlyingcz,Phipps(Mt. 15
acid) HayesIII)

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page190

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

RadiocarbonYearsB.P. LaboratoryNo. Material Provenience Reference

(c=charcoal) (co=component
cz=culturalzone
ps=paleosol)
8155265 UGa927 c overlyingcz,Phipps(Mt. 15
HayesIII)
9060265 UGa941 c? cz,SparksPoint(Mt. 15
Hayes149)
911080** Beta64577 c cz,(Mt.Hayes149) 17
920060** Beta62773 c cz,(Mt.Hayes149) 17
9600140** Beta64578 c cz,WhitmoreRidge(Mt. 18
Hayes72)
983060** Beta70240 c cz,WhitmoreRidge(Mt. 18
Hayes72)
989070** Beta62222 c cz,WhitmoreRidge(Mt. 18
Hayes72)
10,150280 UGa572 c 3cmbelowcz,Phipps 15
(Mt.HayesIII)
10,23070** Beta63672 c cz,Phipps(Mt.HayesIII) 16
10,27070** Beta77286 c cz,WhitmoreRidge(Mt. 18
Hayes72)
M.CarloCreek
5120265* WSU1727 soilhumicacid coIlowerps 19
8400200 WSU1700 c coIhearth1 19
8690330 GX5132 c coIhearth2 19
10,040435* GX5131 c coIhearth1 19
N.TeklanikaWest
177070** Beta59592 c abovecoII 20
3310100 Beta59591 c coII 20
534090** GX18517 c coII 20
713098** GX18518 c coI 20
O.Mesa
762095 DIC1589 c combinedFrom3hearths 21
973080** ETH6570 c N117121/E96100soil 23
charcoal
9810110** Beta96065 c SINI/E3436Ahearth 24
9850150** Beta96067 c SINI/E3436Chearth 24
990070** CAMS4146 c N209211/E176178 23
hearth
990080** CAMS11036 c N211215/E174178 22
hearth
993080** CAMS3570 c N213215/E180182 23
hearth
994575** ETH9087 c N103107/E9498hearth 23
998060** Beta84649 c N230231/E178179 24
hearth
999080** CAMS3568 c N109111/E8890hearth 23
10,00080** CAMS3571 c N217219/E176178 23
hearth
10,05090** CAMS11037 c N211215/E182186 23
hearth
10,06070** CAMS2688 c N179183/E146150 23
hearth
10,07060** CAMS11035 c N111115/E98102hearth 22
10,08050** Beta84650 c S2324/W2122hearth 24
10,08060** Beta95913 c S2729/W5658hearth 24
10,080120** Beta96068 c SINI/E3436Dhearth 24
10,09085** ETH9086 c SI5/E1620hearth 23
10,090110** Beta96066 c SINI/E3436Bhearth 24
10,13060** Beta95914 c S3133/W8688hearth 24
10,150120** Beta96069 c SINI/E3436Ehearth 24
10,23060** Beta95600 c NI3/S3436hearth 24
10,24080** CAMS3569 c N209211/E184186 23
hearth

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page191

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

RadiocarbonYearsB.P. LaboratoryNo. Material Provenience Reference

(c=charcoal) (co=component
cz=culturalzone
ps=paleosol)
10,260110** Beta96070 c NI3/S3436Ahearth 24
10,980280* Beta50429 c N103107/E9498hearth 22
11,19070** CAMS4147 c N217219/E180182 23
hearth
11,66080** CAMS3572 c N217219/E180182 23
hearth
P.PutuBedwell
650100 Gak4940 c uppersoilhearth 25
5700190 Gak4941 c czcombinedsamples 25
6090430 Gak4939 soilorganics lowerhalfofloess 25
8454130 WSU1318 soilorganics lowerhalfofloess 25
881060** Beta69901 c hearth(feature9) 26
11,470500* SI2382 c hearth(feature3) 25
10,49070** CAMS11032 c Bedwellsite 26
Q.Hilltop
6160130 GaK4924 soilorganicsandc 1970excavation 26
10,36060** CAMS11034 c 1993testpit 26
R.Gallagher(localityIonly)
696090** Beta97211 c loess,14cmdepthtest 27
pitnearLocalityI
10,540150 SI974 c loess,2025cmdepth 28
S.OnionPortage(band8andAkmakonly)
718090* P1111 c levelIKobukcomplex 29
7320100* P1111A c levelIKobukcomplex 29
7900100 P1076 c levelIKobukcomplex 29
7920100 P984A c levelIKobukcomplex 29
8100100 P985 c levelIKobukcomplex 29
8195280 P985 c levelIKobukcomplex 29
9570150* K1583 bone(apatite) redepositedingullywith 30
Akmakartifacts
T.TrailCreekCaves
9070150 K980 cariboubone associatedwith 31,32
(collagen?) microbladeandslotted
spearpointunitIIIof
cave2
11,360280 K1327 mammothscapula floor,caveB 31
(collagen)
14,270950 Beta20027 mammothvertebra justabovefloor,caveB 32
(collagen)
13,070280 K1327 bisoncalcaneus unitIV,cave9 31
(collagen)
15,750350 K1210 horsescapula unitIV,cave9 31
(collagen?)
NotestoAppendixonnextpage.

 Page192

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

NotestoAppendix:
*Problemdateconsidereddiscordantbyprimaryresearchers
**AMSdate
a
.Splitsample,culturalzone3,BrokenMammoth
b
.Splitsample,level7,HealyLake
c
.Splitsample,level9,HealyLake
d
.Splitsample,level10,HealyLake
References:
(1)ThorsonandHamilton1977
(2)BigelowandPowers1994
(3)PowersandHoffecker1989
(4)Pearson1997
(5)GoebelandBigelow1992
(6)C.L.Ping,pers.commun.,1993
(7)Phippen1988
8)Holmes1996
(9)Holmesetal.1996
(10)C.E.Holmes,personalcommunication1996
(11)Erlandsonetal.1991
(12)Cook1996
(13)Lively1988
(14)Mobley1990
(15)West19751981
(16)Westetal.1996a
(17)Westetal.1997b
(18)Westetal.1996c
(19)Bowers1980
(20)Goebel1996
(21)Kunz1982
(22)KunzandReanier1995
(23)KunzandReanier1994
(24)M.L.Kunz,pers.commun.,1998
(25)Alexander1987
(26)Reanier1995
(27)Ferguson1997a
(28)Dixon1975
(29)Anderson1988
(30)Anderson1970Hamilton1970
(31)Larsen1968
(32)Vinson1988
Laboratories:
A UniversityofArizona
AA UniversityofArizonaAccelerator
AU UniversityofAlaska
B Bern,Switzerland
Beta BetaAnalytic
CAMS LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory
D DicarbRadioisotopeCompany(?)
DIC DicarbRadioisotopeCompany
ETH EidgenssicheTechnischeHochschule
GaK GakushuinUniversity,Japan
GX Geochron
K Copenhagen,Denmark
I TeledyneIsotopes
P UniversityofPennsylvania
SI SmithsonianInstitution
UGa UniversityofGeorgia
WSU WashingtonStateUniversity

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 Page199

Notes

1.Soilorganicmatterdatingabout5120265yrB.P.fromCarloCreekmaybecontaminatedbypercolatinggroundwateraverysmallcharcoalsamplewith
apparentageofabout10,000yrB.P.maybecontaminatedbysmallamountsofreworkedcoalorlignite(Bowers1980:97).

2.LanceolateprojectilepointssimilartothosefromtheMesasite(M.L.Kunz,personalcommunication1996)havealsobeenreportedfromtheSpeinMountainsite
insouthwesternAlaska(AckermanandBundtzen1994).Charcoalfromapitfeatureassociatedwiththepointshasbeendatedto10,05070yrB.P.(CAMS
8281R.E.Ackerman,personalcommunication1996).

3.Anderson(1988)variouslydatesBand8at8500to8000yrB.P.(p.70)and8200to8000yrB.P.(p.48),buttheseagesarebasedonhisformeruseofa5730
yearradiocarbonhalfliferatherthantheconventionalLibbyvalue.

4.Becauseofthispredominantlymaritimediet,theradiocarbonageofthehumanremainsatPET408probablyshouldbecorrectedforthemaritimereservoireffect,
whichisabout600yearsalongthissectorofthePacificcoast(E.J.Dixon,personalcommunication1998).Thiscorrelationwoulddecreasetheapparentageofthe
skeletalremainstoabout920014CyrB.P.,makingthemaboutthesameageasthreeconcordant14CdeterminationsreportedbyDixononaculturalhorizonatthe
mouthofthecave.

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BluefishCavesandOldCrowBasin:ANewRapport
JacquesCinqMars1
RichardE.Morlan2

Abstract

LocatedinnortheasternBeringia(northernYukonTerritory),theBluefishCaveshaveyieldedevidenceofepisodichumanactivityspanningthelast15millenniaofthe
latePleistocene(25,000to10,000yrB.P.).Onesuchpieceofevidenceconsistsofamammothboneflakeanditsparentcore,radiocarbondatedbyaccelerator
massspectrometry(AMS)to23,500yrB.P.ThecontextoftheBluefishCavessiteplacesconstraintsontherangeoftaphonomicprocessesthatcouldaccountforthe
breakingandflakingofalargemammothbone,andweconcludethattheflakeandcorerepresenttheresultsofaculturallymodulatedbonereductionstrategy.

ThecoreandflakearereminiscentofsomefreshfracturedmammothbonescollectedfromanumberoflocalitiesinOldCrowBasin,locatedabout60kmfarther
northeastintheYukon.LackofrelevantsitecontextattheOldCrowlocalitiesrendersinterpretationmuchmoredifficult,butmanyofthemammothboneshavebeen
AMSdatedtobetween25,000and40,000yrB.P.AlargerrangeoftaphonomicprocessesmayberesponsiblefortheOldCrowBasinspecimens,butwearguethat
atleastsomeofthemcompriseevidenceofhumanpresenceduringthedatedinterval.Wealsoconsidertheimplicationsofthisconclusionforthelargerpictureof
BeringianandNewWorldarchaeology.

Introduction

ACOLD,ARIDREGIONknownasBeringiaplayedanunusuallyimportantroleinthepeoplingoftheAmericas.StretchingfromeasternSiberiaacrossAlaskatotheYukon
TerritoryofCanada,BeringiarepresentedthegatewaytotheNewWorld.Duringglacialadvances,thisregionservedasarefugiumforplantsandanimals,andrecent
evidenceindicatesthatitwasalwaysavailableasarichhabitatforhumansocietiesadaptedtosurviveandprosperthere.Beringiahasplayedapivotalroleinthe
evolutionanddispersalofmanyorganisms,anditisnotsurprisingthatithasbeenthesubjectofspecialstudybyscientistsinmanydisciplinesandnations(e.g.,
Hopkinsetal.1982Kontrimavichus1984).Yetinmanyrespects,Beringiaremainslittleknownandpoorlyunderstood,andthearchaeologyoftheregionisone
aspectthatisstillinitsinfancy.

ThispaperpresentssomeoftheprincipalconclusionsofPleistocenearchaeologicalresearchinthenortheasterncornerofBeringiathenorthernYukoninterior.This
isanextensiveareaofplateaus,uplands,andrangesborderingseverallargelowlandbasins(Hughes1972Hughesetal.1981).Duringthepastthreedecades,the
authorsofthispaperhaveconductedresearchintheYukon.Onehasfocusedhisattentionprimarilyontheuplands(CinqMars1978,1990),whiletheotherhas
concentratedonthelowlands(Morlan1980,1984,1986).Atpresent,neitheroftheseareasprovidesacompletepictureoflatePleistocenedevelopments,buta
provisionaloutlinecanbeglimpsedbyintegratingresultsofstudiesinbothsettings.

ThepaperbeginswithaconsiderationofpaleoecologicalandarchaeologicalfindingsatanuplandsiteknownastheBluefishCaves.Therecordatthissitespans
approximately25,000years,includingalengthyperiodduringwhichthelowlandrecordappearstobemutedbyeventsmarkingthefinalstagesofaprolonged,late
Wisconsinanglaciolacustrine
1
.Curator,QuebecArchaeology,ArchaeologicalSurveyofCanada,CanadianMuseumofCivilization,Hull,Quebec,CanadaJ8X4H2.
2
.Curator,PalaeoenvironmentalStudies,ArchaeologicalSurveyofCanada,CanadianMuseumofCivilization,Hull,Quebec,CanadaJ8X4H2.

 Page201

Figure1.
Mapshowing:(upperbox)thepositionofthenorthernYukonoreasternmost
BeringiarelativetoAlaska,theBeringlandbridge(hatchedarea),andeastern
Siberia(middlebox)thelocationofthenorthernYukoninteriorglaciallake
basins,relativetotheapproximateeasternboundariesofBeringiadelineatedby
thecontinentalglacialicelimitsof25,000and18,000yearsagoand(lowerbox)
thelocationoftheBluefishCavesandOldCrowRiverlocalitiesrelativetoone
anotherandtotheBluefishandOldCrowglaciallakes(hatchedareas).

inundation.Moreimportantly,thearchaeologicalevidenceattheBluefishCaveshasbeenderivedfromaprimarydepositionalcontextthatprovidesadegreeof
chronostratigraphicandtaphonomiccontrolnotyetavailableinthelowlandregion.TheBluefishCavesevidenceenablesustodemonstratehumanoccupationin
easternBeringiaduringtheheightanddeclineofthelastglaciation.Theimplicationsofthatevidenceformabasisforreconsideringoldermaterialsfromthelowlands
forwhichfewercontrolsareavailable.Inthisprocessofreevaluatingtheevidencefromboththeuplandsandthelowlands,weareaidedbynewdatafromaccelerator
massspectrometry(AMS)measurementsonbonecollagen.

TheBluefishCaves:ContextandContent

THEBLUEFISHCAVESarelocated54kmsouthwestofthevillageofOldCrow,atanaltitudeof250m,overlookingthemiddlecourseofBluefishRiver,whichflows
northoutoftheKeeleRange(CinqMars1979).DuringthelateWisconsin,thenearbyvalleywas,foratime,occupiedbytheapexofalong,narrowdeltaicestuary
thatformedwhereBluefishRiverreachedaglaciallakeoccupyingtheBluefishBasin(Figure1).

ThecavesaresituatedatthefootofaDevonianlimestoneoutcropformingpartofanextensivetractoflimestoneplateausandrangesthatexhibitabroad

 Page202

rangeofbothancientandrecentkarstfeatures(CinqMarsandLauriol1985Laurioletal.1991).TheBluefishCavesconsistofthreesmall,cryoclasticallyaltered
cavitiesthatrepresentvestigialconduitsofsuchkarsticdevelopment(Figure2)(CinqMars1990).Ranginginvolumefromabout10m3to30m3,thecavitiescontain
sedimentsvaryinginthicknessfromabout:30cmto2m.

Excavationshavebeenconductedinsidethecavesaswellasimmediatelyoutside,downslopefromthedriplines.Theyhaverevealedadepositionalsequencethatis
summarizedbelowonthebasisofacombinationofstratigraphic,pedological,sedimentological,paleontological,palynological,andradiometricinformation(Cinq
Mars1979,1982,1990Morlan1983a,1984,1989MorlanandCinqMars1982Ritchie1984Ritchieetal.1982).

Thefloorofthesequence(UnitA)consistsofthefrostspalledandlagcoveredbedrocksubstrateofthecavesandadjacentoutsideledgesandslopes.Sometime
around25,000yearsago,thissurfacebegantobecoveredbyaseriesofthreefaintlydifferentiatedeoliansiltorloessmantles(UnitBC.Tarnocai,written
communicationtoJ.CinqMars).ThesourceofthesesedimentsisthoughttohavebeentheexpandingmarginsofthethenrecedingglaciallakesthatoccupiedOld
CrowandBluefishBasinstothenorthandnortheast(Figure1).Inthecourseofthefollowingmillennia,UnitBsedimentsincorporatedandpreservedawealthof
vertebrateremainsthatcollectivelyrepresentthe"Mammothfauna"(Guthrie1982).AtBluefishCaves,thislatePleistocenefaunaincludesmammoth(Mammuthus
sp.)bison(Bisoncf.priscus)horse(Equuslambei)sheep(Ovisdalli)caribou(Rangifertarandus)moose(cf.Alces)wapiti(Cervuselaphus)saiga(Saiga
tatarica)muskox(Ovibosmoschatus)lion(Pantheraleoatrox)cougar(Felisconcolor)bear(Ursusarctos)wolf(Canislupus)andalargevarietyofsmaller
mammals,birds,andfish(CinqMars1990:Table1HaringtonandCinqMars1995Morlan1983a,1984,1989).

UnitBformedoveraperiodofabout15,000years,spanningmostoftheDuvannyYarinterval,whichrepresentsfullglacialtime,aswellasthesubsequentlate
glacialBirchinterval(Hopkins1982).ThebeginningoftheBirchinterval,around13,500yearsago,marksavegetationshiftfromxericherbaceoustundratomesic
shrubtundra.Theendofthistimeischaracterizedbytheinvasionofborealforestaround10,000yearsago.Thelatterdatecorrespondstoboththeendofaeolian
depositionandaconspicuouschangeinfaunalcomposition.ThediverselatePleistocenefaunawasreplaced,throughprocessesofextinctionandextirpation,bythe
relativelyimpoverishedHolocenefaunaofthenorthwesternCordilleraninterior(Youngman1975).ThesemorerecentfaunalremainsarecontainedinUnitC,athick,
humusrichcryoclasticrubbleindicativeofwetterborealconditions.UnitCisoverlainbyUnitD,correspondingtomodernhumus,litter,andvegetation.Together,
UnitsCandDaccumulatedduringthepast10,000yearsundertheclimaticregimethathascharacterizedtheborealforestenvironmentofnorthwesternNorth
AmericaduringtheHolocene(Figure3)(Ritchie1984).

Figure2.
(A)AerialphotographofBluefishCaveI,takenfromthe
northnorthwestandshowingaportionofthelimestone
ridgecomplextogetherwithaviewofthesurrounding
uplandsettings.(B)AerialphotographofBluefishCaveII,
whichislocatedjustbehindCaveItheviewisfromthe
southandshowstheforestcoveredBluefishRivervalley.
(Photo:J.C.M.)

ParticularlyimportanthereisthefactthatUnitB,inCavesIandIIand,toalesserdegree,CaveIII,haveyieldedavarietyofculturalindicators.These

 Page203

Figure3.
A3.5mlongprofileofthedepositfounddownslopefromthemouthofCaveII.(See
textforunitdescriptions.)Thelargelimestoneblockcanbeseen,fromtheopposite
direction,intherightforegroundofFigure2A.
(Photo:J.C.M.)

include(1)asmallseriesoflithicartifacts,(2)bonealterationsrepresentingbutcheringactivities,(3)afewexamplesofbonetoolmakinganduse,and(4)examplesof
bonereductionbyflakingtechniques.Eachoftheseisbrieflydescribedbelow.

Thelithicartifactsarcpresentedinthreeclasses.First,thereareafewculturallydiagnosticelements:microbladecores,microblades,coretablets,burins,burinspalls,
andtheirbyproducts(Figure4).Allofthesearemadeofhighqualitychertsthatbasedonongoingexplorationsoftheselimestoneuplandsarebelievedtobe
exotictotheregion.MostoftheartifactswerefoundinCaveII,butafew(aburinspallandafewmicrobladefragments)wererecoveredfromCaveI.Allbuttwo
werefoundintheUnitBloessinlevelsthatalsocontainedtheremainsofthelatePleistocenevertebratefauna.Thetwoexceptionsarethoughttohavebeen
redepositedlocally.TheseartifactsrepresenttheAmericanPaleoarcticDiuktaitechnologicalcomplex,whichhasbeendatedinneighboringAlaskatoaround10,500
yearsagoandinSiberiatoatleast18,000yrB.P.(CinqMars1990Morlan1987Powers1990).Unfortunately,atthepresenttime,thesediagnosticBluefish
Cavesspecimenscannotbedatedwithprecision.Variouslinesofevidence,however,suggestthattheyarecertainlyasold,ifnotolder,thantheirAlaskan
counterparts(CinqMars1990).

Thesecondclassoflithicsconsistsofmicroflakes,whichmeasureabout13mmintheirgreatestdimension.Theyarethecharacteristicresidueofflintknapping,
retouching,andstonetooluse(CinqMars1979Fladmark1982).Theywererecoveredinthelaboratoryfrombothsievedandbulksedimentsamplestakenfromall
threecaves.ThoserecoveredfromthemainstratigraphiccontrolcolumninCaveIrepresentamuchbroaderrangeofrawmaterialsthanisrepresentedamongthe
moreformalartifacts.ThemicroflakesarepresentinvariousfrequenciesthroughoutthethicknessofUnitBandthereforeappeartospanmuchofthe25,000to
10,000yearsagointerval.Thelargestobservedconcentrationstraddlesthestratigraphicposition,whichispalynologicallyassociatedwiththetransitionfrom
herbaceoustundratoshrubtundra.Asnotedearlier,thistransitionisdatedtoaround13,500yrB.P.inthisareaofeasternBeringia(Ritchie1984Ritchieand
Cwynar1982Ritchieetal.1982).

Thethirdclassoflithicspecimensconsistsofsmallcobblesandevenmorenumerouspebbles.Thesepreviouslyhavebeendescribedasindicatorsofhumanpresence
atthecaves(CinqMars1979MorlanandCinqMars1982),butsubsequentinvestigationhasshownthattheirpresenceinthebasallatePleistocenesedimentsmight
beexplainedbypaleokarsticstreamtransport(CinqMars1990).Althoughsomeofthelargestones(smallcobbles)mayhavebeenusedastools(MorlanandCinq
Mars1982:Figure9),thevastmajority,(pebbles)islikelytoconsistofnonculturallag.

ThesecondcategoryofculturalindicatorsiscomprisedofcutmarksorbutcheringmarksonvariouslargemammalbonesfromUnitB(MorlanandCinqMars1982:
Figure10)(seedescriptionofbonecoreandflakebelowandFigure5).Thusfar,thecutmarks

 Page204

Figure4.
SelectedlithicsfromBluefishCave11:(a)microblade(b)microblade(c)burinspall(d)coretablet(e)
wedgeshapedmicrobladecore(f)multipleangleburinonatruncatedflake(g)multipleangleburinon
aflakefragmenttruncatedatbothends(h)angleburinonasmalltruncatedblade.
(Photo:J.C.M.)

havebeenexaminedonlybybinocularlightmicroscopy,butplansareunderwaytoexamineasampleofthemwithascanningelectronmicroscopetodocumentthem
ingreaterdetail(e.g.,Shipman1981ShipmanandRose1983).SomeofthecutmarkedspecimenshavebeenradiocarbondatedbyAMS,andtheresultsare
concordantwiththedistributionofmicroflakesinsuggestingthathumanactivitytookplacesporadicallyatthecavesthroughouttheintervalfrom25,000to10,000
yearsago.

Athirdtypeofculturalmanifestationconsistsofafewbonesthatappeartohavebeenshapedandusedastools.Mostly,thesearesplitlongbones,whichshowtraces
ofwhittlingorshaving,togetherwithabradedand/orpolishedareasthatmayhaveresultedfromusewear.Onesuchspecimenismadefromasplitcariboutibiathat
hasalltheattributesofabrokenfleshingtool(seeMorlanandCinqMars1982:Figure9).IthasbeenradiocarbondatedbyAMSto24,800yrB.P.(ErieNelson,
writtencommunicationtoJ.CinqMars),makingittheearliestdatedartifactfromadocumentedstratigraphiccontextineasternBeringia.

Thefourthcategoryofculturalmanifestationisrepresentedbyamammothboneflakeanditsparentcore(CinqMars1990).Thesetwospecimens(Figure5)were
foundinanareaoftheCaveIIdepositthatyieldedarelativelyhighconcentrationofmegafaunalremains,includingmanymammothbones.Allwerefoundlyingonor
nearbedrockinthelowestlevelsofUnitB.Theflakehasbeendetachedlongitudinallyfromtheoutercompactboneofafreshproboscideanlongbone.Itsdistalend
ishinged,anditsproximal

 Page205

Figure5.
CompositeplateshowingvariousaspectsoftheBluefish
CaveIImammothboneflakeandparentcore:(a)afrontview
ofthecoreexhibitingthreeflakefacets(b)thesameview
ofthecorewiththeflakerefittedonthemaincentralfacet(c)
theflakeexhibitingthedorsalaspectoftheproximal(upper),
bifaciallyworkededge(d)arotated(leftlateral)viewofthe
flakeshowingtheothersideofthebifacialmodification(e)
macrophotographyofoneofthecutmarks.(Scale/core:10
cmlengthofcutmark:approximately1.3cm.)
(Photo:J.C.M.)

endbearstracesofextensivebifacialtrimmingorplatformpreparation.Cutmarksalsocanbeseenonthedorsalface,nearthebifaciallyretouchedproximalarea,and
nearthehingedextremity.Theflakeiswellpreservedandshowsnotracesofcarnivoregnawing.Theproboscideanlongbonethatwasusedtofashiontheparentcore
issoheavilyreducedastoprecludepreciseanatomicalpositioning.Thecoreexhibitsthreeclearflakeremovalfacetsoriginatingfromthemidshaftregion.Thelatter,
correspondingtothecoreplatformarea,issomewhatamorphous,itsfeatureshavingbeenpossiblyobscuredinpartbypostburialtaphonomicprocesses.Postburial
damagealsooccursatthebaseofthecore,whichcorrespondstotheepiphysisofasomewhatimmatureanimal.Liketheflake,thecoreexhibitsnoevidenceof
carnivoregnawing.Theflakecanberefittedtothecentralflakescaronthecore(Figures5and6).Refittingshowsthatfollowingitsdetachment,theflakewas
reducedbifaciallyanddiagonallybyslightlymorethanathirdofitsoriginalsize.BoththeflakeandthecorehavebeenradiocarbondatedbyAMS(ErieNelson,
writtencommunicationtoJ.CinqMars)thedatesoverlapatonesigmaandprovideanaverageageof23,500yrB.P.

TheboneflakeandcorecloselyresemblesomeofthemammothbonespecimensthathavebeenrecoveredfromtheOldCrowBasin,about100kmnorthofthe
BluefishCaves(Bonnichsen1979Irvingetal.1989Morlan1980).TheOldCrowspecimenshavepromptedextensivediscussionsonbonetaphonomy(seebelow),
raisingtheproblemofequifinalityintheactionsofmanybonealteringagencies.ItisdifficulttoaddressthisproblemintheOldCrowBasin,becauseredepositionhas
divorcedthealteredbonesfromtheiroriginalstratigraphiccontexts.TherelativelyundisturbedcontextoftheBluefishCavesspecimensencouragesustoreexamine
someofthemostpertinentargumentsthathavebeenputforthtoexplainflakedmammothbones.

Onesuchargumentisthatfluvialtransport,andparticularlythemovementofrivericeatbreakup,canaccountforthesebonealterations(e.g.,ThorsonandGuthrie
1984).Obviously,suchprocesseshaveneveroccurredattheBluefishCaveswithinthetimespanunderconsideration,thusindicatingthattheBluefishmammothbone
coreandflakehavebeenproducedbyothermeans.Moregenerally,ithasnotbeendemonstratedthatfluvialprocessescanactuallymimiccomplexbonereduction
sequences,suchasthosedescribedabove.Webelievethatfluvialentrainment,especiallyinthepresenceofice,islikelytoproduceavarietyofbonealterations,
includingpolishing,abrasions,striations(includingsomecutmarkmimics),battering,crushing,andsomespiralfracturingonsomebonesitalsowillleadtothetotal
destructionofmanyfaunalelements.However,themassiveforcesreleasedbyfluvialandicetransportareveryunlikelytoduplicatethecomplexsequenceofactions
thatcanbeinferredfromtheBluefishmammothbonecoreandflake,aswellasfromanalogousspecimensfoundintheOldCrowBasin.

Anotherproposedexplanationforproboscideanbonefractureisthetramplingortossingofbonesbylivinganimals(Agenbroad1989Binford1981Haynes1988
Myersetal.1980).Thismaybeanappropriateexplanationwherelimitedspaceor

 Page206

Figure6.
Schematicillustrationshowing(upperrow)threeviews
ofthebonecoreanditsflakefacets,and(lowerrow)
thesameviewswiththerefittedflake.

restrictedaccesstoawaterholecausescrowdingofperishinganimals,butsuchanenvironmentalorbehavioralcontexthardlycanbefoundeithernoworinthepastat
theBluefishCaves.Furthermore,neitherfieldobservationsnorexperimentshavedemonstratedthattossingortramplingeverproducessuchacomplexseriesof
reductionstagesasseenintheCaveIIspecimens.DroughtinducedcrowdingaroundAfricanwaterholesisknowntocauseextensivebonefragmentationfrom
elephanttrampling(Haynes1988),butnoneoftheexamplesseenthusfarapproachesthecomplexityofthemammothbonecoreandflakerecoveredfromthe
BluefishCavesorsomeofthosefromtheOldCrowBasin(G.Haynes,personalcommunicationtoR.E.Morlan).

Athirdhypothesishasidentifiedrockfallasanagencycapable,undercertaincircumstances,offracturingfreshproboscideanbones(Agenbroad1988,1989:143).
RockfallundoubtedlyhasoccurredattheBluefishCaves,andthisprocesshasalteredsomeofthebones,especiallybycrushingandsplinteringbonesalreadyinthe
burialenvironment.Veryfewofthemammothbonesexhibitfreshstatefracture,andnoneofthemwasfoundinapositionwhererockfallcouldclearlybeimplicated
asthefracturingagency.Furthermore,thereisanenormousconceptualandoperationaldifferencebetweenrandomextentsthatcausesimplealterations,suchas
fractures,andtheimplementationofastepbystep,orderedsequenceofbonereductionsuchaswehavedescribed.Witheachpassingstep,theprobabilitydeclines
thatrandomeventscouldberesponsibleforthecumulativealterations.

Afourthbonebreakinghypothesisconcernsaccidentalfallsbylivinganimals,whichmightfracturetheirownbones("torsion/falling"[Agenbroad1989:143]).Insome
circumstances,thebrokenbonemayevenbecomepolishedandchippedalongthefracturesurfacesastheinjuredanimalcontinuestomovehowever,suchbones
alsomayexhibitsignsofhealingthroughtheformationofperiostealreactivebone(Oliver1989).NoexamplesofsuchhealinghavebeenseenontheBluefishCaves
mammothbones.Moreimportantly,accidentalfallsarenomorelikelythanotherrandomeventstoproduceanorderedsequenceofbonereductionleadingtothe
detachmentoflargeflakesfromcoresandfurtherreductionoftheflakes.

Carnivoregnawingrepresentsamoreinterestingexplanationforthecomplexfracturingofbones,because,likehumantechnology,itrepresentspurposefulbehavior
(seeGuthrie1988Haynes1988VoorhiesandCorner1986).Bothlargeandsmallcarnivoreshaveplayedimportantrolesintheaccumulationandpostmortem
alterationofbonesattheBluefishCaves.Inparticular,manyofthemammothbonesexhibitmassiveepiphysealreductionbygnawing,gouging,andscooping
featuresobviouslyinflictedbylargecarnivores.Oftheapproximately15mammothlongbonesrecoveredfromCavesIandII,onlythreespecimensfailtoexhibit
carnivorealterations:theboneflakeitsparentcoreandathirdspecimenthatexhibitsthesamecolorandsurfacetextureattributesofthefirsttwo,andthatalsomay
beculturallyaltered.Ofthecarnivoregnawedbones,includingjuvenilespecimens,noneoftheresidualshaftsegmentshasbeenspirallyfractured,andonlyafewbear
randomtracesofverysmallbonechipshavingbeenpulledorleveredback.

Overall,themammothbonealterationscanbedividedintotwoclassesthatexhibitnooverlapwhatsoever.Thefirstclassconsistsofthosespecimensshowingthe
patternandrangeofsurfacemarksattributabletocarnivoreactivity(Haynes1983a,1983bHill1989Marshall1989).Theotherclassconsistsprimarilyofthecore
andflake.Thisclassexhibitsacompletelydifferentsetandrangeofmodifications,withpatterningthatclearlyisaresult

 Page207

ofnonrandomevents.Moreover,thispatterningachievesadegreeofresolution,ofsharpness,whichispresumablyindicativeofclarityofpurposethatisneverfound
incarnivorealteredspecimens.Weattributethistohumanbehavior,inaccordancewiththeassociatedevidencerepresentedbythebutcheringmarksseenonthe
flake.Toattributethesetypesofmammothbonealterationstotwodifferentcausesisneitherarbitrarynordeceiving.Theattributionsreflectthedifferentpurposesof
carnivoreandhumanbehavior,whiletherecognitionofpurposeremovesbothclassesofalteredbonesfromexplanationbyrandomevents.

OldCrowBasinasSeenfromtheBluefishCaves

ASALLUDEDTOEARLIER,theobservationsderivedfromtheBluefishCavescontexthaveseveralimplicationsfortheinterpretationofsomeoftheredepositedbonesfrom
OldCrowBasin.First,wecanapplysomeofourargumentsconcerningrandomversuspatternedbonealterationstothecircumstancesthatmusthavealtered
mammothbonesintheOldCrowBasin.Second,spiralfracturesarenotseenontheheavilygnawedmammothbonesfromtheBluefishCavestheirabsencesupports
thehypothesisthatBeringiancarnivoreswereunabletofracturefreshproboscideanbonesinmidshaft(Morlan1980).Third,theboneflakeandcorefromBluefish
CaveIIarconlyslightlyyoungerthansomeoftheOldCrowBasinspecimens,andthelattercanbeconstruedastechnologicalantecedentstotheformer.

Wealreadyhaveexpressedourdoubtsthatfluvialentrainment,riverice,trampling,tossing,andaccidentalfallsrepresentadequateexplanationsforpatternedbone
flaking.Wehavearguedthatthepatterninginferredtoaccountforcomplexalteredbonemorphologycannotbeexplainedbysuchrandomevents.Asequenceof
actionsisrequiredtoproduceabonefragmentthatwewouldclassifyasacoreorflake.Eachstepinthesequenceentailsdynamicloadingthatmustbedelivered
withincertaingeometriclimits.Suchlimitsgovernthesizeofthecontactarea,aswellastheangleofdelivery.Theboneorfragmentmustbeheldsecurelytoreceive
theloading,anditmustberotatedpreciselyfromoneholdingpositiontoanother.Webelievethatsequentialrandomextentsareunlikelytofollowsuchacourseof
actionsinfact,ateachstepinthesequencetheprobabilityofthenextstepoccurringdeclinesinrandomaction.

Weregardbothcarnivoregnawingandhumantechnologyasprocessesofnonrandomactiononbones.Theactionisnonrandombydefinitionbecauseitispurposeful.
Theprocessesdiffer,however,inclarityofpurposeandthereforeinresult.Carnivoresareinterestedinbonesassourcesoffatandprotein.Theyattacktheendsof
boneswherefatismostconcentrated(seeBrinkandDawe1989:124ff.),corticallayersarethin,andbonegeometryisconducivetoforcefulmastication.Humansare
interestedinbonesassourcesoffoodandrawmaterial.Theyareableto''attack"eventhelargestbonesinmidshafttoretrievefatrichmarrowandthickcortical
fragmentsforuseastools,andsomeculturespulverizethefatrichendsofbonestomakebonegrease(Binford1978BrinkandDawe1989).Asmentionedearlier
andarguedelsewhere(Morlan1983b),webelievethereisanupperlimittothesizeofbonethatcanbebrokeninmidshaftbyagivenspeciesofcarnivore.The
BluefishCavesbonessupporttheviewthatBeringiancarnivoreswereunabletofracturemammothbonesinmidshafteventhoughtheyextensivelyalteredtheendsof
suchbones.

OnestudyofOldCrowBasinbones(Friesen1989)findsasignificantassociationbetweensignsofcarnivoregnawingonmammothbonesandfragmentationpatterns,
whichareclassifiedasbonecores.Wefindthisstudydifficulttoevaluateforthreereasons:(1)itisatvariancewithourownobservationsonbonesfromtheOld
CrowBasin(2)itdoesnotspecifythemorphologicalcriteriathatarediagnosticofcarnivoregnawingand(3)itdoesnotindicatetheplacementofgnawingmarksin
relationtotheflakescars,whichguideclassificationofcores.Thus,gnawingandcoreproductionaresaidtobeassociated,butnofunctionalassociationis
demonstrated.

DatesobtainedonbonesfromtheOldCrowBasinprovideanadditionalperspectiveonthesearguments.Bothcarnivoregnawingandrandomprocessescanbe
assumedtohavebeenoperatingonbonesthroughoutthetimeperiodrepresentedinthefossiliferousbluffsalongtheOldCrowRivermorethanonemillionyears
(Schweger1989).Therefore,thesedepositsshouldyieldbonecoresandflakesolderthanthemeasurementlimitsofradiocarbondatingifanyoftheseprocessesare
capableoftheirproduction.

AprogramofAMSdatingwasundertakenonbonecoresandflakestodeterminewhetherthedistributionofageswouldberandomorgroupedintime.Arandom
distribution,includingagesbeyondthelimitsofradiocarbonmeasurement,couldbeexplainedbytheactionofoneormorelongtermnaturalprocessesofbone
alteration,whereasarestricteddistribution

 Page208

youngerthanthelimitsofmeasurementwouldrequiretheonsetofanewprocessofbonealteration(Morlanetal.1990:75).

Theresultingageswerefoundtoberestrictedtoa15,000yeartimespan,beginningaround40,000B.P.andendingaround25,000B.P.Sincewebelievethatour
measurementmethodswouldhaveallowedustomeasuresamples10,000yearsolderthanthoseencounteredhere,thisimpliesthatanewagencyorprocessenters
intothetaphonomichistoriesoflargevertebratesintheOldCrowBasinaround40,000B.P.(Morlanetal.1990:86).

AsintheAMSstudy(Morlanetal.1990),andwithsupportfromtheBluefishCavesevidencepresentedabove,wehypothesizethatthenewagencyisHomo
sapiens,whoseboneflakingtechnologyrepresentedpartofaculturaladaptationtonorthernhabitats.Thisviewhasprecedentinothertechnologicalexamplesknown
fromsitesscatteredacrossEurasia,fromEurope(AbsolonandKlima1977Valoch1982Villa1991)toSiberia(Mochanov1977Morlan1987N.Drozdov,
personalcommunicationtoJ.CinqMars1990).AdditionalexamplesareknownfromyoungerlocalitiesintheNewWorld(e.g.,Hannus1989Miller1989).

Discussion

INADDITIONTOTHEIRarchaeologicalimportance,thedatedmammothbonesfromtheOldCrowBasindemonstrateadegreeofbiologicalproductivityinnortheastern
BeringiathroughoutmidWisconsinantime(Morlanetal.1990).Althoughthislowlandrecordiscurtailedbyalongcycleofcomplexglaciolacustrineinundation
beginningaround30,000yrB.P.(Lemmenetal.1994),thecomplementaryuplandrecord,asseenatBluefishCaves,showsongoingproductivitythroughoutthe
heightanddeclineofthelateWisconsinanglaciation(CinqMars1990).ItfollowsthateasternBeringiaofferednoknownecologicalobstacletocolonizationby
humansadaptedtonorthernlatitudes.Ourinterpretationofalteredmammothbonesindicatesthatsuchalevelofadaptationhadbeenachievedbyatleast40,000
yearsago.WepresumethathumanshadspreadacrossBeringiabythattime.

Ifthispresumptioniscorrect,thereshouldhavebeennoimpedimenttothemovementofhumansfromtheBeringianinteriorsouthwardthroughmuchofthe
northwesternCordillerantotherestoftheNorthAmericancontinent.AncientBeringianswouldhavehadnoneedtosearchforcorridorstothesouth(see
BobrowskyandRutter1990DredgeandThorleifson1987Fultonetal.1984:7677),betheyinterior(Beaudoin1989Ivesetal.1989)orcoastal(Fladmark1979
Gruhn1988).Beginningasearlyas40,000yrB.P.,itisnotdifficulttoimagineasouthwarddispersalrapidenoughtoaccountforsomeoftheearliestpurported
evidenceinmidcontinentalNorthAmerica(e.g.,Adovasioetal.1990)andinSouthAmerica(e.g.,Dillehay1989GuidonandDelibrias1986).Whetherornotsucha
dispersionactuallytookplaceisanothermatteraltogether(Aikens1990CinqMars1990Morlan1988).

PeopleutilizedtheBluefishCavesbeginningaround25,000yearsagoandsporadicallythroughoutthelateWisconsinanglaciation.Theymayormaynothave
representedasingleculturaltraditionthroughoutthisperiod.Ouronlycluesareelementsofaboneflakingtechnology,withlikelytiestotheOldCrowBasinanda
fewEurasiansites,andthemicrobladeandburintechnology,withclearertiestoAlaskaandSiberia.Thesetechnologicalmanifestationsmayormaynotberelated
historically.

ThelatePleistocenearchaeologicalrecordoftheOldCrowBasinandtheBluefishCavesallowsustocatchaglimpseofmorethan25,000yearsofprehistory.It
showsthattheexistingarchaeologicalpicturefartherwest,inSiberiaandAlaska,iswoefullyincomplete.Forexample,theChukotskPeninsulaofSiberiaremains
blankonthearchaeologicalmapoflatePleistoceneBeringia.ThesamewouldholdtrueforinteriorAlaskawereitnotforthegrowingnumberofsitesthatcannowbe
ascribedtothe11,600yearoldNenanacomplex(PowersandHoffecker1989Yesneretal.1992).Thelatter,anditslikelyantecedents,mayprovideuswitha
betterappreciationofthetechnologicaltrajectories,whichmusthavebeenpresentineasternBeringiaoverthelongerterm(CinqMars1990:26,note13Powers
1990).

WereiteratethatBeringianarchaeologyisinitsinfancy.Beringiaisanimposinglyvast,subcontinentallandmasswhoseexpansesbarelyhavebeenexploredfor
paleontologicalandarchaeologicalremains.AcarefulinvestigationinonesmallportionofitsnortheasterncornerhasrevealedtheBluefishCaveswitharecordthat
providesuswith,amongotherthings,abetterappreciationofsomeoftheolderlowlandevidence.WhilesomeeasternBeringiancavesitesarenothighlyinformative
withrespecttolatePleistocenearchaeology(e.g.,Dixon1984Vinson1988),webelievethatallofthemcanserveaswindows

 Page209

intothedistantpast.Throughthem,wewillcontinuetodecipherthecomplexenvironmentalandculturalprocessesthatledtothepeoplingofatrulyNewWorld.

Acknowledgments

ThisreportisbasedonresearchcarriedoutwiththefinancialandlogisticsupportoftheArchaeologicalSurveyofCanada,CanadianMuseumofCivilization,andthe
PolarContinentalShelfProject,Energy,MinesandResourcesCanada.ThediscoveryandearliestinvestigationsattheBluefishCavesweremadepossibleby
assistancefromtheSocialSciencesandHumanitiesResearchCouncil(Canada).WeareespeciallygratefultoErleNelsonandhisRIDDLlaboratorycolleaguesfor
providingJ.CinqMarswiththeBluefishCavesAMSC14determinations.Finally,wewanttoacknowledgethehelpprovidedbynumerouscolleaguesandfield
assistantsduringthecourseoftheseinterdisciplinaryinvestigations,aswellasthatofnumerousVuntutGwichinresidentsofOldCrow,whogreatlyfacilitatedourfield
research.IanDyckandJ.V.Wrightmadehelpfulcommentsonanearlierdraftofthismanuscript.Thispaperwaslastrevisedin1994.

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1990ThePeoplesofEasternBeringia.InPrehistoricMongoloidDispersals,pp.5374.Newsletterofthe"PrehistoricMongoloidDispersals"Project,No.7,
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1984PastandPresentVegetationoftheFarNorthwestofCanada.UniversityofTorontoPress,Toronto.

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theYukon,editedbyL.D.Carter,T.D.Hamilton,andJ.P.Galloway,pp.3033.U.S.GeologicalSurveyCircularNo.1026.

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1981ApplicationsofScanningElectronMicroscopytoTaphonomicProblems.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences376:357386.

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1983EarlyHominidHunting,ButcheringandCarcassProcessingBehaviors:ApproachestotheFossilRecord.JournalofAnthropologicalArchaeology2:5798.

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SearchingfortheEarliestCanadians:WideCorridors,NarrowDoorways,SmallWindows
MichaelClaytonWilson1
JamesA.Bums2

Abstract

DespiteclaimsforarchaeologicalsitesinCanadathatpredatethelastglaciation,alloftheseoccurrenceshavebeenrejectedorareunconvincing.BluefishCaves
remainaweakpossibilityforsuchantiquitybut,beinginBeringia,dolittletoresolvethequestionofsouthwardmovementofpeople.TheIceFreeCorridorwasopen
forsouthwardmovementofhumanandmegafaunalpopulationsperhapsasearlyas14,000yrB.P.butfindsofthatantiquityarealmostnonexistent.Physicalopening
ofacorridordidnotnecessarilyconstituteits"bioticopening"formigratorypopulations.Theestablishedarchaeologicalrecordbeginswithflutedpointsineasternand
westernCanadaandfollowsasequenceofhorizonstylesmuchasinareastothesouth.Thereislittledirectevidencetosupportanorthward"lag"indatesforthese
specifichorizonstyles,despitepastsuggestionsofsuchaneffect.Glaciallakeshorelinesholdpotentialforsurveysinsearchofoldersites,andthe12,000yearold
Kylemammothsiteremainsincompletelystudiedforevidenceofhumanactivity.ThedistributionofflutedpointsinwesternCanadafitswithinthepostulatedcorridor
betweeneasternandwesternicemarginsca.11,500yrB.P.,asdodatedpostglacialmammothoccurrencessimilarrelationshipsarenotedbetweeneasternfluted
pointoccurrencesandmappedicefronts.LateglaciallandscapesontheCanadianplainsandintheGreatLakesarearepeatedlyweresweptandscouredbyoutburst
floodsfromephemeralproglacialmeltwaterlakesastheLaurentideicesheetretreatedsuchfloodscouldhavedevastatedhumanandmegafaunalpopulationsbutalso
couldhaveledtoerosionallossofearlyarchaeologicalsitesifnotdeepburialofothersindepositionalareasdownstream.TheCanadianPlainsareaduringthe
Holocenewaslesserosionalthanareastothesouth,sothatexposuresarelessfrequentandtherecordlessaccessible.Deeptestingstrategiesareimperativein
surveysforearlysitesintheIceFreeCorridorandhavebecomecommonpracticeintheareatheiruseinthepasttwodecadeshasledtodiscoveryofseveral
Paleoindiansites.Nevertheless,acoastalmigrationrouteremainsastrongpossibility.

Introduction

CANADACONSTITUTESABOUT40percentoftheNorthAmericanlandmassandincludesasubstantialportionoftheroutebywhichthefirstpeoplearrivedinthe
midcontinent.ThereisaricharchaeologicalheritageinCanada,onethatisadmittedlylesswellunderstoodforthePaleoindianperiodthanisitsUnitedStates
counterpart.Althoughavocationalarchaeologistswerewidespreadbytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,insomeofthewesternCanadianprovincesformal
archaeologicalstudiesdidnotgetunderwayuntilasrecentlyasthelate1950s.Theliteratureisneverthelessextensiveanditisbeyondthescopeofthispaperto
summarizeitall.

WhatfollowsisanattempttoisolateseveralmajorissuespertainingtoCanadianPaleoindianstudiesandtoplacethemintoanhistoricalcontext.Theauthorsdraw
uponthetechnicalliteratureandalsouponthefirstvolumeoftheHistoricalAtlasofCanada(R.C.Harris1987),whichincludesimportantarchaeologicalsummaries
producedunderthegeneralcoordinationofJ.V.Wright.Someoftheideasinthepresentreport,
1
.GeologyDepartment,DouglasCollege,P.O.Box2503,NewWestminster,BCV3L5B2,Canada.
2
.ProvincialMuseumofAlberta,Edmonton,ABT5N0M6,Canada.

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alongwithmoreextensivediscussionsofrelatedgeologicalandpaleontologicalmatters,haveappearedinBurns(1990,1996)andWilson(1990a,1993a,1996).
Thispaperwaswrittenlargelyin199091andhasbeenupdatedasbestpossiblehowever,itsoverallstructureandemphasisremainmuchasoriginallysetout.Our
emphasisisupontheearliestculturalcomplexesfromCanadianlocalities,andreferencestolaterPaleoindianassemblagesaremadeonlytoillustratespecificlinesof
reasoning.Giventhatamajorfocusofthissymposiumistheevidenceforinitialpeoplingofthemidcontinentalarea,wedevotespecialattentiontothe"Icefree
Corridor"issuewiththefullknowledgethatthiswillmakeourcoverageofotherareasappear,bycomparison,tobecursory.Noslightisintendedtoworkersinother
areas.

ManyaspectsofthePaleoindianpeoplingofCanadaremainfrustratinglyobscure,despitethededicatedeffortsofarchaeologists.Inastrictsenseitwillneverbe
possibletoidentifythepreciseinstantintimewhenthefirstpersonsetfootinwhatisnowCanada(or,forthatmatter,NorthAmerica),butonecanbeforgivenfora
growingimpatienceoverananswertothequestionofwhethertheeventwasglacialorinterglacial.Suchaquestionisnotsimplyamatterofchronologyarguably,the
precisedatingofthefirstfootsteponthecontinentisamongthelessinterestingissuesinvolved.Ofgreaterinterestisanunderstandingoftheprocessesinvolved,ofthe
meansbywhichpeoplearrivedintheNewWorld,andoftheculturalandecologicalsettingandconsequencesoftheirarrival.Giventhepossibility,ofarelativelylate
Pleistocenefirstarrival,thereisthetangiblepossibilitytoexamineindetailtheculturalimplicationsofdispersalintounoccupiedterritoryandtosearchforacultural
counterparttothedispersaltheoryimplicatedinmammalianevolution(Geist1971Wilson1993b).Despitesuggestionsofearliersites,forthemostpartthesamplein
moresoutherlyareasofCanadaisconsistentwithanarrivalofca.14,000to11,500yrB.P.Thisisnotentirelyforwantofsearching,thoughtheamountofperson
daysspentinthesearchdefinitelyisafactor.

ThehistoryofPaleoindianstudiesinCanada,asintheUnitedStates,hasseenwholesaleswingsbackandforthfromenthusiasticacceptanceofpurportedinterglacial
sitestorejectionofsuchclaims.TherehavebeensuggestionsofgreatantiquityforhumanpresenceatSheguiandah,Ontario(Lee1957)theTaberChildsite,Alberta
(Stalker1969,1977a,1983Wilson1983a)MedicineHatsites,Alberta(Stalker1977a)theSaskatoonsite,Saskatchewan(Pohorecky1988Pohoreckyand
Wilson1968)OldCrow,YukonTerritory(IrvingandHarington1973)BonnetPlumeBasin,Y.T.(Hughesetal.1981)BluefishCaves,Y.T.(CinqMars1979
Morlan1987MorlanandCinqMars1982)and,mostrecently,sitesatCalgary,Alberta(Chlachula1996a,1996bChlachulaandLeBlanc1996).Noneofthese
claimshasbeeninanywayfrivolous,allhavingarisenfromextensivescientificstudies.Yetallhavefacedskepticismorrejectionbythescientificcommunityforequally
wellstatedreasons,anditmaybethatClovisandrelatedflutedpointtypesstillwillemergeasrepresentativeoftheearliestwaveofimmigration.

ThepresentauthorstakearelativelyconservativestanceontheantiquityofhumansinCanada,althoughthisadmittedlyisincontrasttotheseniorauthor'searlier
euphoricclaimsabouttheantiquityofhumanoccupationinAlberta(e.g.,Wilson1983a:327).Bothauthorshaveheardcolleaguesdecryingthecriticsofearlysitesas
"closedminded"tothepossibilityofanearlypeoplingevent,andsuchcomplaintsalsohavebeenpublished(e.g.Lee1986Pohorecky1988).Here,however,we
coupleourconservativestancewiththeferventhopethatsuchearlysiteswillbefound.Theconclusiontorejectmost,ifnotall,ofthesiteslistedaboveisasourceof
frustration,nottriumph,andonlystrengthensourresolvetokeeplookingforbettercandidates.

Apparently,ifthefirstcolonistsusedtheIcefreeCorridoratall,theymovedswiftlysouthwardthroughit,betweentheLaurentideandCordilleranicesheets,the
corridorbeingwidelyopen(andthereforehardlydeservingofthenameanymore)byabout11,000yearsago.Thetoolkitsoftheseearlytravellersincludedwell
madebifaciallyflakedknivesandpointsaswellasblades,allofwhichofferedresemblancestoOldWorldcounterparts(Hoffeckeretal.1993Morlan1987Mller
Beck1967).OldWorldtiesalsoaresuggestedbytheuseofredocherandthepresenceofboneandivorytooltechnology,includingforeshaftsand(inmore
southerlyClovis,atleast)"shaftwrenches"(batonsdecommandement)(Haynes1980).Laterimmigrantssoonaddedmicrobladetechnologiestotherepertoire.
ArchaeologistsinCanadaappearthusfartohavebeenstymiedinthesearchforanythingconvincingthatisolderthanClovis,eveninthelateglacialrecord.Possible
reasonsforthisfollow.

Thisbeingasummary,article,weagreewithananonymousreviewerastotheneedformoredetailedandcriticalevaluationofradiocarbondates,particularlyasthey
bearuponquestionsofchronoclinaltrends.

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WearepleasedtoreportthatsuchareviewinrelationtoIcefreeCorridordatesisunderwaybyThomasG.ArnoldasaPh.D.projectatSimonFraserUniversity.
Inthepresentsetting,wecanonlyacknowledgethatdatesascitedarenotnecessarilycomparableatfacevalue,foravarietyoftaphonomicreasons(seeClaytonand
Moran1982,Wilson1993a).Nevertheless,theydoallowustoformulatehypothesesforfurthertesting,whichisourprimarygoal.Ifoneinsistsupondatingonly
woodcharcoal,asClaytonandMoran(1982)andKuzminandTankersley(1996)havesuggested,thereisalogicalfallacyiftheearliestsiteswereintundrawithout
trees.Bydefinition,alldatesfromareaswithouttreeswouldberejectedandtheearliestdateschosenwouldmarkthearrivaloftreesratherthanpeople.Atthisstage
inreviewoftheevidence,wechoosenottoinvokesuchparadoxes.

HistoricalPerspectives

THEPOSSIBILITYOFANorigininAsiaforAmericanIndianswaswidelydiscussedbythelatenineteenthcentury(e.g.,Bancroft1882),eventhoughawidevarietyofother
hypotheses,rangingfromitinerantWelshmentotheLostTribesofIsrael,werepersistentlypopular.Themainproblemwasoneofchronology,becausealimitedtime
depthtotheoccupationoftheAmericaswouldallowforcolonizationbytechnologicallyadvancedgroupsusingoceangoingcraft.Agreattimedepth,witharrivalin
theTertiary,wouldallowforlong,independentdevelopmentofhumansandtheircultures,butwouldmeananarrivalinNorthAmericaofhumanswhowerenot
technologicallyadvancedandwho,therefore,mostlikelycamebyland.The19thcenturyanthropologicalandgeologicalliteratureofferedmanyclaimsfortheextreme
antiquityofhumansintheNewWorld.HumanskeletalmaterialandapparentartifactsfromtheauriferousgravelsofCaliforniawereassignedtotheTertiaryperiodas
lateastheturnofthecentury(Holmes1899,Whitney1879).Werethistohavebeentrue,thefirstpeoplingwouldhavebeenapreglacialeventandmostearlysitesin
Canadawouldhavebeenoverriddenbysubsequenticeadvances.AcautioussummarybyWright(1893),despitelengthyconsiderationoftheNewWorldevidence
forearlyhumanoccupation,dismissedtheCaliforniaevidencebutotherwisesimplyavoideddiscussionofthemechanismsandtimingofthefirstpeoplingevent.For
Canadianscientists,thisuncertaintywasofgreatsignificance,fortheterritorywasextensiveanditwasnotatallclearwhereoneshouldsearchforearlysites.

GeologicalfindingsandhypothesesplayedanimportantroleinthedevelopmentandtestingofearlymodelsofthepeoplingoftheNewWorld.FieldworkbyDawson
(1875,1885),Hector(1861),andHind(1859,1864)revealedthatamajorglaciationhadindeedaffectedwesternCanadabutinterpretationsvariedwidely.Both
DawsonandHectorbelievedthattheWidespreaddriftontheCanadianPlainswasofsubaqueousorigin,itsbouldershavingbeencarriedacrossashallowseaby
icebergsthatcalvedfromglacierstothewest(intheRockies)andtheeast(CanadianShield).Itwasthoughtthattheweightoftheicehadcausedenoughdepression
oftheinterveninglandmassthattherehadbeenasouthwardtransgressionofArcticOceanwaters.Suchaview,whichwouldhaveruledoutaland"corridor"between
icemassesattheirmaximum,waschallengedbyBell(1890),Tyrrell(1890),andUpham(1891,1895),whoallbelievedthatwidespreadcontinentalglacierswerethe
directagencyoftilldeposition.Dawson,theinfluentialdirectoroftheGeologicalSurveyofCanada,clungtothe"glacionatant"(iceberg)hypothesisuntiltheendofthe
century(Dawson1891a,1897).

Recognitionofevidenceformultipleglaciations(Dawson1891b,1895DawsonandMcConnell1895Tyrrell1898)meantthattherehadbeenaninterglacialperiod
andthatevenifaseahadbeenpresent,presumablytherehadbeentimeswhenitsregressionallowedalandcorridortolinkBeringiawiththemidcontinent.Sucha
corridorwasillustratedasearlyas1894intheformofT.C.Chamberlin's"IdealMapofNorthAmericaDuringtheIceAge,"publishedasPlateXIVinGeikie
(1894).Withtherecognitionoficepushandicescouredfeaturesontheopenplains,the"glacionatant"hypothesiswaslaidtorest,andworkbegantoconcentrate
upondetailsofthePlainsglacialsequence(e.g.,Coleman1910).Theformerexistenceoffreshwaterglaciallakes,longadvocatedbyauthorssuchasAgassizand
Upham,wasacknowledgedwidelyandasequenceofretreatalicemarginallakeswasdocumented(e.g.,JohnstonandWickenden1931).

Theicefree"corridor"betweentheCordilleranandLaurentideicemassessoonwashypothesizedbyJohnston(1933)tohaveplayedadirectroleinthepeoplingof
theNorthAmericanmidcontinent(seealsoAntevs1935,1937K.Bryan1941).Bryan,suggestingonlythathumans"filter[ed]southastheicedaminthePlains
disappearedabout10,000yearsaftertheglacialmaximum,"acknowledgedtheabsenceof

 Page216

concreteevidence."Intheabsenceofarchaeologicaldatasuchanideaisintriguing,butperhapsfanciful,"helamented.

RejectionoftheCaliforniaclaimsforgreatantiquity(e.g.,Lindgren1911:5253Wright1893:294301,372374)arosefromcriticalreanalysisthatreflecteda
changinganalytical"climate"forothersitesaswell.AlthoughthesetrendsweremostapparentinUnitedStatesresearch,theroleofCanadianterritory(westernor
otherwise)asaconduitformigrationwaswidelyacknowledged.Hrdlika(1907,1918)debunkedclaimsoftheearlyQuaternaryorevenTertiarypeoplingofNorth
AmericaandadvocatedalatePleistocenearrivalviatheBeringStrait,possiblyinwavesofcolonization.Differencesinmorphology,ethnographiccharacteristics,and
linguisticswereseenaspossiblysupportingamigratorywavehypothesis,newversionsofwhichareagainwaxingandwaning(Greenberg1987Greenbergetal.
1986).Rivet(1943)andothersarguedforadditionalmigratorywavesacrossthePacificbutagreedthattheBeringroutewasofgreatimportance.Whiteadmixture
(CroMagnon)wasenvisagedbyothers,withhumansislandhoppingfromEuropeviaGreenlandtoLabradorontheCanadianmainland.Physicalandethnographic
parallels,especiallywiththeMagdalenian,werecitedinsupportofthisview(CottevilleGiraudet1928foramorerecentview,seeGreenman1962).Imbelloni
(1938),whilenotacceptingtheeasternroute,discernedsevenphysicaltypesintheNewWorldandhypothesizedsevendistinctmigrations,rangingfromEskimoto
Tasmanians!Tothisday,authorsdifferinviewsastowhetherconcreteevidenceexistsamongmodernAmericanIndiangroups,eitherinphysicalorculturalattributes,
toallowpostulationofdirectlinkageswithanyparticularsubareaofAsiaorparticularethnicgroupings(e.g.,papersinLaughlinandHarper1979).Recentefforts
havecentereduponthepossibilityofthreedistinctgroupings(Paleoamerican,NaDene,andEskimoAleut),butthesedistinctionsappearagainonthevergeof
breakingdown(Greenberg1987Greenbergetal.1986seealsodiscussionsbyGibbons1993,1996Morell1990).Thearchaeologicalargumentsremainina
similarstate,thoughanorigininAsiaformost,ifnotall,nativeNorthAmericangroupsisnolongerseriouslyquestioned.AnorigininAsiadoesnot,however,mandate
aMongoloidorigin,giventhediversityofAsiaticgroupsincludingcentralAsiaticCaucasoidgroupsoflongstanding.

Onceidentified,theIceFreeCorridorbecamethesubjectofarchaeologicalsurveysinthelate1930s.EarlyexploratorysurveysoftheCorridorareabyBird(1939)
andBliss(1937,1939a,1939b)weretantalizingbutprovidedfewspecificleadsforimmediateinvestigation.Parks(1925)hadreportedtheassociationofartifactsin
Saskatchewanwiththenewextinctantilocaprid,Neomeryxfinni,butthelatterprovedtobenothingmorethanavariantformofthemodernpronghornantelope,and
ofnogreatantiquity.Clearevidenceofancientsiteswasnotfound,butatleastthearchaeologicalpotentialoftheareawasconfirmed.Followupworkwas
interruptedbyWorldWarIIandsurveysdidnotresumeuntilthelate1940sandthe1950s(Johnson1946JohnsonandRaup1964MacNeish1951,1953,1954,
1956a,1956b,1963,1964).SurfacefindsfromAlbertaincluded"classic"examplesofvirtuallyallthemajorPaleoindianprojectilepointtypesknownfromthePlains
tothesouth,andflutedpointswerewidespread(Kehoe1966WormingtonandForbis1965).DespiteclaimsofsubstantialantiquityfortheBritishMountaincomplex
ofthenorthernYukon(MacNeish1959),basedupontechnologicalconsiderations,confirmationwasnotforthcomingandtheassemblageisnowinterpretedas
Holocenelithicworkshopdebris(Greet1991).

ClaimsfortheEarliest(Preglacial)Sites

DURINGTHE1970sANDEARLY1980s,theoutlookfordiscoveriesofpreWisconsinanhumanremainsinwesternCanadalookedextremelypromising.Discoveriesat
OldCrow,YukonTerritory,includedacariboutibiaflesherdatedbyradiocarboninexcessof27,000yrB.P.,anantlerwedge,anantlerbillet,spirallyfracturedand
flakedmammothbones,andevenahumanmandible.Mostofthesewerefrompointbarplacerdeposits(Bonnichsen1978Haringtonetal.1975Irving1978Irving
andHarington1973Irvingetal.1977Morlan1978).MajorexpeditionswereorganizedbytheNationalMuseumofMan(OttawanowtheCanadianMuseumof
Civilization)andtheUniversityofTorontoinpursuitofinplacematerial(Irving1986Joplingetal.1981Morlan1979,1980).

InsouthernAlberta,the"TaberChild,"fromwhatcametobeknownastheStalkersite,seemedtobeaninplacePleistocenehumanskeleton,ageestimatesfor
whichrangedasfarbackas60,000to90,000yrB.P.(Stalker1969,1977a).Theremainswereofaninfant,themorphologicalcharactersofwhichdefieddetailed
comparisons(Sundick1980).Enigmaticflakedchert

 Page217

Figure1.
GlaciallyflakedcobblesatAthabascaGlacier,ColumbiaIcefields,JasperNationalPark,Albertaandcobblesinthe
immediateareaoftheglacierterminus.(a)ViewofrapidlyretreatingterminusofAthabascaGlacier,withrecessional
morainetoright(east)andlateralmoraineindistance.Cobblesin(b),(c),and(d)werephotographedinsituatthis
locationandlaywithin2mofoneanother,about3mfromtheglacierinanareaexposedatmostafewdecadesago.
(b)Angularquartzitecobblewithmultipleconchoidalflakescars,twoofwhich(blackandwhitearrows)aredeep
andshowhingedterminations.(c)Finegrainedquartzitetometasiltstonecobblespallwithmultipleconchoidal
flakescars,oneofwhich(arrow)displays''apointofpercussion,"likelyinfactfrompressureflakingwithinthe
ice.(d)Striatedmetacarbonatecobblewithmultiplecyclesofflaking,followedbyabrasionandfreshoverlapping
hinged"retouch"scarsalongmuchofthelowermargin.Note,in(b)(d),theangularityofmostothercobbles
andpebbles,othersofwhich(regardlessofsize)alsodisplaycrescenticflakescars.Suchcobbleswerefoundin
abundancethroughouttheterminalmorainearea.

objectsfromSangamonianormidWisconsinandepositsnearMedicineHat,Alberta,promptednamingofthe"ArtifactBand"andseemed,alongwithbrokenlarge
mammalbones,toindicatehumanactivity(StalkerandChurcher1970Szaboetal.1973).Similarflakedobjectsandspirallyfracturedlargemammalbones
recoveredfromSangamonianalluviumatSaskatoon,Saskatchewan,alsowereinterpretedasarchaeologicalinorigin(PohoreckyandWilson1968).

Regrettably,noneofthisevidencehasfullywithstoodscientificscrutiny.ThreeOldCrowspecimenstheflesher,antlerwedge,andantlerbillethavebeenredated
byacceleratormassspectrometrytothelateHolocene(Morlanetal.1990Nelsonetal.1986).FracturedmammothboneremainsfromOldCrowandparticularly
fromBluefishCavesmaybewitnesstohumanactivity(Morlan1986,Morlanetal.1990).Nevertheless,inthecaseofthesefinds,seriousconcernsstillexistabout
naturalmechanismsofbonebreakage,includingcarnivoreactivityandphysicalprocesses.Forexample,freshfrozenbonesthawingfrompermafrostmightbe
subjectedtoapparentgreenbonefractureduringactivezonedetachmentofsediments(gelifluction),muchasconchoidalfractureofcobblescanoccurin

 Page218

movingice.Rivericepushingagainstexposedbonesinsuchdepositsalsocancausebreakageandabrasion(ThorsonandGuthrie1984).Nonaturalbreakage
mechanismseemstoexplainallofthepatternsnotedatOldCrow,leavingaculturaloriginpossibleforsomespecimens(Morlan1986,1987).Nevertheless,
taphonomicconsiderationsleavenoclearcaseforculturalagency,either,andmakeinterstadialoccupationofBeringiadoubtful(Guthrie1984).

ThesamplefromBluefishCavesincludedmicrodebitage(CinqMars1979)thathas,atothersites,beenlinkedwithculturalactivity(Fladmark1982Hull1983
Nicholson1983).SimilartinyflakesofcryptocrystallinesilicawererecoveredfromPleistocenesedimentsintheBonnetPlumeBasin,Yukon,andwerehypothesized
(withappropriatecaution)tobeofculturalorigin(Hughesetal.1981Morlan1983).Theweaknessinthiscaserestswiththelikelihoodofequifinalitythatis,
microdebitagecanresultfrombothculturalandnaturalprocesses.

Conchoidalfracturingofsedimentgrainsiswidespreadinnaturalenvironmentsandisparticularlyprevalentinsedimentsofglacialorigin(Juligetal.1990Mahaneyet
al.1988MargolisandKrinsley1974RogersonandHudson1983),asaresultofpressurecontactofclastsduringiceflow.Thus,glacialdepositsarefullof
"microdebitage,"aswellasmacroscopicallyflakedspecimens.ThefirstauthorexaminedrecentlyexposedcobblesatthesnoutoftheAthabascaGlacierinthe
ColumbiaIcefield,Alberta,andfoundthatmacroscopicconchoidalfracturingwasrepresentedabundantly(Figure1).Interpretivesignsattheglaciermarkrecessional
marginsofthepastcentury,andthesecobbleshadbeenexposednomorethanafewdecadesmostlikely,lessthan20years.Suchcobblesalsoareabundantin
tillsthelargestobservedbyWilsonatKipp,intheLethbridgeareaofsouthernAlberta,wasa1mlongboulderwithconchoidalscarsupto30cmacross,thescars
displayingclear"impactpoints,"likelypointswhereintensepressurewasapplied.Whilefurtherstudiesarerequired,itisclearthatconchoidalfracturing,as
representedbycoresorflakesinanysizecategory,cannotbetakenbyitselfasculturallydiagnosticinformerlyglaciatedterrain.Manypebblefragmentsintillshow
multipleandevenoverlappingflakes.Wilson'sobservations,whicharepartofacontinuingstudy,suggestthatonceacobblehasbeensplit(e.g.,bypointloading
againstanothercobbleinice),subsequentremovalofmultipleflakesfrompressureagainsttheplatformisfacilitatedbecausethenewplatformangleeasesdetachment.
Multipleandevenoverlappingflakingthereforecanbeseenasamechanicalcascadeofinterdependenteventsthatcanspeedupundernaturalcircumstances(through
deviationamplifyingfeedbackasaresultofplatformdevelopment),andnotasnecessarilycultural.Secondaryflakesalsocanbedetachedfromaplatformatthesame
timeasprimaryflakeremoval,andthiscanbeaccomplishedbynaturalmeans(Jelineketal.1971).Furthermore,althoughmostgeologicaldescriptionshavetalkedof
conchoidallyfracturedgrainsasmarkersofglacialenvironments,theflakesremovedinnaturalprimarycomminutioncannotsimplyvanish.Theundisputedobservation
thatmicrodebitagecanbeproducedculturallydoesnot,therefore,necessarilyworkintheotherdirection.

Asfarasthemoresoutherlyevidenceisconcerned,detailedexcavationandrestudyoftheTaberChild(Stalker)siteshowsthattheskeletonlikelywasemplacedor
redepositedinaHolocenesandymudflow,depositsofwhichformadendriticpatterninsetintoPleistocenesandsinthefaceoftheriverbluff(Wilson1984Wilsonet
al.1983).AMSdatingandproteincontentanalysisindicateaHoloceneage(Brownetal.1983Gowlett1987MoffatandWainwright1983).AlthoughStalker
(1983)hasrestatedthecaseforaPleistoceneage,wenolongercanacceptsuchaview.EventheTaberChild'sunusualreddishcoloration,similartothatofmany
Pleistocenebonesfromtheregion,neednotsupportgreatantiquity.Thespecimenappearstodatebetween5000and4000yrB.P.,atimewhenredocherwasbeing
lavisheduponotherburialsinnearbySaskatchewan(Walker1984).

Theflakedchertspecimensfromthe"ArtifactBand"atMedicineHatwererestudiedbyReeves(1980),whoconcludedonthebasisofedgeanglecomparisonsthat
theywerenotofculturalorigin.Instead,theyappeartomorecloselyresemblenaturallyflakedspecimens(ineffect,"eoliths")encounteredinglacialandotherdeposits
(seediscussionabove).The"ArtifactBand"likelyincludesclastsreworkedfromtills.Animportantfactorintheircreationwasthefactthatmanyspecimenswere
goodqualitychert(whichoccursasnodulesinPaleozoicdolomitesandlimestonescarriedfromManitobaornortheasternSaskatchewan),irregularinshapeand
particularlyvulnerabletoflakingbynaturalmeans.ExaminationoftheMedicineHatbrokenbonesyieldedequivocalresults,therealsobeingnaturalprocessesthat
couldaccountfortheirbreakage(Reeves1980).

ThesesameargumentscanbeappliedtothelithicandfracturedbonesamplefromtheSaskatoonsite,

 Page219

which,likethe"ArtifactBand,"representsanalluvialdeposit.Pohorecky(1988)restatedthecasefortheiracceptanceasculturalbutmadenoreferenceofReeves'
obviouslyrelevantstudy.Pohoreckyinsteadrailedagainstthe"politicsofscience"andprejudgmentoftheSaskatoonsitebyuncharitablecolleaguesbentondisproof
oftheearlypeoplingofNorthAmerica(1988:63).Similaraccusationsoftenhavebeenmadeonbehalfofothersitesandtheirchampions.Yettheperiodfromthelate
1960stotheearly1980sinwesternCanadawasatimeofacceptance,notrejection,oftheearlypeoplinghypothesis.Mostoftheexamplesofpotentiallyearlyfinds
wereexamined,andreluctantlydismissed,byarchaeologistsvigorouslyseekingevidenceofpreClovishumanoccupationintheNewWorldafactthatistooeasily
forgotten.GroupsinvolvedinreanalysisordatingoftheOldCrowandTaberspecimens,forexample,wereseekingtosecure,notreject,theserespectivecases.At
thetimeReeveswasrejectingtheMedicineHatmaterial,healsowasmakingargumentsinfavorofevengreaterantiquityforsitesintheSanDiegoareaofCalifornia,
andlamentingtotheCalgaryHeraldthatsomeofhiscolleaguesconsideredhim"akook"formakingsuchextravagantclaims(Bragg1977).Thishardlysoundslike
theforcesofevilconjuredupbyPohorecky.

TheSheguiandahsite,onManitoulinIslandinLakeHuron,Ontario(T.E.Lee1957,1972),untilrecentlywasregardedasequivocalinnature,witharguments
centeringupontheinterpretationofoverlyingsedimentsastill.RecentargumentsbyR.E.Lee(1986)attemptingtoreassertthesite'sclaimtogreatantiquitywere
directedmoreatsecuringthereputationofpastworkers(especiallyhisfather,T.E.Lee)whoseviewshadbeendiscarded.R.E.Leesoughttodemonstratethe
arbitrarinessofskepticsratherthantoprovidenewinformation.Accordingtohim,thetillwasidentifiedbyacompetentgeologist(Sanford1957,1971)therefore,its
naturecannotbequestionedbyarchaeologists.Whatshouldhavebeenmadeclearwasthattheoverlyingsedimentwasobservablyadiamict(inSanford'susage,a
"mictolite")identificationofthediamictasatillrequiredanextrainterpretivestepthatdependedbothuponexperienceanddetailedcomparison(Karrow1987).Lee
(1986:404)blastedcriticsfortheircollectiveviewthat,asheparaphrasedit,"ifthereareartifacts,thenthosedepositscannotbetill."Althoughartifactscould,in
theory,befoundintill,onewouldexpecttheirdispersion,nottheirconcentrationataparticularsitesothereisreasonbehindsuchaview.

ThiscautionindeedwouldappeartohavebeenjustifiedrecentdiscoveryofevidenceforglacialoutburstfloodsthatprobablyrippedthroughtheGreatLakesin
earliestHolocenetimesprovidesatestablenontillalternativeforthediamictatSheguiandah(Julig1990:21Juligetal.1990).Thishypothesisalsoeasilyallowsfora
latestPleistoceneorevenearliestHoloceneageforthesite."AtSheguiandah...waterwornartifactsinthelowerlevelsofastratifiedsequencesuggests...
continuedsiteusebeforeandaftertheearlyMattawafloodevent"(Julig1990:21),whichoccurredca.9,600yrB.P.Obviously,restudyofthegeologicsettingsof
suchsitesandthedevelopmentofnewunderstandingsarepreferabletosterileargumentsaboutthecredentialsofpastworkerswho"laidhands"uponthem.

RecentpublicationsconcerningflakedstonesfromtwolocalitiesintheCalgaryarea,VarsityEstatesandSilverSprings(Chlachula1996a,1996bChlachulaand
LeBlanc1996),aresubjecttosimilarconcerns.Flakedstones,parse,arenotautomaticallydiagnosticofhumanbehavior,butsomeofthepiecesrecoveredmaybe
ofculturalorigin.ThematerialrecoveredbyChlachulacomesfromtestpitsonaretreatingslopeupslopefromtheoccurrenceareglaciallakesiltsthatChlachula
projectsforwardoverthesitetodemonstrateanageolderthanthelateWisconsinanglaciation(>20,000yrB.P.).AsdescribedbyChlachula,thepurportedartifacts
arederivedfrommultiplecontextssomeofthestonescomefromwithintheuppermostpartoftheunderlyingtill,whileothersarefromgravelsatopthetill.These
depositsdonotrepresentinplacelivingfloors.Thepublisheddescriptionsdonotprecludethepossibilitythatsomespecimenscouldevenbederivedfromcliffface
colluviumorslopediamicts.

AdateforthesitesofbeforethelastWisconsinanglaciationisbaseduponregionalcorrelationsrootedinamultipleglaciationmodel.If,asevidencenowsuggests,the
coalescenceoficeinwesternAlbertaoccurredonlyonceandwasduringthelateWisconsinan,thenthetilluponwhichthesitesrest(ifthesitesaretrulyevenofthe
sameage)wouldbeofthisage,andtheglaciallakesiltswouldmarkabrieflacustrinephaseintheearlyrecessionoftheice.Ithasnowbeendeterminedthatthe
underlyingtillcontainsclastsderivedfromtheCanadianShield(i.e.,thatitwasinfluencedbyproximitytoeasternice),whichindicatesittobeoflateWisconsinanage
(L.E.JacksonJr.,personalcommunication,1998).Theseconsiderationssuggestthatthesite,iftheartifactsaretrulycultural,isoflateglacialage,possiblypreClovis
butnotoftheantiquityclaimedbyChlachula.

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TheCalgaryartifacts(illustratedbyChlachula1996b)couldbeamixedbagofculturalandnonculturalflakedspecimens,andadditionalstudyisneededtoclarifythe
basisforculturalassignment.Abifacethatwasfoundonthesurfaceoftheslopeatthelevelofthetilltoglaciallakesiltcontactremainsthesinglemostconvincing
specimen.Flakesthatcouldberefittoitwererecoveredfromdistancesupto1mintotheslope.This,however,isstillclosetothesurfaceintheinstanceofaslope
subjecttocreepandcolluviation.Chlachula(1996b)arguesthatthespecimensresemblethingsthatarecalledartifactsinEuropetherefore,theyareartifacts.Indeed,
inChlachulaandLeBlanc(1996:72),afootnotelardedwithadegreeofsarcasmindicatesthatvisitorswereinvitedtothesite,andtheEuropeanshadnotrouble
identifyingthematerialsasartifacts,whereastheNorthAmericanswerenotasreadytoacceptthem.TheassumptionthatEuropeanscholarsmust,bydefinition,be
moreinsightfulisinappropriate,foroneofthefundamentaltenetsoftheprocessualistmovementinarchaeologywasdenialofthe"ruleofauthority"infavorofdirect
experimentationandproperscientificestablishmentofcriteriaandtests.ToappealtothediffuseauthorityofunnamedEuropeanscholars(notallofwhomnecessarily
haveworkedinformerlyglaciatedlandscapes)isspeciousandcallstomindtheattempttouseLouisLeakey'sopinionsto"establish"thetruthoftheCalicoMountains
"artifacts."

SinceChlachulaconductedsuchapoll,thefirstauthordidtoo.Oneconcernrepeatedlyexpressedwasthatthelinedrawingsofthelithicspecimensaremore
convincingthanthephotographs,becauseofthelineshadingtechniqueusedalthoughtheflakesurfacesonthequartziteartifactsarerough,theartisthasindeed
shadedthemasforhighqualitycryptocrystallinematerialsandhasshownthesurfacesassmoothandarcuate(e.g.,Chlachula1996b,Figs.13and25seeAddington
1986:18andherFigs.5051forproperprocedures).Thusthedrawingsseemtoidealizeratherthantoportraytheartifacts.Anothermoreseriousmatterwasthat
manyCanadianarchaeologistshavehadtheopportunitytobecomeacquaintedwiththematteroftillstonesexhibitingflakingtherefore,theyinturnandwithjustice
hadstrongconcernsaboutthepossibilityofanaturalagencyaccountingformuchoftheCalgarymaterial.

ChlachulaandLeBlanc(1996)comparetheCalgarymaterialswithcobbleartifactsfromamiddletolatePrehistoricsite(theSlumpsite)nearLesserSlaveLake,
northernAlberta,andfindfavorablesimilarities.Theyderive,onthisbasis,12criteriafortherecognitionofflakedartifactsascultural.Theseinclude
(1)effectiveedgemodificationcomplyingwithanappropriatehandmanipulationoftheparticularlithicspecimen(2)pointofpercussionatthebaseofnegativescars(3)concave
andsmoothnegativeflakescars(4)unidirectionalflaking(5)longandparallelorconcentricflakescarorientation(6)noncorticalflatstrikingplatformpreparation(7)restricted
(distal/lateral)locationofedgemodification(8)regularunifacialretouchingonthedorsalflakefaces(9)lowangle,alternatelyflakedbifacialedges(10)organizedoverlapping
retouch(11)sizeandangleuniformityofsmalledgeflakescarsand(12)deepnegativeflakescarterminations.(1996:72)

ChlachulaandLeBlancfeelthattheseattributesare"diagnosticofculturalflakingforquartzitelithicassemblages,especiallyiftheyoccurincombinationsandwith
recurrentpatterning"(ibid.).Yettheirarticledoesnotprovideanydistributionaldatatoshowwhichoccurincombinations(andhowoften)intheCalgarysamples.

Thislistingofcriteriadeveloped(butnottested)byChlachulaandLeBlancmerelysidestepsthequestionofevaluatingaculturalversusanaturaloriginforlithics,for
thereisaconsiderableliteraturealreadyestablishedonthesubject,noneofwhichtheycite(e.g.,AscherandAscher1965Grayson1986Patterson1983and
includingReeves1980,againnotciteddespitebeinginthesamedepartmentaswasChlachula).Suchargumentshavelongbeendebated(as,forexample,withthe
CalicoSite"artifacts"seeDuvallandVenner1979Simpson1980).Infact,similarcontroversiesexistinEurope,someofverylongstanding,abouttheculturalversus
naturaloriginoftheearliesthypothesizedindustries(forexample,atSaintElbeseeAckerman1989alsoregardingeolithsseeOakley1967andGrayson1986).
Chlachula(1996b)simplyarguesthatthespecimensareculturalbecausetheyexhibit"patterned"asopposedto"random"flaking.However,asnotedabove,the
splittingofacobblebynaturalpointloadingprovidesaplatformthatismuchmorevulnerabletorepeated,evenoverlappingflakinginfact,naturalflakingispatterned
too.Labellingofsecondaryflakingas"edgeutilization''(ChlachulaandLeBlanc1996:68)is

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interpretive,notdescriptive,andpresumesaculturalcontext.ChlachulaandLeBlanc(1996:72)findtheircriteriatoexcludethepossibilityofnaturalproductionby
"highenergyglacialandglaciofluvialprocesses"butfocusuponthepossibilityfornaturalpercussionwhatisneededisacarefulconsiderationofthepossibilitywithin
flowingiceforhighintensitypressureflaking.Icemovesbymicrothrusting,withconsiderableinternaldeformationduringflowthismeansthatpebblesencasedinice
canbepressedagainstoneanotheranddraggedpastoneanotherwithintheice.Thisinturnmeansthatsplittingfollowedbyacascadeofdirectional,repetitiveflaking
indeedcanoccur,andthegreatabundanceofflakedspecimensatthesnoutoftheAthabaskaGlacier(firstauthor'sobservationsseeFigure1)istestimonytoit.
Largeflakescarswithhingedterminationsaboundandmaywellbetheproductofhighintensitypressureratherthanofpercussion,despitethecontentionthatsuch
scarsare"especiallyindicativeofheavypercussionflaking"(ChlachulaandLeBlanc1996:69).Manyoftheconcaveandsmoothnegativeflakescars(with"pointsof
percussion"morelikelypointsofcontactinvolvingpressure)incobblesorevenbouldersfromtillsinsouthernAlbertaaremuchtoolargetobeaccountedforby
humanagency,buttheglacialcontextofconchoidalfracturinghasbeenknowntogeologistsformanydecades.BritisharchaeologistKennethOakley(1967:7,8)
illustratedaretouchedconchoidalflakefromPermianglacialdepositsofAfrica(250millionyearsold),alongwithpreEoceneflintflakesfromEnglandshowing
extensiveseriesofoverlappingretouchscars.Oakleynoted(1967:12)that''stonesflakedbyglacialactionintoformsshowingaremarkableresemblancetoartifacts
havebeenfoundinPleistoceneboulderclays,andinthePermianglacialbedsofSouthAfrica...Thusgeologistsareinclinedtoadoptacautiousattitudewithregard
tocrudelychippedstonesresemblingartifacts,particularlyiftheyoccurinsituationswherenaturalflakingcannotberuledout."ThorsonandGuthrie(1984:173)show,
furthermore,thatrivericecanfacetandflakebouldersandcobblesaswellasbonessothepossibilitiesfornaturalflakingextendbeyondglacialice.

ArgumentsforculturalagencybasedsolelyupontypologicalcomparisonwithsimplyflakedassemblagesinEurasia(andespeciallyappealstoEuropeanauthority)are
circumstantialandvergeontautologymuchbetterevidencewillbeneededtoresolvethisquestion.ChlachulaandLeBlanclamentthatrejectionoftheCalgary
materialalsowouldnecessitaterejectionofmuchofthelatercobbletoolindustriesfromthemiddleandlatePrehistoricoftheNorthwesternPlainsasnoncultural,or
redefinewhatwemeanby"artifact."Theseoutcomesdonotlogicallyfollow,becausetheflakedcobbleproblemsetsimplyexhibitsequifinalityfrommultiplepathways
(culturalandnoncultural).TherearespecimensinthelatePrehistoricrecordofAlbertathatfullyresembleOldowanchoppers,butwedonotcallthemOldowan,
eithernordotheynecessarilyreflectthesamesequenceofthoughtprocessesorthesametechnologicalenvironmentofproduction.

EarlyoccupationofBluefishCavesinthenorthernYukonhasnotyetbeendemonstrateddespitethepresenceofanimpressivebonebed(CinqMars1979Morlan
1987MorlanandCinqMars1982).Acceptabilityofthissitewouldhavetorestwithaclosestratigraphicassociationofstoneartifacts(notmicrodebitage)with
datablePleistocenefauna.Atpresentitseemsequallylikely,ifnotmoreso,thatthebonebedrepresentsanaturaltrapaccumulation.Yetdespitetheweaknessofthe
BluefishCavescaseandthedemiseofthefamousOldCrowcariboutibiaflesherasaPleistoceneartifact,weremainoptimisticthatevidencewillbefoundforearly
humanoccupationofeasternBeringia.Ofcourse,Beringiacouldhavebeenoccupiedataconsiderablyearlierdatethanthemidcontinent,sothecaseforearly
southwardmovementremainsmoreproblematic.Surveyforsuchsitesisverymuchageologicalmatter,involvingstratigraphicstudiesofsitesindeeplyburied
contexts,reconstructionofdramaticallyalteredgeomorphicsettings,anduseofvarieddatingmethods.

TheIceFreeCorridorandSouthwardMovementofEarlyHumanGroups

TheCorridor

THE"ICEFREECORRIDOR,"ofthewesternCanadianPlainsfordecadeshasbeenconsideredaphenomenonofatleastlateglacialtimes,ifnotafeatureoftheentirelate
Wisconsinanglaciation,separatingCordilleranandLaurentideicesheets.Evidenceisaccruing,bothfromglacialsequencesinneighboringareasandfromradiocarbon
datesonpaleontologicalremains,thatthelastmajorglacialadvanceontheCanadianPlainsbegansomewherebetweenabout22,000and18,000yearsago(Burns
1990:6364,1996Jacksonetal.1997

 Page222

Figure2.
MapoftheCanadianprairieprovincesshowingnearmaximumicepositionandearlystageof
openingofthe"IceFreeCorridor."Thereisincreasingevidencethaticeextendedfarthersouth
inthelateWisconsinan,inwhichcasethedateforthestageillustratedhereismorelikelyabout
15,000yearsago.ThismapshowstheoriginoftheSaskatchewanRiversysteminmeltwater
channelsandinterconnectedproglaciallakes(solidblack)thatdrainedsouthward
intotheMissouri/Mississippisystem.
AfterWilson(1990).

Wilson1983a:286295Youngetal.1994).Prevailingopinionatthetimeofthiswritingseemstobeagainstthepresenceofanopen,passablecorridorduringthe
maximumextentofice,apositionwithwhichwemustagree.Inadditiontoreferencescitedabove,variouspositionsastothetimingofclosureoftheCorridorhave
beenoutlinedbyBeaudoin(1989),Bobrowskyetal.(1990),A.Bryan(1969),Burns(1990,1996),CattoandMandryk(1990),ClaytonandMoran(1982),
FullertonandColton(1986),Jackson(1979),MacDonaldetal.(1987),MandrykandRutter(1996),Mathews(1980),Moran(1986),Reeves(1973),Rutter
(1984),RutterandSchweger(1980),Stalker(1977b),andWilson(1990a),andandthereaderisreferredtothesesourcesfordetaileddiscussionsofthemany
viewpoints.

Despitedifferencesofopinion,theroleofthiscorridorinthefirstpeoplingoftheNorthAmericanmidcontinentarguablyisthemostdominantandlonglived
environmentalarchaeologicalparadigminCanada,rivalinginacceptancethepropositionthatpeoplehuntedbisononthePlains.Nevertheless,searchesfortheHoly
Grailof"firstfootsteps"haveprovedfrustratingfewpaleontologicalsitesinexcessof12,000yearsoldhavebeenfoundwithinthecorridor,andnoarchaeological
sitesareclearlyolderthanabout11,000yrB.P.(Driver1995).Reasonsfortheapparentpaucityofsitesarebeginningtoemergeandconstituteamixedbag.They
include(1)therelativelylimitedextentofarchaeologicalsurveystodate(2)thepaucityofexcavationsthathavegonebeyondthetestpitortesttrenchstage(3)the
deepburialofsitesincertaingeomorphicsettings,partlyasaresultofperiglacialandparaglacialactivity(seebelowfordefinitionanddiscussionof"paraglacial")and
partlybecauseofHypsithermallandscaperemodelling(4)thelossofsitesbecauseoftheerosiveeffectsofoutburstfloodsandHypsithermaldeflationand(5)the
possibilitythatanotherroutewasusedforhumanmigrations.Thefirsttworequirelittleadditionalcommentarchaeologicalstudiesrequiretime,people,andmoney,
andnoneofthesehasbeeningoodsupplyintheareauntilthepasttwoorthreedecades.Fundingisagainbeingcutdramaticallyasaresultofgovernmentbudget
cuttingandtherecentrecession.Muchoftheeffortdirectedtowardenvironmentalimpactstudiesandsalvagearchaeologyhasdealtwithmorereadilyvisiblesitesof
themiddleandlatePrehistoricperiods,andfewerprogramsofdeeptestinghavebeenundertakentolocatedeeplyburiedresources,needlesintheproverbial
haystack.

The"IceFreeCorridor"hasbeenanevocativemodel,onethatconjuresupvisionsofanarrowtundrabandbetweentoweringicebarrierstotheeastandwest.
Anythingresemblingthis,ifitexistedatall,wouldhavebeenofextremelyshortdurationmuchofthenorthsouthfaunalinterchangeoccurredundermuchmoreopen
conditions,orwasrestrainedbya"corridor"ofvegetationratherthanice(MacDonaldandMcLeod1996M.C.Wilson1996).Itcanbe

 Page223

Figure3.
GeneralizedmapofCanadianprairieprovincesshowingicepositionduringmidretreat,bywhichtimethe
"IceFreeCorridor"waswidelyopenforfaunalinterchangebetweenBeringiaandthemidcontinent.Themapis
designedtoillustrateastageintheevolutionoftheSaskatchewanRiversystemandhenceshouldnotbe
overinterpretedasa"pointintime"representation.By11,000yearsago,LakeAgassizhadextended
northwestwardintoSaskatchewan(farbeyondthelimitsshownhere)inChristensen's(1979)reconstruction.
Theexpansionmayhavebeenslightlylater,however(Fentonetal.1983).MapmodifiedafterWilson(1990).
Indicatedsiteshaveyieldedvertebratepaleontologicalmaterialdatingbefore11,000yrB.P.orassociatedwithClovisculture:
b.Clovisbone"foreshaft"(projectilepoint?)isolatedfind(Wilmeth1968).Specimennotdated.c.Cochrane,Alberta,gravelpits,
withtwodatesinexcessof11,000yrB.P.andbonesofcaribou,mountainsheep,wapiti,bison,andhorse(Stalker1968
Churcher1968,1975WilsonandChurcher1984).e.Empress,Alberta,gravelpits,dated14,2001120yrB.P.(GSC1199
LowdonandBlake1975),yieldingbonesofmammothandhorse.k.KyleMammothSite,Saskatchewan,dated12,000yrB.P.
(seetext).m.MedicineHatsites,richlyfossiliferousgravelsofSangamonian,midWisconsinan,andearlypostglacialage,
includingLindoeBluffwithbisonandextincthorsedatedto11,200200yrB.P.(GSC220LowdonandBlake1968).t.Bayrock
Site,Taber,Alberta,withbisonskeletonandwood,thelatterdatedto11,000250(S68)and10,500200yrB.P.(GSC3)
(TrylichandBayrock1966).y.Calgary,Alberta,gravelpits,withdateof11,300290yrB.P.(RL757Wilson1983aWilsonand
Churcher1984)andbonesofbison(dated),horse,camel,andpossiblymammoth.Numerousisolatedfindsofmammothteeth,
tusks,andbonesfromallthreeprovinceslikelydatefromthisinterval,butarenotshownbecauseofthepossibilitytheymaybeolder

argued,therefore,thatthenameismisleadingandanalyticallyanachronistic(Beaudoin1989Burns1996).Nevertheless,thetermisdeeplyrootedandnodoubtwill
persistfarbeyonditsusefulness.Beaudoin'ssuggestedalternative,"WesternCorridor,"seeminglypreemptsanythingfurtherwestandimpliesaneasterncounterpartit
hasnotseenacceptance.

EvidenceisincreasingthatcentralandsouthwesternAlbertasawonlyoneglaciationthatofthelateWisconsinan(Burns1996JacksonandDukRodkin1996
Little1995Youngetal.1994).Directdatingofglacialerraticsonthebasisofcosmogenic36ClexposuresupportsagrowingviewthattheFoothillsErraticsTrain,
markingthecoalescenceofLaurentideandCordilleranice,wasemplacedduringthelateWisconsinan(Jacksonetal.1997).Effortstoestablishthepresenceor
absenceofanIceFreeCorridoratthetimeofthelateWisconsinanmaximumsome18,000to16,000yearsagohavebeenmany,basedlargelyupondatesfrom
bogsandalluvialdeposits(e.g.,Burns1996CattoandMandryk1990ClaytonandMoran1982Jackson1979MacDonaldetal.1987Mandryk1996aReeves
1973M.C.Wilson1996).Limitingdatesfrombogsrequireanassumptionthatbogformationbeganimmediatelyupondeglaciation,ignoringsomeunspecifiedlag
time.However,studiesofwesternCanadianpeatlandsshowthatpeatdepositiondidnotbegininmanyareasuntilthousandsofyearsaftericeretreat,responding
insteadtofluctuationsinregionalgroundwatertables(ZoltaiandVitt1990).Furthermore,thepatchinessofpermafrostinfluencedsubsequentdevelopmentofforests
andmusthaveinfluencedbogformationdramatically(Pielou1991).Bonesandwoodfromalluviuminriversystems

 Page224

Figure4.
GeneralizedmapofCanadianprairieprovincesshowingicepositionwellintoretreatandSaskatchewanRiversystem
nearlycompleteatatimewhenGlacialLakeAgassizwasnearitsgreatestextent.LakeAgassizatvarioustimesdrained
eithersouthwardoreastwardlateritemptednorthwardintoHudsonBay.MapmodifiedafterWilson(1990)sitesare
discussedintext.Indicatedsiteshaveyieldedarchaeologicalorpaleontologicalmaterialdatingtoorprobablyreferable
totheindicatedinterval.Manymoresurfacearchaeologicalsitesandinsitupaleontologicalsitesareknownfromthearea.
d.DuckettSite,nearColdLake,Alberta,withtriangularflutedpointonsurfaceandotherPaleoindianpointsinsitunotdated.
h.HeronEdenSite,GreatSandHills,Saskatchewan,withCodycomponentandunderlyingmaterialsAgateBasinpointmaybe
associatedwithdateof10,210yrB.P.l.LindoeSite,nearMedicineHat,Alberta,withinsitubonebeddatedto9900yrB.P.and
HellGappointonsurface.n.NiskaSite,Saskatchewan,withCodycomponentandunderlyingmaterialdatedto10,880yrB.P.
(culturalaffinitiesnotknown).p.ParkhillSite,Saskatchewan,withlargesurfacesampleofAgateBasinprojectilepoints.s.Sibbald
CreekSite,Alberta,withextensivestratifiedrecordincludingtriangularflutedpoints.v.VermilionLakesSite,nearBanff,Alberta
lanceolate(AgateBasinlike)pointsareinacomponentdatedtoabout10,500yrB.P.w.WisetonMammoth,Saskatchewan,a
limbbonefromlacustrinedeposits,dated(collagen)to10,600yrB.P.

thattraversetheputativecorridorprovidelimitingdatesalso,butfewdatesinexcessof12,000yrB.P.areavailableandthosethatareavailableareeitherhotly
debatedorquietlyignored(ClaytonandMoran1982Jackson1983Klassen1972,1983WilsonandChurcher1984).Ifoneinsistsupondatingonlywood
charcoal(ClaytonandMoran1982KuzminandTankersley1996),thedatesareevenmoreconstrainedandtheearlieronestendtoberejectedhowever,asnoted
earlier,thiscouldcontainalogicalfallacyiftheearliestsiteswereintundraandthereisnowoodcharcoaltodate.Earlydates"inconsistent"withwooddatessimply
wouldberejectedratherthanbeingtakenasevidenceofapreforestperiod,eventhoughregionalpollenrecordssuggestsuchaperiodtohaveexisted.

Asecond,relateddebateconcernsthemaximumextentofLaurentideiceinlateWisconsinantimes:whetheritreachedjusttosouthernAlberta(Stalker1977b,1980)
ormovedfarthersouthtoMontanaandNorthDakota(Christiansen1979ClaytonandMoran1982FullertonandColton1986).Itisasoberingrealizationthatnone
oftheicemarginfluctuationsfromthelateWisconsinaniceretreatinAlberta,akey"corridor"area,areasyetsecurelydated(CattoandMandryk1990).However,
viewsarecrystallizingaroundthebeliefthatthelateWisconsinaneventwasthemostextensiveglaciationtohaveaffectedwesternCanadaandthenorthernU.S.plains
(Jacksonetal.1997).

Generalizediceretreatstagesfortheprairieprovincesareillustratedhere,afterWilson(1990a)(Figures2,3,4).Thesemapsareforgeneraldiscussion

 Page225

Figure5.
MapofwesternCanadashowingicefrontpositionsapproximately11,500yrB.P.(i.e.,intermediatebetweenFigures2
and3)andlocationofflutedpointfindsandrelateddiscoveries(afterWormingtonandForbis1965Kehoe1966
Wilson1983a,1990).Findsmadesince1983haveaddedsubstantiallytothefillingofspacesonthemapbuthave
notextendedthedistributionbeyondtheiceboundariesthusthe"fit"isasignificantone.Thelargesttriangle
representsseveralfindsinthesamesmallarea.SeeRobertsandothers(1987)foranupdatedversionthatalso
mapstheBeringianfindsofflutedpoints.

onlyandacknowledgetheindefinitestateofthechronology.Theirprimarypurposeistoillustratehowtheriversystemsevolvedfromchainsoficemarginalmeltwater
lakes,manyofwhichprobablydrainedinlargedischargeevents.ItseemssafetoconcludethattheCanadianPlainswerefreeofactiveicebyabout11,000yrB.P.,if
notearlier(Christiansen1979ClaytonandMoran1982Telleretal.1980),thoughstagnanticemassesmayhavepersistedinsomeareasforamillenniumormore
(cf.S.A.Harris1987).Theonsetofrecessioninthemountainstothewestseemstohavebeencomparablyearly(Jacksonetal.1982KearneyandLuckman1983
Roberts1991).However,humanoccupationincoastalBritishColumbiaseemstohavebegunseveralhundredyearslaterthanintheCorridorareatotheeast
(Carlson1996).

PossibleSouthwardMovements

FLUTEDPOINTFINDSinwesternCanada,asmappedbyDriver(1995),Gryba(1985,1988),Robertsetal.(1987),andWilson(1983a,1990a),allfallwithinthearea
betweenhypothesizediceboundariesfortheperiod11,500to11,200yrB.P.(DykeandPrest1987Prest1969)(Figure5).Becausetheseicemarginsarebased
uponothersourcesofchronologicaldata,thecorrespondenceisbothstrikingandinformative.Theformsoftheflutedpointsvary,butamongthemareclassicClovis
andFolsomexamples(Fedje1996Forbis1970Kehoe1966WormingtonandForbis1965).Assumingthatflutedpointswereuseduntilabout10,500yearsago,
iceretreatnodoubtwidenedtheCorridorsomewhatfromthestagedepicted,sousersofthepointsmaynothavespentmuchtimeinclose

 Page226

Figure6.
Triangularflutedpoint("CharlieLake"point)fromtheDuckett
Site,nearColdLake,Alberta(seeFigure3,sited).Itspentagonal
shapesuggestsreworkingafterbreakageofalongerpoint.
PhotographcourtesyofG.FedirchukandE.J.McCullough.

proximitytotheicefrontitself.Areasimmediatelynexttotheeasternicefrontsupportedephemeralglaciallakessubjecttorapidoutburstfloods,makingthecorridor
bothdangerousforoccupationandapoorenvironmentforsitepreservation(Morlan1977Mandryk1996bWilson1990a).AtypicalClovispointhasbeen
recoveredfromtheMinnewankaSitenearBanff,intheRockyMountainFrontRanges(Fedje1996).ThepresenceofsmallnumbersofflutedpointsinAlaska
broughthopethataClovisancestorcouldbefoundthere(Morlan1977,1983),butthishasyettobesupportedbyabsolutedating(Reanier1995).

IfthereismeaningfultypologicalvariationwithintheCanadianPlainssample,flutedpointsinazonewestofthecentralaxisofthisareamayemergeasincludingthe
oldestvarieties,whereasthoseontheperipherieseastandwestshouldberestrictedtotheyoungervarieties.ThisnotionissupportedbythevarietyinstylesofClovis
likeflutedpointsintheCorridor(Carlson1991)andtheoccurrenceintheperipheriesofsocalled"CharlieLake"points(small,triangular,variablyflutedpoints)(1)at
CharlieLakeandPinkMountain,BritishColumbia(Driveretal.1996Fladmark1996Fladmarketal.1988I.Wilson1989,1996)(2)innorthwesternAlberta
(Gryba1988Haynes1980)(3)possiblyattheDuckettsite,nearColdLake,ineastcentralAlberta(Dingle1987McCulloughetal.1981)and(4)atSibbald
CreekintheAlbertafoothills(Beaudoinetal.1996Gryba1983)(seeFigures4and6).TheoccupationatCharlieLakehasthreeboneradiocarbondatesaveraging
about10,500yrB.P.AcharcoaldatefromtheSibbaldCreeksiteisathousandyearsyounger(Ball1983),butthenatureofthissample(scatteredflecksofcharcoal
froma10cmintervalinasitewithmultiple,closelysuperimposedcomponentsspanningthelatePleistoceneandHolocene)andpossiblelaboratorycounter
malfunctionrenderitmeaninglessandunsuitableforcontinuedcitation.

ThetriangularpointsseemtorepresentarelativelylatenorthernvariantroughlycoevalwithFolsom,thoughtechnologicallyreminiscentofClovis.Ofparticularinterest
isthepresenceofmultiplefluting(Gryba1988),somethingalsoseenintheAlaskanpoints,asatBatzaTna(ClarkandClark1980).Driver(1993:124)andDriveret
al.(1996:271)notedsimilaritiesoftheCharlieLakespecimenwithpointsfromIndianCreekandMillIron,Montana(DavisandGreiser1992Frison1991).Davis
andGreiserhadnotedonlythattheirFolsomagedpointfragmentfromIndianCreekshowedClovislikecharacteristics,withoutdiscussingpossiblenorthernlinkages.
AhearthattheNiskasite,ontheOldWivesglaciallakeplaininsouthwesternSaskatchewan,hasyieldedadistinctiveflakeddrillandhasbeendatedto10,88070
yrB.P.(TO956,MeyerandLiboiron1990).ThiscomponentoftheNiskaSiteultimatelymayprovetobeofFolsomorCharlieLakeaffinity.Comparablyearly
humanoccupationhasbeendocumentedattheVermilionLakesSite,nearBanffintheAlbertaRockyMountains.Twodatesfromtheearliestcomponentatthesite
average10,770175yrB.P.(Fedjeetal.1995:90).Unfortunatelyagainnodiagnosticprojectilepointswererecoveredfromthisoccupation.Laterlevels,datingto
about9900yrB.P.,yieldedstemmedlanceolatepointsreminiscentoftheAgateBasinandHellGaptypesaswellasofIntermontaneStemmedtraditionpoints(Fedje
1996Fedjeetal.1995:9394).

ExcavationsatJamesPass,intheAlbertaFrontRanges,wereconductedtofollowuponaflutedpointfind(distalhalfofblade).Noflutedpointswereexcavated,but
alithicbearinghorizonwasrevealed,datingto10,12080yrB.P.(TO3000)onAMSdatingofbone.Anevenearlier,undatedoccupationisindicatedbyscattered
debitageanoverlyingoccupationisdatedto975080yrB.P.(TO2999),againbyAMSonbone(Beaudoinetal.1996Ronaghan1993:89).

Clearly,moresitesandmoredatesareneededfromtheCorridorbeforeaconvincingcasecanbebuiltforthelongsupposedpeoplingevent.Nothingfromthe
corridorareapredatesfindsfromthePlainstothesouthnogradientindatesyetcanbedemonstratedindirectsupportofasouthwardmovement.Flutedpointfinds
fromBeringiastillarenotsecurelydated,and

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thePutusitedateof11,470500yrB.P.(SI2382)isrejectedasnotcultural(Reanier1995:40,44).Northsouthlinkagesatthistimelevelremainelusive,atleastin
termsofchronology.Lateglacialandearlypostglaciallandscapechangewasdramatic(Beaudoinetal.1996ChurchandRyder1972Jacksonetal.1982Mandryk
1996a,1996bWilson1983a,1986,1990aseebelow,"LandscapeEvolution").Thepercentageofsiteseitherdestroyedoutrightorburieddeeplymusthavebeen
highduringtheearlystagesoficeretreat.Becausepostburialtaphonomicanddiageneticprocessesareafunctionofelapsedtime,againtheearliestsiteswouldhave
beensubjecttothegreatestdisturbancefromprocessessuchasweatheringanderosion.Pronouncedaeolianactivity,includingdeflationaswellasloessdeposition,
occurredduringtheHypsithermal,reducingmanyarchaeologicalassemblagestolaghorizons,someofwhichwerereburied.

GlaciallakeshorelinesshouldprovetobeprofitableplacestosearchforPaleoindiansites,bothonthePlainsandintheborealforest.Stringsofinterconnectedlakes
havebeenmappedforicerecessionalstagesinAlberta,Saskatchewan,andManitoba(Christiansen1979DykeandPrest1987StOnge1972TellerandClayton
1983).Becauseoftheshortlivednatureofmostlakesinthewesternpartofthisregion,beachesaredifficulttodiscern.Archaeologicalsurveyshavebeenlimited
(e.g.,Anderson1969BuchnerandPettipas1990PettipasandBuchner1983PohoreckyandAnderson1968Roberts1984bWilson1983a),thoughassociations
ofmammothbonesorspecificPaleoindiancomplexeswithbeachesappeartoexist.Forexample,inthecaseoftherelativelywelldatedLakeAgassizbeaches,
(Fentonetal.1983),thedistributionofstemmedPlano(Hornerlike)projectilepointsisoutsidethewesternCampbellshoreline(ca.10,000yrB.P.),whileleaf
shapedPlano(HellGap/AgateBasinlike)pointsarefoundbothinsideandoutsidetheshoreline(BuchnerandPettipas1990Nielsenetal.1984Pettipas1967,
1970,1983,1985).Aswillbediscussedbelow,theleafshapedgrouplikelyincludesbothearlyandlatematerial.

Fewlakesandbeachesontheopenplainstothewesthavebeendatedassecurely,anddistributionalpatternsremaintobediscerned.Ofconsiderableinterestisthe
Kylemammoth,apartialskeletonfoundinsouthwesternSaskatchewaninassociationwithglaciallakesilts(Kehoe1964KehoeandKehoe1968Saskatchewan
MuseumofNaturalHistory1965).Thespecimenwasradiocarbondated(bythewholebonemethodratherthancollagen)to12,000200yrB.P.(S246
McCallumandWittenberg1968:369).Thedatecanbetakenonlyasa"ballparkestimate"intheabsenceofacollagenorcollagenfractiondate.Thesiteneverwas
completelyexcavatedandtheKehoesfeltthatthebonesmayhavebeendisturbedbyhumanagency.E.A.Christiansen(commentinginthedatereportcitedabove)
concludedthatthebones"weredisturbedduringthemeltingofstagnanticeaftermammothdied."Thispartiallyarticulatedspecimenisamongtheearliestdated,late
glacialmammothsfromtheCanadianPlainsifitscontextisarchaeological,furtherexcavationsatthelocalitycouldprovideevidencebearinguponClovisoreven
earliercolonists.AnothermammothlimbbonefromWiseton,Saskatchewanwasfoundinlacustrinesedimentsandgaveadate(onwholebone)of10,600140yr
B.P.(S232Rutherfordetal.1973:193).

TheFlutedPointtraditioninBritishColumbiaisrestrictedtotheformerCorridorarea,whereitwasreplacedbythePlanoTradition(Carlson1991).Inintermontane
areastothewest,theIntermontaneStemmedPointtraditionprobablywascomparableindatewiththePlanotradition.SuggestionsofanearlyPebbleTooltradition
withoutprojectilepointshavebeendiscarded(Haley1996)earlytoolsofthistraditionareassociatedwithfoliateprojectilepoints.Theearliestculturaldatethusfar
availablefromintermontaneBritishColumbiais9700yrB.P.,againcomparablewiththePlanotradition(Carlson1996:89).Thereisnoevidenceofhuman
occupationoftheintermontaneBritishColumbiaInteriorduringClovistimesnevertheless,intereststillexistsinthepossibilityofearlycoastalmigrations.

AnalternativeroutefortheearliesthumanmigrantstothemidcontinentviathewesternfjordlandshadbeenconsideredbyK.Bryan(1941),whoarguedthatitwould
haverequiredaspecializedfishingcultureandboats,andwhopreferredaroutethroughthePlains.Thepossibilitythatthiswestcoastalroutewasused,andthatthe
"IceFreeCorridor"waslargelyimpassabletoearlymigrants,wasagainadvancedbyFladmark(1978,1979,1983)inaseriesofsuperblycraftedpapers.Ruth
Gruhn,attheSummitConference,similarlydiscussedthewestcoastasanalternativeroute,buildinguponFladmark'shypothesis.Sheargued,however,againsta
theoryoflatearrivalviathecoastalroute,advocatinganearlier(preWisconsinan)peoplingevent.Fladmark'spapersappropriatelyhaveputthebrakesonthosewho
havealmostdogmaticallyacceptedtheIceFreeCorridorastheonlyviableroute,butdatedevidenceforearlycoastalmovementshasbeen

 Page228

elusive.DiscoveriesinsouthernAlaskaprovideculturalmaterialsofcomparableantiquitytotheoldestBritishColumbiamaterialsandfaunalremainsthatlikelypredate
them,leavingopenastrongpossibilityforthediscoveryofoldercoastalculturaltraditions(Fifield1996Heaton1995).Althoughpostglacialsealevelrisesurelyhas
inundatedmanysuchsites(iftheyexist),islandssuchastheQueenCharlotteshaveyieldedsitesinraisedbeachandintertidalsettingssuggestinganageolderthan
10,000yrB.P.,basedonthesealevelcurve(Ackerman1996:125126Fladmark1979,1990)andoldersitescouldwellliejustbelowsealevel.

Clearlyatpresent,intheabsenceofhardevidence,acceptanceoftheprimacyofonerouteovertheotherremainslittlemorethananactoffaithasweawaitthetest
offurtherfieldsurvey.Argumentsforawestern(coastal)route,forexample,cannotdependsolelyupontheabsenceofgoodsitesintheIceFreeCorridoror
elsewhere,ortheyrisksoundinglikeasearch(byelimination)forthelocationoftheWestPole.Insearchingfortheroutesouth,weallareseekingsomethingthatwe
assume,onthebasisofindirectevidence,existed.Theindirectevidencemayseemcompelling,butcaveatemptor.Fladmarkchosetoavoidsuchlogicandto
concentrateuponthepositivecontextualevidencefrompaleogeographyandpaleoenvironmentalstudies,butothershaveemployedtheargumentbyelimination,and
thecaseremainsunresolved(Easton1992Gruhn1994).Whateverthecasemaybe,newgenerationsofarchaeologistscontinuetorediscovertheIceFreeCorridor
andtorestaterelationshipsthatwerediscussedlongagobyW.A.JohnstonandErnstAntevs.Asidefromfirmingupthechronology,wemaynothaveprogressedfar
ontheCorridorissueinhalfacentury,andFladmark'spowerfulenunciationofanalternativecoastalhypothesisironicallyemergesasoneofthegreatestadvances.In
thislight,itisnotatallunreasonabletoconsiderthattheflutedpointusersoftheCanadianPlainswere"southerners"accompanyingasouthernfaunaofmammoths,
camels,andbison(BisonbisonantiquusratherthanthenorthernB.b.occidentalis)inthelateglacialmovenorthward,ratherthanmeetingtheseanimals"ontheway
through"(Fladmark1996M.C.Wilson1996).

WasThereaNorthwardDrift?

INTHE1960sITAPPEARED,basedonscantyabsolutedatingevidenceandgeneralizedsimilaritiesofprojectilepointtypes,thattheremayhavebeenanorthward
movementofPaleoindianpeoplesaftertheretreatingicesheet.Giventhevirtualabsenceofdatesfortheiceretreatitself,itseemedreasonablethat"cultures"suchas
AgateBasinmovednorthwardovertime.Thiswouldbereflectedinasouthtonorthgradientindatesandlate"survival"inthenorth.Suchaview,forexample,was
presentedbyMacNeish(1962)andpersistedinsubsequentwork(e.g.,Bryan1968Ebell1980:7275RobertsandWright1987).Thispersistencedependslargely
uponalinkageof"NorthernPlano"pointsfromseveralNorthwestTerritoriessiteswithAgateBasin.Underscoringthefrailtyofthisviewisthefactthatunstemmed,
leafshapedpointsarethesimplestformtomakeandtheeasiesttoreinventunlikebiologicalspecies,projectilepointtypescanrecurwithoutnecessaryhistorical
linkages.Italsomustberememberedthatthelocationofthe''typesite"bynomeanssignalsanareaoforiginforAgateBasinitwasmerelythesiteatwhichthepoint
typewasdefined.Butthequestionremains:wasthereanorthwarddrift?

DatesforAgateBasininthemidcontinentrangefromabout10,500to9700yrB.P.(e.g.,Frison1978FrisonandStanford1982Wyckoff1989)andapparently
overlapwithHellGapdates.DatesforNorthernPlanoextendfromabout9000toaslateas6000yrB.P.,andleafshapedformspersistintotheShieldArchaicinthe
eastandthroughAcastaintoTaltheileiinthewesternNorthwestTerritories(Stewart1991).NorthernPlanopointsaredifficulttodiscriminatefromthoseofthe
Taltheileitradition,whichpersisteduntilmuchlaterdates.Atpresent,theseoccurrencesareseparatedbyaconsiderabledistanceandtimefromPlainsoccurrences,
andpostulationofadirectlinkagewithAgateBasin"stretchesthepoint,"sotospeak(seealsoFrisonandStanford1982:366).InManitoba,asnotedabove,
stemmedPlanopointsoccuronlyoutsidethewesternCampbellshoreline(ca.10,000yrB.P.),whereasleafshapedpointsarefoundbothinsideandoutside
(BuchnerandPettipas1990).GiventherelationshipofbeachestotherecessionofLakeAgassiz,thiswouldimplyeitherthattheleafshapedforms(includingAgate
BasinandHellGap)areyoungerthanthestemmedforms(theoppositeofthecaseinWyomingandotherPlainsareasseeFrison1978),orthatmorethanone
unstemmedhorizonispresent.WyomingdatespresentednotonlybyFrison

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(1978)butalsobyEbell(1980:73)indiscussionoftheParkhillsite,Saskatchewan,clearlyindicatethatasecondleafshapedpointhorizonoccursinthesouthatthe
sametimeaslateoccurrencesinthenorth.Why,then,canonepreferalinkageofthenorthernmaterialwithasoutherncultureupto3,000yearsolder,overalinkage
withmaterialofthesameage?

PaleoindiansitedistributioninrelationtotheglacialLakeAgassizshorelinesagrees,inourview,withevidencefromelsewhereonthePlainsthatayoung"Agate
Basinlike"horizon(includingLusk)followsstemmedpointhorizonsandisfullydistinctfromclassicAgateBasinandHellGap(seeFrison1978:3439).Nowthatthe
AgateBasintypesitecollectionhasbeendescribedindetailandillustrated(FrisonandStanford1982),itisclearthatmanyofthe"AgateBasinlike"lanceolateforms
excavatedorpickedupinsurfacesurveysinCanadaaredifferentiablefromtheAgateBasintypeinpatternandqualityofflaking.Wewould,infact,excludemostof
thedatedexamplescitedasAgateBasinbyEbell,eventhoseintheUnitedStates(e.g.,Mangus),fromaformalrelationshipwithtypeAgateBasin,thoughtheParkhill
site,Saskatchewan,isapparentlytrueAgateBasin.ThepresenceofsuchlatePaleoindian"AgateBasinlike"points(ca.85007500yrB.P.),withavarietyoftype
namesbutsharedlanceolateform,atseveralsitesintheNorthwesternPlains,includingtheHawkwoodsite,Calgary(VanDykeandStewart1985),counters
suggestionsofanorthwardgradientintheageofAgateBasinlikepoints.This,inturn,invalidatesthehypothesisthatthepointswereusedbyasinglemigratingcultural
groupovertime(seealsoMeyer1989).Thelatepoints,whichappeartocompriseseveraldistinctbutrelatedlocaltypes,aredesperatelyinneedofregional
systematization.Withmoreextensivedescription,theyshouldemergemoreclearlyasadistincthorizon.

ThereareasyetfewindicationsforanearlylanceolatepointhorizonontheopenCanadianPlainsfullycomparableinantiquitywithAgateBasin,thoughsurfacefinds
suchastheParkhillmaterialindicateitslikelypresence.AttheVermilionLakessite,intheFrontRangesnearBanff,Alberta,lanceolatepointswereassociatedwith
componentsdatingtoabout9900yrB.P.onthebasisofalengthyseriesofdates(bothconventionalandAMS)onvariedmaterials(Fedje1986Fedjeetal.1995).
OneoftheillustratedpointsresemblestheAgateBasintype,whileanotherismorereminiscentofHellGap.AttheHeronEdensiteintheGreatSandHillsof
southwesternSaskatchewan,newdiscoveriesbelowtheCodycomponentincludethebaseofanAgateBasinpointandafeaturedatedto10,210yrB.P.(Linnamae
1990labno.andsigmanotgiven).Thepointandthedatemaybeassociated,butthisremainstobedemonstratedbyfurtherexcavations.Evaluationandcomparison
ofdatesintheintervalassignedtoAgateBasinalsomusttakeintoaccountthetworadiocarbon"plateaux"nowdocumentedfrom10,000and960014CyearsB.P.
(BeckerandKromer1993:69).

FindsattheMesasite,Alaska,haveaclearbearinghere.Mesahasyieldedalargesampleoflanceolatepointswithslightlyconcavebasessomeexhibitwell
controlledparallelflaking.Overalltheyarestronglyreminiscentofpointsfromthemidcontinent,andKunzandReanier(1995:22)seethemascloselyrelatedto(and
ancestralto)AgateBasin.Dateson13Mesasitehearthsrangefrom11,700to9700yrB.P.,spanningatimeperiodlongerthanthatforAgateBasin.Theoldest
dates,11,66080(Beta55286,CAMS3572)and11,19070(Beta57430,CAMS3572)camefromthesamesplitsampleanddonotoverlapattwosigma,
suggestingaproblem.KunzandReanier(1995:19)considerthepossibilitythattheysignaltheburningofoldwood,butrejectthatbecausefrozenwoodiswetand
goodwoodislocallyavailabletoday.Theydoubtthatthetrueageismorethan1,000yearsyounger,butpersistinassigningthecomplexatimespanoffully2,000
yearsanyway,withnoapparentculturalchangesinthattime.Suchculturallongevityis,accordingtothem,notunusualintheArcticbecauseoftheharshenvironment,
"withlittlepressureexertedbetweenneighboringculturalgroupsandthuslittleimpetusforchangeorterritorialshifts"(1995:25).Yetwearetoldinthesamearticle
that"chaoticclimaticextents"infactforcedthemtomovesouthwardatthecloseofthePleistocene,encroachinguponFolsompeopleby10,500yrB.P.andfounding
AgateBasin(1995:24).Despiteallofthismovement,theywereunaffectedbytheapparentlycoevalAmericanPaleoarcticandNenanaComplexpeopleswhoalso
inhabitedportionsofAlaska.WetakethecautiousviewherethatMesarepresentstheshortertimespanthattheyoffer,from11,000(orlater)to9700yrB.P.,in
whichcasethelackofevidenceforculturalcontactissomewhatmoreplausible.

AsKunzandReanierpointout,AgateBasinassemblagesexhibitasmallnumberofMesalikeconcavebasedpoints,whileMesaexhibitsafewAgateBasinlike
convexbasedpoints.Thecomplexesalsodifferintermsofthereductionsequencesusedtomake

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thepoints(ascribedtodifferencesinavailabilityofrawmaterials)andthemethodofbasalflaking(1995:22).ItshouldbecautionedthatPaleoindianassemblagesin
themidcontinenthavebeensplit(andperhapsoversplit)inthepastonthebasisofcriterianomorecompellingthanthis,andthattolinkMesaspecificallywithAgate
Basinmaybepremature.Nevertheless,itremainsaplausiblehypothesisthatMesapeoplesmovedsouthwardthroughtheIcefreeCorridorareatobecomeAgate
Basin.ThishypothesisshouldbetestablethroughcontinuedsamplinginAlbertaandcarefulcomparativestudiesbetweenMesaandthematerialfromtheVermilion
Lakessiteandrelatedassemblages(Fedje1986,1996Fedjeetal.1995).

Despitethesediscoveries,thefeelinghaspersisteduntilrecently(ifnottothepresent)amongresearchersthatradiocarbondatesformostPaleoindiancomplexesmay,
orevenshould,beyoungerontheCanadianPlainsthanonthePlainstothesouth.AsWilsonhasalreadydiscussedelsewhere(1993b),anexchangebetweenMeyer
(1985,1986)andPettipas(1986)clearlyillustratesthiscontroversy.Meyer(1985)describedtheNiskasite,aCodycomplexsiteinsouthwesternSaskatchewan.
Culturalmaterials,includingbisonbones,wereassociatedwithadarkpaleosolbutinfactlaywithinthelowerpartofthethick,buriedAhorizon.Thus,ifthe
occupationwasnotoverprintedbydownwardmovementoforganicmatterfromalatersoil,itshoulddatefromtheinitialstabilizationofthesurfacebysod(Meyer
1985:10).

Twodateswereobtainedfromthepaleosolitself:7000185yrB.P.(S2353)and5910270yrB.P.(S2235).Thesecondsamplewastakenwherethepaleosol
wasnearthemodernsurface,whichsupportedagraincrop.Giventhatsoilsaredynamicwithadefinablemeanresidencetimeoforganicmaterial,asoildate
representssomesortof"average"fromwithinthetimeperiodrepresentedbythesoilandlikelywillmarkatimeclosetotheendofthesoilformingperiod(Turchenek
etal.1974:914).TheNiskadates,therefore,confirmonlythattheoccupationisolderthan7000yrB.P.Acollagendateof7165320yrB.P.(S2453Meyer
1985:28)wasobtainedforbonethatwas"verypoor...witheroded,disintegratingsurfaces...[andinwater]atendencytodisintegrate,formingaslurry"(Meyer
1985:15).Giventheconditionofthebone,thechanceofcontaminationbysoilorganicswasveryhigh(see,forexample,Stafford1984),inwhichcaseonewould
expectasampletoapproximatetheageofthepaleosolratherthanitsowntrueage.Meyer(1985:33)chose,appropriately,tobecautiousaboutthedates,suggesting
thatthesiteprobablywasolder.HewaschidedsternlyforthisbyPettipas,whosuggestedasanalternativethatthiswasalatenorthernfaciesofCody.Pettipas
despaired,
Igetthedistinctimpressionthatthesereasonsforquestioningthedatesweremarshalledaftertheresultscameinandwerefound,forotherreasons,tobeunacceptable...itwas
onlyaftertheydidnotproducetheexpectedresultsthatproblemswiththesamplesweresought...Isuggestthathadtheresultsoftheanalysisbeenasexpected,such
questionswouldneverhavebeenraised.(1986:167)

PettipasscoredadirecthitintermsofPlainsarchaeology.Alltoooften,archaeologistssendinwhatamountto"HailMary"samples,inthehopethattheywillproduce
an"acceptable"result.Alltoooften,theresultsfallshortofexpectations,forreasonsthatshouldbebothfamiliarandanticipated.ThecharcoaldatefortheSibbald
Creeksite,mentionedabove,isjustsuchanexample.Regrettably,however,oneofthebesttestsforcontamination,asidefromcircumstantialarguments,istodatethe
samplewhichbluntsPettipas'criticism.

Thisaccepted,Pettipas'discussionrevealedhisclearpreferenceforthelatedatesandfortheideaoflatepersistenceofaCodyfacies.Thisviewpoint,interestingly,
requiredhimtoacceptthedatesasvaliddespitethedescriptionsofpossiblecontaminantsanddespitehisargumentsthatthesereasonsforquestioningthedates
shouldhavebeenthoughtaboutbeforethesamplesweresubmitted.Hispreferredhypothesisischallengedbyanewradiocarbondateof8475650yrB.P.fromthe
site(MeyerandLiboiron1990:299),whichsupportstheviewthatCodyinthenorthissimilarinagetoitssoutherncounterpartandunderscorespreviouslystated
concernsaboutthepaleosolandbonedates.Inaddition,theHeronEdensite,anotherCodycomplexsiteintheGreatSandHillsofsouthwesternSaskatchewan,has
yieldedadateof8,930yrB.P.fortheCodycomponent(Jones1989:128labno.andsigmanotgiven).BothPettipasandMeyerhavescoredqualifiedvictories,
therefore:theformerforhavingcalledattentiontocertainattitudesregardingradiocarbondates,andthelatterforhavingbeencorrectafterallaboutthedateofthe
site.

OtherdatesfromtheCanadianPlainssimilarlyparallelthosefromcomparableassemblagesinareas

 Page231

tothesouth.AttheLindoesite,nearMedicineHatinsoutheasternAlberta,aninsitubonebedwasdatedto9900120yrB.P.(S230).Astemmedprojectilepoint
closelyresemblingtheHellGaptypewasfoundonthesurfaceoftheslopeimmediatelybelowthecutbankexposureofthebonebed(Bryan1966).Anoccupation
yieldinganAlbertapointattheJCrossingSite,inthesouthwesternAlbertafoothills,gaveconflictingdatesof9600310yrB.P.(AECV746C)and8580160yr
B.P.(AECV1198C)(Wilson1990b).AlimitingdateobtainedfortheAlberta/ScottsbluffFletchersiteinsouthernAlbertaindicatesthatitisslightlyyoungerthan
9380110yrB.P.(TO1097,VickersandBeaudoin1989)andthereforeconsistentinagewithoccurrencestothesouth.Asdiscussedinthepresentpaper,thefitof
flutedpointoccurrenceswiththepostulated11,500yrB.P.icefrontalpositionsimilarlyindicatesthatthereisnoenvironmentalevidencethatmandatesasignificant
northwardtimelagofculturalmigrations.Theevidenceobtainedthusfarisfullyconsistentwitha"horizonstyle"model.Baseduponavailabledates,theCanadian
occurrencessuggestthisextremelytentativechronology:northernfluted(ca.11,00010,500yrB.P.),AgateBasin(ca.10,5009900yrB.P.),HellGap(ca.10,000
9500yrB.P.),Alberta(ca.95009000yrB.P.),Scottsbluff(ca.93008500yrB.P.),latelanceolate(Lusk,etc.ca.85007500yrB.P.)(latePaleoindiandatesnot
summarizedhereseealsoVickers1986).

WalkingtheMasonQuimbyLine

PointsandProboscideans

PAULMARTIN(1967)presentedevidencefromtheGreatLakesregionforthespatialassociationofflutedpointsandproboscideansitesandfortheirrestrictionsouth
ofwhathecalledthe"MasonQuimbyline,"indeferencetotwoofthescientistswhohadamassedmuchoftheinformation.Giventhecorrespondencebetweenfluted
pointdistributionandapostulatedicefrontalpositionforabout11,500yrB.P.inwesternCanada(Figure5),itisobviousthatwesimplyareprovidingawestward
extensionoftheMasonQuimbyline.Clearlydated,lateglacial/postglacialmammothfindswithculturalassociationsarealmostnonexistentandtherearemanyearlier
Pleistoceneoccurrences,sothemapcitesonlytheKyleMammothandthelocationofaboneorivoryforeshaft(Wilmeth1968).Anadditional"elephantbone"artifact
wasdescribedbyLeechman(1950)fromasiteontheLakeAgassizplaininManitoba,acontextthatsuggestedarelativelylate(postLakeAgassiz)date.The
specimen,supposedlyahewnlimbbone,wasexaminedattheManitobaMuseumofManandNaturebythefirstauthorin1986andclearlydisplayedasutureline.It
hasturnedout,infact,tobeafragmentofmooseskullwiththeartificiallyshapedbaseoftheantlerstillattached(G.Lammers,personalcommunication),andhasbeen
datedbyAMStolessthan1000yrB.P.(BuchnerandPettipas1990:53).

Thesituationwithregardtothelackofdirectculturalassociations(killsites)isthesameineasternCanada,butthedistributionofflutedpointsagainissimilartothatof
proboscideansinsouthernOntario.Coincidentpaleogeographysuggeststhatapredatorpreyrelationshipcouldhaveexistedbetweenhumansandproboscideansbut
ofcourseisnotproofofsuchalink.BothflutedpointsandproboscideanfindsareabundantinsouthernOntario(DellerandEllis1988Dreimanis1967Jackson
1987McAndrewsandJackson1988RobertsandMcAndrews1987Storck1988).However,itseemsequallypossiblethattheseculturalgroupswerenot
specializedhuntersofproboscideansbutratherhuntersofvariousmegafaunalspecies,particularlycaribou,whoselateglacialdistributionextendedwellsouthward
intotheUnitedStates(Julig1991).

EasternCanadianFlutedPointComplexes

LAURENTIDEICEPERSISTEDlongerineasternCanadathaninthewest,lastinguntilabout10,000yearsagoinmuchofOntarioandQuebec.However,moresoutherly
areaswereavailableforoccupationby11,000yrB.P.,andthecloseresemblanceofsomeflutedpointfindstoclassicClovissuggestscomparableantiquity(Deller
andEllis1988Julig1991Storck1984,1988).Exoticlithicmaterials(e.g.,NorthDakotacherts)withClovispointsinMainesuggestatruecolonizingpopulation,
rangingwidelyoverthemidcontinent(GramlyandFunk1990:6).FlutedpointsalsooccurinNewBrunswick(KingsclearandQuacoHead),PrinceEdwardIsland
(NorthTryon),andNovaScotiaattheDebertsiteandAmherstShore(DavisandChistianson1988Keenlyside1985MacDonald1968Turnbull1974Turnbull
andAllen1978).Thesitesareicemarginalanditisapparentthat,byabout11,000yearsago,theicesheetintheMaritimeProvincesandtheGaspPeninsulaof
Quebechadbrokenupinto

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scatteredremnants(LaSalleandChapdelaine1990Parentetal.1985:2526).TheChamplainSeastillinundatedlowlyingareasalongtheSt.Lawrencevalley.At
thistime,muchoftheopenareawasherbaceoustundra,withforestsofvariedcharactertothesouthintheNewEnglandstates(Richard1985:49).Theflutedpoints
seemtoindicateasuccessionofassemblagesaftercolonizationandmayhavepersistedformanyhundredsofyearsinthearea(GramlyandFunk1990).Themakers
oftheearliestassemblagesprobablyrepresentednomorethanafewbandsofhumans,widelyrangingandexploitingmigratorycaribouonthetundra.

TheGaineyandDebertpointtypesareClovislikewhiletheyoungerParkhill[notthesameastheParkhillsitediscussedabove]andCrowfieldtypesfromsouthern
OntarioaremorereminiscentofFolsom(Deller1988DellerandEllis1988RoosaandDeller1982Storck1988).ThermoluminescencedatingofthetypeGainey
Site,Michigan,specimensindicatesbroadcontemporaneitywithClovis(Simonsetal.1987).Debertpoints,withdeepbasalconcavities,arerestrictedtothe
MaritimeprovincesinCanada,andapparentlydatebetweenabout10,700and10,600yrB.P.,slightlylaterthantrueClovis(Levine1990:59).Gaineypoints,with
shallowbasalconcavitiesandmultiplefluting,occurinsouthernOntarioaswellasintheGreatLakesstatesandappearoncircumstantialgrounds(distribution)to
predateParkhillandCrowfieldinOntario(DellerandEllis1988:255GramlyandFunk1990).Althoughtechnologicalvariationsuggestsregionaldifferentiation
comparabletothatalreadydocumentedfromtheUnitedStates(Howard1990),itthereforecouldalsoreflectchronologicaldifferences.Thedeeplybasallyindented
unflutedpointsfromtheJonessite,PrinceEdwardIsland,mayrepresentadescendantformderivedfromClovis/Debertandcouldpredate9000yrB.P.(Keenlyside
1985:121).

Storck(1988)arguesthattheOntariogrouprepresentedbytheParkhillComplexpossessessomanyfundamentalsimilaritieswithotherearlyPaleoindiancomplexes
fromthemidcontinentthatitisbestviewedasacolonizinggroup,andnotasagroupthathadreceivedthetechnologythroughdiffusion(seealsoGramlyandFunk
1990Tankersley1994).ThisisnotinconflictwithDellerandEllisinasmuchastheirevolutionaryscenario(GaineytoParkhill)stillwouldaccommodateanideaofa
colonizinggrouparrivingabout:11,000yrB.P.CorrelationofOntarioflutedpointswithGlacialLakeAlgonquinandothershorelines(L.Jackson1983Roberts
1984aRobertsandMcAndrews1987Storck1982)showsgreatpotentialforshorelinesurveysalongtheicefrontinthesearchforearlysites.Theseassociations
alsoprovideabasisforpreliminarydating:forexample,theassociationofParkhillmaterialswithGlacialLakeAlgonquinistakentoindicateadatebetween11,000
and10,400yrB.P.,thedatewhenthelakedrained(Karrowetal.1975Storck1982,1988:243244).TheabsenceofflutedpointfindsbelowtheLakeAlgonquin
strandlinesuggeststhattheirusehadceasedbythetimeoflakedrainage(DellerandEllis1988:250L.Jackson1983Roberts1984a).Parkhillpointsarerelatively
smallandarefishtailed,withpronounced"ears"andwithflutingconductedfromaFolsomlikebasal"nipple."

ArchaeologicalandgeoarchaeologicalstudieslikewisesuggestthatthePlanotraditionwasestablishedinsouthernOntariobefore9500yrB.P.andintheGasp
PeninsulaofQuebecby8500yrB.P.,ifnotearlier(Balac1986Benmouyal1987Chapdelaine1985LaSalleandChapdelaine1990).PlanopointsfromQuebec
areparallelflakedandpossiblystemmedintheserespectstheyresembleCodyComplexpointsaswellasotherPlainslanceolatetypes(Chapdelaine1994
ChapdelaineandBourget1992).Itis,however,difficulttodiscriminatesomeofthismaterialfromShieldArchaic(Martijn1985).Recognitionofamegafloodepisode
fromLakeAgassizintoLakeSuperiorhasprovidedageologicaldatumintheformofdiamictsandlaggravelsthatcanassistinthecrossdatingofearlyHolocene
archaeologicalassemblages(Julig1990,1991Juligetal.1990).Nevertheless,datesforeasternCanadianPaleoindiancomplexesareextremelyrareanddifficultto
obtaingiventhepaucityofassociatedorganicmaterial.Asinthewest,thereseemsthusfartobenoclearindicationofasignificanttimelagbetweenthemidcontinent
andsouthernCanadaindatesforPaleoindianassemblages.Itremainspossiblethatsometraditionswillprovetohavepersistedlongerinthenorththaninthesouth,
butone'simmediateimpressionfromthedataathandisthatfunctionalandstylisticinnovationsrelatingtoprojectilepointswereabletotravelacrossmuchofthe
continentwithsurprisingrapidity.

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LandscapeEvolutionandVisibilityofEarlySites

GEOLOGICALPROCESSESacttomoldthelandscapeandthustoaffectthevisibilityofarchaeologicalsites.Wearepresentednotwitharandomsamplingofarchaeological
informationfromalltimesandculturalgroups,butwithaselected,biasedassemblagedriveninpartbylandscapeprocesses,presentandpast(seealsoWatersand
Kuehn1996M.C.Wilson1983a,1986,1990a).AnypreglacialsitesontheCanadianPlainssurelywouldhavebeenoverriddenbyice(exceptinsmallunglaciated
patchesalongtheinternationalboundary),sufferingtheerosiveeffectsoficescourinadditiontolargescalesubglacialfloods(Rainsetal.1993).Nevertheless,gravel
depositspersistedinburiedvalleysandhaveyieldedmanydatablevertebrateremains(Burns1996).Archaeologicalremainscouldyetbefoundinburied(subtill)
terracesettings,thoughtheCalgaryoccurrencesdescribedbyChlachula(1996)appearnottobeofthisnature.

Paraglacialprocessesareasignificantlandscapeprocessset,longoverlookedbyresearchersandconfusedwithperiglacialprocesses.Whereasperiglacialprocesses
reflectloweredtemperaturesinproximitytoanicemass,paraglacialprocessesproceedwhentemperaturesrise,sothatformerlyfrozendepositsmeltandlosestability
onslopes,andformerlyicesupportedlandformslosetheirsupportingicemass.Increaseddebrisflowactivitybuiltlargefansand,inhillyormountainousareas,buried
manyvalleyfloorsunderdiamictsthatoftenhavebeenmistakenfortill(Jacksonetal.1982).DeepexcavationsundersuchflowsattheVermilionLakessiteinBanff
NationalPark,Alberta,revealedPaleoindiancomponentsdatingto10,500yrB.P.(Fedje1986Fedjeetal.1995).Similarly,thickalluvialunitsthataccumulated
alongrivervalleysontheCanadianPlainsduringthearidHypsithermalcanbeimplicatedalongwithtypologicalproblemsintheillusoryappearanceofa"cultural
hiatus"(M.C.Wilson1983a,1986,1990a).Tocountertheseeffects,appropriateenhancedrecoverymethods,tailoredtothegeologicandgeomorphicsettings,are
required.

StudiesontheopenplainsofSaskatchewan,Manitoba,andNorthDakotarecentlyhavedemonstratedthatoutburstfloodsweremoreimportantthanpreviously
recognizedincuttingmeltwaterchannelssuchastheonenowoccupiedbytheSourisRiverdrainage(LordandKehew1987).Thesechannelsarerecognizedasthe
productofoutburstfloodsonthebasisofuniformchannelwidths,highdepthtowidthratios,anddiscretecutbanks(Clayton1983KehewandLord1986).The
outburstswerehighlyerosiveand,withtheexceptionoflargescalebarscomposedofpoorlysorted,coarsegrainedsediment,fewdepositswereleftbehindinthe
channelsasbedload.Thepersistinglandforms,manyofwhicharespillwaysacrosslowdivides,conformtothecharacteristicsofchannelsratherthanvalleys,andthe
terracelikebarsareactuallyinchannel(i.e.,underwater)featuresratherthanremnantsofformerfloodplains.Thesebarsonthemeltwaterchannelwallsareupto2
kmlongand30mthick,comprising"homogeneousmassesofmassive,matrixsupported,verypoorlysorted,pebblycobblegravel,containingbouldersasmuchas3
mindiameter"(LordandKehew1987:663).

Associatedfloodwaterflowsduringtheseoutburstfloodswerehighbutlastedamatterofdaystoweeks(KehewandLord1986LordandKehew1987).Because
oftheerosivenatureoftheoutburstfloodsintheSourisdrainageexampleandpresumablymanyothers,flooddepositstypicallyarenotpresentinthespillwayfloor
itself.Instead,afillofHolocenealluvialandlacustrinedeposits,uptotensofmetersthick,ispresentinmanyspillwaybottoms(LordandKehew1987,afterBoettger
1986).Thick,finegraineddepositsinthefloorofFortyMileCoulee,Alberta,yieldedbisonbonesintheupperfewmetersthatgaveonlylateHolocenedates.
Deepersedimentslikelywere,byextension,earlyHoloceneorevenlatePleistocenebutwerebeyondthereachofconventionalsampling(BrumleyandDau1988
Wilson1983b).Admittedly,itisnotyetcleartowhatextentthemeltwaterchannelsofsouthernAlberta(Chin,Etzikom,Nemiskam,Verdigris,andFortyMile
Coulees,tonameafew)werecutorinfluencedbyoutburstfloods.Iftheywere,itmustbeadmittedthattheywerecuttotheirfulldepthinrelativelyshortperiodsof
timetherefore,aconventionalmodelforarchaeologicalsurveybasedupontheexpectationofachronosequenceofterraceswouldbeinappropriate.Allterracelike
features,fromvalleyrimtofloor,couldbeofessentiallythesameage,differingonlyinweeksratherthaninmillennia.

Manyoftheoldmeltwaterchannelsandspillways,sincethetimeoftheirabandonmentbypermanentstreams,havebeenpartiallyfilledbyslopederivedsediments,
bothfromunchanneledflowofwaterdownvalleyslopes(sheetwash),buildingcolluvialaprons,andfromseasonalflowsdowntributarycoulees,buildingalluvialfans.
SomeofthefillinFortyMileCouleeiscertainlyofthisorigin.Thefactthatmaterialonly3,000

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yearsoldisrecoveredat3mdepthsuggeststhatmaterialofearlyPaleoindianagecouldbeexpectedtolie10mormorebelowthesurface,particularlyiftherateof
sedimentmovementhasdeclined(asislikely)duringtheHolocene(BrumleyandDau1988Wilson1983b).

MajorsitesintheCanadianprairieshavecometolightthroughuseofdeepsamplingstrategies(intentionalorotherwise).ThewellknownFletchersite,an
Alberta/Scottsbluffbisonkill,lay3mbelowlacustrineandaeoliandepositsandwasdiscoveredintheexcavationofastockwateringdugout(Forbis1968).Thelate
PaleoindiancomponentattheMonaLisasite,intheCalgary,Alberta,citycore,wasdiscoveredinbasementexcavations3mbelowthesurfaceinaunitofalluvial
overbanksediments.Furtherbackhoetestingwasusedtoextendthesitelimitsoveranareaoftwocityblocksandtodiscoveradditionalcomponentsdatingtothe
earlyMiddlePrehistoricperiod(Wilson1983a).BackhoetestinghasbecomeafrequentelementofsitesurveysinAlbertaandwasusedinthediscovery(among
otherexamples)of(1)thelatePaleoindianHawkwoodsite,Calgary(2)the9,600yearoldJCrossingsite(DjPm16)ontheOldmanRiver,southwesternAlberta
and(3)the10,500yearoldandotherPaleoindiancomponentsattheVermilionLakessite,nearBanff.

TheJCrossingsite,nowinundatedbytheOldmanReservoir,westofPincherCreek,Alberta,combinesseveralofthethemesdiscussedabove.Backhoetesting
revealedbisonbonesbelowMazamatephra(ca.6850yrB.P.)atadepthbetween2and3mbelowsurface.TherewerenosurfaceindicationsofanearlyHolocene
component.ExcavationsrevealedawelldefinedoccupationofearlyCodycomplex(Alberta)affinity,givingconflictingradiocarbondatesofabout9600and8600yr
B.P.(seeaboveVanDykeetal.1990).ThesitewasassociatedwithahighterracelikefeatureonthesouthwallofthelowerCrowsnestRivervalleythecomponent
laywithincolluvialdepositsthatcarpetedcoarse,poorlysortedalluvium.PeakcolluvialactivityinthisareaevidentlyoccurredduringtheHypsithermal,sothatbythe
timeoftheMazamaashfallthesurfacealreadyhadbeentransformedfromarelativelylevelalluvialfilltoptoaslopingcolluvialapron,andtheoverallterracelike
featurewasprogressivelybeinghiddenonthevalleywall.Anearbyboulderfield,onbothhigherandlowerterracelikesurfaces,isevidenceofaglacialoutburstflood
thatflushedthevalleyinlatePleistocenetimes.Itispossiblethattheterracelikelandformsarerelictbarformsratherthantrueterraces.Iftheflood(orfloods)
occurredatatimewhenhumansalreadyoccupiedthearea,itcouldhavedestroyedanysitesinitspath(Wilson1990b).

Whataboutdepositsthatarebeyondthereachofbackhoes?Itisclearthatpostglacialfillsincertainsettings(asinthefloorsofmeltwaterchannels)canbeuptotens
ofmetersthick.FewnaturalexposuresofcomparablethicknessinappropriatesedimentsoccurontheCanadianprairies,incontrasttothemoredeeplydissected
plainsoftheDakotas,Montana,andWyomingtothesouth.Invalleyswheremodernriversoccupyformermeltwaterchannels,asinthecaseofsegmentsoftheBow
RivervalleynearCalgary,incisionduringtheHolocenehasbeenontheorderofonlyafewmeters(M.C.Wilson1983a,1986).Upliftassociatedwithpostglacial
isostaticreboundhasbeengreaterontheeasternplainsofSaskatchewanandManitoba)thaninthewest,meaningthatrivergradientshavebeenloweredduringthe
Holocenethroughraisingofthebaselevel.Inabandonedmeltwaterchannels,asidefromminoraeoliandeflation,therehasbeennosignificantmechanismoferosion
duringtheHolocene.Infact,thechannelfloorsmayhavebeenareasofaccumulationofaeoliansedimentsstrippedfromnearbyuplands,wheremidHolocene
(Hypsithermal)erosionwaslocallysevere.Thelikelihoodexists,therefore,ofthedeepburialofPaleoindiansitesontheCanadianPlainsatdepthsbeyondour
conventionalmeansfortestingandrecovery.

ItissoberingtonotethatevenrelativelylatePaleolithicsitesineasternAsiaoftenaredeeplyburied,andnotallduetothickloessdeposits.In1988,ateamledbythe
seniorauthordiscoveredalatePaleolithicsite(Cuijiaai)inGansuProvince,China,under26moffinegrainedfloodplainalluviumandcappingloesslikecolluvium.
Thebaseofthecolluvium,20mbelowsurface,yieldedlandsnailsdatedto12,000yrB.P.onconchiolin(Wilson1990c).Dositesexistatcomparabledepthsin
manyareasoftheCanadianPlains?Weexpectthattheydo.

Whatcanbedoneintermsofsuchsites?Discoveryofadeeplyburiedsitemightbeaccomplishedthoughtheuseofsmalldiametercoringdevicesoraugers,butthere
stillistheproblemofexcavation.HowcouldoneexcavatealatePleistocenesitethatlies15or20mbelowsurfaceandlikelybelowwatertable?Thestrategies
wouldborderonfantasy.Amodifiedformoflargediameteraugertestingcouldbeemployed,withtheaugercalibratedtoallowcarefullevelbylevelrecovery.
Conventionalexcavations,iftherewereno

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waterproblems,surelywouldvergeonshaftminingunlessitwaspossibletostriplargeareasbeforehandthroughuseofheavyequipment.Inthecaseofextensive
impactbydevelopment,itmaywellbepossibletoget"openpit"accesstodeeplyburieddeposits,muchaswasthecasewiththeCherokeeexcavationsinIowa
(AndersonandSemken1980).Anotherstrategyworthyofsuggestionisdirectandcontinuousmonitoringofdeeppipelinetrenching,asanextensionofthepresent
emphasisuponpreimpactassessmentandmitigation.

Conclusions

THEDECADESCONTINUEtoflyby,andtheIceFreeCorridorcontinuestothwartthosewhosearchforindisputableevidenceofaClovisprecursorgroupthatmighthave
movedsouthinlateglacialtimes,asearlyas14,000yearsago.Flutedpointshavebeenfound,ashavemammoths.Significantly,thebisonassociatedwithlateglacial
alluvialdepositscomparableinagetoClovisarereferabletothesouthernform,Bisonantiquus(orB.bisonantiquus).Fossiliferousgravellyalluvialfillsdating
betweenabout11,500and10,000yrB.P.arewidespreadinsouthwesternAlberta(Stalker1968WilsonandChurcher1984).Atfirst,bisonfromthesedeposits
werereferredtothenorthernderivedform,B.bisonoccidentalis(Churcher1968,1975).Nowthatmorecompletecraniaareavailable,itisclearthatthesebison
arereferabletoantiquus(WilsonandChurcher1984).Anotherelementofthefaunaisthecamel,Camelopssp.,cf.C.hesternus,andtheoverallimpressionisofa
faunawithsouthernaffinities(M.C.Wilson1983a,1996WilsonandChurcher1978,1984).

Thefirstbisonof"northern"phenotype,withnarrowfrontals,protrudingorbits,andbackswepthorncores(assignedtoB.bisonoccidentalis)appearedintheIce
FreeCorridorareaabout10,500to10,000yearsago(TrylichandBayrock1966M.C.Wilson1996).Thesenorthernbisonmaysignalnotthephysicalopeningof
thecorridor(forthatwaslikelyearlier)butthebioticopeningofthecorridor(MacDonaldandMcLeod1996M.C.Wilson1996).Southwardmovementrequired
establishmentofvegetationandthedrainingofanylakesthatblockedpassageandthesefactorswouldhaveinfluencedhumansaswellasbison,thoughnot
necessarilytotheextentthattheyarrivedtogether.Withbison,asinthecaseofmammothdistribution,then,ademonstrablelinkseemstoexistbetweenextinct
speciesandpaleogeographyInManitoba,forexample,whichwasdeglaciatedlaterthanAlbertaandSaskatchewan,onlyB.bisonoccidentalishasyetbeenfound,
thoughearlierbisonofantiquustypecouldremaintobediscoveredintheextremesouthwestoftheprovince.

IfthebioticopeningoftheCorridordidnotpermithumanmovementsouthwarduntilsometimeafteritsphysicalopening,thatmigrationcouldhavebeenaslateas
Clovistimes,accountingforthesuddenappearanceofClovistechnologyintheabsenceofacredibleprecursor.Ifhumanswerenotabletomovesouthwardinthe
CorridoruntilthetimeoftheapparentB.bisonoccidentalismigration,wewouldbeforcedtoconcludethattheflutedpointusersoftheNorthwesternPlainswere
notnewarrivalsfromthenorth,butinsteadwereanelementofthesouthernfauna,withitsmammoths,camels,horses,andsouthernbison(M.C.Wilson1996).How
thesepeoplemayhavearrivedinthesouthremainsintherealmofspeculation,fordespitemuchefforttherestillarenositesintheIceFreeCorridorareathatprovide
convincingevidenceofhumanoccupationpriortothelastmajorglaciation,norhaveanyyetbeenfoundontheBritishColumbiacoast.Where,then,arethey?Should
archaeologistsdonhardhatsandplumbthedepthsofplainsQuaternarydepositslikeminers,orshouldtheyclimbintosubmersiblesandscourtheoceanfloorfor
evidence?Oristhestorymuchmoresimple,andentirelypostglacial?

Therestillarekeyquestionstobeaskedandanswered,andwereiterateouropinionthattheprecisetimingofthe"firstfootstep"mayprovetobeoneoftheleast
interestingofall.WeechoRichardMorlan'sopinionthatwhetherpeoplereachedthemidcontinent(andbeyond)beforeorafterthelastglaciation,"wemuststill
explaintherapidandwidespreaddistributionofflutedpointsshortlyafter12,000yearsago"(1977:96).Thisisanextremelyimportantquestioninvolvinglandsfrom
AlaskatoCentralAmerica.WasClovis,asappearsthecaseinthenortheast,a"colonizingpopulation"onvirginground?Itislikelythatadditionalradiocarbon
plateauxwillbedocumented,muchashadbeenthecaseforthe10,000to9500yrB.P.period(BeckerandKromer1993),andthereforethetruetimespanforthe
Clovisdispersalmaybelongerthanhasbeenbelievedtothispoint.Wewaitwithgreatanticipationforthenextdiscovery,forthereissomuchyettobelearned.
Happily,science(and,indeed,knowledge)isopenended,andthereforeitisthesolemndutyofscientiststoaskmorequestions

 Page236

thantheyanswer.Wearenotdisappointed,then,toendonthesenotesofuncertainty.Thoughthecorridorsforsouthwardmovementmaywellhavebeenwide,the
doorwaysintothemseemtohavebeenmuchnarrowerand,fromabioticstandpoint,shortlivedandthewindowsagainstwhichwepressouranalyticalnosesare
small,revealingmuchlessthanwehavewished.Thesearchcontinues.

Acknowledgments

WethankNeilA.Mirau(UniversityofLethbridge)forreviewinganearlydraftofthemanuscriptandmakingmanyhelpfulcomments.WealsothankDavidMeyer,
RobsonBonnichsen,JonathanDriverandRichardMorlanforsuggestionsandinformation.AngliqueM.GillespiedraftedFigure5.ThephotographoftheDuckett
sitepointwasprovidedbyGloriaFedirchukandEdwardJ.McCullough.

Weespeciallywouldliketothankananonymousreviewerforinsightfulandsensitivecommentsconcerningrecentdiscoveriesandcontroversies.Thefirstauthor's
odysseythroughpositionsinChina,Japan,theU.S.,andCanadasincethispaperwasfirstwrittenmaderevisionsmoredifficultthanshouldeverhavebeenthecase.
Inthiscontext,anuncommonlyconstructivecritiquewasbothapleasantsurpriseandavitallyimportantcontribution.Weareinyourdebt!

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 Page249

PrehistoryoftheGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlaintoAbout8,500YearsAgo
AlanL.Bryan1
DonaldR.Tuohy2

Abstract

AreviewofradiocarbondatedsitesintheGreatBasinandadjacentregionsindicatesthatthereisnosoundbasisfordifferentiatingPaleoindianfromArchaicstages
basedeitheroneconomyortechnology.Flutedpoints,includingClovis,arepresentinthe''Greater"GreatBasinbetweenabout11,000and8500yrB.P.,butnone
havebeenfoundatmammothorextinctbisonkillsites,asontheGreatPlains.StemmedpointsaremuchmoreabundantintheGreatBasinandmuchbetterdated,
frombefore11,000toabout8000yrB.P.,bywhichtimebothearlierhaltingtraditions(flutedandstemmed)werebeingsupersededbymoreefficientlyhaltedside
notchedpointswithoutanysignificantchangesineconomy.Evidently,earlyhumansbeforeabout8500yrB.P.useddifferenttechniquesforhaltingprojectilepoints
duringprolongedandoverlappingspansoftime,sothesetwodistinctivetechnologicaltraditionscannotbeusedashorizonmarkers.

InviewoftheavailabledatedevidencefromtheGreatBasin,itisunwisetoextrapolateadatedprojectilepointsequencefromtheGreatPlainstotheGreatBasinin
theattempttoestablishastandardizedpancontinentalsequenceofstages.Theactualsequenceforeachregionmustbedeterminedfromlocallydatedevidence.

THEVASTAREAOFINTERNALdrainageaptlytermedtheGreatBasinencompassesCaliforniaeastoftheSierraNevadaRange,allbutthenorthernandsouthernfringesof
Nevada,UtahwestoftheWasatchRange,plussoutheasternOregonandportionsofsoutheasternIdaho.AlthoughtheenvironmentallysimilarSnakeRiverPlainof
southernIdaho,aswellasportionsofnortheasternCaliforniaandmostofsouthcentralOregoneastoftheCascadevolcanoes,arephysiographicallyoutsidethe
GreatBasin,culturalhistoricalsimilaritiesandrelationships,especiallyduringthecriticaltime(ca.14,0008500yrB.P.)ofthePleistocene/Holocenetransition,allow
inclusionwithinanexpanded"greater"GreatBasinregion.Theseareaslaterbecamemoredifferentiatedculturallybecauseoflocaleconomicadaptationstosalmon
runsuptheKlamathandSnakeriversbutpriortoabout8500yearsago,theperiodoftimecoveredbythispaper,thegeneralhunting/gatheringwayoflifeapparently
wasessentiallythesamethroughouttheentireregion,andoccupantsoftheGreatBasinevidentlymaderegularforaysfarthernorthtoobtainobsidianandignimbrite
(cf.Amick1993JonesandBeck1990),andundoubtedlyothergoods,aswellasspouses.

ThisoverviewoftheevidenceforhumanoccupationofalargepartoftheIntermontaneWestsouthoftheColumbiaBasinwillmentionafewrelevantsitesalongthe
ColumbiaRiver,butwillexcludenorthernIdahoandmostoftheColumbia/SnakeBasinbecausemuchofthatregionwaseitherglaciatedorscouredbycatastrophic
floodsattheendofthePleistocene,effectivelydestroyinganyevidenceofearlierhumanoccupation.However,thepossibilityofobtainingartifactsdeeplyburiedunder
SpokaneorBonnevilleflooddepositsshouldnotbeignored.Cressmanetal.(1960:65)reportedthatabasaltslabchopper,tworetouchedflakes,asmallflaked
implementwithanexpandingroundedheadandalongshaftendinginachiselshapedbit,plusamillingstonefragmentwererecoveredfrombelowflooddepositsbya
geologistworkingatTheDallesdamsiteinWashingtonState.Theseartifactsshouldpredatethelastflood,which
1
.DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,Alberta,ABT6G2H4,Canada.
2
.NevadaStateMuseum,CarsonCityNV89701

 Page250

occurredabout13,000yearsago(Mullineauxetal.1978).

OnlyintheMojaveDesertofsoutheasternCaliforniaisthereanyindicationofhumanoccupationofthe"greater"GreatBasinregionbeforeabout20,000yearsago.
ThecontroversialevidenceforhumanoccupationofCalicoHillsasmuchas200,000yearsago(Simpson1989Simpsonetal.1986)willremaindifficultfor
archaeologiststoassessproperlyuntiladetaileddescriptivegeoarchaeologicalsitereportispublished,givingexactstratigraphicproveniencefordefiniteartifacts
describedaccordingtotheirmethodofmanufacture.TheevidencefromwinddeflatedsiteslikeChinaLake(Davis1978)andManixLake(Simpson1958)alsois
difficultforarchaeologiststoassessbecauseonlysurfaceassociationshavebeenreported.

AlsoszataiPetheo(1975)excavatedtheEastRimsite,locatedonaridgeattheeasternbaseoftheYermofanandabovethehighestlevelofLakeMohave.Most
artifacts,includingthickbifaces,wereembeddedinthedesertpavementonthewinddeflatedsurfacehowever,about40percentoftheflakedlithicswererecovered
fromasubsurfacesandystratumupto20cmthick.Mostoftheretouchedartifactsweresmallflaketools,withprojectilepointsabsent.Datableorganicmaterialwas
lackinghowever,pollenwasfoundtobeabundantinthesandyloam.Analysisofthepollenrevealedanabundanceofpineandfreshwatermarshplants,whichdiffers
significantlyfromthemodernpollenrain,butisnearlyidenticalwiththefrequenciesoftaxarecoveredfromdepositsdated22,000to37,000yrB.P.attheTule
Springssite.

ThesuggestiveevidencefromtheMojaveDesertsitesshouldstimulateaconcertedsearchforburiedsitesindatablePleistocenegeologicalcontextstotestthe
hypothesisthatsitespredatingClovis(>11,200yrB.P.)existintheGreatBasin.However,asthedatarelevanttoanyclaimforreallyearlyoccupationoftheBasin
havenotyetbeenthoroughlyanalyzedorpublished,thispaperwillberestrictedtotheperiodoftimeforwhichdetailedpublishedreportsonexcavatedradiocarbon
datedcontextsareavailableforevaluation.

TheProblemofDeterminingaCulturalSequenceintheGreatBasin

THEPROBLEMOFWHATeconomicadaptationsweremadetochangingecosystemsbyearlyoccupantsoftheBasin(cf.thesignificantsynthesisbyGrayson1993)ismore
importantthanthequestionofdatinghowever,thetwoproblemsarecloselyinterrelatedbecauseofcertainassumptionsheldbymanyarchaeologists.Important
publishedevidenceofsitesbetween14,000andabout10,000yearsold,althoughsupportedbyradiocarbondates,hasnotbeenconsideredfullybymany
professionalarchaeologists.AprimaryreasonforreluctancetoconsidercertaindatedevidenceisthatBasinarchaeologists,workingbeforemanyradiocarbondates
werelocallyavailable,hadextrapolatedamodelfromthebetterdatedprojectilepointsequenceoftheGreatPlainsandappliedittotheGreatBasin.Asthismodel
haslongseemedreasonable,ithasbeenmaintainedbymostresearchers.ExtrapolationoftheGreatPlainssequence,whichdistinguishesanearlier"Paleoindian"
periodorstageofeconomicdevelopmentcharacterizedbyspecializedbiggamehunting,hasledtotheequationofPaleoindianintheBasinwithflutedpoints,which
havebeenfoundscatteredthroughouttheregion,withconcentrationsontheedgesofnowextinctlakes(BeckandJones1997Grayson1993:238Titmusand
Woods1988Tuohy1985:1518,1986:27WarrenandPhagan1988Willig1988,1990WilligandAikens1988).

Ithasbeenrecognizedtacitlybyallarchaeologiststhatthereisnoactualevidencetosupporttheassumptionthatspecializedbiggamehuntingwaseveradominant
economicactivity,intheGreatBasin.Nevertheless,anearlyPaleoindianperiod,characterizedbyflutedpoints,andalatePaleoindianperiod(sometimesconfusingly
referredtoastheInitialArchaic),characterizedbystemmedpoints(oftenidentifiedasPlanovarieties,therebysuggestingaGreatPlainsorigin),areassumedto
predatetheearlyArchaicperiod,whichwasestablishedabout8000yrB.P.withtheappearanceoflargesidenotchedpoints,whichpresumablycamefromeastof
theRockyMountains,wheretheydefinitelyaredatedearlier.

ItisthepositionofthispaperthatallassumptionsrelevanttothespanoftimecoveredbythePaleoindianandearlyArchaicconceptsshouldbesetupasworking
hypothesessubjecttoconfirmation,refutation,ormodificationusingactualdataavailablewithintheGreatBasin,insteadofmaintainingamodelbasedonevidence
foundelsewhere.Forinstance,considerationofradiocarbondatedsitescontainingprojectilepoints

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earlierthanabout8,500yearsagowillbeusedtosuggestanalternativemodelofearlyGreatBasinprehistorywhichcastsdoubtonwhetherPaleoindianandArchaic
reallyarevalidconcepts,eitheraseconomicstagesorastimeperiods,atleastintheGreatBasin.

Simms'(1988)analyticessayalsoquestionswhetheritisusefultotrytomaintainthearbitrarydistinctionbetweenPaleoindianandArchaicintheGreatBasin.He
furtherarguesthattherewereongoing"frequencyshifts"intheuseofalternativeadaptivestrategiesthatincorporatedshiftsinuseofdifferenttechnologiesandtool
typesindifferenttimeperiodsandindifferentecologicalsettings(Simms1988:47).Simms'modelwouldexplaintheevidenceforcontemporaneoususeofvarious
projectilepointstylesandhaltingtechniques,aswellaslendsupporttoourcontentionthatprojectilepointhaltingtraditionsshouldnotbeusedasperiodmarkers.We
agreewithWillig(1988,1990)thatavailableevidencesuggestsageneralhunting/gatheringeconomicbaseexploitingawidevarietyofhabitatswasalwayspresentin
theBasin.

Ouralternativemodelwillsuggestthatbecauseageneralhunting/gatheringeconomicbasehasalwaysbeenpresentintheBasin,thereisnoeconomicbasisfor
distinguishingArchaicfromPaleoindian.Furthermore,asallmajorprojectilepointtraditionswereusedintheregionduringoverlappingspansoftime(Flutedfrom
about11,000to8500Stemmedfrom12,000toafter8000withtheultimatelydominantNotchedPointtraditionbeginningby8,000yearsago),thereisnotevena
technologicalbasisfordistinguishingArchaicfromPaleoindian.Manyothercorrelatedchangesintechnologyandeconomyshouldbepresentinordertodefineanew
periodorstage.

Weagreethattheterm"Paleoarchaic"suggestedbyBeckandJones(1997)isareasonablecompromisetouseforallculturalentitiespresentduringtheterminal
Pleistocene/earlyHolocenetransitionperiodinthe"greater"GreatBasin.Actually,thispaper,anearlyversionofwhichwaspresentedseveralyearsearlier,shouldbe
readasasupplementtoBeckandJones'muchmorecomprehensivesurveyoftheTP/EHperiodintheBasin.Amajordifferencebetweenthetwopapersisthat
BeckandJonesconservativelyfollowthe"Clovisfirst"model.TheybelievethattheearliestevidenceforhumanoccupationintheBasinisofmakersofflutedpoints
thattheyassumewerefirstusedintheBasinabout11,500yrB.P.,andthereforetheyexplainawayalldatesonstemmedpointsearlierthan11,200yrB.P.Our
thesisisthatavailabledatesindicatethatstemmedpointswerealreadyusedintheBasinbeforeflutedpointsarrivedfromtheeastabout11,000yrB.P.Wecontend
thatadatedpointsequenceontheGreatPlainsshouldnotbeextrapolatedtotheBasinalsothatavailabledateswithinthe"greater"GreatBasinindicatethatstemmed
pointswereinusebefore11,500yrB.P.Morefundamentally,wecontendthatarchaeologistsshouldnotallowanymodel,nomatterhowgenerallyacceptedithas
become,todictatewhatdataaretobeacceptedandwhataretoberejected.

ThefollowingreviewofavailableevidencewillshowthatradiocarbondatesindicatethatbothearlyhaltingtraditionswereusedintheIntermontaneWestduring
overlappingspansoftime.Clearly,asthesebroadlydefinedhaltingtraditionswerebothusedforprolongedperiodsoftime,theycannotbeusedashorizonmarkersto
definesequentperiodsintheGreatBasin.Eventheinnovationofsidenotchedpointsabout8000yrB.P.isinadequatetodefinetheonsetoftheArchaicsimply
becauseanew,moreefficienttiearoundhaltingtechniquequicklyreplacedtheothertwotechniques(flutedtofitontosplitstickhaftsandstemmedtofitinto
sockets).WeagreewithMusil(1988)thatinnovationofthenotchingtechnique,evidentlyderivedfromtheEasternWoodlands,madebothearlierhaftingtechniques
obsoletebutwedisagreewithhisconclusionthatstemmedpointshadpreviouslyreplacedflutedpointssimplybecauseasocketedhaftismoreefficientthanasplit
stickhaft.Musildoesmakeanimportantdistinctionbetweencontractingsidedstemmedpointsandparallelsidedstemmedpoints,whichareusuallyshoulderedfor
haftingontostillefficientsplitsticks.Shoulderedpointswithparallelsidedstems(e.g.,Scottsbluff,Eden,andAlbertaonthePlains)appeartohavebeenasomewhat
later,moreefficientamalgamofthesplitstickandsocketedhaltingtechniques.Evidentlyexperimentalflintknappersincorporatedtheadvantagesofbothearlier
methodswhentheycreatedshoulderedpointswithparallelsidesandstraightbases.AvailabledatessuggestthatthisinnovationfirstoccurredwestoftheContinental
Divide.

WhatcharacterizestheGreatBasinduringthePleistocene/HolocenetransitionandsetsitasidefromthecontemporaryPaleoindianperiodontheGreatPlains,which
hasbecomecharacterizedbymammothandbisonkillsites,isthatthemanyintermontanebasinswithintheGreatBasinshowextensivesignsofutilizationand
settlement,butlittleornoevidenceofmegamammalkills.Thoughtheadjacentmountainrangeareasalsosawsomeutilization,thelowlands

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withinthebasins,thelaketerracesandotherlakefeatures,showextensiveusebyprehistorichumans,wholeftawholehostoflithicartifactsonandnearthe
lakeshores,includingmanydifferentstylesofprojectilepoints.Theseartifactconfigurationschangedthroughtimeinconformancewithlakelevelchanges.
Unfortunately,mostoftheseconfigurationslieonthesurface,andrarelyhavebeenfoundindatablestratigraphiccontexts.Aneconomicadaptationtothepresenceof
anexistingshallowfreshwaterlakeandthebioresourcesavailableinandarounditclearlywasthemostimportantfactortotheorganizationoftheannualround
followedbyearlyprehistoricoccupantsoftheGreatBasin.

Jennings'(1957)conceptofa"DesertArchaic"stage,withpeopleadaptedtoanannualroundthatallowedthemtoutilizeawidespectrumofplantandanimal
resources,wasbaseduponabundantethnographicandarchaeologicalevidenceforeffectiveseasonalhunting/gatheringeconomicadaptationstolakeshoreandmarsh
environmentsinvariouspartsoftheBasin.Availableevidenceindicatesthatthisflexibleadaptationbysmallgroups,whowanderedwidelywherevertheresources
wereseasonallymostabundant,appearstohavealwaysbeenthemosteffectivewaytomakealivingintheGreatBasin.

ThewidelyacceptedassumptionthattherewasasignificantchangeinbasiceconomicadaptationduringthecriticalPleistocene/HolocenetransitionintheGreatBasin
hasneverbeensetupasatestablehypothesis.TheavailablearchaeologicalrecorddoesnotrevealanymajorchangeineconomicorientationintheGreatBasinuntil
theendoftheearlyHolocene,about7500yrB.P.,bywhichtimebothflutedandstemmedpointshadgivenwaytothemoreefficientnotchedpoints.Althoughitis
possible,thereisasyetnoactualevidencethatthemakersofflutedpointsactivelyhuntedmammothsintheGreatBasin.Thereasonforthissituationmaybethatthe
mostdrasticchangesinenvironmentandconsequenteconomicadaptationstothosechangespreviouslyhadoccurredwhenthelakesabruptlybegantodryupabout
13,000yearsago(Bryan1988:70Scottetal.1983).FreshwaterlakeshavelongexistedinallpartsoftheGreatBasin,althoughmostpreviouslyfreshlakesnoware
saltyoralkaliplayas.Mammothremainshavebeenfoundontheseplayas(Tuohy1968).One,amammothexcavatedintheBlackRockDesertanddatedabout
11,000yrB.P.,mayhavediedafterbecomingtrappedinawellithaddugforfreshwater(Clewlow1983).Perhapsamoresignificantchangewasthereductionof
territoryoccupiedbymigratorybisonherdsdependentuponsecureandabundantsourcesoffreshwater.AsthePleistocenelakesdriedupintheBasin,more
abundantwaterontheSnakeRiverPlainprobablyforcedthelargerherdstostayinthenorth,ortoseekhigherground,astheydidontheColoradoPlateau
(CopelandandFike1988:528).HumansoccupyingtheBasinduringthewaningstagesofthePleistocenewereforcedtoadapttheireconomytoreliablesourcesof
freshwateralongstreamsandespeciallylakes,whichfluctuatedgreatlyinarea,depth,andsalinitybetween13,000and9,000yearsagoastheregionbecamemore
desiccated.Whenattheirmaximumextent,thelargerlakes,LahontanandBonneville,withtheirmanyinletsandislands,wouldhavehinderedlongdistancemovement
bypedestrians.Butfreshwaterlakesofallsizescreatedproductiveenvironmentswhereearlyhumanswereabletoadapttheireconomytoutilizelocallyavailableland
mammals,waterfowl,fish,andedibleplantsmoreeffectively.

TheterminalPleistocene/earlyHoloceneculturaladaptationtothislacustrine/montaneecosystemhasoftenbeenreferredtoastheWesternPluvialLakestradition,a
termintroducedbyBedwell(1973).AneasilyrecognizablepartofthetechnologyutilizedbytheWPLTculturesarewillowleafshapedandstemmedpointsdesigned
forinsertionintosocketedhafts.Forconvenience,allofthesestemmedpointtypescanbereferredtoastheStemmedPointtradition(ortheGreatBasinorWestern
StemmedPointtradition),withtherecognitionthatseveralpointstylesbelongingtodiscretetechnologicaltraditionswereusedbycontemporaryearlyhunter/gatherers
inthe"greater"GreatBasin.Whetherornotthesedifferentpointstyleswereusedbyhumansbelongingtodifferentculturaltraditionsremainstobedetermined.Infact,
astrongcasehasbeenmadethatwhatarchaeologistsrecognizeasstemmedprojectilepointsalsomighthaveservedotherpurposes(BeckandJones1993,1997).If
so,thisisanothergoodreasonwhystemmedpointsshouldnotbeconsideredashorizonmarkers.

AnothercharacteristicoftheWPLTtechnologicalrepertoirearecrescents.Althoughfoundmostoftenalonglakeshoresandonnowdrylakebottoms,stemmed
points(butnotcrescents)alsohavebeenexcavatedfromradiocarbondatedcontextsinFortRock,Danger,WilsonButte,Handprint,andSmithCreekcaves.
Severaloftheseandothersitesyieldingstemmedpointsarelocatedinmontanesettingsfarabovethelakebasins,soitnolongerseemsappropriatetoassociatethe
StemmedPointtraditionwithan

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economicadaptationonlytolakeshores(cf.Grayson1993:243).Evidentlythesepeoplealreadyhadestablishedanannualroundthatutilizedresourcesfoundin
severalecosystems,whereasthemakersofflutedpointsseemedtohaverestrictedtheireconomicadaptationtotherichresourcesfoundalongtheedgesofshallow
lakes.Flutedpoints,belongingtothetechnologicaltraditionrecognizableastheFlutedPointtradition,frequentlyhavebeenfoundinassociationwithformerlakesbut
theonlycavetheyreportedlyhavebeenrecoveredfromisDangerCave,whichislocatedjustabovetheBonnevillesaltflats(Jennings1957).

Fagan(1988)concludedfromadetailedtechnologicalanalysisoftheDietzsitecollectionfromtheAlkaliLakebasininsoutheasternOregonthatthetoolkitsand
manufacturingtechniquesusedtomakeWesternClovisandstemmedpointswerestrikinglydifferent.Hisanalysisindicatesthattwoquitedifferentgroupsusedthe
Dietzsiteatdifferenttimes,and,atleastatAlkaliLake,itrefutesanalternativehypothesisthatbothtechnologicaltraditionswereusedbythesameculturalgroupfor
differentpurposes.Unfortunately,asalldiagnosticartifactswerefoundonthesurfaceattheDietzsite,therewasnodirectwaytodatethetwodiscreteassemblages,
eitherabsolutelyorrelatively.Becausethe105flutedpointswerefoundconcentratedonthedesiccatedplaya,whilethe47stemmedpointswererecoveredfroma
higherterraceofanactivelake,thepossibilitywasconsideredthattheflutedpointswereyounger.However,itisknownthattherewereseveralwetperiodsfollowed
bydesiccationandtheauthorsstatethattherewereotherreasonstobelievethattheflutedpointspredatedthestemmedpointsatthesite.Wehavenoquarrelwith
theevidencepresentedthattheoccupationofAlkaliLakebythemakersofflutedpointsprecededoccupationsbythemakersofstemmedpoints.Willig(1988)
presentsdetailedjustificationforconcludingthattheflutedpointassemblageisearlierthanthestemmedpointassemblagesattheDietzsite,althoughthisproposed
sequenceshouldbeconfirmedbyradiocarbondatingofstratigraphiccontextsatthesiteitself,asWillig(1990)indicatedwouldbeattempted.Ourobjectioniswith
theattempttoextrapolaterelativetimeforthetwohaltingtraditions(FlutedandStemmed,eachofwhichincludesseveralpointstyles)fromtheGreatPlainstothe
entireGreatBasin,andtherebycreatetwosequent"eras"attheDietzsite(Willig1990).

AnearlyPaleoindianperiodwasextrapolatedtotheBasinandtheClovisperiodattheDietzsitewastherebydatedtobetweenabout11,500and11,000yrB.P.,
whichprecededtheStemmedperiod(Willig1990WilligandAikens1988).ItshouldbenotedthatHaynesetal.(1984)previouslyhadredatedclassicClovissites
onthePlainsandinArizonatoamorelimitedtimehorizonbetween11,200and10,900yrB.P.,sologicallythismoreconstrictedtimeframeshouldbeappliedtothe
GreatBasinaswell.AsequencefromearlyPaleoindian(identifiedbyflutedpoints)tolatePaleoindian,characterizedbyPlano(stemmed)types,meansthatall
stemmedpointsintheGreatBasinmustthereforedatetoafter10,900yrB.P.

Suchaprocedurerequiresacceptanceofcertainassumptions,notallofwhichhavebeenstatedbyWillig(1988,1990WilligandAikens1988).Theseassumptions
are:

(1)ThatClovisflutedpointsweretheearliestNorthAmericanprojectilepoints

(2)Thatallflutedpointsthereforecanbeusedasperiodmarkersthatprecedeallotherpointtraditions

(3)Thatatechnologicalorculturalsequenceshouldbethesameinquitedifferentenvironmentalregions,evenifeconomicadaptationstofundamentallydifferent
ecosystemsmighthavebeenquitedifferent

(4)ThatPlainsPlanopointtypes(manyofwhich,especiallyAgateBasinandHellGap,arequitesimilarinshapetocertainGreatBasinstemmedpointstyles)
somehowevolvedfromClovisflutedpoints.ItusuallyisassumedthatthesedevelopmentsoccurredontheGreatPlains,althoughCarlson(1988)hassuggestedthat
thechangesmighthaveoccurredintheIntermontaneWest

(5)ThattheStemmedPointculturaltraditionrapidlyandcompletelyreplacedtheFlutedPointculturaltraditionintheGreatBasinabout10,900yearsago

(6)ThattheGreatBasinstemmedpointseries,whichincludesatleasteightdefinedmorphologicalpointtypes(cf.BeckandJones1993,1997),alsocanbeusedto
defineaperiodmarkerintheGreatBasin.Willig(1990)statesthatthe"ClovisEra"wasfromabout11,500to11,000,whilethe"StemmedEra"lastedfrom11,000
to7,000yrB.P.

(7)Thatoneculturalgroupusingasimilarhuntingtechnologywithnoprovenadvantagesoverthatusedbyotherscanquicklyandcompletelydisplaceanother
hunting/gatheringculturethathadlongbeenwelladaptedtoitsecosystem.(Theonlyrecordedexamplesofrapidreplacementofoneculturebyanotherthat

 Page254

weknowofinvolvetheintroductionofsignificantmajortechnoeconomicinnovations,suchasfarmersdisplacingforagersorpeoplewithfirearmsreplacingpeoplewith
spearsandarrows)and

(8)Thatalldatedevidencethatdoesnotsupporttheseuntestedassumptions,thereplacementmodelbasedupontheseassumptions,ortherelated"Clovisfirst"
model,whichassumesthatClovishunterswerethefirstAmericans,arecontroversialandforthisreasoncanbeignoredorexplainedaway.

RadiocarbonDatedEvidenceforFlutedandStemmedPointsintheBasin

ALTHOUGHFLUTEDPOINTShaveprovedtobefairlycommonsurfacefindsonalluvialfans,atsprings,alongstreams,andespeciallyonlakeandmarshshorelines(Tuohy
1985,1986Willig1988),theyhavebeenexcavatedfromdatedcontextsatonlyfivesitesinthe"greaterGreatBasin."Inouropinion,fewoftheseflutedpointsare
reallyclassicClovis,althoughmostdofillwithinthegreatrangeofvariationfoundatClovissitesfarthereast.MostflutedpointsfoundintheBasinthereforehavebeen
classifiedas"WesternClovis"(Willig1990).TheyarecalledClovisbecausethefluteflakeswereremovedlastintheproductionsequence(thusexcludingFolsom
technology,inwhichlongfluteswereremovedfirst),andthefluteisatleastonefourththelengthandonethirdthewidthofthepoint(cf.WarrenandPhagan
1988:121).TheSunshinelocality(seeFigure1forallsitelocationsmentionedinthetext)ineasternNevadayieldedaflutedpointabout20cmbelowcharcoaldated
10,32050yrB.P.AstemmedpointwasfoundinpossibleassociationwithCamelopsinanotherpartofthesitethatyieldeddatesbetween10,200and10,710yr
B.P.

ExcavationsthatproducedmanystemmedpointsinConnleyCave#5,nearFortRock,Oregon,intheextremenorthwestcorneroftheGreatBasin,alsoyieldeda
flutedpointabovealeveldated9540260yrB.P.(Bedwell1973:146,Figure43,Plate14).TheHenwoodsiteintheMojaveDesertnearBarstow,California,
yieldedaflutedpointinclearassociationwithtwoLakeMohavepointsandahearthdatedto8470370yrB.P.(WarrenandPhagan1988:123).Twoflutedpoints
reportedlywererecoveredfromDangerCaveindepositsthatproducedmanystemmedpoints(Holmer1986:9495WilligandAikens1988:15).DavidMadsen
(personalcommunication

Figure1.
Sitesmentionedinthetext.1.Anzick.2.Buhl.3.Calico.4.ChinaLake.
5.Clark'sFlat.6.Cooper'sFerry.7.DangerCave.8.Dietz.9.FennClovisCache.
10.FortRockCave.11.HandprintCave.12.Henwood.13.OldHumboldt.
14.OwlCave(Wasden).15.PilcherCreek.16.Richey/RobertsCache.17.SmithCreekCave.
18.Sunshine.19.TheDallesDamsite.20.TuleLake.21.TuleSprings.
22.WilsonButteCave.23.Wizard'sBeach.Thismapisaduplicateofthemapinclude
inSamuelG.Houghton'sbookATraceofDesertWaters:TheGreatBasinStory,published
bytheArthurC.ClarkCompany,Glendale,California,p.256.Itwasmodified
tosuitthefactsofourpaper.

 Page255

1990,1991)hasconcludedfromhisreexcavationsthatDangerCavewasnotoccupiedbeforeabout10,500yrB.P.thethreecharcoaldatesearlierthan11,000yr
B.P.obtainedfromthelowestlevelswerealwaysapuzzlebecauseofthelackofassociatedextinctfauna(Jennings1957).AttheundatedOldHumboldtsiteinthe
LahontanBasin,westernNevada,severalstemmedandoneflutedpointfragmentwererecoveredwithremainsofmodernbisonfroma30cmthickalluviumthatwas
depositedsometimebetween7,000and11,000yearsago(Dansie1984DavisandRusco1987).

TheWasdensite(alsoknownasOwlCave),ontheeasternSnakeRiverPlaininIdaho,istheonlysitewhereflutedpointsandassociatedfluteflakeshavebeen
recoveredfromadatedcontextwithextinctfauna(mammoth)anywherewestoftheContinentalDivide,exceptinsoutheasternArizona.ThethreebrokenOwlCave
pointsaretechnologicallymoreFolsomlikethanClovis,sothesiteisanexceptiontotherulethatonlyClovispointsareassociatedwithmammoths(MillerandDort
1978).AlthoughthepointsaretoolargetobetypicalFolsom,thetechniqueofmanufacture(longandbroadsingleflutesremovedbeforelateralretouch)is
recognizablyFolsom(MillerandDort1978).Soonafterdiscoveryofassociatedmammothbones,thecollagenfractionofthosebonesyieldedtwodates12,250
200(WSU1259)and12,850150yrB.P.(WSU1281)butseveralyearslateranothercollagendateof10,920150yrB.P.(WSU1786)wasrunatthe
samelaboratorywithmorerefinedpretreatment.Morerecently,anAMSdateoncharcoalfromthebaseofthemammothlayeryieldedadateof10,64085yrB.P.
(AA6833)(SusanneMiller,personalcommunication1995),whichseemstoestablishthetimeofoccupationatOwlCavetobetween10,900and10,600yrB.P.,
immediatelyaftertheheydayofClovismammothhuntersontheGreatPlains.

Evenfarthernorth,acrosstheContinentalDivideinsouthcentralMontana,theAnzickburial,associatedwithanassemblageofClovisartifacts(JonesandBonnichsen
1994),hasyieldedsixAMSdatesrangingfrom10,240to10,940yrB.P.onspecificaminoacidsextractedfromtheocherstainedcalvarium(Stafford1994:Table
4).Onlythelatterdateiswithinthe10,90011,200rangeofdatesforClovismammothkills.

ClassicClovispointshaveneverbeenrecoveredfromradiocarbondatedcontextsintheGreatBasin.Infact,afterstudyingtheDietzpoints,whicharequitesimilarto
Clovis,Willig(1988)suggestedthatallflutedpointsarewesternvariantsofClovisandthattheyallmaybeslightlylaterintimethanClovisontheHighPlains.Ifmost
westernflutedpointsdevelopedfromtheearlierclassicClovisform,thereisnoreasontorejectthelaterradiocarbondates,aslongasthesenonClovisflutedforms
arerecognizedaspartofatechnologicaltraditionthatevidentlypersistedmuchlaterwestoftheRockiesthanonthecentralHighPlains.Certainly,availableevidence
doesnotsupportthehypothesisthatflutedpointsdefinedasWesternCloviswereusedintheBasinduringthesamelimitedspanoftime(11,20010,900yrB.P.)that
mammothhuntersareknowntohaveusedClovispointsontheGreatPlainsandinsoutheasternArizona(Haynes1980,1984).Ifso,itisnolongerproperto
extrapolateadatedtemporalrangefromthePlainsandapplythemtosurfacefindsintheBasin.Actualdatesindicatethatflutedpointswereusedinthe"greaterGreat
Basin"betweenabout11,000and8500yrB.P.,sotheydonotmakeagoodperiodmarker.TheFlutedPointtraditionshouldnot,therefore,beconsideredacultural
tradition,butratheratechnologicaltraditionthatspannedasignificantamountoftimeintheBasin.

Nevertheless,whenmoredatesbecomeavailable,itispossiblethattrulyclassicClovismayyetprovetobeahorizonmarker,evenintheGreatBasinandthePacific
Northwest.ThatthismightbesoissuggestedbythecacheofspectacularclassicClovispointsandotherartifactsexcavatedfromtheRicheyRobertssite,near
WenatcheeontheColumbiaRiverofeasternWashington.Althoughundated,oneoftheseartifactshasGlacierPeakvolcanicashadheringtoitsunderside.Glacier
Peaklastexplodedabout11,250yrB.P.,leadingMehringerandFoit(1990)toconcludetheartifactswerelaidontheashsoonafter.

AnotherassociationofaprojectilepointWithGlacierPeakashhasbeenreportedfromthePilcherCreeksite,northeasternOregon(Brauner1985).Thoughthisisa
stemmedpoint,identifiedasWindust,itwasfoundembeddedinredepositedbutpureGlacierPeakash,soitalsoshoulddatetosoonafter11,250yrB.P.Several
otherstemmedpointswereexcavatedatthePilcherCreeksite.

TheStemmedPointtraditionalsoshouldberecognizedasatechnologicaltraditionandnotaculturaltraditionoraperiodmarker.Stemmedpointsfrequentlyhave
beenfoundincontextsradiocarbondatedbetween11,000and8500yrB.P.,andthreesitescontainstemmedpointsincontextsdatedearlierthan11,000yrB.P.
EvidencewasmarshaledbyBryan(1980)toshowthatstemmedpointsoriginatedwest

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oftheContinentalDividebetweenabout12,000and10,500yearsago,andthattheybegantospreadeastontotheGreatPlainsabout10,800yrB.P.,wherethey
areknownasPlanopoints.PlanoformsstratigraphicallyoverlieflutedpointsatseveralsitesonthePlains.

Thehypothesisthatflutedpointswereanimportantpartofadiscrete"ClovisCulture"(Haynes1980)hasbeenquestionedbyYoungandBonnichsen(1985),who
concludedfromanalysesofflakingpatternsthatClovispointsfromMontana(Anzick)andMainemusthavebeenmadebydifferentsocietiesutilizingquitedifferent
traditionalflakinggrammars.ThisinterpretationimpliesthattheideaofmakingflutedpointswasdiffusedthroughoutNorthAmericatomanyalreadyestablished
societies,ratherthandistributedbyasingle,rapidlymigratingsociety.RefutationofthehypothesisofasinglecontinentwideClovisculturewouldmakeitclearthat
fluting,stemming,andnotchingshouldbeconsideredfirstofallasfunctionalpartsofeffectivemethodsforhaltingprojectilepoints.Anyassumptionthatsuchformscan
thenbeusedforidentifyingprehistoricculturesmustbesetupasworkinghypothesessubjecttotestingbyanalysisofflakingtechnologies,asFagan(1988)hasdone
fortheDietzsitecollection.Iftheideaofflutingwasadoptedbymanydifferentsocietiesthatappliedtheirowntraditionalflakingtechniquestocreatetheflutedform
identifiableasClovis,thegenerallyacceptedassumptionisweakenedthattheearliestprojectilepointsinNorthAmericawerenecessarilyClovis.

Settingupthisgenerallyacceptedbasicpremiseasahypothesisratherthansimplyassumingittobetruemakesitclearthatmanyarchaeologistsaretroubledbya
significantbodyofavailableradiocarbondateddatathatdoesnotsupportthewidelyheldassumptionthatflutedpointswerethefirstthroughoutNorthAmerica,and
thatallstemmedpointsmustbelaterplusthecorrelatedassumptionthatstemmedpointssomehowevolvedfromflutedpoints(Carlson1988Willig1990Willigand
Aikens1988).InordertoextrapolatefromtheGreatPlainsrecordtheassumptionthatearlyPaleoindiansusedonlyflutedpointsintheGreatBasin,itbecomes
necessarytoignoreorexplainawayallradiocarbondatesfromsitesintheGreatBasindatedearlierthan11,000yrB.P.becauseallofthoseradiocarbondates
pertaintocontextscontainingonlyGreatBasinStemmedpoints.

AlthoughDangerCave,Utahhasyieldedtwodatesearlierthan11,000yrB.P.forstratayieldingstemmedpoints(Jennings1957),weawaitMadsen'sreportonhis
reexcavationstoclarifythechronologicalsituationatthatsite.Threeothersitesyieldingstemmedpointshavebeendatedearlierthan11,000yrB.P.Thebasal
occupationofFortRockCave,Oregon,yieldedadateof13,200720yrB.P.(GaK1738),reportedlyassociatedwithanassemblagecontainingashortstemmed
pointandaconcavebasedpoint,inadditiontoscrapersandamano(Bedwell1973).Weagreethatthisexceptionallyearlydateshouldbeverified.WilsonButte
Cavewasreexcavatedin198889byRuthGruhnandAlanBryan,andthereportwillbereadyforpublicationin1999.Onecompleteandseveralstemmedpoint
basescamefromthelowerpartofthegraybrownsand(StratumC)inapparentassociationwithextinctfauna(horseandcamel,plusunidentifiedbovid[muskox?]
andproboscidean[mammoth?])andradiocarbondatesoncharcoalorbonethatrangebetween9000and16,000yrB.P.Apieceofivory(presumablymammoth
tusk)yieldedanAMSdateof10,700100yrB.P.(TO3330),whichcorrelateswellwiththeOwlCavedatesformammoth.Obsidianhydrationdatesonfive
stemmedpointfragmentsfromStratumCrangedfrom8391326to5949275yrB.P.Twootherstemmedpointsyieldedobsidianhydrationdatesof14,600
402yrB.P.and13,657389yrB.P.(Gruhn1995).Ofcourse,thesedatesmustbeconfirmedbyradiocarbon,butotherobsidianhydrationdatesonotherpoint
typersareasexpected,sothesedatesshouldnotbeautomaticallyrejected.ThenearbyBuhlburial,associatedwithastemmedpointandaneyedboneneedle,
yieldedanAMSdateof10,67595yrB.P.(Beta43055andETH7729)(Wisner1992).

ThestratigraphyatSmithCreekCave,easternNevada,isveryclear,andtheassociatedassemblageof324artifactsisexceptionallywelldated(Bryan1979).The
earliestMountMoriahoccupationlayerhasyieldeddatesof11,680160yrB.P.(Tx1421)oncharcoaland12,150120(Birm752)onwood,plusAMSdates
of12,060450(RIDDL797)oncamelidhair,10,840250(RIDDL795)onbovidhair,and10,420100(TO1173)onapieceofcordage.Allthesematerials
wereassociateddirectlywithalithicassemblage,includingstemmedpointbases(unbrokenMountMoriahpointsappeartohavebeenwillowleafshaped)andmany
scrapersandgravers(Bryan1979,1988).Thearchaeologicaldataindicatethatthecavewasoccupiedoccasionallybetween12,000and10,000yearsagobysheep
hunterswhorearmedtheirbrokenpointsanddehairedhideswithscrapers.WilligandAikens(1988:Table3)listonlythesixdatesrangingfrom9940to11,140yr
B.P.onintrusivehearths

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excavatedfromalaterMountMoriahoccupationintothemainoccupationlayer.Theysimplydonotlisttheabovedatesfromthemainoccupationlayer,asmostdo
notsupporttheircontentionthatallGreatBasinStemmedpointsmustbelessthan11,000yearsold.TheirrefusaltoacceptearlierdateswasfollowedbyBeckand
Jones(1997:183).Similarly,Meadetal.(1982)andThompson(1985)hadattemptedtoshowthatallarchaeologicaldatesolderthan11,000yrB.P.fromSmith
CreekCavesomehowmustbewrongbecausefivedates(rangingfrom10,450to13,340yrB.P.)hadbeenobtainedonthemacrofossilcontentsofwoodratmiddens
locatedinnichesinthecavewallabovetheareaofhumanoccupation.Thompsonarguedthatasallofthewoodratmiddenscontainedmacrofossilsofbristlecone
pine,whichwerenotfoundintheMountMoriahoranylateroccupationzone,thebiologicaldatesarecorrectbutthearchaeologicaldatesmustbetooold.Bryan
(1988)hasshown,byreferencetohisoriginalreport(Bryan1979),thatthebristleconepineremainsinthewoodratmiddensalmostcertainlyhadbeenredeposited
fromathinlayerofbristleconeremainsontothecontemporarysurfaceofthecave.Bristleconeneedlesandtwigsfromthisstratum,excavatedfrombeneathan
interestingsterilelayerwhichunderliestheMountMoriahoccupationzone,haveproducedfourconsistentdates12,600170(A1565),12,61080(TO1176),
12,95070(TO1175),and13,02090(TO1177)whichoverlapwithThompson'swoodratmiddendates,butnotwiththedatesfromtheoverlyingMount
Moriahoccupations.Alargeportionofthebristleconelayercontainedavoidcreatedbygroundsquirrels,whichremovedthisrelativelyloosematerialinordertobuild
nestsandrunways.Theseremovedbristleconeremainswerenotfoundonthepresentsurfaceofthecave,norinanyoftheoccupationlayers.Themostlikely
explanationforthemysteryofthemissingbristleconeremainsisthatwoodratsincorporatedintotheir"houses"theusefulandreadilyavailablebristleconepinetwigs
andneedlesthathadbeenredepositedonthesurfacebygroundsquirrels.

Thompson(Meadetal.1982Thompson1985ThompsonandMead1982)assumedthatthewoodratshadcollectedthebristleconeremainsfromtheliving
ecosystemoutsidethecave,sohedatedidentifiablemacrofossilsextractedfromthewoodratmiddens,includingthebristleconeremains,andusedthemtodefinethe
localpaleoenvironmentduringthedatedspanoftime.Thediscrepancybetweenthebiologicalandthearchaeologicalsetsofdata,particularlytheradiocarbondates,is
mostparsimoniouslyexplainedbythehypothesisthatrelativelyrecentwoodratshadincorporatedintotheir"houses"ancientbutperfectlypreservedplantmacrofossils,
thusskewingtheapparentageofthewoodratmiddensandtheirenvironmentalinterpretation.Thishypothesiscanberefutedreadilybydatingonlywhatthewoodrats
actuallyateasrepresentedbytheirfeces,whichisthematerialnormallyusedtodatewoodratmiddens.

Anotherearly,datedstemmedpointsiteisHandprintCave,overlookingtheBlackRockDesert,whereaslightlyshoulderedpoint(lookinglikeasmallScottsbluff)
wasfoundincavesedimentsassociatedwithatrueblade,bovidhair,andcharcoaldated10,74070yrB.P.(Bryan1988:Figure1GruhnandBryan1988).This
beautifullypressureflaked,squarebasedshoulderedpoint(aformoftenfoundonBlackRockplayas)evidentlywasplacedbeneathastalagmitedecoratedwitha
panelofpictographsofhandprintsdeepwithinthecave.WehypothesizethatthissquarebasedpointformmayhaveprecipitateddevelopmentofthelaterScottsbluff
PlanotypeonthePlains.

TheassumptionthattheFlutedPointtraditionoccurredintheGreatBasinonlyduringtheClovisoccupationoftheHighPlains(limitedto11,20010,900yrB.P.)has
neverbeendemonstrated.AvailabledatesindicatethatflutedandstemmedpointswerebothpresentintheIntermontaneWestby11,000yrB.P.andpersisteduntil
after9000yrB.P.,andthereforethatthetwotraditionsranparallelcourses.Apparentlybothstemmedandflutedpointsandassociatedhaftingtechniques
(respectivelysocketedandsplitstickorbeveledforeshafts)werealternativetechnologicaltraditionsusedbycontemporaryresidentsoftheregionforseveral
millennia.DidresidentsoftheGreatBasinusebothmethodsofhaftingfordifferentpurposes,orweretheredifferentculturalgroupsoccupyingthesameregionduring
anoverlappingspanoftime?ThisquestionisanalogoustotheclassicBinfordBordesdialecticregardingthevariousMousterianassemblagesofsouthwesternFrance
(v.discussioninPhillips1980:4950).TheBinfords'hypothesisthatthesamepeopleuseddifferentassemblagesoftoolsfordifferentpurposesgenerallyhasbeen
favoredoverBordes'originalhypothesisthatdifferenttribesoccupiedthesameregion.IntheBasin,aswasdoneinFrance,thetwopossibilitiesshouldbesetupas
workinghypothesessubjecttofurthertesting.Availableevidence,whichsuggeststhatthedistributionofflutedpointsisquitedifferentfromthedistributionofstemmed
points,favorsthehypothesisthatdifferentculturalgroups

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occupiedtheBasinduringanoverlappingspanoftimewhiletheevidencefromtheDietzsiteindicatesthatthetwooccupationsthereoccurredatdifferenttimeswhen
lakelevelswereatdifferentelevations(Fagan1988Willig1988,1990however,seeBeckandJones1997foralternativearguments).

ThepossibilitythatdifferentgroupsofpeoplecooccupiedtheregionforprolongedspansoftimeissupportedbyethnographicevidencefromtheGreatBasin,which
indicatesthatlaterpeopledidnotoccupyspecificterritoriesinprecontacttimes.Rather,smallgroupsofpeoplemovedwithoutrestrictionfromareatoareawherever
resourcesweremostabundant,withoutfearoftrespassing.Inotherwords,foodsharingactuallypromotedwidespreadmovement.Severalarchaeologistshave
arguedthatthispatternofcyclicwanderingbysmallfamilygroupsexploitingseasonalresourceswithasimpletechnologyisaveryoldoneintheIntermontaneWest
(cf.discussioninHanes1988:79).Quitelikelythisefficientadaptationtoaregioncontainingscatteredresourcesandconsequentlylowpopulationdensitywasthe
mosteffectiveadaptivestrategyforpermanentresidentsoftheregionsinceinitialhumanoccupation.

Weholdasabasicpremisethatavailableradiocarbondatesshouldnotbeignorednorexplainedawayinordertoselectevidenceinsupportofadeductivemodel.
Workinginductivelyfromavailabledata,wehavearrivedattheworkinghypothesisthatflutedandstemmedpointsbothwerepresentintheIntermontaneWestbefore
11,000yrB.P.andpersisteduntilafter9000yrB.P.,andthatdifferentsmallgroupsofpeoplecooccupiedtheGreatBasinforprolongedspansoftime.Wehave
mentionedtwospecificinstanceswhereexcavatedevidenceindicatesthatthiswastrueinthenorthwesterncorneroftheGreatBasinatConnleyCave#5,andatthe
HenwoodsiteintheMojaveDesert.WealsohavepresentedsupportingevidencefromNevadaatSmithCreekCave(Bryan1979,1988)andtheOldHumboldt
site(Dansie1984DavisandRusco1987).Thereisnowaytotellwhetherthestemmedpointsmighthavebeenearlierorlaterintimethantheflutedpointatthe
undatedOldHumboldtsitebutatSmithCreekCave,thestemmedpointsdefinitelyrangebetween12,000and10,000yrB.P.,encompassingtheentirespanoftime
thatClovispointsareknowntohavebeenusedbymammothhuntersontheGreatPlainsandinsoutheasternArizona.

WewouldliketoaddthreeotherradiocarbondatedinstancesfromjustoutsidetheGreatBasin.AttheClark'sFlatsite,onthewesternflanksoftheSierraNevada
Range,manystemmedpointswererecoveredfromrepeatedlydateddeposits.Ofparticularinterestisthelowestculturalstratumatthesite,aburiedpaleosolthat
yieldedtwodatesof9170140(Beta13192)and11,720145(Beta14299).Thedatesareinproperstratigraphicorder(Peaketal.1990:258,506,Figures3
4)sothereisnoinherentreasonwhybothdatesarenotcorrect,butonlytheyoungestdatewasdeemedtobeacceptable.Theolderdatecorroboratesthedateson
verysimilarpointbasesfromSmithCreekCave.AnevenmoreconclusiveinstanceinsupportofthehypothesisthattheStemmedPointtraditionwascontemporary
withCloviscomesfromtheCooper'sFerrysiteonthelowerSalmonRiver,westcentralIdaho.Thelowestoccupationstratumyieldedacharcoaldateof11,410
130yrB.P.AcachepitextendingfromthatstratumcontainedfourstemmedpointsassociatedwithAMSdatesof11,37070and12,020170yrB.P.(L.G.
DavisandSisson1998L.G.Davis,personalcommunication1998).JusteastoftheGreatBasin,intheareawhereWyomingandUtahintersect,theFennClovis
cacheincludesacrescent,anartifactconsistentlyassociatedwithstemmedpointsonGreatBasinplayas(Frison1991:Figure2.13).Whethertradedorpickedupon
theplaya,thecrescentoriginallymusthavebelongedtocontemporaryorearlierpeople.Thepresenceofthiscrescentalsosuggeststhehypothesisthatsomemakers
offlutedpointsmayhavemovedofftheHighPlainsandColoradoPlateauseasonallytooccupyproductiveGreatBasinmarshlands(orperhapstheywereprehistoric
"Snowbirds,"movingoutofthehighcountrytoawarmerplaceinthewinter).

Fromthesefacts,wehypothesizethattherewereatleasttwotechnologicaltraditionsextantintheGreatBasinfrombefore11,000toafter9,000yearsago.Clovis,
withitspreciselithictoolkitmadefromcarefullychosenmaterials,wasnottheonlyprogenitorofNewWorldculturesandthosearchaeologistswhohaveworkedin
SouthAmericaarecorrectthattheconceptof"fluting"hasbecomeashibbolethora"password"fortheearliestculturesinNorthandevenSouthAmerica(Mayer
Oakes1984:231).Itistimetoreplacetheoutdated"Clovisfirst"conceptwithalessrestrictiveworkinghypothesisspawnedandnurturedintheGreatBasinofNorth
America(cf.E.L.Davis1978:73foranearlierversionofthecotraditionconceptofflutedandstemmedpoints).OurmodelhypothesizesthattheStemmedPoint
traditionhadaseparateoriginwestoftheContinentalDivide,wherethesepointsaremostcommonandwheretheyhave

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beendatedasearlyas12,000yrB.P.Ataboutthesametime,theFlutedPointtraditionoriginatedeastoftheContinentalDivide,whereflutedpointsaremore
abundant(Faughtetal.1994:Figure2),perhapsintheregionoftheGulfofMexico(Bonnichsen1990cf.Bryan1991).Supportforthishypothesiscomesfrom
severalClovissitesintheEasternWoodlandsthathaveprovidedearlierdatesthanonthePlains.Forexample,thedeeplyburiedJohnsonsite,nearNashville,
Tennessee(Wisner1993),yieldedoneClovispoint,25flutedpreforms,andhearthsdatedbetween12,600and11,700yrB.P.The''mostacceptable"dateof
11,950110(Tx7454)isearlierthanwesternsites.PerhapstheearlieststructuresinNorthAmericawereexcavatedatthePaleoCrossingClovissitenearAkron,
Ohio.Acharcoalsamplefromapostholedated12,250100yrB.P.,andanorganicsample,saidtobepossiblynoncultural,fromthebottomofacylindricalpit
dated13,100100yrB.P.(BroseandBarrish1992).

TheGreatPlainshasprovidedevidenceforastratigraphicsequenceofflutedpointssupersededbystemmedPlanopoints,andultimatelybynotchedpoints.This
sequence,validforthecentralGreatPlains,shouldnotbeextrapolatedeitherwestoreastofthePlains.Regionalsequencesmustbedeterminedfromdatedlocal
sites.

ConclusionsandSpeculations

THEFIRSTSTEMMEDpointsmayhavebeensimplewillowleafformsthatfittedintosocketedhaftsasdogroundbonerodprojectilepoints.Ourmodelstatesthatthere
weremultipletechnologicaltraditionsandprobablyseveralculturaltraditionsatworktoproducetheearliestgenerallyrecognizedNorthAmericancultures
characterizedbybifacialprojectilepoints.Theprobabletechnologicalantecedentsoftheseprojectilepointtraditionsaredealtwithinseparatepapers(Bryan1990,
1991,1994BryanandGruhn1989).

Wemustadmitthatwedonotknowwhenpeoplefirstenteredthe"greaterGreatBasin."Certainlyitwasnotprecisely11,000yearsagoasthe"Clovisfirst"model
wouldmaintain,althoughpossiblysoonafterwardsClovispointswereusedintheregion.EvidencethatpeoplewerepresentintheMojaveDesert20,000andmore
yearsagoshouldnotberejectedoutofhand,butrathershouldbecriticallyexaminedbyopenmindedarchaeologists,includinggraduatestudentspursuingthesis
projects.EvidencefromtheSnakeRiverPlainindicatingthathumanslivedwithextinctanimalsperhapsasearlyas14,500yearsagoinWilsonButteCave(Gruhn
1961,1965)hasreceivedqualifiedsupportbyreexcavationsinthelowerundisturbedportionsofthecave.NearbyKelvin'sCave(Meatteetal.1988)hasyielded
flakesinassociationwithextinctfauna,sofurtherexcavationsinthatlavatubearenecessary.Whereverfound,apparentassociationsbetweenextinctfaunaand
culturalremainsmustbeexcavatedwithgreatcare.Forinstance,northofReno,Nevada,atWizard'sBeachonPyramidLake,suggestiveevidencewasfoundforthe
cooccurrenceofextincthorseandcamelwithretouchedflakes(Tuohy1988).Specificaminoacidsrecoveredfromanapparentlyassociatedcamelboneyieldeda
weightedaverageAMSdateof25,470230yrB.P.(Dansieetal.1988:172173).However,theauthorscautionthatartifactsandfossilsfoundassociatedona
moderndeflatedlakebedsurfacemightpossiblybefromdifferentperiods.Itisessentialtosearchfordeeplyburieddatablecontexts.OnepromisingareaisTule
Lake,whichstraddlestheOregon/CaliforniaborderintheKlamathRiverdrainagejustwestoftheGreatBasin.Oneofseveralwavecutrocksheltersonthewestern
shoreofthisancientplayayieldedadateof11,450340yrB.P.onahearthfound210cmbelowsurface(Beatton1991).Asmalltestpityieldedartifacts,including
bifaciallyflakedfragmentsandbonetools,inconjunctionwithfish,bird,andmammalbones,andbonetoolstoadepthof240cm.

Somespeculationsmightbeofferedasconcludingtidbits.Onereasonwhyevidenceforhumanoccupationoftheregionearlierthanabout12,000yearsagohasbeen
foundonlyontheSnakeRiverPlainandintheMojaveDesertmaybecorrelatedwithrestrictedaccessfromthePacificCoastbecauseofmountainglaciationduring
theWisconsinmaximum.IfearlyhumansfirstexpandeddownthePacificCoast,asGruhn(1988,1994)hashypothesized,thefirstbreakintheglaciatedcordilleras
maywellhavebeenthroughtheColumbiaGaptransectingtheCascades,andthenceuptheColumbiaandSnakerivers.ThenextbreakinPleistoceneglaciation
wouldhavebeensouthoftheSierraNevadaRangeoverTehachapiPass,whichleadsdirectlyintotheMojaveDesert.

WithabroaderscopestimulatedbythisfirstWorldConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas,thesuggestioncanbemadethattheappearanceofbifaciallithic
projectilepointsbetweenabout18,000and11,000yearsagoinvariouspartsoftemperateEurasiaandboththeAmericaswasduetoindigenoustechnological
innovationsbyexperimental

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flintknappersstimulatedbyparalleleconomicadaptationstolocallyavailableresources,andnottoprolongedforcedmarchesintounchartedterritorybyspecialized
biggamehunters.

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TheLatePleistocenePrehistoryoftheNorthwesternPlains,theAdjacentMountains,andIntermontaneBasins
GeorgeC.Frison

Abstract

ThelatePleistocene/earlyHolocenepaleoecologyoftheNorthwesternPlainsandimmediatelyadjacentareasrevealssignificantchangesinclimateandvegetation,
alongwiththedisappearanceofmanyfaunalspecies.EvidenceforeitherapreClovisorancestralClovisoccupationintheareahasyettobeprovided.Clovisisthe
onlyculturaltraditionwithunequivocalevidenceformammothprocurementArtifactcachesnowappeartohavebeenanestablishedpartoftheClovisculturalsystem,
althoughthetruefunctionofthesecachesremainsinquestion.

RenewedinterestintheGoshenculturalcomplexhasresultedfromtheinvestigationsattheMillIronsite(24CT30)insoutheastMontana.Radiocarbondatesand
flakedstonetechnologysuggestpossiblerelationshipsofGoshenwithbothClovisandFolsom.TherealsoisastrikingsimilaritybetweenGoshenandPlainviewflaked
stonetechnology.

Theculturalrelationshipsbetweenplainsandfoothill/mountaingroupschangedthroughtime.BothClovisandFolsompeoplesobtainedcertainhighqualityrawlithic
materialsatthehigherelevationsoftheRockyMountains,butapparentlywerenotutilizinglocalcavesandrockshelters.FornearlytwomillenniafollowingtheFolsom
occupation,therewasanapparentseparationbetweenhumangroupslivingontheplainsandthoselivinginthefoothill/mountainareas.Thereasonsforthismayhave
beentheresultofecologicaldifferencesandmutuallyexclusivefoodprocurementsystemsbetweenthetwoareas.AtthebeginningoftheearlyPlainsArchaic,at
about8,000yearsago,theculturaldistinctionbetweenplainsandfoothill/mountainoccupationdisappears.Thesekindsofproblemsaredevelopingrapidlyintoa
fruitfulareaforfuturePaleoindianresearch.

Introduction

THEECOLOGICALSEPARATIONbetweentheGreatPlainsandtheRockyMountainswouldappeartobesimpleandstraightforward.However,definingdistinctprehistoric
ecologicalandculturalboundariesbetweenthetworegionsisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,inthepresentgeographicareaofsouthernMontana,Wyoming,andthe
immediatelycontiguouspartsofadjoiningstates.Thisisduelargelytothephysicalgeographyoftheregion.Enclavesofplainsenvironmentsarefoundalongmajor
riversthatflowthroughmountainrangesandinintermontanebasinsbetweenmountainranges.Limitedareasofplainslikelandformsoccuratelevationscloseto
timberline,oftenwithopencorridorstotheplainsbelow.Isolatedupliftsaresurroundedbytheplainsbuttheyformislandsofhighaltitudeenvironments.Rivers
flowingfromthemountainsestablishriparianenvironmentsinanotherwisestrictlyplainsenvironment.

SincetheareaconcernedstraddlestheContinentalDivide(Figure1),riversdraintoboththePacificOceanandtheGulfofMexico.Mountainrangesthattrendnorth
tosouthtrapmuchofthewintersnowandsummerrain,leavingmanyareastotheeastoftheContinentalDivideinarainshadow.Forexample,annualprecipitationat
YellowstoneLakeinYellowstoneNationalPark,atanelevationof2,356m,todayaveragesabout45cm,whileintheBighornBasin,located160kmtotheeastat
anelevationof1,180m,theannualprecipitationaveragesabout18cm,asit

DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofWyoming,Laramie,Wyoming82071

 Page265

Figure1
ThegeneralareaoftheNorthwesternPlainswiththeadjacentmountainsand
intermontanebasins.

lieswithintherainshadowoftheAbsarokaMountains.Another160kmeast,inthecentralPowderRiverBasinatanelevationofl,385m,butinalocationdominated
byadifferentweatherpattern,theaverageannualprecipitationisabout33cm(BeckerandAlyea1964).Smalltolargeincrementsofchangeintheseamountsof
rainfallregularlyoccurandseparategoodyearsfrombadintermsofanimalcarryingcapacity.Thesefiguresalsoarecriticalinthat18cmofyearlyprecipitationresults
inaneardesertenvironment,whileanother1Scmorsoofprecipitationwillsupportashortgrassplainsecosystem.

EcologicalconditionsduringthelatePleistoceneintheareaweresignificantlydifferentthantoday.Becausewecandocumentthatpresentenvironmentalconditions
demonstratesignificantdifferencesovershortdistances,wealsocanusethistoargueforchangesofsimilarproportionsinthepast.Severallinesofevidenceprovidea
keytopastenvironmentalconditionshowever,thisevidencecomesfromafewspecificsitesinlocationsdeterminedbyaccidentsofgeologicformationand
preservation.Withoutdoubt,duringthefinaltwomillenniaofthePleistocene,culturalfactorsenteredstronglyintotheaccumulationandpreservationofdata.

Anunderstandingofthepaleoecologyoftheareasincethelastglacialmaximumatabout18,000yearsagoisvitaltoanunderstandingofitspasthumanoccupation.
Thecollectionofmeaningfuldatatowardthisgoalrequiresabroadinterdisciplinaryapproachandanumberofspecialists.Geology,soils,andtaphonomicstudiesare
neededtounderstandsiteformationprocessessothattheinvestigatorwillknowwhethertherecovereddatahavethenecessaryintegrityforreliableinterpretations.
Geologists,zoologists,paleontologists,botanists,palynologists,paleoclimatologists,radiocarbondatingspecialists,andsoilscientistsareamongthespecialistsneeded
toproperlyanalyzefielddata.Manyofthesespecialistswillbeworkingonthefringesoftheirdisciplineratherthanintheirprimaryareaofinterestandstudy.

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Figure2.
NorthAmericaatthelastglacialmaximumabout20,000yearsago.(FromPorter1988).

LatePleistocenePaleoecology

ACCORDINGTOTHELATESTinformationfrompaleoecologicalspecialists(Figure2)(seePorter1988),thelastglacialmaximuminNorthAmericaoccurredabout20,000
to18,000yearsago.TheLaurentideicesheetextendedsouthtothepresentcourseoftheMissouriRiver,atthelocationwhereitflowsfromnorthtoeastthrough
MontanaandacrosstheDakotas.

Southofthis,theareawasunglaciatedexceptforthehigherelevations.TheYellowstonePlateauinYellowstoneNationalPark(Figure1)andseveralcontiguous
mountainrangesformedthelargestsingleglaciatedareasouthofthecontinentalicesheetsinNorthAmerica.Theheadwatersofseveralmajorrivers,includingthe
Snake,Missouri,Yellowstone,andtheGreen,begininthisupliftedarea.TheNorthPlatteRiver,anothermajortributaryoftheMissouri(Figure1),hasbeen
importantintheprehistoryofthesouthernpartoftheNorthwesternPlains.ItsmajorheadwaterslietothesouthintheColoradoRockies.Borderingthesouthern
marginofthecontinentalicesheetswasa"tundracoveredperiglaciallandscape"withinwhichthe"vegetationassemblagesresembledthoseexistingfarthernorth
today"and"bothsnowlineandtreelineweredepressedabout1,000m"(Porter1988:1).

Thealpineglaciersreachedtheirmaximumadvanceataboutthesametimeasthecontinentalglaciers.Theperiglacialzoneoccupieda"beltuptoseveralhundred
kilometerswidealongthesouthernmarginofthecontinentalicesheets"(Porter1988:4).Icewedgecastsindicativeofpastpermafrostconditionshavebeenrecorded
atanumberoflocationsthroughout

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Wyoming(Mears1981Walker1987:337340)andareconsideredlateWisconsininage.

AnalysesofmammalianfaunasaffordanunderstandingofchangingpaleoecologicalconditionsontheNorthwesternPlainsandadjacentmountains.TheLittle
MountainareainthenorthernBighornBasinofWyoming(Figure1)hasproducedatleastfoursites,includingnaturaltrapsandrockshelters,thathaveaccumulated
longtermrecordsoflatePleistocenemammals.Althoughinaveryrestrictedecologicalzoneat1,540melevation,therecordthereprovidesabasisforunderstanding
latePleistoceneenvironmentalchanges.ChomkoandGilbert(1987)postulatethatfourmajorfaunalhorizonscanberecognizedthereduringthelatePleistocene.

Thefirstandoldestoccurredduringaperiodfromabout27,000to21,000yearsago.ThefaunaincludedOvissp.(mountainsheep),Equussp.(horse),Antilocapra
americana(pronghorn),Sylvilagussp.(cottontail),Gulogulo(wolverine),Vulpes(fox),andLepusarcticus(arctichare).Atleast17smallmammalswere
recorded,includingseveralsensitivetosmallincrementsofenvironmentalchange.

Thesecondandnextoldesttimeperiodextendsfromca.21,000yrB.P.,orapproximatelyduringthelastglacialmaximum,toca.15,500yearsago.Byca.20,500yr
B.P.,Arctodussp.(shortfacedbear),Canisdirus(direwolf),Canislupus(graywolf),Miracinonyxtrumani(Americancheetah),Felisatrox(Americanlion),
Camelopssp.(Americancamel),andBisonsp.(bison)arerecorded.Atabout18,000yrB.P.,Bootheriumbombifrons(Harlan'smuskox)appeared,alongwith
severalsmallmammalsincludingDicrostonyxtorquatus,thecollaredlemming,atinymammaladaptedtoandunabletosurviveoutsideofaperiglacialenvironment.

Thethirdperiodextendsfromca.15,500to12,000yrB.P.,duringwhichthelargefaunawerereducedinactualnumbers.However,Mammuthussp.(Mammoth)
appearsintherecordatca.14,000yrB.P.Atca.13,500yrB.P.,thesmallmammalrecorddemonstratesasignificantchange.D.torquatus,Synaptomysborealis
(northernboglemming),andOchotonaprinceps(pika)increased,whileThomomyssp.(pocketgopher)decreased.

Inthefourthperiodatca.12,000to10,000yrB.P.,thelargefaunafurtherdecreased,withEquussp.remaininguptoca.11,000yrB.P."Asteppecommunitywith
tundraelementsissuggestedforthisperiod"(ChomkoandGilbert1987:405).

TranslatingthisfaunalevidenceintoalatePleistoceneenvironmentalreconstructionoftheLittleMountainareasuggestsasteppebiomewithborealforestsrestricted
tocanyonsfromca.27,000to15,500yrB.P.Aflorescenceinthenumberandvarietyofspeciesisnotedatca.21,000yrB.P.,andareductionoflargeanimalsis
notedatabout15,500yrB.P.Around10,000yrB.P.,alpineandsubalpinecommunitiesappearwithnewspecies.Bisonsp.showareductioninsizeaprocessthat
continueduntilatleast6000yrB.P.andpossiblyseveralhundredyearslater.By5000yrB.P.,bisonwerepresentintheirmodernform(seeWilson1978).Thesame
trendinsizereductionmaybetrueofmountainsheep.Essentially,Oviscatclawensisappearstohavebeenaslightlylargercounterpartofthemodernform,Ovis
canadensishowever,thepointwhenthemodernformdemonstratedsufficientcontrastwiththeextinctformforthedifferencetobedetectedinthefossilrecordisnot
yetknown.

OthersiteswithlesscompletestratigraphicrecordsthanseenintheLittleMountainareaofnorthernWyominghavebeenfoundimmediatelytothenorth,inthePryor
MountainsofMontana(Figure1).ThisareahasproducedapartialrecordoflatePleistocenefaunathatisreasonablyconsistentwiththeLittleMountaindata
(Grahametal.1987).SimilarresultshavealsocomefromtheinvestigationofLittleBoxelderCaveatthenorthernendoftheLaramieRangeincentralWyoming
(Anderson1968Long1971).

SmallmammalstudiesfromearlyPaleoindiansiteshaveexpandedourknowledgeofenvironmentsofthelastmillenniaandahalfofthePleistocene.Thesestudies
includetheLange/FergusonmammothsiteinthebadlandseastoftheBlackHillsinSouthDakota(Hannus1990Martin1987)andtheAgateBasinsiteinextreme
easternWyomingwestoftheBlackHills(Walker1982).Atthelattersite,largesamplesofsmallmammals(noncultural)wererecoveredinstratifieddeposits
containingculturalmaterial.OfparticularsignificancewerethesamplestakenfromtheFolsomlevel,datedatca.10,700yrB.P.,andtheHellGaplevel,occurring
approximately500yearslater.Thelattersamplereflectssignificantenvironmentalchangefromtheformer,whilebotharedifferentfromthepresent.Themodernarea
ofsympatryfortheFolsommicromammalfaunawouldbetheconiferousforestareaofnorthwestWyoming,whereastheareaofsympatryfortheHellGap
micromammalfaunawouldbeseveralhundredkmsfurthersouthinamixedareaofconiferousforeststands,sagebrush,andgrasslands

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Figure3.
MicromammalsympatrymapsfortheFolsomandHellGapfaunnulesoftheAgateBasinlocal
faunacomparedtothemodemsympatryofmicromammalsintheAgateBasinsitearea.
(FromWalker1982).

nowfoundinnorthwestColoradoandthesouthernpartoftheWyomingBasin(Figure3).

Otherpaleoenvironmentalstudiesindicatesignificantchangesduringthecriticaltimebetweenca.11,000and10,000yrB.P.however,theseindividualstudiesare
fromspecificlocationsintheNorthwesternPlainsarea.Extremecautionisneededwhenattemptingtogeneralizefromasinglesitetoanentirearea,orevenovershort
distances.ResultsofpalynologicalstudyfromasiteinthePowderRiverBasin(MarkgrafandLennon1986)ineastcentralWyomingandfromtheMillIronsite
(GoshenPlainviewculturalcomplex)insoutheasternMontana(Figure4)(ScottCummings1996)suggestthatmoderngrasslandsessentiallyhavebeenintheirpresent
formsinceca.13,000yrB.P.ThisbynomeansshouldbeconstruedasanindicationthatthesameconditionsshouldbegeneralizedtotheWyomingBasin,the
BighornBasin,themixedforestgrasslandareaofsouthwestMontana,oranyothersegmentofthegeneralarea.

PaleoecologicaldatafromtheNorthwesternPlainsandadjacentmountainsrevealthatfromtheGlacialMaximum(ca.20,000yrB.P.)totheendofthePleistocene
(ca.10,000yrB.P.),floralandfaunalcommunitieschangedandshiftedastheclimatewarmedanddeglaciationprogressed.Eventhoughtheareaofstudywasnot
coveredbytheLaurentideicesheet,therewereareasofice(suchasthatontheYellowstonePlateau)andvalleyglaciersintheheadwatersofmajorstreams,whose
sourceswereinthehighermountains.Duringthetimebetween11,000and10,000yrB.P.significantclimaticchangesstronglyaffectedculturalgroupsonthe
NorthwesternPlains.ThesechangeswereproposedbyBrysonadecadeandahalfago(1974:755)basedonpollenstudiesinMinnesota.

ThePreClovis/AncestralClovisQuestion

IFPRECLOVISORANCESTRALClovisoccupationswerepresentontheNorthwesternPlainsandintheadjacentmountainsaftertheglacialmaximum,theywouldhave
beensuccessfullyadaptedtothechangingenvironmentalconditionsdescribedabove.Todate,thereisnoevidenceofaculturalassemblageintheareathatcanbe
acceptedasunequivocalorstronglyconvincingofsuchanoccupation.IstronglyfeelthatadistinctionshouldbemadebetweentheconceptsofpreClovisand
ancestralClovis.AproClovis

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Figure4.
Clovissitesinclude(1)SimonCache,(2)IndianCreek(3)Anzickcache,(4)
Colby(5)Sheaman,(6)LangeFerguson,(7)Drakecache,and(8)Dent.
GoshenPlainviewsitesinclude(1)MillIron,(2)Carter/KerrMcGee,(3)Hell
Gap,and(4)TwinMountain.

occupationmighthavebeenorientedtowardscavenging,whichwouldleavetheevidenceevenmoredifficulttofindandconfirm.However,wewouldexpectan
ancestralClovisoccupationtoreflectsomeofthetechnologyfoundlaterinClovis.Untilevidenceofeitherorbothisfoundinthepropergeologiccontext,answersto
thepreClovisand/orancestralClovisquestionontheNorthwesternPlainsmustremainopenandunanswered,withanyresolutiondependentonfuturedatarecovery.

Thisdoesnotprecludethepossibilitythatsuchevidencesomedaymaybefound.Giventhehighratesoferosionanddepositionresultingfromhightopographicrelief,
easilyerodedsediments,andlowvegetativecover,theprobabilityofpreservationofsuchevidenceisrelativelylow.ThereareseveralconfirmedClovissite
componentsinthearea(Figure4),andthepreservationofPaleoindiansitesingeneralislargelytheresultoffortuitousgeologicevents.Considerforamomentthatit
tooknearlytwodecadesafterthefirstdiscoveryanddocumentationoftheGoshenculturalcomplexattheHellGapsiteinsouthwesternWyoming(IrwinWilliamset
al.1973)tofindaninsitucomponentoftheGoshencomplexattheCarter/KerrMcGeesite(Figure4)inthePowderRiverBasinofWyoming(Frison1984)and
theMillIronsite(24CT30)(Frison1991a,1996),located400kmtothenorthinsoutheasternMontana.

 Page270

ClovisontheNorthwesternPlainsandintheMountains

CLOVISEVIDENCEISquitevisiblearchaeologically,particularlywhereitisassociatedwithlargeanimalbonesorbonebeds,asseenattheColbysite(FrisonandTodd
1986).Clovistoolsandweaponry,aspresentlyknown,reflectanadvancedstageofbone,ivory,andflakedstonetechnology.Clovishasreceivedmorethanitsfair
shareofattention,largelybecauseofitsage,flakedstonetechnology,andassociationwithextinctfauna.FormydiscussionofClovis,Ioffersomethoughtsandideas
gainedfromstudiesofpaleolandformsandanimalbehavior,whichaffectedanimalprocurementstrategies.Alongwiththisaretheresultsofexperimentsonvarious
animalsusingClovistoolsandweaponry(e.g.,Frison1989).AnotherlineofevidencethatmayreflectsocialandritualaspectsofCloviscomesfromtherecent
discoveryofthreeCloviscachesofflakedstoneitems.AddedtoearlierdatafromtheCloviscachesattheSimonsite(Butler1963)andtheAnzicksite(Lahrenand
Bonnichsen1974),thesefeaturesarethoughttobeburialofferingsandreflectsomeunknownmeasureofritualactivity.

ClovisMammothHunting

ASTHEMAMMOTHISNOlongeraroundforustoobserve,themanythoughts,ideas,andartists'renditionsonprehistoricmammothhuntinghavesurfacedwithlittlechance
ofarrivingattheactualtruth.Mostaregenuineattemptstooffersomeinsights,butarebasedonlimitedsitedataandspeculationaboutprehistoricmammothhunting
aspartofasubsistencestrategy.Unfortunately,toomanyoftheseideashavebecomeimprintedonstudents'mindsand,lackingalternativeinterpretationsofthese
data,toooftenhavebeenacceptedastruth.Thefollowingdiscussiononhuntingispresentedasanalternative,basedonaperspectiveoflongtermexperiencein
subsistencehuntingoflargemammals.

Prehistorichuntingasameansofsubsistencehasreceivedincreasingattentionduringthepasttwodecades,asculturalprocesshasbecomeacceptedasan
appropriatewaytoanalyzeandinterpretthearchaeologicalrecord.Intheprocessofdevelopingamethodologytohandlethisnewareaofresearch,variousformsof
innovationandexperimentationhaveresulted.Thisisespeciallytrueofprehistorichuntingmodels.Inthisareaofinterpretation,however,nonhuntershaveattemptedto
constructmodelsofhunting.TheAfricanBushmenbecamethetargetofmuchoftheresearch,andoneresultwasamovieentitled''TheHunters,"whichhashada
profoundinfluenceonthethinkingofagenerationofanthropologists.ThetruthisthatifPaleoindianhunterswereasineptasthoseportrayedinthismovie,few,ifany,
wouldhavebeenabletosurvive.

Everystageinthehuntingsequence,aspresentedinthemovie,wascarriedoutimproperly.Theinitialcontactwiththeanimalwasbotched:thehunterswerenot
carefulinstalkingtheanimal(agiraffe),thenchancedadesperationshotratherthanwaitingforabetterone.Theythenpursuedthewoundedanimaltooclosely,
insteadofallowingittobecomesickandlaydown.Whenthegiraffefinallydidbecomesickenoughtobecornered(dayslater),thehunterscontinuedtoexcitethe
animalbyrunninguptoitandthrowingspears.Theanimalfinallyhadtobedispatchedwitharifletoputitoutofitsmisery.Theentireepisodeviolatedalmostevery
ruleofknowledgeableandintelligenthunting.

Toomanystudentsofprehistorichuntingapparentlyfeelthereisasinglehuntingstrategy,whenthetruthofthematteristhatalmostinnumerablestrategiesexist,each
dependentonmyriadcontinuallychangingconditions.Eachanimalspecieshasasetofbehavioralcharacteristicsthatsetsitapartfromotherspeciesandthat,to
varyingextents,maymakeitsprocurementmutuallyexclusiveofotherspecies.Inaddition,thesebehaviorpatternschangewithexternalconditions,suchastimeof
day,seasonality,weather,terrain,andvegetativecover,andwithinternalfactors,suchastheanimal'sphysicalcondition,sex,andage.Theadequatelytrainedand
experiencedhunterneedonlyopenhiseyesinthemorning,lookoutside,takeallthenecessaryfactorsintoaccount,andthestrategyfortheday'shuntimmediately
fallsintoplace.Ifonestrategyfails,thereisanimmediatealternative,withtheresultthat,intheend,gameanimalsarecontinuallyatthemercyofmanasuperior
predator.Thispredatorknowstheprey,theterritory,andhowtheanimalswillbehavewithinitunderanyandallconditions,atdifferenttimesoftheyear.

AmodernhunterusingClovisweaponrytoexperimentwithAfricanelephantscan,attheleast,providesomeinformationonthelimitationsofClovistoolsand
weaponryastheywereusedonmammoths(Frison1989).Thetwospeciesappearphysiologicallysimilar,basedoncomparisonsofskeletalelements.Theirhidesare
ofsimilarthickness,althoughmammoth

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hide,analyzedfromcollectionsintheZoologicalMuseuminLeningrad,Russia,probablywouldhavebeeneasiertopenetratesinceitlacksthearmorlikequalityof
Africanelephanthide.Penetrationofthehidehasbeenprovencriticaltothesuccessfuluseofchippedstoneprojectilepointsonanylargemammal.Oncethehidehas
aholelargeenoughtopermitentryoftheprojectile,verylittleadditionalforceisneeded.Onefactorthatmightbeconsideredistherelativelysmallearsofamammoth
incontrasttothelargeearsoftheAfricanelephant.Thisvariationcouldhavecreatedasignificantdifferenceintheeffectivenessofheadand/orneckshotsusingClovis
weaponry.

GeneralizingAfricanelephantbehaviortothatofmammothsmustbetreatedwithcautionintermsofproposingaprocurementstrategy.Amodelofmammothhunting,
assumingthattheseanimalsoperatedunderafamilystructuresimilartoAfricanelephants,shouldtakeintoaccounttheprotectionofferedthemembersofafamily
groupunderamatriarch.Theabsenceofthiskindofprotectionwouldallowanaltogetherdifferenthuntingstrategy.Eitherway,modernanaloguessuggesttheClovis
hunterwouldhavebeenabletodeviseasuccessfulstrategybecausetheClovisprojectilepoint,usedwitheitherathrustingspearorwithatlatlanddartbyatrained
person,willeasilypenetratetheribcavityofanelephantandresultinalethalwound.

ThetypicalClovisprojectilepoint(Figure5),eitheraccidentallyor,morelikely,throughcarefuldesign,maybeoneoftheoldestknownmanifestationsofchipped
stoneweaponrythatallowedasinglehuntertogoafterlargemammals,suchasmammothorbison,withenoughadvantagetoensureahighprobabilityofsuccess.
Althoughitappearssimple,itwouldbedifficulttoenvisionasuperiorprojectilepointdesign.TheClovisprojectilehasasharppointforinitialpenetrationbladeedges
aresharpsoastocutaholeofpropersizetoallowentryofthehaltingelementandshaftthepointnarrowsslightlytowardthebasetoallowasinewbindingthatwill
notimpedeentrytheflutesprovideabasalthinning,whichisidealtofitintothenockoftheforeshaftandthelenticularcrosssectionprovidesmaximumstructural
strength.Thepointisdesignedtobeattachedtoawoodenforeshaftwithsinewandpitchwithoutfearofitlooseningduringuse.Theexperiencedhunterundoubtedly
gaveeachprojectilepointacarefultestingforhiddenflaws,suchasinternalfracturesandcrystalpocketsthatcouldcausefailureatcriticalmomentsandunnecessarily
spoilthehuntandevenendangerthehunter.Thedesignalsoallowedforreworkingofbrokenspecimenssothattheycouldberestoredquicklyandeasilytoa
functionalconditionandinflictlethalwoundsonlargemammals.

Figure5.
TypicalClovisprojectilepoints:(a)surfacefindfromsoutheast
Wyoming,and(b)surfacefindattheCasperHellGapsite.

Theidealapproachtokillingamammothwouldhavebeenbroadsideentry,withtheprojectilepointplacedinthelungcavity.Alessdesirabletargetwouldhavebeen
thestomachcavity.Theheartwasprotectedbytheanteriorribs,whichbecomerelativelyfiatandwidedistally.Theheartwouldhavebeenprotectedalsobythe
olecranonoftheulna,unlesstheanimalhaditsfrontleginaforwardposition.Directfrontalattackwouldhavebeenunwise,sincethebrainwastoowellprotectedand
aneffectivethroatshotwouldhavebeendifficult.Agoodstrategywouldhavetwohunterscooperatingcloselyonetogettheanimal'sattention,whileanother
maneuveredintothebestpositionforalethalshot.Africanelephantshaverelativelypooreyesightbutanexcellentsenseofsmell.Ifmammothsweresimilarly
endowed,thisfactorwouldhavebeencriticaltothedevelopmentofsuccessfulprocurementstrategies.

Somewherealongtheway,archaeologistsbecameenamoredwiththeideathatprehistorichuntersweresoineptathuntingthattheywereforcedintodriving

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largeanimalssuchasmammothsandbisonintobogs.Inreality,mostlargemammalsinparticular,elephantsandbisonspendmuchoftheirtimeinandaround
bogsandswampyareas.Theseanimalsrarelybecomemiredunlesstheyareold,crippled,sick,orafflictedbyacombinationoftheseconditions.Amiredanimalis
extremelydifficulttoremovefromabog,andbutcheringinabogisdifficult,unpleasant,andalmostimpossibletoperformwhilemaintaininganymeatquality.The
prospectthathumanhunterscouldhaveremovedahealthymammothorbisonoutofamiredposition,fromwhichitsupposedlywasunabletoextricateitselfbefore
beingkilled,isoutofthequestion.

Ontheotherhand,thereissufficientevidencetoindicatethat,tosomeextent,certainlandformswereusedtoaidintheprocurementoflargemammals.InPaleoindian
times,thebestevidenceofthisisassociatedwiththeextinctsubspeciesofBison.Parabolicsanddunes,suchasthoseattheCaspersite(Frison1974)andheadcuts
inarroyos,suchasattheAgateBasin,Hawken,andCarter/KerrMcGeesites(Frison1984FrisonandStanford1982Frisonetal.1976),wereused
advantageouslytohunttheseanimals.ThedeeparroyopresentattheColbyMammothsiteinnorthernWyoming(Figure4)(FrisonandTodd1986)mayhavebeen
animportantfactorinregularandsystematicmammothprocurementthere.

Theuseofarroyosastrapshasproducedspecialproblemsindatarecoveryandinunderstandingsiteformationprocesses.AttheAgateBasinsite(Frisonand
Stanford1982),forexample,thearroyofloodplainwasusedasacampsiteduringthewintermonths,presumablytobeclosetothedeadanimals.Astheweather
warmed,thesitehadtobeabandonedbecauseoffloodingfromsnowmelt.Insomecases,floodingmayhavedepositedmaterialsderivedfromupstreamontothe
wintercampingsurfaceinothers,itmayhavescouredmaterialsfromthefloodplaincampsitesandmovedthemdownstreamtodifferentlocations.Thisisasituation
unlikethatwheresiteswerelocatedonterracesabovenormalfloodlevelsandwerepreservedbytheaccumulationofcolluvialmaterials.

ClovisToolandWeaponryCaches

THESIMONCLOVIScache(Figure4)inIdahoevokedconsiderableinterestbecauseofitslargeClovisprojectilepoints,projectilepointpreforms,andexoticmaterials
(e.g.,quartzcrystalbifaces)(Butler1963).Later,thediscoveryoftheAnzickCloviscacheinMontana(Figure4)causedagreaterlevelofinterestbecauseofthe
presenceofsimilaritemsand,inaddition,fragmentsofhumanbone,redocher,andcylindricalboneobjectswithtaperedandcrosshachuredends(Lahrenand
Bonnichsen1974)(Figure6b,c).Asimilaritemmadeofivory(Figure6a)wasrecoveredfromtheSheamanClovissite(Figure4)intheAgateBasinlocalityof
easternWyoming(FrisonandStanford1982).

Figure6.
(a)IvoryobjectfromtheSheamansiteand(b,c)bone
objectsfromtheAnzicksite.

In1988,theRicheyCloviscacheinWenatchee,Washingtonwaspartiallyexcavated(Mehringer1988).InJanuaryofthefollowingyear,asaresultofNational
GeographicSocietycoverageoftheRicheysite,anotherCloviscacheknownastheFenncache,discoveredmanyyearsearlier,cametolight(Frison1991b).The
Fenncachecontained56ochercoveredlithicitems,includingprojectilepoints,projectilepointpreforms,largebifaces,acrescent,andasingleblade.Theexact

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locationofitsdiscoveryisnotknown,butapparentlycamefromthegeneralareawhereWyoming,Idaho,andUtahmeet.Thesefourcaches,alongwiththeDrake
Cloviscache(Figure4)nearSterling,Colorado,whichcontained13completeClovispointsandfragmentsofivory(DennisStanford,personalcommunication1991),
stronglyindicatethatthesesitesarenotanomaliesandinsteadrepresentaninstitutionalizedpartoftheClovisculturalsystem.

Thesefivecachesareremarkablysimilarincontentandallmaybeburialofferings,althoughonlytheAnzickassemblagecontainedhumanbone.Bifacesfromthem
demonstrateanextremelywelldevelopeddegreeofpercussionflaking,usingthefinestofstoneflakingmaterialsavailable.Ifthetoolsfromthesitewereburial
offerings,theterm"cache"maynotbeappropriatebecausetheseassemblagesrepresentthebestrawmaterialsandtechnologicalefforts,removedfromuse,withno
intentionofrecovery.Whatevertheanswer,thesesiteswillrequirearchaeologiststotakeaviewofClovisdifferingfromthatofsmallhuntinggroupspursuing
mammothsandbison,concernedonlywithachievingabasiclevelofsubsistence.

Seasonality

THEDATAPRESENTLYavailablearguestronglyforcoldweatherbisonandmammothprocurementinPaleoindiantimesontheNorthwesternPlains.Thisargumentis
basedonagingstudiesconductedonbisonremainsfromcommunalkillsites(see,forexample,Reher1974Toddetal.1996)andonwhatisbelievedtohavebeena
coldweathermeatcachefromtheColbymammothkillsite(FrisonandTodd1986).Catastrophicdeathsituationssuchasalargebisonkillarebestfordetermining
theseasonofdeath:theassumptioncanbemadethatthehuntingstrategyresultedinmasskills,whichcontainrelativelylargesamplesofbisonpopulations.Tooth
eruptionamongyounganimals(especiallycalvesandjuveniles)issystematicenoughtogivecloseapproximationsofage,expressedinmonths,thatcanthenbeusedto
establishthetimeofyearofkillevents.ThisdoesnotsuggestthatwarmweatherhuntingwasnotalsopartofthePaleoindiansubsistencepattern.

PreservationandProtectionofSurplusMeat

COLDWEATHERCOMMUNALanimalprocurementrequiredsomeformofshorttermpreservationandstorageofsurplusmeatproducts.Theauthorearlierproposed
(Frison1982)thatthemammothbonepilesattheColbymammothkillsiteandthepileofbisoncarcassunitsandtheassociatedbonebedintheAgateBasin
componentattheAgateBasinsitewerefrozenmeatcaches(FrisonandStanford1982:363).Meatalsomayhavebeendriedduringthewarmermonths,butinthe
situationsmentionedabove,conditionsfordryingmeatwouldnothavebeenfavorable.AttheColbysite,apurposefulmethodofmeatstorageisinterpreted:theleft
frontquarterofanearlymatureanimalwasplacedonthebankoutofthearroyochannel,longbonesofotheranimalswerestackedaroundit,andasmallmammoth
skullwasplacedontop.Itisproposedthattheentirepilewascoveredwithslushandallowedtofreeze.Thiswouldhavepreservedthemeatandkeptoutpredators.
Thiscachewasneveropenedforuse,andthemeatsimplyspoiledwiththeapproachofwarmweather(seeFrisonandTodd1986:4156).

Anotherpileofmammothbonesatthesitesuggestsasimilarfeaturewasopenedandthecontentsutilized.Thesekindsoftemporarycacheswereimportanttosurvival
inanareawithunpredictablewinterweather.Itwasbettertohavemeatproductsleftovertospoilthantohaveashortage,whichcouldthreatenthelivelihoodofthe
humangroup.AClovisprojectilepointfoundatthebottomoftheribcageofthemammothquarterintheundisturbedpileleaveslittledoubtofthehumanelement
involved.

TheAgateBasincomponentattheAgateBasinsite(FrisonandStanford1982:77)yieldedapileofbonesconsistingofseveralbutcheredunitsfrombisoncarcasses.
Awayfromthispile,thecarcassunitsaredisarticulated,withindividualbonesexhibitingtoolmarksandbreakagepatternssimilartothosecommonlyobservedin
butcheringandprocessingactivities.Inaddition,thetoolassemblageisonecommonlyobservedinbutcheringandprocessingsituations.Thepileofbutcheredunitsis
postulatedtorepresentafrozencachefromwhichunitsweretakenforconsumptionasneeded.Thebutcheredunitsremainingwereonesleftoverfromthewinterand
spoiledwiththearrivalofwarmweather.Sincetheywerelocatedonthefloodplainofadryarroyo,theywerecoveredandconsequentlypreservedbyoverbank
alluvialdeposits.Thispatternofbisonprocurementandfreezingofmeatisinmarkedcontrasttothe

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ArchaicandlatePrehistoricpatternofwarmweathercommunalkillsanddryingofmeatforwinteruse.

TheGoshenComplex

THEGOSHENCOMPLEXfirstwasdocumentedattheHellGapsite(48GO305)insoutheasternWyoming(Figure4)nearlyaquarterofacenturyago(IrwinWilliamsetal.
1973).Furtherevidencetosupportitsexistencewasnotconfirmeduntilthe1984excavationsattheMillironsite(24CT30)insoutheasternMontana(Frison1991a,
1996).However,areanalysisofthedatafromtheCarter/KerrMcGeesiteinthePowderRiverBasinofWyomingstronglyindicatesthattheoldestcomponentthere
probablywasGoshenratherthanClovis,asdescribedearlier(seeFrison1984).ThediagnostictraitoftheGoshencomplexisaprojectilepoint(Figure7)witha
strongresemblancetoPlainviewpointsfromtheSouthernPlains.RadiocarbondatesfromtheMillIronsitedemonstratedthattheGoshencomplexwasatleastasold
astheearliestFolsomradiocarbondatesofaround10,900yearsago(seeHaynes1992).FurtherconfirmationoftheageoftheGoshencomplexcamerecentlyfrom
theGoshenlevelatLocalityIattheHellGapsite(Figure4),whichproducedanAMSdateoncharcoalof10,955135yrB.P.(AA14434)(C.VanceHaynes,
personalcommunication1995).

TheGoshenculturallevelwasfoundinastratigraphiccontextbelowtheFolsomcomponentattheHellGapsite(IrwinWilliamsetal.1973)andattheCarter/Kerr
McGeesiteineasternWyoming(Frison1984).Atthelattersite,aGoshencomponentwasfoundbelowaFolsomleveldatedat10,400yrB.P.Atthattime,the
assemblagewasregardedasClovis

Figure7.
GoshenPlainviewprojectilepointsfrom(ac)theMillIroncampsitearea,and(d)
thebisonbonebed.

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becauseofitsstratigraphicpositionandanassociationwithaprojectilepointwitharesemblancetoClovis(Frison1984:Figure13b).Inowbelievetheprojectilepoint
inquestioncouldbeGoshen.NocharcoalordatablebonewasrecoveredfromtheGoshenlevel.

GoshenpeoplesdevelopedapressureflakingtechnologyonprojectilepointsstronglyreminiscentofFolsom.However,insteadoffluting,theyperformedacareful
anddistinctivebasalthinning(Figure7).Technologically,thedifferencebetweenFolsomandGoshenpointscomesdowntoanabsenceofflutingonthelatter.Onthe
otherhand,itcanbearguedthatGoshentools,atleastthosefromtheMillIronsite,bearastrongresemblancetoClovis,bothintheuseoftoolsmadeonbladesand
inthestrategyofbifacereduction.ItmayhavebeenthatGoshenwasavariantClovisgroupthatmanagedtodeveloppressureflakingtoahighdegree.Thepresence
ofworkedandunworkedsectionsofmammothribsuggeststhatGoshenpeopleswerearoundduring,orshortlyafter,thedisappearanceofmammoths.Asmentioned
above,manyGoshenprojectilepointsbeararemarkableresemblancetothePlainviewtype,asitisknownandrecognizedontheSouthernPlains.Infact,whenthe
projectilepointassemblagesfromtheMillIronsiteandthePlainviewsite(Sellardsetal.1947)arecombined,subsequentseparationonthebasisoftypologyisvery
difficult(Haynes1991).

AbonebedattheMillIronsiteindicatesthatGoshenpeopleswereawareofthetechniquesofcommunalbisonprocurement.Thebonebedisnotthelocationofthe
actualkillinsteaditgivestheappearanceofbeingcomposedofdeliberatelystacked,butcheredunitsandindividualbones.Seasonality,determinedfromthefaunal
remains,followstheusualPaleoindianpatternofalatefallorearlywinterkill.Asthebonebedislocatedinanareaofextremeerosion,therearenodataonpast
landformswhichmightprovidecluestothestrategyinvolvedintheactualbisonprocurement.

TheMillIronsitehasraisedfarmorequestionsthanithasansweredconcerningtheGoshenculturalcomplex.Thisculturalcomponenthadbeenexposedto
weatheringforsometime,asdemonstratedbypoorpreservationoftheupperbonesurfaces.However,theboneshadnotbeenmoved,asevidencedbytheirwell
preservedundersides.Twoseriesofradiocarbondatesfromthesite,onefrom11,570to11,320yrB.P.andanotherfrom11,010to10,760yrB.P.(Haynes
1992:361),allowforpossibilitiesofculturalrelationshipswithbothClovisandFolsom.Subsequently,concernsregardingthereliabilityofthesedateshavebeen
raised.Thepossibleuseofoldlogsforfuelwouldyielddatestooold,whileextendedpostoccupationexposureofthesiteraisesthepossibilityofcontaminationby
youngercharcoal.Atthispoint,areinvestigationoftheHellGapsiteappearstoofferthebestfuturepossibilityformorereliableinformationontheClovisGoshen
FolsomMidlandproblem.InterpretationsderivedfromtheHellGapsite(IrwinWilliamsetal.1973)suggestthatGoshenFolsomMidlandtraditionsoccurredin
successionwithoutanoverlapintime,althoughanalternativeexplanation,baseduponpresentlyknownradiocarbondates,isthattheremayhavebeenatimeoverlap.
AttheHellGapsite,aFolsomleveloverliesaGoshenlevel,withadesignatedMidlandleveloverlyingtheFolsomlevel.Intermsofprojectilepointtypology,generally
speaking,theMidlandlevellooksmorelikeanotherGoshencomponent.OthermaterialsattheHellGapsitethathavebeenclassifiedasMidlandcouldaseasilybe
putintotheGoshencategory.

TherecentdiscoveryandpreliminaryinvestigationofasmallbisonkillintheMiddleParkareaofColorado,atanelevationofabout2,620m,appearsatthistimeto
beofGoshenage.Basedonevidenceoftootheruption,bisonfromthesite(TheTwinMountainBisonKill[5GA1315])(Kornfeldetal.n.d.)probablywerekilledin
October.Astrategyofhuntingutilizingadistinctlandformmayexplainthesite'slocation.Atthistime,thesimilarityofGoshenandPlainviewhasresultedina
designationofGoshenPlainviewinsteadofGoshenforthesesites,atleastuntilnewdatacanclarifythisrelationship.

TheFolsomComplex

LITTLE,IFANY,newinformationhasbeenaddedrecentlytoourknowledgeofFolsomfromtheNorthwesternPlains.Thetechnologyoftoolandprojectilepoint
manufacture,resultingfromtheanalysisoftheHansonsitedata(FrisonandBradley1980)remainsbasicallysound.However,thedebitagefromthesiteisbeing
analyzed,andthetoolsarcbeingsubjectedtoanintensiveusewearanalysis.Theresultsofthesestudiesshouldbeavailableinthenearfuture.

BoneandantlerprojectilepointswererecoveredfromtheFolsomcomponentattheAgateBasinsite(FrisonandZeimens1980).Theseartifacttypesareyet
unrecordedatothersites,althoughtwoitemsfromtheLindenmeiersiteprobablyarepartsofthesameor

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similarkindofweaponry(WilmsenandRoberts1978:131).Thefunctionofboneand/orantlerprojectilepointshasnotyetbeendemonstratedsatisfactorily:these
toolswilleffectivelypenetratethehideofdeerorpronghornsizedmammals,butnotthethickerhideofbison.Bonepointsofthisdesigndonotcutaholebutsimply
expandthehidetoallowentry.

ThevalidityofMidlandasaseparateculturalcomplexontheNorthwesternPlainsremainstobeexplored.ItspresencewasproposedasaresultoftheHellGap
investigations(IrwinWilliamsetal.1973),mainlyonthebasisofunflutedFolsomprojectilepoints.FolsomcomponentsattheHanson(FrisonandBradley1980)and
AgateBasinsites(FrisonandStanford1982)haveproducedbothflutedandunflutedprojectilepoints.ThequestionremainsopenastowhetherornottheFolsom
Midlandsuccessioniswarranted,particularlyintheareaoftheNorthwesternPlains.

TheAgateBasinComplex

ALTHOUGHTHEAGATEBasinculturalcompleximmediatelyfollowsFolsominatleastthreestratifiedsites(HellGap,AgateBasin,andCarter/KerrMcGee)in
Wyoming,itisdifficulttoseetheformerdevelopingoutofthelatterintermsofprojectilepointtypologyandtechnology.Bydesign,theAgateBasinprojectilepointis
possiblythemostlethalweaponryseeninanyofthePaleoindiancomplexes.IfAgateBasindiddevelopdirectlyoutofFolsom,theconceptofweaponryunderwenta
dramaticandsuddenchange.WhereastheFolsomprojectilepointiswide,thin,andfluted,theAgateBasinprojectileisrelativelythick,butlenticularintransverse
crosssection.Ontheotherhand,thepotentialforanevolutionaryshiftcanbeseen:bynarrowingsomeoftheearlierstageFolsompreformsrecoveredattheHell
Gapsiteandnotpreparingtheendsforfluting,theseimplementscouldbemadeintoacceptableAgateBasinpoints.

TheHellGapComplex

THEREISLITTLEREASONtodoubtthatHellGapdevelopeddirectlyoutofAgateBasin,althoughitisdifficulttounderstandwhythelong,thick,lenticularcrosssectionof
theAgateBasinprojectilepointwasabandonedforthewider,shoulderedHellGappoint.Ampleevidence,however,demonstratestheefficiencyofthelatterinbison
killsamongparabolicsanddunesettings,suchasseenattheCaspersite(Frison1974),andinarroyotraps,suchastheonesobservedattheAgateBasinand
Carter/KerrMcGeesites(Frison1984FrisonandStanford1982).Theseassociationsshowanincreasedimportanceuponspecifichuntingsituationsperhaps
requiringtheHellGaptechnologyforitssuccess.

BytheintroductionoftheHellGapcomplexatca.10,000yearsago,rapidclimaticchangeattheendofthePleistocenehadresultedinenvironmentsnotunlikethe
present.ThisperiodmarkswhatmostinvestigatorsconsidertheendofthePleistoceneandthebeginningoftheHolocene.Thisalsowasthebeginningoftheendfor
NorthwesternPlainsPaleoindianbiggamehunting,althoughsometraditionswouldlingerforanothermillenniumbeforetheywerereplacedbyamorewidespread,
broadspectrumhuntingandgatheringpattern.

HighAltitudeAdaptations

EVIDENCEOFBOTHCLOVISandFolsomoccurinthehigherelevations,particularlyinwhatarenowmountainmeadowsnearspringsandalongpermanentwatercourses
(seeFrison1988).Becauseofheavysurfacevegetation,culturalevidenceappearswherethesurfacehasbeendisturbedbyrodentmounds,roadconstruction,
livestockreservoirs,andspringdevelopment.Droughtyears,whichreducegrasscoverandresultinsurfaceerosionandarroyocutting,revealdiagnosticartifacts.
Stratifiedsitesremaintobefoundandaredifficulttolocate,mostlybecauseofthenatureofpastgeologicactivity.Cavesandrocksheltersareexceptions,manyof
whichcontainstratifieddepositsbutsofarhavenotproducedflutedpointcomponents.InpostFolsomperiods,diagnosticartifacttypes(projectilepoints)fromthe
foothillmountainareaandtheopenplainsdiffer.

Thereasonsforthisareunclearbutsomepossibilitiesareopenfordiscussion.OnesuggestionisthatasthelatePleistoceneextinctionsended,theplainswereleftwith
bisonandpronghornprimarily,whilethefoothillsandmountainssupportedmountainsheepanddeer.BothClovisandFolsomgroupsusedthehigherelevations
however,aftertheFolsomperiod,thebisonpronghornarearequiredprocurementstrategiesmutuallyexclusiveofthoseneededtohuntmountainsheepanddeerin
thefoothillmountainarea.Caves

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androcksheltersbecamepartofthefoothillmountainsettlementsystem,and,alongwithasubsistencestrategyfocussedonmountainsheepanddeer,postFolsom
peoplesbecameorientedtowardanincreaseddependenceuponsmallmammalsandplantfoods.ThediscoveryofalatePaleoindianagenet,believedtohavebeen
usedformountainsheepprocurement,isastrongindicatorofahighaltitudeprocurementstrategy(Frisonetal.1986).Theoldeststratigraphicevidenceofthis
dichotomyinsubsistencestrategiesappearsatca.10,000yrB.P.attheMedicineLodgeCreeksite,LittleCanyonCreekCave,andBushShelter,allinnorthern
Wyoming(Frison1976Miller1988).

ThefactthatsomeofthemostdesirablerawmaterialsarefoundatthehigherelevationssuggeststhealternativeexplanationthatClovisandFolsomgroupswerein
theseareastoexploittheselithicsources.AtleasttwohighgradechertsutilizedbybothgroupsareexposedonlyinthehigherelevationsoftheBighornMountainsin
northernWyoming.OneisfoundinthePhosphoriaFormation(Permian)andtheotherisintheMadisonFormation(Mississippian).Clovisprojectilepointsatthe
Colbysite(FrisonandTodd1986)weremadeofthePhosphoriamaterialandprojectilepoints,tools,anddebitagefrombothsourceswerepresentattheHanson
Folsomsite(FrisonandBradley1980).Bothsitesarewithinapproximatelyaday'strekfromthequarrysources.

Conclusions

BETWEENTHETIMEoftheglacialmaximumatabout20,000yearsagoandthefirstevidenceofClovisatabout11,500yearsago,thereisalackofacceptableevidence
forapreClovisorancestralCloviscomponentintheNorthwesternPlainsandcontiguousmountainranges.Althoughthearealieswellbeyondthesouthernextentof
lateWisconsinancontinentalicesheets,itstraddlesanareaaffectedbyvalleyglaciersandpersistingperiglacialconditions.Theseconditionsgraduallychangedto
warmerregimesfollowingthelastglacialmaximum.DuringtheperiodoftimebetweentheappearanceofClovisandtheglacialmaximum,theareaapparently
supportedsteppeorsteppetundraenvironments,withawidevarietyoflargemammals,includingbison,camel,mammoth,horse,pronghornantelope,mountainsheep,
muskox,andmanyothers.Predatorsincludedtheshortfacedbear,grizzlybear,Americancheetah,Americanlion,andwolf.

Clovisappearedonthescenesuddenlybefore11,000yearsago,andthereisevidencethesepeoplekilledmammoth,bison,andpronghorn,alongwithanoccasional
horse,camel,ormuskox.Clovisweaponrywaswelldesignedandadequateforthepurposeofkillinglargemammals.Cloviscachessuggesttheperformanceofburial
andpossiblyotherritualactivities,providingaviewofrelativelysophisticatedhuntinggroupswithpossiblestatusdifferentiation.Thecreationoffrozenmeatcaches
waspartoftheClovissubsistencestrategy,andthispracticecontinuedamongPaleoindiangroupsthroughoutthelatePleistoceneandintotheearlyHolocene.Various
landforms,suchasparabolicsanddunesandheadcutsinarroyos,wereusedthroughoutthesameperiodasaidsinanimalprocurement.Itisargued,however,that
bogswerenotutilizedastraps,asmanyinvestigatorshavepostulated.Largemammalssuchasbuffaloandelephantareattractedtobogs,butrarelybecometrapped
unlesstheyaresickorcrippled.Agoodhunterwouldhavefirstmovedtheanimalsoutofthebogsanddispatchedthemondryland,asskinning,butchering,and
retrievingmeatproductsfrommiredanimalswasnotapracticaloption.

TheGoshenculturalcomplexisnowknowntohavebeenareality,althoughitsrelationshiptoPlainview,Clovis,Folsom,andMidlandremainsunclear.Goshengroups
developedapressureflakingtechnologystronglyreminiscentofFolsom,buttheirtoolassemblagesretainedelementssimilartoClovis.Goshen,Folsom,AgateBasin,
andHellGapappearinstratigraphicsequenceinopenplainssitessuchasHellGap(IrwinWilliamsetal.1973)andCarter/KerrMcGee(Frison1984),butthere
mayhavebeenanoverlapintimebetweenthevariouscomplexes.Morereliableradiocarbondates,alongwiththeinvestigationofnewsitesorreinvestigationofsites
suchasHellGap,constitutethebestchancesofresolvingtheevolutionarylinksbetweenculturalgroups.

ClovisandFolsomartifactsappearinmountainmeadowsathigherelevations,butevidenceoftheirpresenceisabsentfromcavesandrockshelters.Afterthedecline
ofFolsom,evidencesuggestsanapparentdichotomyinsubsistencestrategiesbetweentheplainsandthefoothillmountainareasforamillenniumormore.This
dichotomyispostulatedastheresultofmutuallyexclusivesubsistencestrategiesutilizedtoexploitthedifferentfoodresourcesineacharea.Otherchangesin
settlementandsubsistenceappearduringthistime.Cavesandrockshelters,ignoredbyClovisandFolsomgroups,becomepartofthesettlement

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systeminthefoothillmountainareasandplantfoodsbecomeincreasinglyimportant.AtleastpartoftheClovisFolsompresenceinthehigherelevationsmayhave
beenfortheprocurementofrawlithicmaterials.

Between11,000and10,000yearsago,abruptchangesoccurredfromthatoflatePleistoceneclimatestopostglacialconditionssimilartothepresent.Thistimemarks
thebeginningoftheendfortheclassicPaleoindianbiggamehuntersoftheplains,althoughsomegroups,suchasthoseoftheCodycomplex,maintainedalifestyle
stronglyorientedtowardcommunalbisonhuntingforathousandyearsormore.Communalmountainsheephuntinginthehigherelevationsmayhavesurvivedthrough
thedrierconditions,althoughthereisnoconcreteevidencetosupportsuchahypothesis.Wedo,however,haveevidenceforcommunalmountainsheephuntingin
protohistorictimes(seeFrisonetal.1990).

Acknowledgments

ThewriteracknowledgesthehelpoftheNationalScienceFoundation,theNationalGeographicSociety,theUniversityofWyoming,theWyomingRecreation
Commission,theBureauofLandManagement,theUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,theL.S.B.LeakeyFoundation,andtheWyomingArchaeological
FoundationforResearchfunding.IthankForrestFennandMr.andMrs.WilliamSimonforstudyoftheFennandSimonCloviscaches.Inparticular,Iwishto
acknowledgethestudentsandotherswhoaidedintheinvestigationsandanalysesofarchaeologicalsitesthatyieldedthepresentdatabase.

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PaleoindianArchaeologyandLatePleistoceneEnvironmentsinthePlainsandSouthwesternUnitedStates
DennisStanford

Abstract

MajorclimaticchangesacrossthelatePleistocene/earlyHoloceneboundaryproducedsignificantvariabilityinbioticrichnessthroughoutthePaleoindianperiod.Clovis
intheSouthwestandPlainswascoincidentwithanintervalofdecreasedeffectivemoisturethatcontributedtobioticreorganizationandRancholabreanextinctions.
Clovissitesappeartohavebeentiedcloselytoresidualwetlandhabitatswherepeopleforagedforawidearrayofplantandanimalresources.Duringthisinterval,
bisonherdsizesmayhavebeenrestrictedbyspeciescompetitionandadifferentpredatorguildthancharacterizedlaterPaleoindiantimes.

Shortlythereafter,bisonexperiencedecologicalreleaseinresponsetoexpandinggrasslandandwetmeadowhabitatsforwhichtheywereideallysuited.Increasing
levelsofeffectivemoistureledtoagreater,ifnotspecialized,focusonthispreyanimalintheterminalPleistoceneeconomiesofgroupsusingFolsomandGoshen
technologies.1suggestthattheenvironmentreachedaveryhighcarryingcapacityatthistime,possiblycontributingtothehigherincidenceofFolsomsitesnotedinthe
studyarearelativetoanyotherPaleoindiangroup,withthepossibleexceptionofCody.

TheappearanceofhuntersusingAgateBasinlanceolateprojectilepointsmarkstheendofFolsomaround10,500yrB.RIarguethatAgateBasinpeoplesoriginated
tothewestandnorthwestandmovedeasttoinhabitthefoothillecotonesandriverineenvironmentsofthePlains.Relativelydrierandmoreseasonalclimatic
conditionsmayhaveresultedindecliningbisonpopulations.AgateBasinandlaterHellGappeoplesmayhaveaugmentedageneralizedforagingpatternthat
incorporatedsmalleranimalandplantresourceswithperiodicforaysoutontothePlainsforseasonalcommunalbisonhunts.

TowardthebeginningofthesubsequentCodyperiod,areturntomesicconditionsimprovedplantandanimalproductivity.Humanpopulationsappeartohave
increaseddramatically.BytheendofCodytimes,significantuseofplantprocessingequipmentwasestablishedandhuntingterritoriesappeartobemoreconstricted,
perhapsreflectingashifttoamoregeneralizedArchaichuntingandgatheringpattern.

DepartmentofAnthropology,NMNH304SmithsonianInstitution,Washington,DC20560

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Introduction

THISPAPERSYNTHESIZESinformationcompiledbyscholarssincePaleoindianstudiesbeganinthewesternUnitedStates70yearsago.Thediscussionconcentrates
primarilyonthePaleoindianculturesofthePlainsandSouthwest,withreferencesandcomparisonsdrawnfromotherregions,astheearlypeopleswholivedand
exploitedtheseareaswerenotconfinedthereinanddidnotliveinisolation.Thus,tounderstandthedevelopmentofPaleoindiancultures,onemustconsidertoa
certainextentthesurroundingregions.

ThispresentationdiscussesthedevelopmentofPaleoindianstudies,reviewstheevidencefortheearliesthumanoccupationofthearea,andbrieflysummarizesthe
PlainsandSouthwestPaleoindianarchaeologicaldata.Thearchaeologicaldatasummaryisdividedintotwosections:theflutedpointpattern,whichincludesClovis,
Folsom,andGoshen/Plainviewandthelanceolatepointpattern,whichincludesAgateBasin,HellGap,andCody.Thesedivisionsgenerallyfollowthesystemusedin
Bonnichsenetal.(1987).

Theterm''pattern,"asusedhere,referstosharedmorphologicalandtechnologicalfeaturesamongprojectilepointstyles,butdoesnotnecessarilyimplycultural
historicalrelationships.Itis,however,acceptedthatsharedcommonfeaturesofprojectilepointsrecoveredfromasinglearchaeologicalhorizonsignifyaconsensus
amongmembersofthatsocietyconcerningthedesiredmorphologyoftheirprojectilepointsthatis,asharedmentaltemplate(Knudson1983).Projectilepointsalso
mayhaveserved,alongwithavarietyofothermaterialitems,assymbolsthatidentifiedspecificsocialgroups.Closelyrelatedsocialgroupsmayhavesharedthose
symbolstosomedegree,andtemporalchangesinprojectilepointstylesmayretainelementscommontotheoriginalpatternoftechnologicalknowledge.Itisassumed
thatthereisacertainvalidityinusingsharedmorphologicalandtechnologicalattributestoimplyacommonsocial/historicrelationshipifthereiscontinuitythrough
eithertimeand/orspace.Italsoshouldberecognizedthatunrelatedgroupsmightadoptforanynumberofreasons,eitherwholesaleorinpart,similarmorpho/technic
systems.Suchanextentwouldbedifficultforthearchaeologisttodiscernwithoutpreservationofperishableartifacts.

Theconcludingstatementssummarizetheauthor'scurrentperspectiveonPlainsandSouthwestPaleoindianarchaeology.

SummaryoftheHistoryofPlainsandSouthwestPaleoindianStudies

IN1927,EXCAVATIONSunderthedirectionofJ.D.FiggensuncoveredflutedweapontipsindirectassociationwiththebonesoffossilbisonnearFolsom,NewMexico
(Figgins1927).Tocountercriticismsraisedbyskeptics,Figginsleftpartiallyexposedartifactsinsituduringthefollowingfieldseason.Scientistsfromseveral
institutionswereinvitedtoviewthespecimenswhilestillincontext.Mostwhoviewedtheevidenceagreedthattherewaslittlequestionastotheassociationbetween
theartifactsandextinctfaunalremains.Subsequentexcavationsandgeologicalresearch(Bryan1937,1941)establishedthePleistoceneageofthefindsandproduced
additionalflutedpointsinunquestionableassociationwithmorethanadozenbison.Thesediscoveriesdemonstratedthepotentialantiquityofhumanprehistoryinthe
NewWorld.TheyalsoopenedthedoorforPaleoindianresearchatatimewhentheprevailingscientificdogmaconsideredtheNewWorldindigenouspopulationsas
relativelyrecentarrivalsintheWesternHemisphere.

IntheyearsfollowingtheFolsomdiscoveries,theNorthAmericanPlainswereafflictedbyaseveredrought.Productivefarmlandswerestrippedofsoilbyseemingly
unendingwindstorms.Atremendousnumberofarchaeologicalsiteswereexposedbydeflation,andartifactcollectingbecameacommonpastime.Largeprivate
collectionswereamassed,manycontainingexamplesofprojectilepointswhichwenowknowarclatePleistocene/earlyHoloceneinage.

Intheabsenceofchronologicaldata,E.B.Renaud(1931,1932)proposedanevolutionaryschemefortheplethoraofprojectilepointtypesdiscoveredinthe
blowoutsofeasternColorado.Inhissystem,thefinelycraftedunflutedlanceolateprojectilepoints,knownas"Yumas,"weretheoldest,followedintimebylarge,
crudelyflakedFolsomoidpoints,latertermedClovis.Smaller,wellmadeflutedpoints,likethosefromtheFolsomsite,wereconsideredtobetheyoungest.

In1931,Figgins(1931)excavatedadepositnearAngus,Nebraska,whichcontainedacrudeFolsomoidpoint,thoughttobeassociatedwithmammothbones.The
followingyearnearDent,Colorado,additionalFolsomoidpointsagainwerefoundwiththeremainsofmammoths(Figgins1933).Figginsproposedthatthecrude
"Folsomoid"pointssimplywerelargeversionsofFolsompointsusedforkillingmammoths,whilethesmallerFolsompointswereusedforhuntingbison.

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WithinmonthsoftheDentdiscoveries,FolsomoidpointswerefoundwithmammothbonesatagravelquarryonBlackwaterDraw,justsouthofClovis,NewMexico
(Howard1935a,1935b).AlthoughtheBlackwaterDrawsitewasastratified,multicomponentarchaeologicallocation,earlyresearchconsistedofsalvageefforts
whilegravelmininguncoveredmammothremains.MostearlyinvestigatorsconsideredtheFolsomoidpointstobeculturallydistinctfromtheFolsompoints(Roberts
1940),thusthelargerflutedspecimenslikethosefromBlackwaterDrawbecamecommonlyknownasClovisflutedpoints(Wormington1957).Eventhoughitwas
thoughtthatClovispointspredatedFolsom(Cotter1938a,1938b),itwasnotuntil1949thattherelativestratigraphicpositionsofClovisandFolsomwere
determined(Sellards1952).

TheassociationofflutedprojectilepointswithextinctfaunaatkillsitesdemonstratedtherelativeantiquityofearlyNorthAmericansandelucidatedaspectsoftheir
diets,butfailedtocontributemuchinformationonthegenerallifewaysofthesepeople.TheLindenmeiersiteinnorthernColoradoprovidedthefirstopportunityto
investigateaPaleoindiancampsite(Roberts1935).Byexcavatingalargeareaofthesiteinsearchoflivingstructures,Robertswasabletoaddressmanyquestions
concerningtheFolsompeoples.Alargeanddiversearrayofstonetoolswasrecovered,whichprovidedthefirstdataonlithicreductionsequencesandtoolsother
thanweaponry.Theremainsofantelope,deer,andrabbitrecoveredalongwithbisonsuggestedtoRobertsthattheFolsomdietincludedavarietyofanimalandplant
foods(Roberts1936).

TheLindenmeiersitewasastratifiedlocality,andtheupperoccupationlevelswereremovedasoverburden.However,RobertsobservedunflutedlanceolateYuma
stylepointsintheupperdeposits,postdatingFolsom(Roberts1936).

Bytheendofthe1940s,thenumbersofexcavatedPaleoindiansiteswereincreasingdramatically.FlutedpointsitessuchasMiami(Sellards1938)andMcLean(Ray
andBryan1938)cementedthenotionthatClovispeopleswerespecialistsinmammothhunting.TheLipscomb(Schultz1943),Linger(Hurst1943),andLubbock
Lake(Sellards1952)sitesaddedtotheFolsomdatabase.YumalanceolatepointswerefoundincontextattheRayLongsite(Hughes1949)inSouthDakotathe
Scottsbluff(BarbourandShultz1932)andLimeCreeksites(Davis1953,SchultzandFrankforter1948)inNebraskatheFinley(Howard1943Howardetal.
1941),Horner(Jepsen1953),andAgateBasin(Roberts1943)sitesinWyomingtheSanJonsite(Roberts1942)inNewMexicoandthePlainviewsiteinTexas
(Sellardsetal.1947).

ThediverseprojectilepointassemblagesfromtheselattersitesindicatedthatYumapointscouldbedividedintodistinctgroupsbasedonmorphologyandflaking
technology(Wormington1948).ItalsowasthoughtthatprojectilepointswerethemostdiagnosticofthePaleoindianartifactsandcouldbeusedfordeciphering
culturalcomplexes.Incontrast,theotherchippedstonetoolcategorieswereconsideredtoberelativelyubiquitousintheiroccurrenceandstylisticallysimilarfromsite
tosite.Althoughitisnowknownthatthereisvariationinnonprojectilepointartifacts(seeIrwinandWormington1970),projectilepointscontinuetobethe"fossile
directure"ofPaleoindiancultures.

Asthenumberofdistinctivepointtypesproliferated,confusionabouttheiragesandrelationshipswascompoundedbytheabsenceofstratifiedsitesandabsolute
datingmethods.Severalconferences,oneinPhiladelphiain1937andothersinSantaFein1941and1951,wereconvenedtosortoutnomenclatureandestablish
criteriaforidentifyingmeaningfultechnologicalattributes(Wormington1948,1957).

ExcavationsatBlackwaterDrawin1949establishedthestratigraphicpositionoftheClovis,Folsom,AgateBasin,andPortalescomplexes,providingthefirst
chronologicalorderingofPaleoindiancultures.Sellards(1952)separatedthePaleoindiancomplexesintotwocategoriesbasedonhispresumptionoftheirsubsistence
economies:elephanthunters(knownastheLlanocomplex)andthelaterbisonhunters(Sellards1952).ThenonflutedpointseventuallybecameknownasthePlano
complex(Jennings1955Mason1962).

ThediscoveryoftheHellGapsite,inthechertrichHartvilleupliftofeasternWyoming(IrwinWilliamsetal.1973)furtherrefinedourunderstandingofPlains
Paleoindianchronology.Excavationsconductedthereduringthe1960sandearly1970sexaminedfourlocalitiesalonganintermittentstream.Locality1producedthe
mostcompleteoccupationsequence.ThissequenceasidentifiedbyIrwin(1967)includedGoshen,Folsom,Midland,AgateBasin,HellGap,Alberta,Cody,and
Frederickoccupationsinascendingorder.

ThestratigraphyoftheHellGapandBlackwaterDrawsitesprovidedabasicchronologicalframeworkforculturalsuccessiononthePlains.However,regional
variationsinthePlainsandtheSouthwestchronologiesstillareincompletelyunderstood.

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ThepioneeringgeologicaleffortsbyAntevsandBryan(Haynes1990),andEvansandMeade(1945)establishedageologicalframeworkandprovidedremarkably
reasonableageestimatesbeforetheadventofradiocarbondating.MorerecentworkbyAlbanese(1978),Haynes(1975),andHolliday(1985),alongwithadvances
ingeochronologicaltechniques(Staffordetal.1991),continuetofinetuneourunderstandingofthegeologyofPaleoindiansitesandculturalsuccessiononthePlains
andintheSouthwest.

InterdisciplinarystudieshavebeenanimportantaspectofPaleoindianresearchsincethediscoveryoftheFolsomsite.Geologists,paleontologists,andpaleoecologists
workedhandinhandwitharchaeologists,establishingtheenvironmentalparametersthatarecrucialforanyunderstandingoftheculturaladaptationstothechanging
environmentsofthePlainsandSouthwest(seeGrahametal.1987RuddimanandWright1987WendorfandHester1975andWright1983).

Bythe1960s,thebroadchronologicalorderofPaleoindianculturesandecologicalparameterswereplacedingeneralperspective,andthearchaeologicaldatabase
hadincreasedsignificantly.Scientificattentionturnedtowardtheintegrationofmultidisciplinaryresearchwithanincreasinganthropologicalorientation.Wendorfand
Hester's(1975)SouthernHighPlainsprojectwasthefirstmajorregionalstudythatusedtheinterdisciplinaryapproachtoinvestigatePaleoindianlifeways.The
pioneeringeffortsofJoeBenWheat(1972,1979)andGeorgeFrison(1974)onbisonkillsitesinitiatedthesystematicanalysisofanimalbonesfromPaleoindiansites.
Wheat(1972)analyzedtheOlsenChubbockbonebedasanartifactoftheoccupation,payingcloseattentiontothespatialdistributionofskeletalelementsaskeysto
thebutcheringprocess.Hefirstfullyemployedethnographicanalogstoreconstructactivitiesconductedinabisonkillsite.Researchalsobeganonbisonherd
compositionandseasonalityofsiteoccupation,basedontootheruptionsandwearpatterns(FrisonandReher1970Reher1974).Frison's(1978,1991a)studiesof
huntingandbutcheringstrategies,basedinpartonhisexperienceasarancherandhuntingguide,havegreatlyenhancedourunderstandingofPaleoindianprocurement
systems.

Studiesofsiteformationprocesses(FrisonandTodd1986,1987)havecontributedtoourunderstandingofnaturalandculturalfactorsintheaccumulationofbone
beds.Detailedanalysesofspatialdistributionsofbisonbone,alongwithrefitstudies,haveprovidedinterpretationsofsiteactivitiesandsequencingofevents(Jodry
1992JodryandStanford1992ToddandStanford1992).

ReplicativestudiesofPaleoindianchippedstoneartifactsbegunbyCrabtree(1966)andBradley(1974)haveestablishedcriteriafordiscriminatingculturalvariations
inmanufacturingandrejuvenationtechniques.Likewise,theresearchofYoungandBonnichsen(1984)usedtheexperimentalapproachtodiscernindividualbehavior
inlithictechnology.Applicationsofusewearanalysis(Kay1996RootandEmerson1994WilmsenandRoberts1978)havemovedfunctionalinterpretationsfroman
intuitiveart,basedonethnographicanalogyandmorphology,tomorepreciseidentificationoftooluse.

Analyticaltechniquesforidentifyingchertsources(Banks1990Hofmanetal.1991a)havegreatlyenhancedourunderstandingofthedistributionofPaleoindianlithic
resources.Thesetechniqueslaidthegroundworkforidentifyingresourceareasand,possibly,groupsocialboundariesandexchangesystems(Amick1994aHofman
1992).Employmentofstatisticalmethods,suchasthataccomplishedbyWilmsen(WilmsenandRoberts1978)ontheLindenmeierstonetoolsandIrwin(1967Irwin
andWormington1970)ongeneralPaleoindianassemblages,addedanewdimensiontoartifactanalysesinthe1960sand1970s.

TheseareafewexamplesofhowPaleoindianstudiesarecenteringonanthropologicalproblemorientations.Itappearsthatweareonthethresholdoffuture
discoveriesthatwillhelptodefinethepastlifewaysofthefirstAmericans.

EvidenceforPreClovisCultures

CLOVISARTIFACTS(seeFigures79)havebeenfoundinNorthAmericafromcoasttocoastandfromCanadatoLatinAmerica,makingitthemostwidespreadcultural
complexintheNewWorld(seeBonnichsenandTurnmire1991Haynes1980).ThepeoplewhomadeClovispointsareconsideredbysomescholarstobethe
earliestAmericans(Haynes1984Martin1984).OthersbelievethatClovisdevelopedinNorthAmericafromapreexistingpopulation(BonnichsenandTurnmire
1991).Evidenceprovidedbygeneticstudies(Szathmary1985Williamsetal.1985),toothmorphology(Turner1985),andlanguagedivergence(Greenbergetal.
1986Nichols1990)suggeststhattheancestorsofNativeAmericansarrivedfrom

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Figure1.
PreClovissitelocations.

Table1.
PreClovisRadiocarbonDates
Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source
CAgeDateB.P.
Burnham charcoal 26,820350 AA3838 Wyckoffetal.1990

shell 31,150700 Beta23045

shell 35,890850 AA3837
charcoal 40,9001600 AA3840
Cooperton bone 19,100800 GX1214 Anderson1975

bone 17,575550 GX1215

bone 20,400450 GX1216
Dutton bone 11,710150 SI2877 StanfordandGraham1985

bone 13,600485 SI5186

LambSpring bone 1,73595 SI4850 Fisher1992

bone 3,1401000 M1464

organics 2,750150 SI6487
Selby bone 6,630320 SI5185 StanfordandGraham1985

 Page286

NortheastAsia.However,ClovisorotherflutedprojectilepointshavenotbeenfoundinarchaeologicalassemblagesfromNortheastAsia.Therefore,itappearsthat
ClovistechnologymusthavebeendevelopedbyanindigenousNewWorldpopulation.

ThequestionsofwhothefirstAmericanswere,whatkindoftechnologiestheypossessed,howmuchearlierthanClovistheyarrivedintheAmericas,andwhen,
where,andwhyflutingoriginated,havebeenthesubjectsofmajordebatesandresearcheffortssincethediscoveryoftheBlackwaterDrawsite(Bonnichsen1991).
Anumberofsitesthathavebeeninvolvedinthesedebatesoccurinourstudyarea(Figure1Table1).However,atpresent,therearenositesonthePlainsorinthe
SouthwestthatcanbecalledunequivocallypreClovis.

OneofthemostwellknownpreClovissites,foundduringthe1930s,wasSandiaCave,wheresingleshouldered,unflutedprojectilepoints(Figure2df)occurred
inageologicstratabelowFolsomartifacts(Hibben1941).ItwassuggestedthatSandiawasancestraltotheflutedpointcomplexes(Hibben1955).Thediscoveryof
flutedSandiapoints(Figure2a),fromablowoutdepositsouthofLucy,NewMexico,seemedtoverifythatassumption(Roosa1956a,1956b).However,40years
ofPaleoindianresearchhasfailedtoyieldadditionalevidencetosubstantiatethathypothesis,andtheveracityofthefindshasbeencalledintoquestion(Stevensand
Agogino1975).

Inarecentpaper,HaynesandAgogino(1986),reevaluatethegeologyofSandiaCaveandsuggestthatSandiapointsmaybeClovisknivesusedforminingocher
depositsfoundinthecave.AlthoughthisexplanationmaybeapplicabletotheSandiapointsfromSandiaCave,itdoesnotaccountforthosefromtheLucysite.It
appearsthatthestatusofSandiapointscannotberesolvedunlessadditionalSandiasitesarefoundandexcavated.

RegardlessofthecontroversysurroundingtheSandiapoints,therewasanearlyhumanoccupationofSandiaCave.BothClovisandFolsomartifactswerefoundin
thecave,alongwithotherchippedstonetoolsestimatedtodatebetween10,900and14,000yearsold(HaynesandAgogino1986).Amongtheseartifactsare
severalunshoulderedbifaces(Figure2b,c),whicharetechnologicallysimilartospecimensthathavebeenrecoveredfromsitesdatingtoca.25,000yearsoldin
easternSiberia(Derevianko1989)itisintriguingtospeculatethattheseunshoulderedSandiaCavespecimensmaybepreClovisinage.

AnotherpurportedpreClovismanifestationisknownastheMalpaiscomplex.Artifactsofthiscomplexareexpedientlyflakedcobbletoolsheavilycoatedwithdesert
varnish(Figure3).Malpaisartifactsareknownfromseveralareas,includingtheSierraPinacateofnorthernSonora(Hayden1976),theTransPecosareaof
southwestTexas(AndrettaandHayden,personalcommunication1985),ManixLake,California(BamforthandDorn1988),andLimeRidgeinsoutheasternUtah
(Kearnsetal.1990).

Malpaisartifactshavebeenfoundonsurfacelocalitiesthatarenearlyimpossibletodate.Hayden,however,noteddifferencesinthetechnologyofMalpaisartifacts
associatedwithsuccessivestrandlinesofpluviallakesintheSonoranDesert.Fromthisdata,hededucedadevelopmentalsequenceandaPleistoceneageforthe
Malpaiscomplex(Hayden1976).

Arecentgeochemicalanalysis,knownasthecationratiotechnique,hasbeenusedtoestimatetherelativeagesofthemicrobesresponsiblefortheformationofdesert
varnish(Dorn1983,1989).TheseratiossuggestthatMalpaisartifactsmaybegreaterthan20,000yearsold,whichcorrelateswiththeexistenceofpluviallakesinthe
SonoranDesert(Dolzani1988Hayden,personalcommunication1988).Theaccuracyofthisdatingtechniquehasnotyetbeendetermined.However,inacontrol
testofasampleofdesertvarnishedartifactsincludingClovisandArchaicagesurfacefindsfromtheLimeRidge,Utah,localities,thecationratiosfellwithinthe
expectedrangeofClovisandArchaicradiocarbonages(Kearnsetal.1990).Initialresultsindicatethatthecationratiotechniquemighthavepotentialforresolving
theMalpaisproblem.Afinaldeterminationoftheantiquityoftheseartifactsawaitsfurtherresearchandacceptablechronometricdating.

SitesofpreClovisage,suchasDuttonandSelby(StanfordandGraham1985)inColoradoandCooperton(Anderson1975)inOklahoma,containfractured,
flaked,andpolishedbonesthatwerethoughttobetheresultofhumanbutcheryandtooluse(StanfordandGraham1985).Thevalidityofusingmodifiedboneas
indicatorsofhumanactivityintheabsenceofotherlinesofevidencehassincebeendemonstratedtobeilladvised(seeBinford1981BonnichsenandSorg1989G.
Haynes1991).Thus,inlightofcurrentanalyticaltechniquesforidentifyingandinterpretingbonefracturepatterns(Lyman1994),itisnotcertainwhetherthese
specimenswerealteredbyhumans.

 Page287

Figure2.
SandiaprojectilepointsA.LucySite,NewMexicoBFSandiaCave,
NewMexico.

LambSpring,astratifiedsitelocatednearDenver,Colorado,producedmammothremainsconcentratedinandaroundaseriesofspringseeps(Rancieretal.1982
Stanfordetal.1981).Althoughmostofthethinwalledbones,suchasribsandscapulae,wereintact,themajorityofthemoredurable,thickwalledlongboneswere
greenfracturedandflaked.Concentratedpilesoflikeelementswerefound,aswellascompleteskullswithattachedtusks.Twostoneartifactswererecoveredthat
areclearlyculturalinorigin:a33poundboulderthatisbatteredalongoneedge(Figure4a,b),andaquartzitewedge(Figure4c).Theoriginalradiocarbon
determinationssuggestedthatthesitewasca.13,000yearsold.Asubsequentassayof11,73595yrB.P.(SI4850)suggeststhatsomeofthebonemaybeearly
Clovisinage(Rancieretal.1982).

SeveraladditionalsitesrecentlyhavebeenreportedaspreCloviscandidates.AttheBurnhamsite,Oklahoma,chippedstoneflakeswerefoundwithextinctfaunal
remainsdatingbetween26,820and40,900yrB.P.(Wyckoffetal.1990).Afteracarefulinterdisciplinaryexcavationandanalyses,WyckoffandCarter(1994)
concludedthattheartifactsandfaunalremainswerefortuitouslymixed.

AnotherpreCloviscandidateisPendejoCave.LocatedintheTularosaBasin,NewMexico,thecavewasinvestigatedbyMacNeishfrom1990to1992,and
analysesarestillbeingcompleted(MacNeish1992).ThissitecontainswellstratifiedcavedepositswithpossiblePaleoindianoccupationsdatingasearlyas50,000yr
B.P.(MacNeish1992).Evidenceofhumanoccupationfromthecaveincludesclaynoduleswithputativehumanskinimprints,possiblehumanhair,andexpedient
stonetools,someofwhichweremadefromstonesourcesfromoutsidethecave(Chrismanetal.1996).Furtherverificationoftheseresearchresultsneedstobe
accomplishedbeforethesignificanceofthissitecanbeadequatelyassessed.

 Page288

Figure3.
SierraPinacateMalpaiscobbletools.

 Page289

FlutedPointPattern

PROJECTILEPOINTSthatarebasallythinnedbytheremovalofeitherchannelflakesorwelldevelopedpressureflakesareincludedwithintheFlutedPointPattern.
Typicallythebasesofthesespecimensareconcave,butasaresultofrejuvenationofbrokenpoints,fluting/basalthinningmaybeobliteratedandthebasemay
becomeflattened.IncludedintheFlutedPointPatternareClovis,Folsom/Midland,andGoshen/Plainview.

Clovis

CLOVISISTHEEARLIESTdemonstrableculturalcomplexyetidentifiedinNorthAmerica.ClovissitesandsurfaceartifactsaredistributedthroughouttheSouthwestand
Plains(Figure5),buttheirnumbersarenotnearlyasgreatintheeasternUnitedStates.WesternClovissitesarenowdatedbetweenapproximately11,500and
10,900yrB.P.(Table2,Figure6).

TheClovistoolkitisreminiscentofthemacrocore/bladeandbifaceindustriesoftheupperPaleolithicculturesofEurasia,buthasnotabledifferences(Saundersetal.
1990).Thetypicallithictoolkitcontainsbifacialflutedprojectilepoints(Figure7),largebifaces,bladecores(Figure8)andblades,cuttingandscrapingtoolsmadeon
blades(Figure9dg)andflakes(Figure9c,h),gravers,avarietyofendscrapers(Figure9e),andoccasionalburins.

Clovisbladesareknownfrommanysites,butonlyrecentlyhavebladecoresbeenrecognizedatsitesontheSouthernPlains.Thefirstbladecoresandcoretablets
werefoundatPavoReal(49BX52),excavatedbytheTexasDepartmentofTransportationnearSanAntonio,Texas(HendersonandGoode1991).Theseare
primarilylargepolyhedralcores,withwellpreparedplatforms.AnotherpolyhedralbladecorehasbeenreportedfromtheClovisdepositsatKineaidRockshelter,
Texas(Collinsetal.1989).EvidenceforblademanufacturewasalsorecoveredattheAubreysite,locatednorthofDallas,Texas(Ferring1990).

ClovisartifactcacheshavebeenfoundontheCentralandSouthernPlains.TheDrakeCache(StanfordandJodry1988)innortheasternColoradoconsistedof13
newlycompletedandresharpenedprojectilepointsandacherthammmerstone.Smallivoryfragmentssuggestthatperishableartifactswereoncepartofthecache.
TwopresumedClovisbladecacheshavebeenfoundatBlackwaterDraw(Green1963Montgomery,personalcommunication1991)andanotherat41NV659in
eastcentralTexas(YoungandCollins1989).Thereisnoevidencethatthesecacheswereassociatedwithhumaninternments,noristhereanyevidenceofredocher.

Figure4.
ArtifactsfromtheMammothbonelevel,LambSpringSite,
Colorado:A.33lb.boulderB.Closeupviewofbattered
surfaceofboulderC.Bifacialwedge.

AttheGaultsite,locatedinCentralTexas,10engravedlimestonepebblesandcobbleswererecoveredwithClovisprojectilepoints(Collinsetal.1991).Designson
thesespecimensprimarilyconsistofparallellinearincisions,thoughsomehaveintersectinglinesformingrectilinearordiamondshapedpatterns.Twohavestraightand
curvinglines,whileapossibleanimalisrepresentedonanotherspecimen.

Amongtoolsmadeoutofperishablerawmaterialsareaboneshaftwrench(Figure9a)recoveredatMurraySprings(HaynesandHemmings1968)andaforeshaftor
projectilepoint(Figure9b)fromBlackwaterDraw(Hester1972Sellards1952).Apossibleivorybillet(Saundersetal.1991),aswellasivorymanufacturing
technology,hasbeendescribedfromBlackwaterDraw(Saundersetal.1990).Boneexpediencytoolsandflakedmammothboneshavebeenreportedfromthe
LubbockLakesite(Johnson1987),BlackwaterDraw(Hester1972),andtheLangeFergusonsiteinSouthDakota(Hannus1989).

LithicrawmaterialsutilizedbyClovisflintknapperstendedtobeofthebestquality,andmanyartifactsweremadefrommaterialsimportedfromdistant

 Page290

Figure5.
Clovissitelocations.

quarries.Thissuggestsexploitationofverylargeterritoriesortradedistributionofrawmaterials.Largebifacesandbladeswereproducedatquarrylocationsand
transporteduntilneededfortooluseormanufactureofnewprojectilepoints.Thebifacesservedasbotharawmaterialsourceandfunctionalartifacts.Clovis
projectilepointswerenotonlyusedforweapontips,butalsoforcuttingtools(Kay1996).Pointswererejuvenateduntiltheirusefulnessinthatcapacitywas
surpassedandthenoftenmodifiedforotherfunctions.

InthePlainsandSouthwest,themajorityofClovisartifactshavebeenfoundatkilllocalitiesnearsprings,smallplayas,orpondedstreams.Inmostcases,theprimary
activityappearstobemammothbutchering,althoughatMurraySprings,therewasanassociatedbisonkill(Haynes1981).Johnson(1987)alsoreportssmallerfaunal
speciesfromapossibleClovismammothprocessingareaatLubbockLake.

Themethodsemployedinkillingproboscideanshavenotbeendetermined.ImpactdamagedClovisweapontipsindicatethattheywereusedasprojectilepoints.
Clovishuntersmayhavewoundedorevenpoisonedtheanimalsandwaiteduntiltheydied,orfollowedthemuntilthemammothsbecameweakenedandfinallywere
dispatched.Itwouldseemunlikelythatadditionalhuntingwouldhavetakenplacefollowingasuccessfulmammothkillorduringprocessing.Thebonesofsmaller
animalsfoundatkillsitesmaybetheremainsoffoodconsumedbyhuntersastheywaitedforawoundedbeasttodieormaysimplybethebonesofunassociated
animalsthatdiedofnaturalcauses.

AtseveralCloviskillsites,morethanonemammothisrepresentedinthefaunalassemblage,althoughitisimpossibletotellwhethertheyrepresentsynchronousor
multiplekillevents.Saunders(1977)hypothesizedthatentirefamilyunitsmayhavebeenkilledduring

 Page291

Table2.
Clovisradiocarbondates.
Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source
CAgeDateB.P.
Anzick collagen 0,600300 AA Tayloretal.1985

asparticacid 10,240120 AA2978 Haynes,1991a

glutamicacid 10,820100 AA2979

hydroxyproline 10,710100 AA2980
glycine 10,94090 AA2981
alanine 10,370130 AA2982
Aubrey unknown 10,94687 SMU2194 Ferring1990

unknown 10,72490 SMU2338

unknown 10,360150 Beta32002
charcoal 11,540110 AA5271 Humphrey&Ferrring1994

charcoal 11,59090 AA5274

BlackwaterDraw carbonizedplant 11,630350 A491 Haynesetal.1984
Locality1 carbonizedplant 11,170110 A481
carbonizedplant 11,040240 A490
Colby collagen 11,200200 RL392 Frison1976

apatite 10,864141 SMU254 FrisonandTodd1986

collagen 8,719392 SMU278

Dent boneorganics 11,200500 1622 Haynesetal.1984

XADpurified 10,98090 AA2941 Haynes1991a

asparticacid 10,660170 AA2942

glutamicacid 10,800110 AA2943
hydroxyproline 10,60090 AA2945
glycine 10,71090 AA2946
alanine 10,670120 AA2947 Staffordetal.1990

XADpurified 10,590500 AAA832

XADpurified 10,950480 AA833
Domebo wood 11,045647 SM695 Staffordetal.1990

wood 11,490450 AA823 Haynes1991a

bone 11,220500 SI172

bone 11,200600 SI175
XADpurified 11,480450 AA825
ProHypro 10,860450 AA811
XADhydrate 10,810420 AA805
Lange/Ferguson organics 10,730530 113104 Hannus1989

collagen 10,670300 111710

charcoal 11,140140 AA905 Haynes1991a

Lehner charcoal 11,470110 SMU308 Haynesetal.1984

charcoal 11,170200 SMU264

charcoal 11,080230 SMU196
charcoal 11,080200 SMU181
charcoal 10,950110 SMU194
charcoal 10,95090 SMU290
charcoal 10,940100 A378
charcoal 10,860280 SMU164
charcoal 10,770140 SMU168
charcoal 10,71090 SMU340
charcoal 10,700150 SMU297
charcoal 10,620300 SMU347

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page292

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source

CAgeDateB.P.
LubbockLake clam 12,650250 12466 Hollidayetal.1983
1
Strat. clam 12,15090 SMU295
wood 11,100100 SMU548
wood 11,10080 SMU263
MurraySpring charcoal 11,190180 SMU18 Haynesetal.1984

charcoal 11,150450 A805

charcoal 11,080180 Tx1413
charcoal 10,930170 Tx1462
charcoal 10,890180 SMU27
charcoal 10,84070 SMU41
charcoal 10,840140 SMU42
charcoal 10,710160 Tx1459
12MileCreek apatite 10,435260 GX5812A RogersandMartin1984

oneevent.However,theamountoffoodgainedfromasingleanimalwouldbetremendous,and,unlessstoragesystemswereemployed,itislikelythattheremainsof
multipleanimalsaccumulatedfromseparateeventsthattookplaceoveraperiodoftime.

AtEscapule(HemmingsandHaynes1969)andNaco(Haury1953),taphonomicevidence,thenumberofcompleteprojectilepoints,andtheabsenceofbutchering
toolsandresharpeningflakesmayindicatethattheanimalsescapedtheirtormentorstodieelsewhere(Haynes,personalcommunication1984).

MurraySpringsandpossiblyLehnerhavesmallcampsitesassociatedwithmammothkills.Thesesitessuggestthatafterasuccessfulkill,acampwassetupnearby
whileprocessingtheanimals.Fisher's(1992)ethnoarchaeologicalstudiesoftheEfeelephanthuntersinAfricadescribetemporarycampsitesnearelephantkills,which
wereoccupiedwhilebutcheringactivitieswereconducted.Oncethegamewasprocessed,theErereturnedtoabasecamp.Suchamodelmightbeapplicableto
Cloviskillsandsmallassociatedcampsites,althoughnoClovisbasecampshavebeenidentifiedforwesternClovis.

AhearthareaatLehnercontainedhighlycharred,immaturemammothbone,whichmayindicatebonegreaseprocessingand/orboneutilizationforfuel,aswellas
foodconsumption.AtMurraySpringsarethreelocalities:amammothkillsite,acampsite,andanotherareawhereasmallgroupofbisonwerekilled.Theselocalities
canbelinkedwithoneanotherbyrefittedbrokenartifacts(Haynes1981).Itmightbepossiblethatthetwokilleventstookplaceatdifferenttimesbyhunters
operatingfromabasecamplocatedelsewhereintheSanPedroValley.

Mammothhuntingmayhavebeenafallactivity,providingareliablewinterfoodsourcethatallowedtheestablishmentofawinterbasecamp.Meatcaches,suchas
thosefoundattheColbysite,mightsupportsuchamodel(FrisonandTodd1986).Additionalhuntingduringtheoccupationofthebasecampcouldresultinsiteslike
MurraySpringsandLehner,whichhavemultiplekillevents.

Asmoresitesareinvestigated,itappearsthatClovispeopleshadabroadbasedeconomyandthatproboscideansmaynothavebeenasimportanttotheirdietas
oncethought(Johnson1991).AttheLewisvillesiteinTexas,theoccupationalsurfacewaseroded,leavingonlythebottomsofthehearthfeatures.Foodremains
foundinthesefeaturesincludedonlysmallmammals,amphibians,reptiles,andreptileeggs,aswellasbakedmuddauberlarvaeandhackberryseeds(Stanfordetal.
1995).ThesefoodresourcesindicatethatLewisvillewasoccupiedduringthesummer.Alligators,turtles,armadillos,badgers,raccoons,andmicemayhavebeen
amongtheanimalsusedbyClovispeoplesatKincaidRockshelter(Collinsetal.1989).

TheAubreysite,locatednearDenton,Texas,andcurrentlyunderinvestigationbyReidFerring(1990),isaCloviscampsiteassociatedwithapossiblebisonkill.
Faunalremainsfoundinthecampdebrisincludesloth,smallmammals,andturtles,alongwiththebison(Ferring1995).

PaleoclimaticevidenceindicatesthattheclimateoftheSouthwestandSouthernPlainshaddeterioratedduringClovistimesfromthelushconditionsthatexistedduring
theglacialmaxima(Haynes1991b,1993,1995).Springsandlakesdriedup,andanimalsandtheirpredatorsconcentratedaroundtheremainingwatersources.
Waterwells,suchasthosedugby

 Page293

Figure6.
Clovisradiocarbondates.

mammothsatMurraySprings(Haynes1991b)andhumanexcavatedwellsfoundatbothBlackwaterDraw(Haynesetal.n.d.)andAubrey(Ferring1995Humphrey
andFerring1994),suggestthatdroughtconditionsexistedduringtheClovisoccupation.ThewellsprobablyweredugbyClovispeoplesforhumanuse,butalso
wouldhaveattractedanimalstospecificlocations.Itwasduringthisperiodofclimaticdeteriorationthatmanytaxabecameextinct.

ThereductionofanimalspeciesattheendofthePleistocenehasbeenattributedtooverkillbyhumanpredatorsbysomescholars(Martin1984)andtoclimatic
changebyothers(GrahamandLundelius1984Grayson1989).Infact,botheventsprobablyactedinconcert,resultingintheextinctionofmanyspecies.Drought
conditionsreducedthegrassland'scarryingcapacityandincreasedcompetitionfortheavailablefoodandwaterresources,concentratingpreyspeciesatspecific
locationsincluding,perhaps,artificialwatersourcescreatedbyhumans.Thesecircumstancesallowedpredators,amongthemhumans,tomaximizetheirhunting
strategies,whichnodoubtseriouslyaffectedanimalspeciesthatalreadywereinjeopardy.

PaleoenvironmentalstudiessuggestthatbytheendoftheClovisoccupationsontheWesternPlainsandintheSouthwest,theenvironmentwasbecomingwetter.This
climaticshiftcanbeseenatBackwaterDraw,NewMexico,wherestratigraphicevidenceindicatesthatariseinthewatertablewascoincidentwithFolsomand
resultedintheoccurrenceofshallowdiscontinuousponds(Haynes1975,1993).AtpluvialLakeEstancia,NewMexico,therewasarenewedhighwaterphase
markedbytheappearanceoffreshwatergastropods(BachhuberandMcClellan1977)bytheendofClovistimes.SanAugustinLake,inwestcentralNewMexico,
becamelesssalineafter11,000yrB.P.,indicatingthattheclimatewaswetterthanithadbeenfrom16,000to11,000yrB.P.(Markgrafetal.1984).

 Page294

Figure7.
Clovisprojectilepoints:A.DrakeCache,ColoradoB.NacoSite,Arizona
C.E.BlackwaterDraw,Locality1FG.DomboSite,Oklahoma.

Figure8.
Clovisbladecore:surfacefind,HamiltonCo.,Texas.

EvidencefrompollenandplantmacrofossilsfromtheSanLuisValleyinColoradoalsosuggeststhattheclimatebecamemuchwetterfollowingadryclimaticphase
duringClovistimes(JodryandStanford1996Jodryetal.1989).

TheneteffectofanincreaseinmoistureandarisingwatertablewasthatinnumerableshallowbasinsfoundthroughouttheWesternPlainsandSouthwestfilledwith
freshwater.Correlatedwiththiseventwouldhavebeenthestabilizationandexpansionofgrasslands.Thesenewenvironmentalparametersopeneduplargeexpanses
ofterritory,whichmaynothavebeenattractiveinearlierClovistimes.

EventhoughmammothsandothertaxahuntedbyClovispeoplesbecameextinct,bisonremained.Thebisonessentiallywerereleasedintoahabitatforwhichthey
wereideallysuitedand,withthedemiseofmanyotherlargeherbivores,forwhichtherewaslittlecompetition.Thus,thesizeofbisonherds,whichmayhavebeen
regulatedbyspeciescompetitionpriortotheextinction,mayhaveincreaseddramatically.BisonbecamethemajorbiggamepreyofmostoftheensuingPlains
hunters.

 Page295

Figure9.
Clovisartifacts:A.ShaftstraightenerMurrySpringSite,ArizonaB.BoneprojectilepointBlackwaterDraw,Locality
1,NewMexicoC.D.FlaketoolBlackwaterDrawLocality1E.EndscrapermadeonBladeBlackwaterDraw
Locality1F.flake/bladeknifeBlackwaterDrawLocality1flakeknifeBlackwaterDrawLocality1.

 Page296

Folsom

DURINGTHEBEGINNINGofthiswetterclimaticphase,CloviswasreplacedbyFolsomtechnology.Thistechnologicaltransitionmaynotsignifyaculturalreplacement,but
possiblyrepresentsamodificationofweaponryasaresponsetoincreasedspecializationinbisonasthemajorfoodresource.

AcombinationofClovisandFolsomflutingandreductiontechniqueshasbeenreportedfortheprojectilepointsandpreformsfoundattheMockingbirdGapsite,
locatedinthenorthernendoftheTularosaBasinofsouthcentralNewMexico(WebberandAgogino1967).Consequently,theyconsiderthisassemblagetransitional
betweenClovisandFolsom.Unfortunately,theinvestigationhasnotbeencompleted,and,sincenosuitableorganicremainswerefoundforaradiocarbonassay,this
sitecannotbeplacedinchronologicalperspective.

ThreebrokenFolsompointtipsassociatedwithextinctmegafauna,includingmammothandcamel,werefoundattheWasdensitelocatedontheSnakeRiver
floodplaininIdaho(MillerandDort1978).Radiocarbonassaysonthemammothboneandobsidianhydrationanalysessuggestthebonesaccumulatedbetween
12,850and9735yrB.P.(Butler1971PlewandPavesic1982).ObsidianhydrationstudiessuggestthattheFolsomartifactsdatebetween12,000and11,200yr
B.P.(Green1983).However,Miller(1982)suggeststhattheFolsomoccupationattheWasdensitefallswellwithintheFolsomtimeperiod.Iftheearlierdatesand
theassociationofFolsompointsandmammothbonesarecorrect,itsuggeststhatearlyFolsomandCloviscoexisted.Clearly,additionalworkneedstobeconducted
atthissite.

Folsomsiteshavebeenradiocarbonassayedtoasearlyas10,900yrB.P.atHellGapandaslateas10,200yrB.P.attheHansonsiteinWyoming(Table3,Figure
10).Iftheseoutsideageestimatesarecorrect,Folsomtechnologylastednearly700years.

Figure10.
Folsomradiocarbondates.

 Page297

Table3.
Folsomradiocarbondates.
Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source
CAgeDateB.P.
AgateBasin, charcoal 10,780120 SI3733 Haynesetal.1984
Folsomlevel charcoal 10,66585 SI3732
Brewster charcoal 10,375700 1472
BlackwaterDraw charcoal 10,250320 A380379 Haynesetal.1992

charcoal 10,490900 A386

charcoal 10,170250 A488
charcoal 10,490200 A492
collagen 10,260110 SMU179
BonfireShelter charcoal 10,230160 Tx153 Haynesetal.1984

charcoal 10,100300 Tx658

charcoal 9,920150 Tx657
bone 8,380180 Tx118 TamersandPearson1965

bone 7,470160 Tx230A

bone 7,110160 Tx230B
bone 9,120200 Tx231A
bone 7,230160 Tx231B
bone 9,210200 Tx200C
bone 9,080210 Tx232A
bone 7,230380 Tx232B
Carter/KerrMcGee bone 10,400600 RL917 FrisonandStanford1982
Folsom collagen 10,260110 SMU179 Haynesetal.1992

charcoal 10,780 00 AA1213

charcoal 11,060 00 AA1708

charcoal 10,760 40 AA1709

charcoal 10,890 50 AA1710

charcoal 10,850 90 AA1711

charcoal 10,910 00 AA1712

bone 11.51.4%M SMU153

bone 2,910190 SMU161
bone 8,780180 SMU162
bone 8,920200 SMU163
Hanson charcoal 10,700670 RL374
charcoal 10,080330 RL558
charcoal 10,300150 Beta22514ETH
3229

charcoal 10,225125 Beta31072

HellGap,Folsom charcoal 10,930200 A503
level

charcoal 10,690500 A504

charcoal 10,290500 A502
IndianCreek tephra 11,125130 Beta4951 Davis1984

charcoal 10,980150 Beta4619 Haynesetal.1992

charcoal 10,630280 Beta13666 Haynes1991a

charcoal 10,980150 Beta4619

Kincaid charcoal 10,02585 Tx17 Haynes1967

charcoal 10,065185 Tx19

charcoal 10,365110 Tx20
LakeTheo humates 9,950110 SMU866 Johnsonetal.1982

humates 9,42085 SMU856

bone 9,360170 Tx2879 Harrison&Killen1978

bone 8,010100 Tx2880

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page298

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source

CAgeDateB.P.
Lindenmeier charcoal 10,780135 I141 Haynesetal.1984

charcoal 11,200400 GX1282

charcoal 10,560110 TO337 Haynesetal.1992

charcoal 10,50080 TO342

Linger bone 8,48085 SI3540
bone 9,885140 SI3537
LubbockLake humates 10,01575 SI3203 Haasetal.1986

humates 9,905140 SI4975

humates 10,06070 SMU251
humates 10,36080 SI3200
humates 10,195165 SI4976
charcoal 10,540100 SMU547
humates 10,53090 SMU285
bone 7,840170 SMU247 Hollidayetal.983

bone 10,36080 SI3200 Hollidayetal.985

humates 9,04090 SI4592

humates 9,72080 SMU975
humates 10,195195 SI4976
humates 10,090100 SMU1144
humates 10,16080 SMU846
shell 9,700450 L283G Campbell196

bone 9,883350 C558

MacHaffie apatite 9,340120 Gx15150AAMS Davisetal.1991

apatite 9,130550 GX15151A

collagen 9,000130 GX15151G
AMS
OwlCave collagen 10,920150 WSU1786 Bryan1980

10,64085 Miller1982

RattlesnakePass charcoal 9770150 Tx6305 SmithandMcNees1990

charcoal 9950150 Tx6304

Wharton charcoal 9,920530 AA298 PattersonandHudgins1985

TheFolsomcoreareacoversadiversetopographiclandscapeencompassingtheRockyMountains,theadjacentPlainsandtheeasternBasinandRangeareawestof
theRockies(Figure11).Theareaapproximatesanelongatedovalroughly2,000mileslongonanorthwestsoutheasttrendingaxisandabout800mileswide.
AlthoughFolsomartifactsarefoundinAlbertaandSaskatchewan(ForbisandSperry1952),themostnorthernexcavatedFolsomsitesareintheLakeIloareaof
NorthDakota(Root1993RootandEmerson1994).Tothewest,FolsomartifactshavebeenexcavatedatOwlCaveinIdaho(MillerandDort1978)andoccuras
surfacefindsattheMontgomerysiteineasternUtah(Davis1985)andeasternArizona(Huckel1982).Folsomartifactshavebeenreportedfromasfareastas
westernIowa(Billeckn.d.Morrown.d.).

Withinthisarea,FolsomweapontipsareextremelyhomogeneousanddistinctfrompostClovisflutedprojectilepointsfoundfromtheMidwesteastwardfor
example,theParkhillcomplex(DellerandEllis1992RoosaandDeller1982)andCumberland(Lewis1954).Occasionally,Folsompointsarereportedfromoutside
thecoreareabutusuallytheseoccurassinglespecimens,theircontextisunknown,theyareassociatedwitharchaeologicalmaterialsofdifferenttimeperiods,orthey
havebeenmisidentified.

BecauseFolsomsitesshareacomplextechnologyfromthenorthernlimittothesouthernedgeoftheirdistribution,itisreasonabletoassumethatthehumanswho
occupiedthisterritorywereinterlockedbysocialnetworks.Byethnographicstandards,theboundariesofsuchanareawouldbeincrediblylarge(atthetimeof
Europeancontact,thisareawasthehomeof38distincttribes).However,itmustbekeptinmindthatduringtheearlyHolocene,thehumanpopulationmayhavebeen
extremelysmall,andsocialboundariescouldhavebeenmuchlargerthaninmorepopulatedtimes.

 Page299

Figure11.
Folsomsitelocations.

Figure12.
Folsomprojectilepoints:A.B.BlackwaterDrawLocality1C.FolsomSite,NewMexicoD.E.&H.Lindenmeier
Site,ColoradoF.G.Stewart'sCattleGuardSite,Colorado.

 Page300

Figure13.
Folsomartifacts:A.B.UnifacialflakeknivesStewart'sCattleGuardSiteend
scrapersC.LindenmeierD.F.Stewart'sCattleGuard.

Italsoispossiblethatthisentireareawasnotoccupiedsimultaneously.Ontheotherhand,multipleethnicgroupsmayhavebeensharingFolsomtechnology.

Folsomprojectilepointstendtobesmaller,withmorerefinedworkmanship,thanClovispointsandaremorecompletelyfluted(Figure12).TheFolsomtoolkit
containedunifacial(Figure13a,b)andbifacialknives(Figure14),avarietyofendscrapers(Figure13cf),spokeshaves(Figure15ab),gravers(Figure15c),drillsor
piercingtools(Figure15d),burinsmadeonbifacefragments(Figure15e),andwedges.Sandstoneabradersstainedbyhematite(Figure16c)andgroundhematite
nodules(Figure16a,b)arecommonincollections.Bladesandtoolsmadeonbladesarerare,bladecoresareabsent,andivoryartifactsdropoutoftheassemblages.

Bonetoolsincludeincisedbonediscs(Figure17a,b)andtinyeyedneedles(Figure17c)bonebeads,includinganextremelytinybeadfoundattheShiftingSands
site,Texas(Hofman1996),andpossibleboneprojectilepoints(seeFrisonandCraig1982:Figures2.1072.110).Aserratedbisonboneflesher(Figure17d)anda
possibleantlerflutingtoolhavebeenfoundintheFolsomlevelatAgateBasin(seeFrisonandCraig1982:Figure2.106).

Folsombisonhuntingtechniquesvaried,butsimpleambushkillsaroundspringsandplayalakesappeartohavebeenacommonhuntingstrategy.Thesewouldinclude
sitessuchasLubbockLake(Johnson1987),BlackwaterDraw(Hester1972),Linger(DawsonandStanford1975),andZapataandReddin(Stanford1990).At
Stewart'sCattleGuard(Jodry1987)andFowlerParrish(AgoginoandParrish1971)sitesinColoradotheanimalsmayhavebeentrappedinablowout.Possibly,ad
hocambushkillsrepresentaFolsomhuntingtechniquethatmayhavebeenderivedfromClovishuntingstrategies.Huntersalsomayhavebeguntoexperimentwith
new,moreefficienthuntingand

 Page301

Figure14.
Folsombifacialknives:A.&D.LindenmeierB.C.Stewart's
CattleGuard.

herdmanagementtechniquesthatwerenotknownfromClovistimes.ThesewouldincludehuntingmethodssuchascliffjumpsatBonfireshelter(DibbleandLorrain
1968)andarroyoknickpointtrapsatseveralsites,includingCarter/KerrMcGee(Frison1984),AgateBasin(FrisonandStanford1982),theWaughandtheCooper
sites(Bement1994)inOklahoma(HofmanandCarter1991),andprobablytheFolsomtypesite.

ThenumberofanimalsfoundinFolsomkillsitesvariesfromfivetomorethan50.TwoanimalsarereportedfromtheRattlesnakePasssite,inWyoming(Smithand
McNees1990),butthesiteisincompletelyexcavated.ThesmallerfiguresareclosetothenumberofbisonfoundinCloviskillsites(sevenatBlackwaterDraw
[Hester1972]10atTwelveMileCreek,Kansas[RogersandMartin1984,Williston1902]and12atMurraySprings[Hemmings1970]).However,atLipscomb,
atleast55animalswerekilled(Hofmanetal.1991bToddetal.1992),whichbeginstoapproachthenumberofanimalstakenbylaterPaleoindianpeoples.Forty
threeanimalswerereportedfromtheFrasierAgateBasinsite(Cassells1983),150animalsperkillatJonesMillerHellGapSite(Stanford1978),and100bison
werekilledattheCasperHellGapsite(Frison1974).

ThemajorityofFolsombisonkillsitesappeartohavebeensingleevents.PossibleexceptionsareAgateBasin(FrisonandStanford1982)andtheCoopersite
(Bement1994),thoughttohavehadthreekills,andBlackwaterDraw,whichmayhavehadmultiplekilllocations(Hester1972).Thesettlementpatternmayhave
beenoneinwhichbandsmovedfromkilltokill.Inthisregard,itshouldbenotedthatFolsombisonkillshavebeenfoundforallannualseasons.

NonbisonfaunalremainsfoundatFolsomsitesincludeduck,deer,pronghorn,rabbit,turtle,wolf,prairiedog,peccary,mountainsheep,marmot,andpossiblycamel
(DavisandGreiser1992WilmsenandRoberts1978).ThisdiversearrayoffaunalremainssuggeststhatFolsomhumans,likeClovis,hadabroadbasedeconomy
thatincludedawidevarietyofanimalresources.

Figure15.
Folsomartifacts:(A.D.&F.Lindenmeier)A.Combinationtoolwithdoublespokeshave
B.DoublespokeshavewithgravertipC.MultiplegraverD.DrillF.LamaceE.Radial
fractureburinPowar'slSite,Colorado.

 Page302

Figure16.A.B.
FolsomgroundhematitenodulesandC.Sandstoneabraider
withhematitestainingfromtheLindenmeierSite.

Figure17.
Folsombonetools:A.B.Incisedbonediscs
LindenmeierC.EyedboneneedleLindenmeierD.
BisontibiaflesherAgateBasinSite,Wyoming.

FolsomsettlementpatternsweredescribedbyJudge(1973)forthecentralRioGrandeValley,andHester(1972,1975)andHesterandGrady(1977)fortheLlano
EstacadoinWestTexasandeasternNewMexico.Amick(1994b)recentlyhasdescribedFolsomlandusefortheTularosaBasin,NewMexico.Themajorityof
sitesusuallyareassociatedwithplayas,springs,orstreams.Thefunctionalsitestypesreportedincludecamps,kills,quarries,andlookouts.Recentinvestigationsof
the10,200foothighBlackMountainsite,Colorado(Jodryetal.1996),providesevidencethatFolsombandswereutilizinghighaltituderesourcesduringthe
summerseasonorearlyfall.BlackMountain,alongwiththeJohnsonsite,Colorado(GallowayandAgogino1961),andtheAdobesite,Wyoming(Hofmanand
Ingbar1988),arecampsitessituatedadjacenttooronhightopographicfeaturesthatlookoutoverlargegeographicareaswheregamemovementcouldbe
monitored.

Folsomcampsitestendtobesmallandusuallyareassociatedwithanearbybisonkill.EvidencefromStewart'sCattleGuard(Jodry1987),AgateBasin(Frisonand
Stanford1982),andbyinference,ShiftingSands(Hofmanetal.1990),suggeststhatonceasuccessfulhuntwascompleted,anearbycampwasoccupiedwhilethe
animalswerebutchered,whererearmamentandtoolmaintenanceaswellasgameprocessingactivitieswereconducted.

OngoingexcavationsattheStewart'sCattleGuardsiteinsouthernColoradorevealedatleastfiveclustersoflithicsandprocessedfaunalremainsassociatedwith
concentrationsofburnedlithicsandcharredbones(Jodry1987,1992JodryandStanford1992).Theseconcentrationsareinterpretedashearthcenteredfamily
residentialareas.Thisevidencemaysuggestabandsizeoffiveormorefamilies.Iffamilysizeaveragedfiveindividuals,thebandmayhaveconsistedof25ormore
people.Thesefigurescomparewelltotheaveragesizeofmosthuntergathererbands(Steward1969).

UnlessquarrysitessuchasLindenmeier(WilmsenandRoberts1978)andAdairSteadman(Tunnell1977)arebasecamps,thereislittleevidencethatmultiplebands
congregated.Thetremendousamountofcampsitedebrisfoundatthesesitesmayrepresentrepeatedoccupationsbysinglebandsoverlongtimeperiodstoreplace
rawmaterialstock.

RawmaterialacquisitionwasanimportantaspectoftheFolsomsettlementpattern.LikeClovis,Folsomrawmaterialswerequarriedatlocationsthatweremanymiles
distant.Materialsourceswereselectednotonlyonthebasisofflakingqualitiesbutpossiblyoncolor

 Page303

attributesaswell.TheauthorrecentlyanalyzedtheuseofFlattopchalcedonyfromthreeFolsomsitesinColoradoLindenmeier,Powars,andHahn.Flattop
chalcedonyoccursintwobasiccolors,whiteandlavender.Althoughthewhitevarietycanbeworkedaseasilyasthelavenderandwasemployedbyallother
Paleoindiangroupswhousedthequarry,onlythelavendervarietyoccursinthestudiedFolsomassemblages.Thisseemstoindicatethatthewhitevarietywas
rejectedinfavorofthelavender.

Niobrarachert(RepublicanRiverJasper,SmokeyHillsJasper,etc.seeBanks1990)isallbutnonexistentinFolsomsitesalongtheFrontRangeinColorado,whileit
occursinClovissitesaswellasallpostFolsomPaleoindiancomplexesinthatarea.BlackForestsilicifiedwood,averycommonlyusedrawmaterialinFolsomsites
southoftheSouthPlatteRiver,israreattheLindenmeiersite,whichislocatedonlyafewmilesnorthofsourcesforthewood.RawmaterialfromtheSanJuanBasin
inNewMexicoisequallyrareinFolsomassemblageseastoftheRioGrande,andthepercentageofAlibatesfoundinFolsomsitessouthoftheRedRiverinTexasis
significantlylessthantothenorth.

Mostofthesematerialresourcedistributionanomaliescanbeequatedwithmajorrivercoursesortopographicfeatures.Materialdistributionsmaydefineboundaries
oftraditionalareasofexploitationbyindependentFolsombands.

Earlystagebifacepreformsweremanufacturedtoreplacetoolstockatsitesassociatedwithquarries.Commonly,manybifaceswerenotreducedtotheflutingstage
atthesesites,but,alongwithflakestock,weretransportedfromthequarriesasthebandmovedontothenextlocation.Inthisform,therawmaterialstockcouldbe
usedtomanufacturediversetypesoftools.Whenprojectilepointmanufacturewasrequired,thebifaceswerefinishedandfluted.Inothercases,theywereusedfor
thinbifacialknives,acquiringbevelededgeswhenresharpened(Figure14c).

AlthoughlocalrawmaterialswerereducedintobifacesatLindenmeier,theartifactassemblagecontainsmanyfinalstagebifaces(Figure18a,b),preformsbrokenin
fluting(Figure18d),andchannelflakes(Figure18c)madeoutofexoticchertsthatwerecarriedintothesitefromelsewhere.

AnewlycompletedbutintentionallybrokenprojectilepointfromtheFolsomlevelatAgateBasin,aswellastheconsiderationthattheprocessofflutingiswastefulof
rawmaterial,leadsFrisonandBradley(1982)tosuspectthatflutinghadaritualcomponent.Manyhuntingandgatheringsocietiesimbuesupernaturalpowersto
huntingweaponry,andgreatcareistakeninmanufacturingandthechoiceofmaterials.InthemanufactureofFolsompoints,theuniformityofthemorphological
variablesandcolorpreferencessuggeststhatahighvaluewasplacedon

Figure18.
ExamplesofFolsomprojectilepointmanufacturingdebris:A.Stage3biface
LindenmeierB.Stage4.BrokendunngfirstflutingattemptLindenmeierC.Medial
channelflakeD.Stage5.BrokenduringtheremovalofseconbdfluteLindenmeier
E.FinaledgetrimmingStewart'sCattleGuard.

 Page304

Figure19.
Midlandprojectilepointsobverseside:A.Stewart's
CattleGuardSite,ColoradoB.D.LindenmeierE.H.
MidlandSite,Texas.Midlandprojectilepointsreverse
side:1.Stewart'sCattleGuardSite,ColoradoJ.L.
LindenmeierM.P.MidlandSite,Texas.

theseattributes.Itislikelythatthisattentiontodetailreflectssupernaturalbeliefsassociatedwithweaponryandhuntingsuccess.

AmongtheactivitiesidentifiedaroundeachhearthclusteratStewart'sCattleGuardwereprojectilepointmanufactureandfluting.Analysesofchannelflakesand
preformfragmentssuggestthatbetweenfourandsixnewprojectilepointsweremanufacturedateachdomestichearth,anddamagedpointswerediscardedinthese
locations(Jodry1987).Consequently,itappearsthatthemanufactureandretoolingofweaponswerecompletedwithinthecontextofthefamilycircle.

UnflutedFolsompointsarefoundinalmosteveryFolsomarchaeologicalassemblage(Figure19).InthePermianBasinofWestTexas,unflutedFolsompointsareso
plentifulthatWendorfetal.(1955)consideredthemtobeanewtypeMidlandpoints.However,onlyattheWinklersite(Blaine1968),locatedintheMidlandarea,
areMidlandpointsfoundtotheexclusionofflutedFolsompoints.ThecommonassociationofMidlandandFolsomhasledtospeculationastowhetherMidland
pointsrepresentaseparatecomplexorsimplyareFolsompointsthatweretoothintoflute(Agogino1969).Amick(1995)suggeststhatthehighnumberofMidland
pointsfoundontheSouthernPlainsresultsfromtoolstoneconservationpracticesassociatedwithlogisticallanduseandhighmobility(alsoseeHofman1992).

ManyweapontipsfromScharbauer,thetypeMidlandsite(Wendorfetal.1955),andothersintheregionareunflutedononesideandflutedontheother(Figure
19c,k,f,n),whileothersretainremnantsofformerfluteflakescars.SomeMidlandpointsweresimplyflakesthatwereretouchedalongtheedgestocreateaprojectile
pointshape(Figure19b,j).TheseprojectilepointvariationsleadtheauthortospeculatethattheFolsomgroupthatoccupiedthisareaofsouthwestTexasemployeda
huntingpatterninwhichtheirquarrysourcesweresomedistanceaway.Theirrawmaterialstockwasnearlydepletedbythetimetheyreachedthatareaandwasata
premium.Rawmaterialconservationtechniquesincludednotonlyrejuvenatingexistingpointsbutusingsmallremnantbifacesfortoolsthatnormallyweremadeon
flakes.Newprojectilepointsweremadeonthinbifacesandflakes,whichwerenormallytoothinforflutedpointmanufacture(Figure19b,g,j,o).

Irwin(1967)notedaMidlandlevelaboveFolsomattheHellGapsite,whichwouldargueforatemporaldifferencebetweenthetwopointtypes.However,Haynes
(personalcommunication1989),thesite

 Page305

geologist,suggeststhatMidlandandFolsomweresituatedatthebaseofthesamestratigraphicunit.Consequently,itmaybethattheFolsomandMidland
componentsatHellGapwereroughlycontemporaneous,ifnotoneandthesame.Forthesereasons,IcurrentlyconsiderMidlandtobeaFolsomvariantthatresulted
fromprojectilepointrejuvenationandamaterialdepletion/conservationstrategy.

ThefateofFolsomtechnologyremainsanunansweredquestion.WhyFolsomflutingwasdiscontinuedisnotknown,butspeculationssuggestchanginghalting
systems,adaptingtostylesusedbyothergroups,orpopulationreplacement.FlutelikebasalthinningoccursonpostFolsomprojectilepointsfoundontheSouthern
Plainsanditseasternperipheries.ThesestylesarefoundattheRexRodgerssite(Willeyetal.1978)andinpointtypessuchasBrazosfishtail(Watt1978)andSan
Patrice(Webb1946).RadiocarbondatesestablishthesetypesasyoungerthanFolsom,butitisnotknownhow,orevenif,theyrelatetoFolsom.

Environmentally,theendoftheFolsomperiodismarkedbyadecreaseinmoisture,whichprobablyresultedinlakes,springs,andpondsreducinginsizeandnumber.
Thisreductioninmoisturelikelydecreasedrangelandproductivity,resultinginfewerbisonontheSouthernPlainsandintheSouthwest.Evidenceforthisdryingtrend
canbeseenatBlackwaterDraw,wheretheponddepositsassociatedwithFolsomceasedtoform,andinthepollenrecordsfromtheSanLuisValley,whichindicate
ashifttoincreasedaridityafter10,500yrB.P.(JodryandStanford1996Jodryetal.1989).

Goshen/Plainview

THEPLAINVIEWTYPEoriginallywasidentifiedatabisonkillsite,locatednearPlainview,Texas(Guffee1979Sellards1945).The18projectilepointsandfragments
foundatPlainviewwerehighlyvariableinform,buttheirgeneralproportionsweresimilartoClovisandFolsom(Figure20eh).Thebaseswereprimarilyconcave
andsomespecimenswerethinnedbyaseriesofpressureflakes,includingacentralflutelikeflake,whileotherswerenotasheavilybasallythinned.Becauseofthe
absenceofdistinctiveflutesandbecauseseveralspecimenswerecollaterallyflaked,Kreiger(1947),whoanalyzedthePlainviewartifacts,consideredPlainviewtobe
atransitionalformbetweentheFolsomandYumatypes.Hecautioned,however,thatthevalidityofthatviewdependeduponthestratigraphicrelationshipsbetween
theseforms,whichwerenotknownatthetimeofhiswriting.Onthebasisoffinecollateralpressureflakingonsomespecimens,Knudson(1983)alsosuggesteda
strongcorrelationbetweenPlainviewtechnologyandthatoftheCodycomplex.

Figure20.
Goshen/Plainviewprojectilepoints.ADMillIronsite,
MontanaEKPlainviewsite,Texas.

 Page306

Figure21
Goshen/Plainviewsitelocations.

PlainviewpointshavebeenreportedfromanumberofsitesthroughoutthePlains(Figure21),butbecauseoftheremarkabledegreeofvariationamongthetype
specimens,therehasbeenconsiderableconfusionastowhatconstitutesaPlainviewpoint.Thetypehasbecomeacatchallcategoryforunfluted,concavebased
weapontips,manyofwhichprobablyareunrelatedtoPlainview.Addingto,orasaresultof,theindiscriminateassignmentofprojectilepointstothePlainview
nomenclature,thereisalargespanofradiocarbonagesascribedtoPlainviewontheSouthernPlains(Table4Figure22).

MuchofthevariabilityobservedamongthetypePlainviewspecimenscanbeexplainedbyprojectilepointrejuvenation.Consequently,thekeyattributethatidentifies
Plainviewpointsisthebasalthinningtechnique(seeFigure20e).InorderforanassemblagetobeconsideredPlainview,itshouldcontainspecimensthatexhibitwell
developed,flutelikepressureflakesforbasalthinning.Onthebasisofthisthinningtechnique,PlainviewistentativelyincludedherewithintheFlutedPointPattern.

SitescontainingprojectilepointsthatcorrespondtothePlainviewtypeasconsideredinthispaperaretheMillIronsite,Montana(Frison1996)JimPitts,South
Dakota(Donohue1996Frison1996)HellGap(Irwin1967)UpperTwinMountain,Colorado(FrisonandKornfeld1995KornfeldandFrisonn.d.)the
PlainviewcomponentofBoneBedIIatBonfireShelter,Texas(DibbleandLorrain1968)theRexRodgerssite,Texas(Willeyetal.1978)LeviRockShelterZone
II(Alexander1963)andthePerryRanchsite,Oklahoma(SaundersandPenman1979).OtherpossiblePlainviewoccupationsaretheLubbockLakesite(Johnson
andHolliday1980)andtheRyansite,locatednearLubbockLake(Johnsonetal.1987).At

 Page307

Table4.
Goshen/PlainviewRadiocarbonDates
Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source
CAgeDateB.P.
Hellgap charcoal 10,995135 AA14434 Frison1996
HoraceRivers charcoal 906090 Beta55907 Mallouf,personalcommunication1996
charcoal 904070 Beta55908
charcoal 900090 Beta55909
charcoal 929080 AA9367
HornRock shell 8400110 Tx1996 Watt1978
Shelter#2 shell 9275360 SM689
shell 9485300 SM761
JimPitts charcoal 11,410250 AA20290 Donohue1996
charcoal 10,280200 AA20291
charcoal 11,790220 AA20292
charcoal 11,720210 AA20293
charcoal 10,115230 AA20294
charcoal 9855645 AA20295
charcoal 11,300260 AA20296
LeviShelter charcoal 6750150 O1105 Alexander1963
ZoneIV charcoal 9300160 O1129
charcoal 7350150 O1128
LimeCreek charcoal 9524450 C451 Davis1962
LubbockLake bone 996080 SMU275 Hollidayetal.1985
bone 9870140 SMU828
bone 9605195 SI4974
bone 9075100 SI4179
bone 917080 SMU829f
bone 9959120 SMU126
bone 9990100 SMU728 Hollidayetal.1983

MillIron charcoal 10,760130 Beta20110 Haynesetal.1992

charcoal 10,77085 AA3669
charcoal 11,010140 Beta16178
charcoal 11,320130 Beta16179
charcoal 11,360130 Beta20111
charcoal 10,990170 NZA623 Frison1991b

charcoal 11,560920 NZA624

charcoal 11,570170 NZA625
PerryRanch bone 7,030190 Tx2190 SaundersandPenman1979
Plainview apatite 0,200400 Tx3907 Speer1990
apatite 9,860180 Tx3908
bone 7,100600 O171 Campbell1961

shell 9,800500 L303 BroekerandKulp1957

RedSmoke charcoal 8,862230 C824 Davis1962

UpperTwin bone 8,09060 Beta76593 FrisonandKornfield1995
Mountain bone 10,24070 CAMS16081

(tablecontinuedonnextpage)

 Page308

(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source

CAgeDateB.P.
WilsonLeonard charcoal 8,09070 NSRL1389 Collinsn.d.
charcoal 8,820120 Tx4764a
charcoal 8,940100 Tx4784b
charcoal 8,880150 Tx4784c
charcoal 9,34060 Beta79706
charcoal 9,85060 NRSL1382
charcoal 9,52060 NRSL1787
charcoal 9,53088 Tx4828
charcoal 8,63090 NRSL1558
charcoal 9,24070 Beta80869

HornShelter(Redder1985),twoPlainviewlevelswerediscoveredabovethemainzone,whichproducedBrazosfishtailpoints.Plainviewpointsalsoarereported
fromtheWilsonLeonardsite,locatednorthofAustin,Texas(Johnson1989).

AtHellGap,Wyoming,Irwin(1967)recoveredaPlainviewlikepoint,buthethoughtthatitoccurredstratigraphicallybelowFolsom.BecauseofthepostFolsom
radiocarbondatesforthePlainviewsiteinTexas,IrwincoinedanewtypeGoshenforthepreFolsommanifestation.However,becauseoftypologicalaffinities,he
laterabandonedtheGoshenterminologyinfavorofPlainview(Irwin1971).

ItwasnotuntilFrison'sworkattheMillIronsiteinMontanathattheGoshenterminologyachievedprominenceintheliterature(Frison1988,1990,1991b,1996).
TheMillIronsiteconsistedoftwolocalities.Onewasalocationwhereatleast29animalswerekilledduringaspringhunt,andtheotherwaspossiblyanassociated
campsite,containingprojectilepointssimilartotheHellGap''Goshen"specimen.OtherartifactsfoundatMillIronincludedcuttingandscrapingtoolsmadeonblades
orbladelikeflakes,andanimplementmadeofmammothbone.

Radiocarbonassaysfrombothlocalitiesfallintotwodistinctclusters,oneaveraging11,36070yrB.P.andtheother10,84060yrB.P.Itisunclearwhatcausedthis
bimodalityintheradiocarbonassays,butineithercasethedatesareolderthanthosefromPlainviewsitesfoundontheSouthernPlains.

ThesharedtraitsbetweenGoshenandClovischippedstonetechnologies,thepreFolsomradiocarbondates,andIrwin'sopinionthatGoshenoccurredbelow
FolsomatHellGapleadFrisontoconcludethatGoshenwasintermediatebetweenClovisandFolsomontheNorthernPlains(Frison1991).Thestratigraphic
placementofGoshenbelowFolsomatCarter/KerrMcGee,aswellasattherecentlydiscoveredJimPittssiteinSouthDakota(Donohue1996Frisonetal.1996),
supportaPreFolsom,GoshenoccupationoftheNorthernPlains.

Frison(1988)isnowinclinedtobelievethattheSheamanlocalityatAgateBasinprobablyisGoshen,ratherthanClovisaswasfirstthought(FrisonandStanford
1982).RecoveredattheSheamansitealongwithanunflutedClovisprojectilepointwasanivoryforeshaftthatisnearlyidenticaltothosefoundattheAnzick(Lahren
andBonnichsen1974)andBlackwaterDrawClovissites(Sellards1952).Unfortunately,nocharcoalwasrecoveredatSheamantodirectlyassesstheageofthe
occupation.

Iftheearlieraveragedateof11,360yrB.P.fromMillIroniscorrect,GoshenwouldhaveexistedatthetimeofearlyClovisorevenbeforeClovisontheNorthern
Plains.Thisearlydate,alongwiththecooccurrenceoftheivoryartifactandtheunflutedClovispointatSheamanandthemammothboneartifactfromMillIron,might
indicatethatbothClovisandGoshenwerecotraditionsandmayhavedevelopedfromanevenearlierlithictechnology.

Leonhardy(1966)describedaPlainviewlikepointfromtheDomebomammothkillsite,Oklahoma,oneoftheearliestdatedClovissites.Inthatcase,thebasal
thinningnotedonGoshen/Plainviewpointsmayrepresentanearlierstageinthedevelopmentoffluting.Thereisapossibilitythattheunflutedprojectilepointfoundin
thelowestlevelatVentanaCaveinArizona(Haury1950)fallsintotheGoshen/Plainviewtype.TwounflutedClovislikeprojectilepointsfoundbelowaFolsom
occupationatHornRockShelter(Redder1985)supporttheexistenceofapreFolsomunflutedlanceolatepointtype,perhapsrelatedtoClovisand/or
Goshen/Plainview.ThenatureoftherelationshipbetweenClovisandtheunflutedClovislikeweapontipsawaitsfurtherresearch.

ClearsimilaritiesalsoexistbetweentheGoshenandFolsomlithictechnologies(BradleyandFrison1996).Thesetechnologicalties,alongwithstratigraphic

 Page309

Figure22.
Goshen/Plainviewradiocarbondates.

placement,suggestthatitisentirelypossiblethatFolsomtechnologywasderivedfromGoshen.Whateverthetechnologicaloriginsforeithergroup,itisclearthat
FolsomwascontemporaneouswithGoshen.BothmayhavederivedfromClovistechnology,andFolsomflintknappersmayhaveretainedandenhancedtheirfluting
technologytodistinguishthemselvesfromtheirGoshen/Plainviewcousins.

AninvestigationofaGoshen/PlainviewbisonsiteknownasUpperTwinMountainisbeingconductedinMiddlePark,Colorado(FrisonandKornfeld1995Kornfeld
andFrisonn.d.).Atthissite,theremainsofapproximately15animalskilledduringthefallorearlywinterwerefoundassociatedwithfourprojectilepointsidentifiedas
Goshen.However,abonedateof10,240yr.B.P.isconsiderablyyoungerthantheGoshendatesfromthemorenorthernPlainssites.

RexRodgerswasasmallkillsite,whichyieldedtheremainsofsixormorebisonthatweretrappedinagully(Willeyetal.1978).Twotypesofprojectilepointswere
foundassociatedwiththebisonbone.ThefirstvarietyhasbothClovisandPlainviewtraitsbutisconsideredPlainview.Theothervarietyis"sidehollowed"(slightly
notched)andbearsaconsiderablelikenesstotheflutedBrazosfishtailpointsfoundatHornShelter,WilsonLeonard(Collins1995),andKincaid(Collins1995).The
BrazosfishtailtypealsomightbeconsideredearlySanPatrice,acommonArchaicpointtypewithbasalthinningfoundincentralandeasternTexas.

AtHornShelter,locatednearWaco,Texas(Redder1985Watt1978),bothPlainviewandBrazosfishtailpointswerefoundinstratigraphiccontext.Theearliest
occupationlevelatthesitecontainedunflutedClovislikepoints,similartoSuwanneepointsfoundintheSoutheast.Unfortunatelythislevelhasnotbeen

 Page310

radiocarbondated.Folsomartifactswerefoundabovetheunflutedpointsinthestratigraphicsection.

AbovetheFolsomlevelareseveralstratathatcontainedBrazosfishtailpointsassociatedwiththeremainsofturtle,snake,rodents,rabbits,birds,deer,andfishscales.
Theselevels,whichalsocontainedaTexasScottsbluffpoint,havefourradiocarbonassays(Watt1978).Twocharcoalassaysare9500200yrB.P.(Tx1830)and
9980370yrB.P.(Tx1722),andtwoadditionalassaysof10,310150yrB.P.(Tx1997)and10,030130yrB.P.(Tx1998)wererunonsnailshells.
However,theselatterdatesmaybetoooldbecausethecaveislocatedinalimestoneoutcrop.

AburialofanadultandajuvenilewasuncoveredinthestratumthatproducedtheBrazosfishtailprojectilepoints(Redder1985Youngetal.1987).Theburialswere
flexed,withthechildfacingthebackoftheadultbothwerecoveredwithlimestoneslabs.Burialgoodswerenumerousandincludedantlerbillets,shellbeads,red
ocher,severalbonetools,perforatedcaninependants,largehawkoreagleclaws,modifiedturtleshells,aneyedneedle,andanondiagnosticbiface.

TheprojectilepointsidentifiedasPlainviewatHornShelter,occurinstrataabovetheBrazosfishtaillevels.Thesestrataaredatedtoca.8400yrB.P.(Redder1985).
NofaunalremainsarenotedforthePlainviewlevels.

TheWilsonLeonardsite,locatednorthofAustin,Texas,containsaremarkablestratigraphicsequence,whichenabledtheinvestigatorstoassessthecultural
chronologyofcentralTexas(Collins1995,n.d.).Thestratigraphicsequencecontainsapointfragment,possiblyClovis,atthelowestlevel,followedbyabonebed
datedbetween10,800and11,200yrB.P.,withartifactsattributedtoeitherFolsomorGoshen.Abovethebonebedisalevelwithcornernotcheddartpoints
definedasWilson.AlthoughtheWilsontypepointusuallyisconsideredanArchaicform,itdatesbetween9500and10,000yrB.P.attheWilsonLeonardsite.
PlainviewlikepointsalongwithGolondrinaBarberoccurabovetheWilsonpointsanddatebetween8800and9500yrB.P.Thelastprojectilepointtypefoundat
thesitethatisnormallyconsideredPaleoindianisTexasAngostura.However,thistypeapparentlydatesyoungerthan8,800yrB.P.atWilsonLeonard.

OfparticularinteresttothispaperisatypologicalandstatisticalanalysisofTexaslanceolateprojectilepointsconductedduringtheWilsonLeonardstudy(Collins
n.d.).Onthebasisoftheirresearch,PlainviewandPlainviewlikeprojectilepointsclusterintotwogroups.Theearliestcluster,datingbetween11,000yrB.P.and
10,100yrB.P.,isconsideredtobePlainview.ThisclusterincludesthespecimensfromBonfire,Ryan,andthePlainviewtypesites.Thelatercluster,identifiedasSt.
Mary'sHall,datesbetween9990yr.B.P.and8700yrB.P.ThemajordifferenceisthattheSt.Mary'sHallprojectilepointsarenarrowerandthickerinhaft
dimensions,havedeeperbasalconcavities,andarenotasbasallygroundasPlainviewpoints.

St.Mary'sHall,Golondrina,andTexasAngosturaoccupationlevelsatWilsonLeonardcontainArchaiclikeburnedrockfeatures.Collins(1995)considerstheseas
latePaleoindiantransitionalformsbetweenearlyPaleoindianandArchaictimes.

TechnologicallyitisdifficulttoseparatetheGoshenandPlainviewprojectilepoints.Goshencouldbeconsideredanearliertechnologicalphase,perhapswithamore
northerncenter,whilePlainviewisslightlylaterandoccursfarthertothesouth.Althoughtentative,theUpperTwinMountainsitedatemaysupportanorthsouthtime
transgressivedistributionforGoshen/Plainviewoccupation.Withlittleevidencetothecontrary,itappearstomethattheSt.Mary'sHalltypesimplymaybealater
phaseofGoshen/Plainview.Ifthisistrue,thenGoshen/PlainviewtechnologyoccursasacotraditionwithalloftheclassicPaleoindiantechnologiesofthePlains.

Consequently,Krieger's(1947)admonitionofcautionrelativetoPlainviewisstillapplicable.ItishopedthatrenewedinvestigationsattheHellGaptypesite,aswell
asotherfutureexcavations,willresolvethislongstandingandhighlysignificantproblem.

LanceolatePointPattern

THELANCEOLATEPROJECTILEpointpatternisasimpleandprobablyancientstyleofprojectilepointmanufacture.ItsrootslikelyareinnortheasternAsia,wherelanceolate
bifacesdatetoatleast25,000yrB.P.atsitessuchasUstUlminPrimoria(Derivinko1989).RadiocarbondatesfromtheNorthwestregionoftheUnitedStates
suggestthatlanceolatepointsareasoldasClovis,ifnotolder,andmayrepresentthetechnologyfromwhichClovisderived(seeBryan1980,1988Stanford1991)
oranunrelatedcotradition.

ThelanceolatepatternincludesnotonlytheclassicPlanotypesfoundonthePlains,butalsoothernonflutedPaleoindianprojectilepointsfoundthroughoutNorthand
SouthAmerica.Lanceolatepatternprojectilepointshavebothstemmedandunstemmed

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haftelementswithflat,convex,orconcavebases.AgateBasin,HellGap,andCodyprojectilepointsareconsideredrepresentativeofthelanceolatepattern.A
numberoflaterunflutedpointtypessuchasLusk,JamesAllen,Fredericks,andothersarethoughttofallintothispattern.Theselatertypeshavenotbeendefinedwell
enoughtounderstandhoworwhethertheyfitintothesequenceofthispattern,andthereforewillnotbediscussedinthispaperingreatdetail.

AgateBasin

AGATEBASINPOINTSfirstweredescribedbyRoberts(1943)fromtheAgateBasintypesiteineasternWyoming.AgateBasinpointsarerareinsurfacecollections,and
onlyafewsiteswithAgateBasinoccupationshavebeenfound(Figure23).TheseincludetheAgateBasintypesite(FrisonandStanford1982),theHellGapsite
(Irwin1967),andamixedAgateBasinHellGapoccupationattheCarter/KerrMcGeesite(Frison1984)inWyomingtheFraziersite(Wormington1988)in
ColoradoandBlackwaterDrawLocalityNo.1(Sellards1952)andtheKendallsite(Haynes1955)inNewMexico.Althoughthereismorphologicalvariation
amongtheprojectilepointsfoundattheMilnesandsiteinNewMexico(Sellards1955),theyalsomightfallintotheAgateBasintype.

Unfortunately,ofthesesites,onlyAgateBasinhasbeenpublishedindetail(FrisonandStanford1982)

Figure23.
AgateBasin/PackardComplexsitelocations.

 Page312

Figure24.
ProjectilepointsfromtheAgateBasinSite,Wyoming.

thus,itisprimarilyfromthistypesitethatanassessmentofAgateBasinculturemustbederived.

AgateBasinpointsareunstemmed,lanceolateprojectilepoints,withbasalgrindingextendingasfarastwothirdsofthelateraledgesofthepointblades(Figure24).
Basesarenormallyconvex,butcanbeeitherconcaveorfiat.Thelatterbasalconfigurationsusuallyoccurafterpointrejuvenation.AttheAgateBasintypesite,a
numberofpointsoccurthatarenearlybipointed(Figure24b,g,h)Theyarerelativelynarrow,withpressurefinishingflakesandtinyedgeretouching.Althoughour
sampleissmall,inmostotherrespects,theremainderoftheAgateBasintoolkitissimilartootherPaleoindiantoolassemblages(Figure25).

RadiocarbondatesindicatethatAgateBasinpointswereproducedbetweenca.10,500and10,250yrB.P.(Table5,Figure26).AgateBasinoccursdirectlyabove
FolsomatboththeAgateBasinsiteandHellGap.AtBlackwaterDraw,theAgateBasinoccupationisnotwelldefined,butisthoughttooccurintheupperdiatomite
deposits,whichwouldplaceitsoccurrenceshortlyaftertheFolsomoccupation(HaynesandAgogino1966).Thestratigraphicevidencefromthesesites,alongwith
overlappingradiocarbondates,suggeststhatverylittletimeelapsedbetweenthetwooccupationperiodsandthatearlyAgateBasinpeoplesmayhavebeen
contemporariesofFolsomandGoshen.

TheoriginofAgateBasintechnologyisunknown,butitislikelytohavederivedfromtypologicallysimilarearlyNorthernGreatBasin/Plateaulanceolateformsthat
maypredatetheoccurrenceofAgateBasinbynearlyamillennium(Bryan1988),andmovedeastwardaround10,500yearsago.Thiswriter'sopinionisthatthe
technologyinvolvedinproducingAgateBasinpointsisconsiderablydifferentfromthatusedinthemanufactureofflutedpointsandmayindicatethatadifferenthuman
populationutilizedPlainsbisonresourcesduringthewaningyearsoftheFolsomperiod.

TheAgateBasinoccupationatthetypesiteconsistedofabisonkillandassociatedcampsite(FrisonandStanford1982).Theanimalsapparentlyweredrivenintoa
knickpointarroyotrap,wheretheyweredispatchedanddismembered.Abutchering/

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Figure25.
FlaketoolfromtheAgateBasinLevel,AgateBasinSite,Wyoming.

processingcampwasestablishedthatmayhavebeenoccupiedthroughoutthewinter,withthebisonkillprovidingwinterrationsfortheinhabitants.Twoslight
depositionallevelsseparateadditionalthinscattersofAgateBasinartifactsfromthemajorityoftheculturaldebris.Thesescattersarethoughttohaveresultedfrom
colluvialfillaccumulatingthroughoutthewinterlongencampment.

AtHellGap,AgateBasinartifactswererecoveredfromthreeexcavationlocalities(Irwin1967).Thefaunalremainsfoundintheselocalitiesincludedeer,felid,and
unspecifiedsmallmammals,aswellasbison.HellGapissituatedinashelteredvalleywithinthechertrichHartvilleuplift,anditislikelythattheAgateBasin
occupation,aswellastheotheroccupationsofthesite,representcampsestablishedduringquarryingactivities.

TheFraziersiteinColoradoisthoughttobeabutchering/processingsite(Cassells1983Wormington1988).MuchoftheFraziersitewaseroded,buttheremainsof
atleast43bisonwererecovered.Aminimaldateof9500yrB.P.wasobtainedfromapaleosolthatoverlaythcoccupationlevel.

SurfacecollectionsbyamateursthroughoutthePlainsregioncontainrelativelyfewAgateBasinprojectilepoints,butthereisaslightincreaseintheiroccurrenceonthe
NorthernPlains.ThescarcityofsitesandsurfacefindsmaysuggestthatthehumanpopulationduringAgateBasintimeswasrelativelysmallcomparedtoFolsom,that
AgateBasinpointswereproducedoverashortertimeperiod,thattheirsettlementpatternwassuchthatthemajorityofsitesareyettobefound,orthatthesepeople
onlyoccasionallywereusingthePlainsforbisonhunts.

LithicmaterialtypesfoundatAgateBasinsitesarehighlyextralocal,perhapsindicativeofmovementfromoutsidethearea.AlibatesdolomitefromTexasconstitutesa
highpercentageoftherawstoneusedattheFraziersite,whilenotoolsmadeofFlattopchalcedonyoneofthemostcommonlocalmaterialsusedinnortheastern
Coloradowerefound.ThesameistrueoftheAgateBasintypesite,whereKnifeRiverflintfromNorthDakotaconstitutesthebulkoftherawmaterialused.

AgateBasinkillsitesarerepresentedbysomewhatmoreanimalsthanthosecontainedinthemajorityofFolsomkillsites.Aminimumof43animalswerefoundat
Frazier(Cassells1983)andmorethan75animalsatAgateBasin(Walker1982).Thesefiguresmayindicatelargerhumangroupsandperhapssignalthebeginningsof
seasonal,cooperative,interbandhuntingstrategies.

TheoccurrenceofAgateBasinartifactsintheUpperDiatomitecarbonaceoussiltdepositsatBlackwaterDraw(HaynesandAgogino1966),alongwithplant
microfossilevidencefromtheSanLuisValleyin

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Table5.
AgateBasin/PackardComplexradiocarbondates.
Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source
CAgeDateB.P.
AgateBasin charcoal 10,430570 RL557 FrisonandStanford1982
Brewster charcoal 9,990225 M1131 Bryan1980
unknown 9,930450 O1252 Frison1978

CherokeeSewer charcoal 9,990225 M1131 AndersonandSemken1980

charcoal 8,445250 UCR490
charcoal 8,000270 UCR604
Frazier unknown 9,000130 SMU32 Cassells1983
unknown 9,550130 SMU316
Packard charcoal 9,416193 NZ478 Wyckoff1985
charcoal 9,88090 AA3116 Wyckoff1989

charcoal 9,83070 AA3117

charcoal 9,77080 AA3118
charcoal 9,630100 AA3119

Figure26.
AgateBasin/PackardComplexradiocarbondates.

Colorado(Jodryetal.1989),suggeststhatAgateBasinpeoplesarrivedonthePlainsattheveryendofthewetperiodthatwasenjoyedbyFolsomhunters.A
subsequentdryingtrendinthePlainsandSouthwestalsomightberesponsiblefortheapparentscarcityorbrevityoftheAgateBasinoccupationinthoseregions.
SignificantlymoresitesandsurfacefindsarereportedfromtheNorthernPlains,whichmay,infact,betheAgateBasinrefugium.

Theterm"AgateBasin"hasbeenappliedtoanumberofprojectilepointsfromthePlainsandadjacentgeographicregionsthatarechronologicallydistinctfromAgate
Basin.Theseartifactscanbeseparatedintothreegroups:AgateBasinlikepointsfromtheRockyMountainsandfoothillmarginsofthewesternPlains(seeFrison
1978,1992)artifactsidentifiedasPackardcomplex(Wyckoff1985)fromtheeasternmarginsofthePlainsandNorthernPlano(AgateBasinphase)fromnorthern
Canada(seeClark1987Gordon1981Wright1972a,1972b,1976).Whattherelationshipsbetweenthesecomplexesmightbe,ifany,ishighlyconjectural.

TheunstemmedAgateBasinlikelanceolatepoints(Figure27a,b)foundthroughouttheRockyMountainsdatetoaround9000yrB.P.andarethoughttohavebeen
usedbypeopleadaptedtomountainandhighaltitudebasinenvironments(Frison1992).WhetherthesepointstylesrepresentlocalremnantsofanAgateBasin
populationthatsettledintoamontanelifestyle,orareintroductionbyaneastwardextensionofpeoplesfromtheBasinandRangeinterMountainlanceolatecomplexis
animportantquestiontoberesolved.

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Figure27.
PackardComplexandAgateBasinlikeprojectilepoints:A.E.KhLn2
GrantLake,Kewatin,CanadaF.J.PackardSite,Oklahoma.

Wyckoff(1985)definesthePackardcomplexonthebasisofAgateBasinlikeartifactsrecoveredatthePackardsiteinnortheasternOklahoma,HorizonIIIofthe
CherokeeSewersiteinIowa(AndersonandSemken1980),andnumeroussurfacefindsalongthePrairieWoodlandsborder.AtthePackardsite,AgateBasinlike
projectilepointswerefoundstratigraphicallybelowaDaltonlevelandhavebeendatedtoaround9,400yrB.P.Sidenotchedprojectilepointsassociatedwith
lanceolatepointswerefoundatboththePackardsiteandHorizonIIIoftheCherokeeSewersite,whichdatestoca.8500yrB.P.

UnliketheknownHighPlainsAgateBasinpoints,someofthePackardspecimenshavebeenheavilyreworkedintoartifactsthatservedfunctionsotherthanthatof
projectilepoints(Figure27hj).ModificationofexpendedprojectilepointsintoothertooltypeshasbeenequatedwithDaltonandotherearlyeasternArchaiclithic
systemsandsuggestsinteractionbetweenthemakersofAgateBasinlikepointsandearlyArchaicpeoples(seeJohnson1989Wyckoff1985).

NorthofthePlains,AgateBasinlikepoints(Figure27ce),havebeenfoundatanumberofsitesintheCanadianArctic(Clark1987).Radiocarbonassays,although
fewinnumber,indicatethattheseartifactsdatetoca.8500to7500yrB.P.Clark(1987)suggeststhattheseartifactsrepresenteitheralateCordillerancomplexora
northwardexpansionofthePlainsAgateBasintype.

ThepossiblerelationshipbetweenAgateBasinandtheselatercomplexesleadstomuchspeculationconcerningthespreadanddevelopmentofanAgateBasinculture
andwillprovidefertilegroundforfutureresearch.

IftheAgateBasinandAgateBasinlikeprojectilepointsweremadebypeopleswhooriginatedintheBasinandRangeandPlateauenvironmentsoftheWestand
Northwest,theseartifactsmayrepresentpopulationexpansionsthatencroachedupontheeasternRockyMountainsandPlainsandeventuallyspreadtothemarginof
thePrairieWoodlands.Perhapsthesepeopleweregeneralizedforagers,adaptedtoecotonalenvironmentssurroundingthePlains,whoventuredoutontothePlains
onlyduringperiodsofhighbisonpopulationsorforoccasionalcommunalhunts.

TheunshoulderedlanceolatepointwasadominantweapontipstyleforseveralmillenniaintheGreatBasin

 Page316

(Bedwell1970).However,regionalstemmedvariationseventuallydeveloped,includingtheMojavetypeintheBasinandRangearea(Amsden1937),someofthe
WindusttypesfoundinthePlateauregion(Rice1972),andtheHellGaptypeonthePlains(Agogino1961).

Figure.28.
HellGapradiocarbondates.

HellGap

ORIGINALLYDEFINEDbyAgogino(1961)attheHellGapsiteinWyoming,HellGappointsinitiallywerethoughttobeolderthanAgateBasin.However,during
subsequentexcavations,thestratigraphicpositionofHellGapwasfoundtobeabovetheAgateBasinlevel.RadiocarbonassaysfromanumberofHellGapsitesnow
suggestthisPaleoindiancomplexisslightlyolderthan10,000yrB.P.(Table6,Figure28).

HellGappointsarestemmedlanceolatepointswithroundedshouldersandrelativelybroadblades(Figure29).Stemsusuallyaregroundtotheshoulderandhaveflat
bases.Rejuvenationofdamagedstemsfrequentlyresultedinpointswitheitherconvexorconcavebases.Technologically,HellGappointsarecloselyrelatedtoAgate
Basin.RejuvenatedHellGappointsthathavetheirbladewidthnarrowed(therebyremovingtheshoulders)areindistinguishablefromAgateBasinpointsiftheyarenot
foundinanexcavatedcontext.

HellGapprojectilepointsarefoundthroughoutthePlainsandRockyMountains,butthenumberofsitesissignificantlylessthaneitherCodyorFolsomage
occupations(Figure30).LikeAgateBasin,HellGappointsarerareinsurfacecollectionsfromtheCentralPlains,butbecomemorecommonincollectionsfromboth
theNorthernandSouthernPlains.InTexas,projectilepointsresemblingtheHellGaptypewerefoundattheLubbockLakesite,substratum2sLBb(Johnsonand
Holliday1985),yieldingadateofca.10,000yrB.P.SimilarpointsarerelativelycommonsurfacefindseastwardinTexasandOklahoma(Figure29e).HellGap
pointswerenotfoundatBlackwaterDrawandarerelativelyrareinsurfacecollectionsinNewMexico.

BisonhuntingduringHellGaptimesappearstohavebeenaccomplishedbylarge,organizedcommunalhunts,whichincorporatedtrappingtechniquesthathavenotyet
beenrecognizedduringotherPaleoindiantimeperiods.AttheCaspersite,alatefallkillsite,morethan100animalsweredrivenintoaparabolicsanddunetrap
(Frison1974).AtJonesMiller

Table6.
HellGapradiocarbondates.
Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source
CAgeDateB.P.
AgateBasin charcoal 10,445110 SI4430 FrisonandStanford1982
Casper charcoal 9,830350 RL125 Frison1974
bone 10,060170 RL208
HellGap charcoal 10,240300 A500 Irwin1967
JonesMiller charcoal 10,020320 SI1989 Stanford1984
Sister'sHill charcoal 9,650250 I221 AgoginoandGalloway1965
charcoal 9,600230A372 A372 Irwin1967

 Page317

Figure29.
HellGapartifacts:projectilepointsA.SurfaceFind,YumaCo.,ColoradoB.HellGap
Site,WyomingC.AgateBasinSite,WyomingD&F.JonesMillerSite,Co.E.Surface
find,DentonCo.,TexasG.Sister'sHillsite,Wyoming.

(Stanford1978),animpoundmayhavebeenconstructedattheheadofasmalldrainagesystem,where150animalswerekilledineachofatleasttwoeventsonein
thelatefallandanotherinthelatewinterorearlyspring.Theanimalswerebutcheredalmostcompletely,andpresumably,meatproductswereremovedtoanearby
winterbasecamp.AttheAgateBasinsite(FrisonandStanford1982),theremainsofanotherHellGapbisonkillsuggestthatknickpointtrapsmayhavebeenusedby
HellGaphuntersduringtheearlywinterseason.

TheSister'sHillsiteinnorthcentralWyomingisaHellGapcampsite(AgoginoandGalloway1965)which,whileincompletelyexcavated,mayprovideinformationon
HellGapcampingactivitiesthatwerenotcenteredonbiggamehunting.Althoughfewboneswererecovered,theremainsofrabbit,elk,deer,andporcupinewere
includedinthefaunalassemblage.

HellGapisknownfromthreequarryrelatedsites:SeminoleBeach(Miller1986)andHellGap(Irwin1967)inWyomingandtheTimAdriansite(O'Brien1984)in
Kansas.AtSeminoleBeach,Wyoming,finishedprojectilepointsweremanufacturedfromtenaciousquartzitecobblesfoundinthegravelsoftheNorthPlatteRiver.
ThesmallamountofflakingdebrisrecoveredandthesubstandardqualityofthequartzitesuggestthatSeminoleBeachwasusedasanexpedientsourceforraw
material.

RawmaterialsusedforartifactsrecoveredattheJonesMillersitecamefromwidelyseparatedsources(Banksn.d.).NiobraraorSmokeyHillschertfromKansas,as
wellasFlattopchalcedonyfromColoradoandWyomingcherts,werethemostcommonmaterialsused.Whetherthesechertsrepresentrawmaterialsbroughttothe
sitebycoalescingbandsgatheringforacommunalkill,orsequentialquarryingactivitiesandreuseofthetrapisyettobedetermined.Thespatialanalysisoflithic
artifactssuggeststhattheNiobrarachert,aswellasafewpiecesmadeofAlibates,wereusedduringthefallevent,whileFlattopandWyomingtoolstoneswereused
alongwithNiobraraduringalaterkillevent.

HellGapreductionstrategiesusuallyproduceabifacewithbroad,flat,softhammerflakescarscoveringbothfaces.Finalshapeisproducedbypressureflakingthe
edgesofthetoolwithshort,steepflakes.During

 Page318

Figure30.
HellGapSitelocations.

resharpeningepisodes,pressureflakesinvadethebifacesurfaceuntilthelaststageofbifacemanufactureisfinallyeliminated.

TheremainderofthelithictoolkitisverysimilartoAgateBasinandotherPaleoindiancomplexes.Irwin(1967seealsoIrwinandWormington1970)describeda
bifacialknifefromtheHellGapsite,whichhespeculatedwasauniqueknifeformthatwasancestraltotheCodyknife.AtboththeCasperandJonesMillersites,
approximately50percentoftheprojectilepointshavewearandresharpeningpatternsthatsuggesttheywereusedasknives(Kyriakidou1993).AHellGaplate
stagepreformfromJonesMilleralsowasusedasacuttingtool.

BifacialreductiontechniquesofHallGappreformsarehighlyreminiscentofAlbertaCodyreductiontechnology,anditispossiblethatAlbertaisaderivativeofthe
HellGaptype.ThebasicdifferenceisthattheshouldersbecomemoreprominentonAlbertaprojectilepoints.

 Page319

Figure31.
Codyprojectilepoints:A.B,SanJonSite,NewMexicoC.D.R6Site,New
MexicoE.&H.I.FrascaSite,ColoradoF.OlsenChubbockSite,ColoradoG.
JurgensSite,Colorado.

CodyComplex

THECODYCOMPLEXderivesitsnamefromCody,Wyoming,locatedafewmileswestoftheHornersite(FrisonandTodd1987).Stemmedpoints,suchasScottsbluff
fromthebisonquarrynearScottsbluff,Nebraska,EdenpointsfromtheFarsonsiteintheEdenValleyofWyoming,andAlbertapoints,weresubsumedby
Wormington(1957)undertheterm''Codycomplex."

Pointswithsquarebasesandslightshoulders,suchasPortalespointsfromBlackwaterDraw,specimensfromtheSanJonsite,NewMexico,andFrasier,Olsen
Chubbock,andClaypoolweapontipsalsoareconsideredCodytypesbymostauthors.However,Wheat(1972,1979)distinguishesFirstviewandKerseypointsas
belongingtotwophasesofalanceolate,stemlessprojectilepointstyleoftheCentralandSouthernPlains(seeAgenbroad1978,BradleyandStanford1987,and
Stanford1981foradditionaldiscussions).

Forthepurposesofthispaper,Iincludeallsquarebasedandshoulderedpoints,evenifonlyslightlyshouldered,aspartoftheCodycomplex(Figures31and32).
Althoughthesetypeshaveminormorphologicalandtechnologicalvariations,theyarealltechnologicallylinkedandalsomayshareauniqueknifeform,knownasthe
Codyknife(seeFigure33).

SiteswhereCodyartifactshavebeenfound(Figure34)includeBlackwaterDraw(Sellards1952),LubbockLake(Johnson1987JohnsonandHolliday1981),and
HornShelter(Redder1985Watt1978)ontheSouthernPlains,andR6(StanfordandPatten1984)intheSouthwest.CodysitesontheCentralPlainsinclude
Claypool(DickandMountain1960StanfordandAlbanese1975)Frasca(FulghamandStanford1982),Jurgens(Wheat1979)LambSpring(Stanfordetal.
1981)LimeCreek(Davis1962)Nelson,OlsenChubbock(Wheat1972)Scottsbluff(BarbourandSchultz1932)andWetzell.OntheNorthernPlains,Codysites
includeHudsonMeng(Agenbroad1978),

 Page320

Figure32.
AlbertaartifactsfromtheHudsonMengSite,Nebraska:A.EndScraperB.Gravers,C.E.Utilizedflaked
F.K.Projectilepoints.

Carter/KerrMcGee(Frison1984),HellGap(IrwinWilliamsetal.1973),andtheFletchersiteinAlberta(Forbis1970).

Codyrelatedsurfacesitesandscatteredprojectilepointsaremorewidespreadthananyother"classic"PlainsPaleoindianpointtype.Theyarerelativelycommon
throughoutthePlainsandNewMexico,easternArizona,andsoutheasternUtah.TheirdistributionalsoextendswestwardacrossWyoming(FrisonandTodd1987
Howard1943Mossetal.1953),Montana(Bonnichsenetal.1992ForbisandSperry1952),Idaho,andintoNevada(Dansieetal.1988).OnthePlainsand
PrairieProvincesofCanada,CodyartifactsoccurinmanysurfacecollectionsandareconcentratedintheLittleGemareaofAlberta.Codyartifactsarecommonin
easternTexasandOklahoma,aswellasLouisianaandArkansas(Story1990).EastofthePlains,aburialcontainingCodyartifactswasrecoveredattheReniersite
inWisconsin(MasonandIrwin1960).Codylikeprojectilepointswithsharplyexpandedbases,knownasAquaPlano,arefoundfromtheplainsofeasternAlberta
southeastwardintotheGreatLakesregion(WormingtonandForbis1965),buttheseformsappeartooccurlaterintime.

Figure33.
Codyknives:A.HudsonMengB.SurfacefindfromWest
TexasC.R6Site,NewMexicoD.E.ClaypoolSite,Co.F.
SapelloSite,NewMexico.

 Page321

Figure34.
CodySitelocations.

Codysitesdatebetweenca.10,000and8,000yrB.P.(Table7,Figure35).Thiswiderangeofdatesmayindicatethattheearliestandlatestdatesareincorrect,or
thatstemmedpointswereusedthroughoutthisregionforalongperiod.ThelargenumberofsitesandextensivegeographicdistributionofCodyartifactssuggestboth
alengthydurationofthetraditionandhigherpopulationlevelsthantheprecedingHellGapandAgateBasinperiods.

Codyhuntersemployedanumberofmethodstokillbisonthatrequiredknowledgeofherdbehaviorandtheabilitytomanipulateanimalsintoadiversevarietyof
traps,aswellashuntingsmallgroupsofanimalsaroundspringsandponds.ThehighnumberofanimalsfoundinmanyCodykillsitessuggeststhatcooperativehunting
effortswereseasonallyemployed.TheHornersitecontainsseveralkillevents(FrisonandTodd1987).Thus,itappearsthatthesehuntersutilizedthesame
topographicfeaturesforkillsitesonareoccurringbasis.

DrivingbisonintosteeparroyoswasthehuntingstrategyusedattheFrasca(FulghamandStanford1982),Nelson,andOlsenChubbock(Wheat1972)sites.At
BlackwaterDraw(Hester1972),LubbockLake(Johnson1987),SanJon(Roberts1942),LambSpring(Rancieretal.1982),andWetzel,theanimalswerekilledat
themarginsofspringsandponds.BisonmayhavebeendrivenoveracliffattheHudsonMengsiteinNebraska(Agenbroad1978)andupanarroyotoaknickpoint
trapatCarter/KerrMcGeeinWyoming(Frison1984).ThetopographicsettingattheHornersiteinnorthwestWyomingsuggeststhatCodyhuntersalsoconstructed
enclosuresfortrappingbison(FrisonandTodd1987).

ItislikelythatbisonmadeupalargeportionoftheCodydietandwasacquiredprimarilythroughorganizedseasonalcommunalhunts.Individualhuntersorsmall
groupeffortslikelyaugmentedtheseasonalkillsthroughouttheyear.Theavailableevidenceforseasonalitysuggeststhatcommunalkills

 Page322

Figure35.
Codyradiocarbondates.

occurredinthelatefall,whenthebisonwereinprimecondition,andagaininthespring,whenfoodsuppliesmayhavereachedalowlevel.Mostkillsitescontainthe
remainsofcowcalfherdshowever,theLambSpringCodylevelconsistedofalatewinterorearlyspringkillofaherdofadultmales(McCartney1983).

Inadditiontobison,animalsfoundinCodyassemblagesincludeantelope,deer,elk,moose,jackrabbit,cottontailrabbit,turtle,mallard,cinnamonteal,gadwall,
pintail,grouse,andfish.Thiswidevarietyoffaunalremains,aswellasthepresenceofgrindingtools(Wheat1979),andplantprocessingtoolsatLubbockLake
(Bamforth1985),suggeststhatCodypeoplestookcompleteadvantageofmanyfoodsourcesandcannotbeconsideredsimplybiggamehunters.

CodyagecampsitesincludeClaypool(DickandMountain1960),LimeCreek(Davis1953),andHornShelter,Texas(Redder1985).Campsitesassociatedwith
bisonbutchering/processingareasincludeJurgens(Wheat1979)andLubbockLake(Johnson1987).Thelargenumbersofartifactsandthespatialdistributionof
activityareasfoundatmostofthesecampsitesrepresentextensiveoccupations,or,asWheat(1979)suggests,thattheywereusedrepeatedly.

ArtifactsfoundattheCodycampsitesincludeawidevarietyofcutting,drilling,andscrapingimplements,aswellasgrindingstones.Shaftabraders,whichhavesmall
groovesindicatingarrowsizedshafts,wererecoveredatbothJurgensandClaypool.Wheat(1979)reportstwopossibleatlatlhooksfromtheJurgenssite.

HellGap(IrwinWilliamsetal.1973)andR6andtherelatedSapellosites(StanfordandPatten1984)representlocalitieswhereprocessingoftoolstonefromnearby
quarrieswasconducted.

R6,locatednearLasVegas,NewMexico,isoneofseveralCodyagesitesfoundalongtheMoraRiver.Situatedneararawmaterialsource,knownlocallyas
Felcite,thesesitesprobablywereoccupiedinconjunctionwiththemanufactureoftoolstock.Testingwasaccomplishedattwosites,Sapello2and3,andmore
detailedworkwascompletedatR6(StanfordandPatten1984).AlthoughmuchoftheR6sitehadbeendestroyedbyalluvialerosion,awedgeofintactsediment
remained.Asmallfeaturewasexcavatedconsistingofa2mwidesemicircleoflargecobblesaroundaslightdepression.Withinanddirectlyinfrontofthefeature
werenumeroustakesfromprimarybifacereductionactivities,projectilepointsbrokenin

 Page323

Table7.
Codyradiocarbondates.
Site Material 14 Lab.Number Source
CAgeDateB.P.
CaribouLake charcoal 8,460140 I5449 Cassells1983
Frasca bone 8,870350 M1463
bone 8,91090 SI4846
Finley unknown 8,950220 RL574 Frison1978
unknown 9,026118 SMU250
HellGap unknown 10,240300 A500
(Scottsbluff) unknown 8,600600 I245
Horner bone 6,619350 C302 FrisonandTodd1987
charcoal 6,151500 C795
bone 6,876120 UCLA697A
bone 8,840140 UCLA697B
charcoal 7,8801300 SI74
charcoal 9,39075 SI4851
charcoal 9,39085 SI4851A
charcoal 10,060220 I10900
HudsonMeng apatite 8,990190 SMU52 Agenbroad1978
collagen 9,380100 SMU102
charcoal 9,820160 SMU224
Jurgens(Kersey) charcoal 9,07090 SI3726 Cassells1983
LambSpring bone 7,870240 SI45
LubbockLake humates 6,24040 SMU1094f Haasetal.1986
(upper) humates 6,40080 SMU544
humates 6,70595 SI4178
humates 7,97080 SMU262
humates 7,890100 SMU302
humates 7,25575 SI3204
humates 8,210240 SMU830f
humates 8,65590 SI4177
(middle) humates 8,13080 SMU1089
humates 8,585145 SI5499
humates 9,55090 SMU1116
humates 9,550100 SMU1118
MacHaffie wood 8,620200 GX15152AMS Davisetal.1991
(Scottsbluff) collagen 8,280120 GX15153GAMS
apatite 7,905435 GX15153A
wood 8,1003400 L578A
MedicineLodge unknown 8,830470 RL446 Frison1978
Creek
Nelson bone 7,99580 SI4898 Cassells1983
OlsenChubbuck bone 10,150500 A744
Wetzel bone 7,160135 SI4849

 Page324

Figure36.
CodyartifactsfromR6SiteA.B.Projectilepoint
preformsC.D.EndscrapersE.F.Unifacialknives.

Figure37.
TexasScottsbluffprojectilepoints.

variousstagesofmanufacture(Figure36a,b),aCodyknife(alsobrokeninmanufacture),andflintknappingtools.Discarded,expendedprojectilepoints,scrapers
(Figure36c,d),andotherflaketools(Figure36e)alsowerefoundassociatedwiththefeature.Thepresenceofthesediscardedtoolssuggeststhatrehaftingactivities
wereaccomplishedaspartoftheretoolingprocess.Asimilarconcentrationoftoolsanddebitage,associatedwithseverallargecobblestruncatedbyancrosional
face,likelyaretheremainsofanothersimilaractivityarea.Itisthoughtthatthesefeaturesaretheremainsofsheltersusedbyflintknappers.

BevelledtriangularandquadrilateralbifaceswererecoveredfromR6,aswellasatLA63880intheTularosaBasin,NewMexico,whichisthoughttobeCody
related(Elyea1988).ThesetoolsarereminiscentofDaltonadzesandmaysupportJohnson's(1989)notionofCodyandDaltoninteraction.ScatteredDaltonpoints
havebeenfoundintheSouthwest,butasyet,noDaltonsitesareknownfromthearea.

Stemmedlanceolateprojectilepoints,knownlocallyasTexasScottsbluff,arecommoninsurfacecollectionsfromtheSouthernPlains,theTexasGulfCoast,and
eastwardintoArkansasandLouisiana(Johnson1989Storey1990).Theseprojectilepointsarerelativelylarge,broad,andthin(Figure37).Duringresharpening
episodes,theirlengthisreduced,buttheyremainrelativelywide(Figure37d).Theshouldersarewellpronouncedandhaftelementsarebasallyground.Basesare
usuallysquare,withstraighttoslightlyexpandingstems.Becauseoftheirreductionattributesandoveralldimensions,thesepointsaretechnologicallymoresimilarto
AlbertathanScottsbluffthus,ifatechnologicallinkistobepostulated,itlikelywouldbewithAlberta.

Bevelledbifaces,calledRedRiverknives(seeFigure33b)areassociatedwithTexasScottsbluffpoints,butunlikeCodyknives,theyarealmostinvariablymadeout
ofprojectilepoints(Johnson1989).IfCodyknivesdevelopedfromusingprojectilepointsascuttingtools,itstandstoreasonthattheRedRiverknifeformmaybe
indicativeofthestepbetweenpointuseandthedevelopmentoftheformalknifetype.

IncentralTexas,atHornShelter,TexasScottsbluffpointswerefoundinstrata5F,5G,and6(Redder1985).Radiocarbondatesofstratum5Grangefromca.9500
to10,300yrB.P.,whichfallsintotheearlystagesofCodyandisconsistentwiththeAlbertadatesfromHudsonMengandtheHornersites.

SeveralmodelshavebeenpublishedthatattempttoseparateCodyintoeithergeographicortemporal

 Page325

divisions(seeAgenbroad1978Knudson1983Wheat1972).ThemostcommonsplitsaremadebetweenAlbertaandlaterCodytypes,ornorthernandsouthern
distributions.Whiletheseclassificationsreflectdiscrete,althoughslight,projectilepointattributedifferences,itisunclearwhetherthesevariationshaveculturalor
temporalsignificance.ThisisespeciallytruewhenconsideringCodylikepointsfoundonthemarginsofthePlains,andthosefromtheGreatBasin.Aftermore
stratifiedsiteshavebeenexcavatedandpublishedalongwithadditionalreliableradiocarbondates,itmaybepossibletoassessthesignificanceoftheseregional
variations.

TheearliestmanifestationoftheCodycomplexisAlbertaorperhapsTexasScottsbluff,whichappearstohavespreadwidelyby9,500yearsago.Concurrentlywith
theriseofCodytechnology,thereappearstobeaclimaticshiftthatincludesincreasedmonsoonalrainfall,whichlikelyproducedcoolmoistsummerconditionsforthe
Southwest(Thompsonetal.1993).Thesesummerrainfallsalongwithmeltingwintersnowsproducedreliablewatersourcesfromtheseasonalpondsthatdotthe
SouthwestandwesternPlains.Alongwiththefillingofthesepondsandlakes,thereprobablywasasignificantincreaseingrasslandproductivityandbison
populations.

Duringthissameperiod,lakelevelsinnorthernNevadaandIdahowereelevatedandthemaximumeffectivemoistureoftheearlyHolocenewasachieved(Thompson
etal.1993).TheseclimaticconditionsalsomayhaveproducedexcellentbisonhabitatsandperhapsexplaintheexpansionofCodylikeprojectilepointsintothose
areas.

AftertheestablishmentofCodytechnology,therewasanonsetofamorearidenvironment(Jodryetal.1989Thompsonetal.1993).However,asGrahamand
Mead(1987)pointout,duringthistimeperiod,climaticandenvironmentalfluctuationsweresignificantlygreaterthanthoseofthelatePleistocene,orforthatmatter,
theentireHolocene.

Itisperhapsduringthisperiodofclimaticinstabilitythatlocalvariationsinprojectilepointtechnologydeveloped.ThediversificationofCodytechnologymayhave
resultedfromaninitialincreaseinhumanpopulationsduetotheexcellentgrasslandproductivity.However,astheenvironmentbecamemorearidandunstable,the
availablegrasslandsprobablywerereduced.Thisreductionofrangesizeandtheincreasedhumanpopulationmayhaveresultedinsmallerterritoriesforexploitation,
aswellaspopulationpressurefromotheroutsidegroupsrelocatingintotraditionalCodyhomelands.

InteractionswithgroupsfromoutsidethecultureareahavebeennotedthroughoutthePlainsandSouthwest.Collins(n.d.),hasidentifiedArchaicpeoplessuchas
WilsonmovingintotheSouthernPlains.Daltongroupsaswellappeartoexpandoutoftheeastalongtherivervalleys(Johnson1989).Thesametrendcanbenoted
fortheCentralRockies,whereBasinandRangeprojectilepointssuchasElkoEaredoccurredwithlatePlainslanceolatetypes(Benedict1992).Atthesametimein
Montana,BitterrootprojectilepointsfromthePlateauseemtobespreadingeastward(Bonnichsenetal.1992).

TheseeventsmaywellhaveisolatedandeffectivelyseparatedCodyculturalbands.Thereductionof

Figure38.
LatePaleoindianprojectilepoints.

 Page326

interactionwithotherCodygroupsmaybeinferredfromtheinfrequentoccurrenceofextralocalrawmaterialsatmanylateCodysites.AtLambSpringandR6,for
instance,althoughafewtoolsmadeofexoticchertswerefound,thevastmajorityoftoolstoneusedwasfromimmediatelylocalsources.

LatePaleoindian

THELATEPALEOINDIANphasesofthePlainsandSouthwestareperhapsthemostcommon,complex,andleastunderstoodofthePaleoindiancultures.Isuspectthis
reflectsthecontinuationoftrendsnotedduringtheCodyperiod:increasinghumanpopulationscausedfurtherreductioninbandterritorysizesandresultedinagreater
relianceonlocalresources,suchasplantsandothergameanimals.ThegeneraldryingtrendnotedfortheCodyperiodcontinued,anditishighlylikelythatmost
groupsretreatedtohigherelevationsortorivervalleyswherelocalenvironmentalconditionsprovidedbetterresources(Benedict1992).Bisonhuntingnodoubt
continued,butonasmallerscaleandperhapsonlyduringperiodicwetterperiods.

Concavebaselanceolateprojectilepointsofvarioustypes,suchasJimmyAllen(Mulloy1959),Fredericks,andLusk(Irwin1967),whichmayhavetheiroriginswith
MeserveandDaltontotheeast,arecommon(Figure38).Otherstemmedforms,suchasthePryorstemmedpoints,appearintheBigHornMountainsofWyoming
(Frison1992).Thus,itseemsthat,startingwiththeCodycomplex,therewasaperiodoftransitionandgreaterinteractionamongmanydifferentculturegroups.
However,thistransitionisamatterofdegree,ratherthanacompletechangeofhumanexploitivepatternsandlifestyles.

SummaryandConclusions

PALEOENVIRONMENTALSTUDIESintheCentralPlainsandsouthwesternUnitedStatessuggestmajorshiftsinthecompositionofbioticcommunitiesandhydrologicregimes
atthelatePleistocene/earlyHoloceneboundary.ThelatePleistocenearchaeologicalrecordoftheseareasconsistsprimarilyofClovisassemblages.Wenowknow
thatClovisgroups,oncethoughttobemammothspecialists,hadageneralizedforagingeconomythatutilizedawidevarietyofresources.Thispapersuggeststhat
Clovispeopleswereadapted,byvirtueoftheirbroadbasedforagingeconomy,toexploitdiverseecologicalzonesthroughoutNorthAmerica.IntheRocky
MountainsandPlains,CloviseconomicandtechnologicalstrategiesweremodifiedandprobablyevolvedintoFolsomasaresponsetochangingenvironmental
parameters.

ThoughmanyoftheanimalshuntedbyClovispeoplesbecameextinctthroughouttheRockyMountainsandPlainsregions,bisonremained.Bisonherdsizemayhave
beenregulatedbyspeciescompetitionpriortotheearlyHoloceneextinctions.Shortlythereafter,bisonoccupiedahabitatforwhichtheywereideallysuitedwithno
effectivecompetitors.Asaresult,bisonpopulationspresumablyincreased.InthepostClovisarchaeologicalrecord,bisonbecamethedominant,largeherbivoreprey
species,butaspectsofthebroadbasedeconomicsystemwereretained.

Overall,theevidencesuggestsacontinuouspopulationincreasefromClovistoFolsomtimes,apossibledecreaseduringtheoccurrenceofAgateBasin,andslow
increasesthroughouttheremainderofthePaleoindianperiod.ExtensiveoccupationanduseofthePlainsandSouthwesttookplaceonlyduringrelativelymesictimes,
whichprimarilycoincidedwiththeFolsomandCodytraditions.DuringtherestofthePaleoindianperiod,theevidenceforoccupationofthePlainsandSouthwestis
relativelymeager.

Althoughthesituationisnotclearcut,itisreasonabletopostulatethatatleasttwopointpatternsprevailedamongearlygroupsonthePlainsandintheSouthwest:
Lanceolate(Plano),andFluted(Llano),thedefinitionofwhichisbroadenedtoincludeGoshen/Plainviewprojectilepointstyles.Basedonstratigraphicplacementand
overlappingradiocarbonassays(Figure39),itislikelythatearlyintheflutedpointpatternthereweretwotraditions,distinguishedbyflutedprojectilepointsand
unflutedpoints.ThesegroupsprobablydivergedduringClovistimesorevenearlier,withClovisgivingrisetoFolsom,andtheunflutedconcavebaseGoshenpoints
technologyslowlyevolvingintoPlainviewandeventually,perhaps,St.Mary'sHallinTexas.

ThelanceolatepointpatternbeganonthePlainswithAgateBasin/HellGapforms,buteventuallywasreplacedbyCodytechnology.Thispatternismanifestonthe
PlainsneartheendofFolsomandoccurredasacotraditionwiththeflutedpointpatternuntiltheendofthePaleoindianperiod.

Duringthisperiodtheenvironmentbecameincreasinglydrier,andperhapspeoplelivedalongecotonemarginsandriverineenvironmentswherewatersourcesand
woodsweremoreplentiful.

 Page327

Figure39.
SummaryofPlains/Southwestradiocarbondates.

 Page328

Communalhuntswereonlystagedonaseasonalbasisandperhapsdependedonthenumbersofanimalsavailableonlyrarelydidsuchahuntoccur.Theoverall
subsistencestrategiesreliedonsmallergameanimals.

EarlyintheCodyphase,awetterclimaticepisodeoccurred,withanincreaseinthebisonpopulation.DuringtheinitialphaseofCodytimes,thesquarebased
projectilepointstylespreadoverawidearea,includingportionsoftheMidwestandGreatBasinandPlateau.BylateCodytimes,whenclimaticconditionsonce
againbegantodeteriorate,humansmayhavebecomemoredependentonlocallyrestrictedresources,includingplantprocessing.Alsoatthistime,Archaicpeoples
begantomoveontothePlainsandintotheSouthwestfromoutsideregions.Therefore,IwouldarguethatthehuntingandgatheringofPaleoindianpeoplesbecame
moregeographicallyrestrictedatthistime,andforallintentsandpurposes,theArchaicphaseofthePlainsandSouthwestbegan.

AcknowledgmentsandComments

Thecorpusofthispaperoriginallywaswrittenbefore1992.Ihaveattemptedtoaddrecentreferencesandadjustthemanuscriptaccordingly.Inodoubtomitted
somepapersandIapologizeforthoseoversights.Theradiocarbonassaysarepresentedhereintheiroriginalpublishedform.IhavenotattemptedtocorrectthemI
leavethattasktoothers.

IthankMargaretJodry,DeeAnnStory,andCarolynRoseforreadingthemanuscriptandofferingimportantsuggestions.IthankKarenTurnmireandRob
Bonnichsenfortheirexcellenteditingandpatience.MarciaBakryproducedthemapsandradiocarbonfigures,andVicKrantzprovidedthephotographsofthe
artifacts.BarbaraWatanabetypedtheradiocarbonchartsandcheckedtheirreferencesandthebibliography.Ialsothankmymanycolleagues,whoseworkIhave
drawnupontoproducethispaper.IacceptresponsibilityforanymisinterpretationsImayhavemade.

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TheBurnhamSiteandPleistoceneHumanOccupationsoftheSouthernPlainsoftheUnitedStates
DonG.Wyckoff

Abstract

InterdisciplinaryresearchonPaleoindianshaditsoriginontheSouthernPlains,andfor60yearsarchaeologicalsitestherehaveyieldedNorthAmerica'slongestand
mostdetailedrecordofPleistocenepeople.From11,500to10,000yearsago,theClovisFolsomPlainviewculturalsequenceatteststopeoplewhowerefrequenting
thediverseSouthernPlainssettingsandexploitingtheanimalandmineralresourcesofthisarea.Astheregion'sunequivocalfirstresidents,Clovispeopledisplay
remarkablefamiliaritywiththesettingsandresources.Suchfamiliaritysuggeststheycouldhavehadprecursorsintheregion,butonlytheLevisiteinTexasseemsto
offercluestosomeonehereimmediatelybeforeClovis.Moreproblematicalaretheflakesandimplementsfrom26,000yearolddepositsattheBurnhamsitein
northwesternOklahoma.Iftheirageandcontextualrelationshipsareverified,theBurnhamfindingswillnecessitatenewmodelsforthepeoplingoftheSouthernPlains
andNorthAmerica.

Introduction

FORMORETHAN60YEARS,SouthernPlainsarchaeologicalsiteshavehadkeyrolesindocumentingthehumanoccupationofPleistoceneNorthAmerica.In1926,fluted
spearpointsfoundwithextinctbisonremainsatnortheasternNewMexico'sFolsomsiteprovidedthefirstunequivocalproofthathumanswereinNorthAmerica
duringthelasticeage(Figgins1927Meltzer1983:3438).By1938,thecombinedeffortsofarchaeologists,geologists,andpaleontologistsatBlackwaterDraw,
NewMexico,andMiami,Texas,werefurtherverifyingthecontemporaneityofhumanswithPleistocenefaunawhilealsoprovidinghintsthattheFolsomartifactswere
nottheoldest(Antevs1936Bryan1938Cotter1938Howard1935,1936Sellards1938StockandBode1937).Theparticipationofgeologistsinstudyingthese
SouthernPlainslocationsisespeciallynoteworthy.NotonlydidtheyhelpconfirmthePleistoceneageoftheartifactbearingdeposits,buttheyalsofosteredthe
interdisciplinarystudiesofPleistocenesettingsandenvironmentsroutinelyexpectedintoday'sPaleoindianresearch.Consequently,bythemid1960s,interdisciplinary
studiesatSouthernHighPlainssiteslikeBlackwaterDraw,LubbockLake,Scharbauer,Domebo,Plainview,andMilnesandhadyieldedaremarkablerecordof
successiveancienthuntingorientedcultures,includingtheirmaterialassemblages,theirprey,andthechangingsettingsandenvironmentstowhichtheywereadapting
(Green1962Holden1974Leonhardy1966Sellards1952,1955Sellardsetal.1947Stevens1973Wendorfetal.1955Wheat1974).Thebisonhunting
FolsomculturewasnowknowntohavebeenprecededbypeoplewhohuntedmammothswiththeflutedClovisstylespearpoints.Moreover,withtheincreasing
applicationofradiocarbondating,achronologyforPlainsPaleoindiancultureswasdeveloped(Stephenson1965).SubsequentSouthernPlainsfindings(Harrisonand
Killen1978Hesteretal.1972Johnson1987aLeonhardy1966)haveelaboratedthissequenceandreviseditschronology.Plainviewbisonhuntersareknownto
havelivedhereby10,000yearsago,whereasFolsomcomponentsdatebetween10,200and10,800yrB.P.andthoseofClovisarepredominantlybetween11,000
and11,500yrB.P.(Haynes1987Haynesetal.1984,1988Johnsonetal.1982Sellardsetal.1947).

OklahomaArcheologicalSurvey,UniversityofOklahoma,Norman,Oklahoma73019

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Throughoutthe60yearsthatPaleoindiansiteshavebeenstudied,afewSouthernPlainslocationshaveyieldedcluesinterpretedtoindicatesomeonewasherebefore
Clovistimes(Alexander1982Anderson1975Cook1927CrookandHarris1957,1958Evans1930Hay1929).Despitesuchclaims,SouthernPlains
archaeologicalfindingsrepeatedlyhavesupportedtheconclusionsthatClovisartifactsaretheregion'soldestevidenceofhumanhabitationandthattheClovisFolsom
sequenceistheprincipalmanifestationofpeopleresidinghereduringthelatePleistocene.Forthesereasons,theregion'sFolsomandClovisoccupationsarereviewed
belowandarecontrastedwiththeevidencefrompurportedpreClovissites.Finally,preliminaryfindingsarepresentedfornorthwesternOklahoma'srecently
discoveredBurnhamsite,aperplexing,ancientdepositlocatedsome380kmdownstreamfromtheoriginalFolsomsite.

TheStudyArea

FORTHISREVIEW,theSouthernPlainsconsistoftheHighPlainsandtheirerodedeasternandwesternbordersthatliebetweentheCimarronwatershedonthenorthand
theRioGrandeonthesouth(Figure1).Representingnearly400,000km2ofeasternNewMexico,westernTexas,westernOklahoma,andadjacentsegmentsof
KansasandColorado,theregionhasbeendescribedthoroughlybyFenneman(1931:160),Thornbury(1965:300319),andHunt(1974).Itsclimateissubhumidto
semiaridcontinental,having50cmorlessannualprecipitation,notabledeparturesfromprecipitationmeans,quickchangesintemperature,andlargedailyandannual
temperatureranges(FinleyandGustavson1980:59).NovemberthroughMarcharerelativelyaridduetodry,coldpolarmassesmovingsouthandblockingmoistair
flowfromtheGulfofMexico(Haragan1976).MostprecipitationcomesbetweenAprilandSeptemberaseitherspringthunderstormsduringthepassingoffrontsor
asconvectionalstormsfromsummertimeheatingandlowaltitudemoisture(Haragan1970).

CentraltotheregionistheSouthernHighPlains,aseriesofslightly(1.52.0m/km)southeastsloping,poorlydrained,windswept,highplateaus(Figure1)bordered
by100to350mhighescarpments(Fenneman1931Walker1978:10).Ontheplateaus,localreliefoftenisonlyafewmetersandiscreatedbysuchwinderosion
featuresasmanyshallowdepressions(playas)andafewlargedunefields(EvansandMeade1945Reeves1966Walker1978).AlthoughincisedbytheCimarron,
Canadian,andPecosrivers,muchoftheSouthernHighPlainsdrainsintoeitherthousandsofplayasortheshallow(lessthan15m)headwatersoftheNorth
Canadian,Washita,Red,Brazos,andColorado(Figure1).SomestreamcoursesandplayasprobablyoriginatedfromsaltdissolutionintheunderlyingPermian
bedrock(GustavsonandFinley1985).Nativevegetationispredominantlyshortgrasses,bunchgrasses,sage,yucca,andmesquite.Occasionalcottonwoodsand
willowsgrowalongstreams,whereasjuniperandscruboakoccuralongcanyonwallsandtheescarpments.Historically,bisonwasthemostimportantgame.The
SouthernHighPlainsarerichinknappablestone,whichwashighlyfavoredbyprehistoricpeople.ExtensiveaboriginalquarriesforAlibatesagatizeddolomiteoccur
alongtheCanadianRiver(Shaeffer1958),andbedrockoutcropsofchertsandjaspersarecommonelsewherealongsoutheastdrainingcanyonsandeastern
escarpments(HollidayandWelty1981).Also,theOgallalaFormation,whichcapsmuchoftheHighPlains,containsRockyMountainsout,rashgravelswithclastsof
quartzite,chert,andjasper(HollidayandWelty1981).

Thestudyarea'seasternborderextendsfromtheArkansasRiver's''GreatBend"southtotheeasternextentoftheEdwardsPlateau(Figure1).Muchofthenorthern
halfofthisborderisrollingplains(interruptedbytheWichitaMountains),butthesouthernhalfbecomesmoreruggedwheretheCretaceouslimestoneEdwards
Plateauhaserodedintoeastdippingplateauremnants,mesas,deepvalleys,andcanyons(Fenneman1931:5459).Thiseasternborderisthewettestpartofthe
SouthernPlainslusherhabitatsoccurasonemovessouthandeast.Inthenorthernhalf,mixedgrassesflourishonrollinguplands,whereascottonwood,elm,
hackberry,andsomewalnutbordersoutheastflowingstreams(BlairandHubbell1938:437439).Inthesouthernhalf,scruboak,cedar,andchaparraloccupy
slopes,whilemixedgrassesgrowluxuriouslyontheuplands(Fenneman1931:54).Asvalleyswidenandhavedeepersoilstothesoutheast,deciduousforestbecome
moreprevalent(Fenneman1931:54).Bison,deer,turkey,andmanysmallanimalswereimportantgametoNativeAmericanresidentsofthiseasternborder.Highly
knappablechertsandflintsoccurasresidualandstreamgravelsthroughoutmostofthiseasternborder(Banks1984HollidayandWelty1981Tunnell1978).

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Figure1.
LocationandgeomorphicsubdivisionsoftheSouthernPlainsstudyarea.

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TheSouthernPlains'westernbordervariesfromerodedTertiaryoutwashoccasionallybrokenbyhogbacks(ofDakotasandstoneandchertbearingNiobrara
limestone)insouthernColoradotovolcanicaccumulations,mesas,anddeeplycutplateausinnorthernNewMexicotothelong,steeplysidedtroughofthePecos
valleyinthesouth(Fenneman1931:4749).BetweenthePecosandtheSouthernHighPlainsoccurthevalleybluffs,aneastslopingalluviummantledplain,andthe
LlanoEstacado'sescarpment(Fenneman1931:4749).CanyonsbecomeprevalentasthePecosflowssoutheastandseparatestheStocktonandEdwardsplateaus
(Figure1).Thiswesternborderisthemostdesertlikepartofthestudyarea.Exceptafterheavyrains,moststreamsaretypicallydry.Sparsecottonwoodsand
willowsgrowwhereseepsandundergroundwaterarenottoosaline.Bunchgrass,sage,andmesquitearedominantinuplandsettings.Here,antelopeandbison
grazedwhenconditionswerefavorable.Inmoreruggedsettings,muledeerandturkeymightbefound.Outwashgravelsarecommonandcontainknappablecherts,
jaspers,andquartzitessomebedrockoutcropsofknappablestonemayoccuralongtheSouthernHighPlainswesternescarpment(Banks1984:7072Jelinek
1967:1617Shelley1984).

Withoutquestion,thePleistoceneSouthernPlainslookeddifferentthantheydotoday.Ourknowledgeofthelusher,cooler,andmoremoistsettingsandenvironments
inwhichtheearliesthumaninhabitantslivedcomesfromthecombinedeffortsofgeologists,soilsscientists,palynologists,andzoologists,mostofwhomwereworking
inconjunctionwitharchaeologicalprojects.

PleistoceneHumanOccupationsoftheSouthernPlains

THEHUMANOCCUPATIONofthePleistoceneSouthernPlainstraditionallyisperceived(Sellards1952Stephenson1965Wendel1978:188195Wormington1957)asa
sequenceofsocietieswhichmainlyhuntedlargegameandwhicharedistinguishedfromoneanotherbytheirprincipalpreyandbystylisticchangesintheirbifacially
flakedspearpoints.ThissequencehasClovisasitsearliestmanifestation,followedbyFolsom,PlainvieworAgateBasin,andaseriesofotherunflutedlanceolate
projectiles.GiventheincreasingevidencefordramaticenvironmentalchangeduringthePleistoceneHolocenetransition(Holliday1985a,1985b,1985cHollidayet
al.1983Johnson1987aWendorfandHester1975),thechangesintheculturalrecordseemtoosubtle.Bonnichsenetal.(1987:420)suggestthattheproliferationof
sophisticatedprojectilestylesduringthisperiodrepresentsdifferenthuntingforagingsocietiesrespondingtorapidenvironmentalchangeanddecliningpopulationsof
largeanimalsbyintensifyingtheirhuntingofbiggame.Incontrast,Bamforth(1988)believestheverymodestmaterialculturechangesmaskimportantshiftsinthe
organizationalcomplexityofthesehuntingsocieties.Withthesealternativeexplanatorymodelsinmind,letusbrieflyreviewthePleistocenerecordofhuman
occupation.

FolsomOccupationsandAdaptations

FOLSOMMATERIALSAREwellrepresentedat14SouthernPlainslocations(Figure2):Folsom,BlackwaterDraw,Elida,LubbockLake,Lipscomb,LakeTheo,Adair
Steadman,Scharbauer,ShiftingSand,HornShelter,BonfireShelter,Beckner,Winters,andCedarCreek(Cook1927Cotter1938DibbleandLorrain1968
Figgins1927HarrisonandKillen1978Hester1962Hesteretal.1972Hofman1991HofmanandWyckoff1987Hofmanetal.1990Howard1935Johnson
1987aRedder1985Schultz1943Sellards1952Tunnell1977Warnica1961Wendorfetal.1955).Inaddition,manyFolsompointsarereportedassurface
findsthroughouttheregion(Broilo1971Hofman1988PolyakandWilliams1986).Forthisreview,FolsomandMidlandassemblagesareviewedasoneandthe
same.FolsomandthecomparablebutunflutedMidlandpointshaveoverlappingdistributions,similarflaketoolassemblages,andoftenoccurtogetherinthesame
contexts(Hofman1988Hofmanetal.1990Wendorfetal.1955).MidlandpointsprobablyarebutoneproductofFolsomknapperswhowereatcriticalstages
(needingtoretoolweaponsbutlimitedbyapaucityoffavoredstone)inseasonalorannualcyclesofmovement(Hofman1991).

Atleast20radiocarbondatesarereportedforFolsomcontextsatfourSouthernPlainssites:Folsom(11dates:sixoncharcoal,fiveonbone),BlackwaterDraw
(threedatesoncharcoal),BonfireShelter(threeoncharcoal),andLakeTheo(twoonbone)(HarrisonandKillen1978Haynesetal.1984,1988Holliday1987).
Thelesscontroversialcharcoaldatesclusterbetween10,200and10,800yearsago.These600years

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Figure2.
LocationsofPaleoindianandpotentiallyearliersitesdiscussedfortheSouthernPlains.

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correspondwithmild,somewhatmoistconditionsrecognizedfrompaleoenvironmentalfindingsatBlackwaterDrawandLubbockLake(Hollidayetal.1985Johnson
1987cJohnsonandHolliday1987aWendorfandHester1975).Wintersapparentlyweremildbutwithsomefreezes,whereassummerswerewarmerthaninClovis
times.AtBlackwaterDraw,springsstoppedandthenresumedflow,whileatYellowhouseDraw(LubbockLake)ashallowstreamlinkedclearpoolsborderedwith
scatteredhackberrytrees.TheformerparklandsettingaroundYellowhouseDrawnowwaspredominantlyopengrasslands(Johnson1987c:92).Some190kmtothe
south,however,FolsommaterialswereincorporatedintodunedepositsattheScharbauersite(WendorfandHester1975:267Wendorfetal.1955).Thesedunes
attesttolocalaridity.

Twooftheregion'sFolsomsiteshaveyieldedsomeofthefewhumanremainsknownforPleistoceneNorthAmerica.Portionsofalongheadedskullandafewother
fragmentedbonesofafemaleskeletonwererecoveredattheScharbauersiteandarethought(Wendorfetal.1955)tobecontemporaneouswiththeFolsom
Midlandartifactsfoundthere.Humanteethalsoarerecentlyreported(Hofmanetal.1990)fortheShiftingSandssite.

Theregion'sreportedFolsomsitescompriseanarrayofactivitysituations.Folsom,Lipscomb,BonfireShelter,BlackwaterDraw,andLubbockLakearebisonkills,
whereasAdairSteadman,Elida,Scharbauer,ShiftingSands,HornShelter,Winters,andperhapsBecknerappeartobevariouskindsofencampments.Althoughnot
yetfullyreported,AdairSteadmanmaybeamajor(oroftenfrequented)encampmentwherelocallyavailable,highqualityflintwascollectedandknappedintocores,
preforms,andavarietyoffinishedtools(Tunnell1977).Incontrast,sitessuchasElida,Scharbauer,andShiftingSandsyieldedhighproportionsofrecycled
hunting/butcheringtoolsandverysmallunutilizedflakesofEdwardschert(Hester1962Hofmanetal.1990Warnica1961Wendorfetal.1955).Theirlackofinitial
knappingdebris,theirsettingsnearsmallinterdunalponds,andtheiroccasionaltracesofbisonbonesandhearthssupporttheconclusionthatthesesiteswere
temporarycamps,perhapsnearbisonkills.WintersandBecknermaybesimilarsituations,butsparsecluesprecludemuchinterpretation(HofmanandWyckoff
1987).ThatFolsompeoplefrequentednaturaloverhangsisevidencedbytheStrata5AfindingsattheHornShelter(Redder1985).

Unquestionably,Folsompeoplewereproficientbisonhunters.Theykilled23BisonantiquusatFolsom,morethan50atLipscomb,from30to40insixdifferent
episodesatBlackwaterDraw,andsomeofthe120animalsrepresentedinBoneBed2atBonfireShelter(DibbleandLorrain1968:84Hesteretal.1972:170
Hofmanetal.1988Sellards1952:49).AtLubbockLake,atleastthreebisonwerekilledandprocessedinthatlocation'sbeststudiedFolsomcomponent(Johnson
1987b:124126).Severalstrategieswereemployedwhenhuntingbison.FolsompeoplesdroveanimalsoveracliffatBonfireShelterandprobablyweretrapping
herdsatarroyoheadsatFolsom,LakeTheo,andLipscomb.AtBlackwaterDrawandLubbockLake,twoorthreeanimalswerebeingkilledatatimewhenthey
wereatmarshysettingsalongshallowponds.TheLubbockLakecarcasseswereprocessedincompletelywithnospecialeffortspenttoderivemarrowfrom
appropriateelementsortofullyuseallbonessuitablefortoolmanufacture(Johnson1987b:124).ThelimitedseasonalitydatafromtheLubbockLakesiteindicates
thebisonwerekilledinearlyspringorfall(Johnson1987b:152).LimitedbutcheringalsoseemsevidentattheLipscombbisonkill,butthatmaybeduetotheevent
occurringwhenthefat,bonemarrow,andhideswerenotinprimecondition(Hofmanetal.1988).ThelargeherdatLipscombprobablywaskilledinlatesummeror
earlyfall(Hofmanetal.1988).NoseasoncouldbefirmlyestablishedfortheBonfireShelterbisonboneaccumulationhowever,theseremainswerebutchered
thoroughlybycuttinganimalsintolargesegmentsthatwerethensortedandprocessedfurther,resultinginconcentrationsofsimilarelements(DibbleandLorrain
1968:80108).

Differencesinsizeandassemblagecontentarcconsideredevidencethatnonbisonkillsitesareeithermultipleactivityorlimitedactivitycamps(Bamforth1988).The
lattertendtobeneartemporarysourcesofwater,whereasthelarger,multipleactivitycampsarenearpermanentwater(Bamforth1988:168182).Multipleactivity
campsandlargebisonkillsmayhaveresultedfromFolsombandsperiodicallyjoiningforcesforcommunalhunts.Suchsocialaggregationappearsmoreevidentduring
FolsomtimesthanduringeithertheearlierClovisorthesucceedinglatePaleoindianoccupations(Bamforth1988).

CluestoFolsombandmovementswouldseemobtainablefromstudiesofFolsomandMidlandpointsfromwesternOklahoma(Hofman1991).Despitethenearby
availabilityofsuchknappablematerialsas

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TecovasjasperandAlibatesagatizeddolomite,morethan70percentoftheOklahomaFolsomMidlandpointsareofWestTexasEdwardschertthesespecimens
displayanotablerangeofsize,shape,andreuse(Hofman1988).Usingthesefindingsinamodelthatcouplesprojectilerefurbishingwithnumbersofbison
kill/butcheringeventsandtheseasonsoftheseevents,Hofman(1991)offerssomeinitialperspectivesonthedirection,frequency,andmagnitudeofFolsom
movements.FolsomhuntersinwesternOklahomaclearlywerecomingfromthesouthorsouthwest.

MuchiswrittenaboutthemanufactureofflutedFolsompoints(e.g.,Gryba1988Sollberger1985Tunnell1977),butlittleispublishedonthetechnologiesor
strategiesbehindtheproductionanduseofthevariousotherstonetoolsknownfromSouthernPlainsFolsomassemblages.Largebifacialcoresarebelievedintegralto
themanufactureofmostFolsomchippedstonetools(Hofman1988StanfordandBroilo1981).Theseincludediversekindsofknivesandscrapersmadefrom
flakes,aswellasdelicatemultispurredgravers,possiblewedges,andunshapedbututilizedflakes(Hester1962Hesteretal.1972JohnsonandHolliday
1987b:104107).Besidesbutcheringtoolsmadeexpedientlyfrombisonbone,eyedneedles,diskornaments,flakers,andpossiblefleshersweremadefrombone
(BlaineandWendorf1972Hesteretal.1972).

AlthoughahallmarkofPaleoindiancultures,FolsomoccupationsontheSouthernPlainsstillraisenumerousquestions.Thefullrangeoftheirhuntingforagingpractices
isunknown.Muchremainstobelearnedaboutthepatternandseasonalityofbandmovementsandabouttheirmanufactureanduseoftoolsotherthanprojectiles.
PerhapsmostintriguingarequestionsofFolsomoriginsandtheirdescendants.AretheoccasionalFolsompointsthatarefoundwithPlainviewpointsatBonfire
ShelterandLakeTheohintsofculturaltiesratherthanseparateoccupations?AndwhereontheSouthernPlainsisthereevidenceforaculturetransitionalbetween
FolsomandtheearlierClovisculture?

ClovisOccupationsontheSouthernPlains

CLOVISCOMPONENTSAREreportedforeightSouthernPlainssites(Figure2):Miami,McLean,BlackwaterDraw,LubbockLake,Domebo,YellowHawk,Levi,and
Lewisville(Alexander1963,1978,1982BryanandRay1938CrookandHarris1957,1962Hesteretal.1972Johnson1987aLeonhardy1966Mallouf1989
Sellards1938,1952:1746Stanford1983).Inaddition,numerousClovispointsurfacefindsaredocumented(Meltzer1987)fromtheTexasportionofthestudy
area.

RadiocarbondatesarereportedforCloviscontextsattheDomebosite(29dates:twoonwood,oneonlignite,oneonsoil,threeonbone,and22acceleratordates
onboneprotein),BlackwaterDraw(threeonplantmaterials),LubbockLake(twoonwood),Levi(oneonshellandoneonhackberryseeds),andLewisville(three
onlignite)(Alexander1963,1978CrookandHarris1962Haynesetal.1984:Table2JohnsonandHolliday1987c:Table1.2Leonhardy1966:2425Staffordet
al.1987).TheperiodofClovisoccupationof11,000to11,500yrB.P.isindicatedbymostresultsobtainedfromwoodandplantmaterialorreliableboneproteins
(Haynes1982:Figure1,1987:Figure1Staffordetal.1987).These500yearscoincidewithaperiodofmoist,coolsummersandmild,apparentlyfrostfreewinters
ascertainedfromfaunal,botanical,andsedimentologicalfindingsattheLubbockLake,BlackwaterDraw,andDomebosites(Hesteretal.1972Johnson1987a
Leonhardy1966WendorfandHester1975).Thisequitableclimatesupportedverdantgrasslandsinuplandsettingsandparklandtoclosedgalleriaforestsalong
streamsovertheSouthernPlains.

PerhapsmoststrikingintheselushlatePleistocenesettingsisthemenagerieofwildlife.Mammoths,camels,horses,bison,peccaries,llamas,bears,andgiant
armadillosarebutafewoftheanimalsidentifiedinClovisagecontextsatLubbockLakeandBlackwaterDraw.Giventhisarrayofgame,didClovispeoplereally
focustheirhuntingonmammoths?AttheMiami,Domebo,LubbockLake,BlackwaterDraw,andtheMcLeansites,mammothsweretheprincipallargeanimals
huntedbyClovispeople.ButaClovisbisonkillwasuncoveredatBlackwaterDrawwheresevenBisonantiquusapparentlywereambushedwhiletheywereata
pond(Hesteretal.1972:4647,178).AtLubbockLake,bonesofhorse,bison,bear,armadillo,andturtlemaybeevidenceofotherClovisprey(Johnson1987b:
121123).Eighteenboxturtleshellsstackednearahearthprobablyattesttoaneasilycollected,favoredfood(Johnson1987b).TheClovishearth(#1)atLewisville
alsoyieldedterrapinremains,alongwiththeburnedbonesofdeer,horse,bird,andwolf,burnedmusselshell,andburnedhackberryseeds(CrookandHarris
1957:2428).AttheLevishelter,theCloviszone(II)yieldedbonesofbison,andjuvenile

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mammothsarerepresented,whereasBlackwaterDrawhasoccurrencesofone,two,andfouranimalsindifferentkills(Hesteretal.1972:170Johnson1987b:121).
SinglemammothsarereportedattheDomebo,Miami,andMcLeansites(BryanandRay1938Leonhardy1966Sellards1938).TheClovishuntingstrategyatmost
locationswastoattacktheanimalswhiletheywereatponds,sloughs,ormarshes.Perhapsmobilitywasslowedbymudandwater.AtDomebo,theenclosingwalls
ofanarroyoalsomayhavehinderedtheanimal(Leonhardy1966).Clovispointsfoundinsitutherewereneararticulatedanddisarticulatedvertebrae.Iftheyactually
hadbeeninthebones,thetrajectoriesofthesepointsmighthaveindicatedwhethersomehunterswereonthearroyobankabovethevictim.Mammothswere
butcheredwheretheyfellbycuttingthemeatfromthebones,takingitelsewhere,andleavingapartiallydisarticulatedpileofbones(Hesteretal.1972:178).Evidence
hasyettobefoundthatSouthernPlainsClovishuntersusedmammothbonestocachemeatinwintertime(Frison1982).AtLubbockLake,someboneswere
smashedtoobtainmarrowortomaketoolsfromthickwalledsegments(Johnson1987b:123).

GameprocessingandcampingatLubbockLakeoccurredonfluvialbarsalongthestreambed(Johnson1987b:121123).AtBlackwaterDraw,openencampments
werewestandnorthwest(nottheprevailingwinddirections)ofpondswheregamewastaken(Hesteretal.1972:178),butlittlewaslearnedhereaboutcamplayout
becausesheetwashofthinsoilserodedandmixedthesetting.AtLewisville,apparenthearthsarescatteredandatdifferentdepths,suggestingrepeateduseofthe
location(CrookandHarris1957:Figure3).NohabitationfeaturesorpatterneddistributionsoftoolsanddebriswereobservedfortheLeviCloviscomponent
(Alexander1963).AttheYellowHawksite,aworkshopofasingleClovisknapperseemsuniquelypreservedlargeEdwardschertflakesattesttodebrisdiscarded
onthespotandnotnearotherhabitationfeatures(Mallouf1989).

ClovisresidentsoftheSouthernPlainsmostlikelylivedandmovedinpatternedways.Bamforth(1988:166183)believestheavailableevidencesupportsthe
conclusionsthatClovissocietywasnotcomplexlyorganizedandthatmultipleactivity,largeencampmentsarelacking.Whilemostdetailstopatternedmobilityremain
tobeascertained,theprevalenceofcentralTexaschertattheDomebomammothkill(Leonhardy1966)isacluetomovementortradefromthesouth.Incontrast,
ClovismaterialsatBlackwaterDrawarelargelyAlibatesagatizeddolomite,butEdwardschertandTecovasjasperarewellrepresented.Giventhedifferentsources
oftheserawmaterials,arefurbishingmodelsuchasHofman(1988)proposesforFolsomcouldbeusedtostudylithicartifactsfromdiversekindsofClovissitesand
delineatedirectionsofmovement.ThesefindingsincombinationwithanydataontheseasonalityofsitesoccupiedshouldfurtherourunderstandingofClovislanduse
ontheSouthernPlains.

Muchremainstobelearnedaboutthemanufacture,use,andformalvariationofSouthernPlainsClovistoolkits.TheYellowHawksite(Mallouf1989)offersafirst
glimpseofpreliminaryknapping,corepreparation,anddiscard.AswithFolsom,largebifacecoresseemtheprincipalinitialproduct.Cachesofunfinishedorfinished
Clovisbifacesarenotyetreportedfortheregion,butasouthwesternOklahomacacheoflargebladeflakesofEdwardschertmaybeofClovisorigin(Hammett
1970).ThebestrepresentativeassemblageisdescribedforBlackwaterDraw(Hesteretal.1972:92118)andincludessmallandlargeClovispoints,largeblade
scrapersandknives,endandsidescrapersmadefromotherflakeforms,flakeknives,burins,occasionalgravers,choppers,grindingstones,boneforeshafts,bone
expediencytools,andshellscrapers.

AsmanifestontheSouthernPlains,theClovisculturerepresentsthematerialremainsofpeoplewhoconfidentlyfrequentedtheregion'svariedsettingsandwerevery
knowledgeableofitsmineralandanimalresources.Thoughperhapsnotnumerous,thesepeoplearewellrepresentedbyartifactsdistributedthroughouttheregion.If
ClovispeopleweretheSouthernPlains'firsthumaninhabitants,theyneededlittletimetofamiliarizethemselveswiththeregionandtobecomeaviablecomponentin
theregion'slatePleistoceneecologicalsystem.

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PreClovisOccupations:WasAnybodyOutThere?

SINCETHEORIGINALFolsomdiscovery,afewSouthernPlainslocationshavebeencitedsporadicallyasindicatingthepresenceofpeoplelongbeforeClovistimes.Once
theirstratigraphy,artifacts,andcontextualintegritywerescrutinizedbytrainedscholars,mostoftheselocationswerediscountedanddismissed.Yetsomecontinueto
recurinthinkingabouttheantiquityofpeopleintheNewWorld.Forthisreason,themostnotedcasesarereviewedbrieflybelow.

Lewisville,Texas

FORNEARLY30YEARS,controversyragedandsimmeredregardinghumanartifacts,habitationfeatures,Pleistocenefauna,andradiocarbondatesfortheLewisvillesitein
northcentralTexas(Figure2).Here,21burnedareasinterpretedashearthswerefounderodingfromasecondterraceoftheTrinityRiver(CrookandHarris1957,
1958).InandnearHearth#1occurredaClovispoint,aflakescraper,andthreeflakes,whereasacobblehammerstoneandacobblechopperwerenearother
hearthsandPleistoceneanimals.Theselatterarerepresentedbybones(oftenburned)ofhorse,bison,camel,landtortoise,terrapin,wolf,whitetaileddeer,cottontail
rabbit,andswamprabbit.Thekindsofanimalsseemedcongruentwiththeterrace'sgeologicageandthepresenceofClovispeople,buteveryonewasastounded
whencharcoalsamplesfromhearthswereradiocarbondatedatmorethan36,000yrB.P.(CrookandHarris1957,1962).

SincethesedatesarethreetimesolderthantheacceptedageforClovis,thesitewasarguedtobebadlydisturbed,therecoveredClovispointarecentplant,and/or
the"hearths"tobenaturallyburnedPleistocenetreesorwoodratnests.Thesealternativescouldnotberesolvedbecausethesitewasfloodedbyareservoir.

In1980,droughtcausedthelakeleveltolower,thusexposingmorehearthlikefeaturesandaffordingachancetoreinvestigate.Limitedexcavationsrevealedthatthe
burnedareasareofhumanoriginandprobablyofClovisaffiliation(Stanford1983:70).Animportantdiscoverywasthatcarbonizedmaterialfromhearthswasoften
trulyancientlignite.Sothedateswereaccuratebutobviouslynotrelevanttopeopleburningthatmaterialsome11,000yearsago(Stanford1983).

CoopertonMammothSite,Oklahoma

IN1961,WHILETHELewisvillefindsanddatesweredrawingattention,erosionexposedaMammuthuscolumbiskullinsouthwestOklahoma'sWichitaMountains.
CalledtheCoopertonsite(Figure2),thelocationwasinvestigatedbyarchaeologistsfromtheMuseumoftheGreatPlains.Theyuncoveredthedisarticulated,partially
piledbonesofasingleimmaturemalemammothburiedinfluvialsandsslightlymorethanameterbelowthesurface(Anderson1975).Somebonesdisplayedgreen
fracturebreaksandcrushing,andalargegranitecobblewasfoundlyingonsmashedbones.Thesefindings,plusthestackedappearanceofsomebonesandthe
nearbyoccurrenceofsomecobblespossiblyusedashammerstones,ledtotheconclusiontheboneshadbeenbrokenandarrangedbyhumans(Anderson1975:168
172).Samplesofboneandteethweresubmittedforradiocarbondatingthethreeresultsrangefrom17,500to20,400yrB.P.(Anderson1975:156).

TheCoopertonfindisintriguing.Assumingthedatedbonesandtoothhaven'tundergonediagenesis,thuschemicallyaffectingtheirreliabilityfordating(i.e.,Staffordet
al.1987),thedatesaresubstantiallyolderthanClovis.Whilenochippedstoneflakesortoolswerefoundamongthebones,thepresenceoffistsizedandlarger
cobblesandtheircloseassociationwithbrokenbonesinasandystratumatteststoprocessesotherthanthestreamflowwhichdepositedthestratum.Ifthedatesdo
indicatetheelephant'sage,dotheyalsoindicatewhenpeopleactuallyworkedthebone?Evenifthebonebreakagewasbyhumansratherthannaturalprocesses,
perhapstheskeletonwasexposed9,000to10,000yearslaterandusablebonewasthenquarriedbysomePaleoindianhunter.

LeviShelter,Texas

THE19591960EXCAVATIONSatthiswestcentralTexassite(Figure2)recoveredafewartifactsfromastratumbelowthosecontainingthealreadynotedPlainviewand
Cloviscomponents.ZoneI(12mbelowthesurface)wasbrieflytestedandyieldedachopper(orbifacecore),threetoolsmadefrompercussionflakes,andafew
bonesofdirewolf,tapir,bison,deer,andseveralsmallmammals(Alexander1963).Testedfurtherin1974and1977,LeviZoneIisapartiallyeroded,complex
seriesof"carbonateconsolidatedculturaldepositscappedinplacesbyavertical,laminatedtravertineflow"(Alexander1982:144).

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HackberryseedsandcollagenfrombonesinZoneIwereradiocarbondatedrespectivelyataround12,800and10,800yrB.P.(Alexander1982).Sofar,workers
haverecoveredtwopointedbonetools,13chippedstonetools,and81flakes.Thelithicitemsincludeacoupleofbifacecoresorchoppersandutilizedflakes.

Dependingonconfirmationofitspre12,000yrB.P.age,LeviZoneIpotentiallycomprisesthebestevidencewehaveforhumansresidingontheSouthernPlains
beforeClovis.ThesignificanceattributabletothissiteawaitsfurtherdatingandfullpublicationoftheinternalstratigraphyofZoneI,thelocationsofitsdatedsamples,
andthedistributionofthoroughlydescribedartifactsandrefuse.

BonfireShelter,Texas

THE1963AND1964excavationsatthisoldestandsouthernmost(Figure2)bisonjumpincludedbrieftestingofabonebed(#1)belowthe10,200yearoldonewhere
FolsomandPlainviewpointsoccurred(DibbleandLorrain1968).Thislowestbedyieldedremainsofmammoth,horse,andcamel,butnoartifactswerefound.
Between1982and1984,renewedtestingwasundertakenonBoneBed#1torecovermorefaunalremains,toseewhetherculturalmaterialswereassociated,andto
recovermaterialsuitableforradiocarbondating(Bement1986).ThisrecentworkconfirmedandrefinedthestratigraphyofBoneBed#1itactuallyconsistsofseven
differentbonedeposits,oneofwhichyieldedcharcoalflecksdatedat12,460490yrB.P.(AA344Bement1986:69).Theanimalsidentified(Bement1986:11
18)forthesedepositsincludefox,mammoth,bison(B.antiquus),horse(Equusfrancisci),camel(Camelopshesternus),andanextinctsmallantelope
(Capromeryxsp.).Nochippedstonetoolsorflakeswererecovered,butbrokenbonesclusteredaroundlargelimestonespalls,severalwornbrokenbones
suggestiveofexpediencytools,andbatteringandcuttingmarksonsomebonesarecited(Bement1986:6164)ascircumstantialevidencethatthesepreFolsombone
depositsresultedatleastpartiallyfromhumanactivities.

ThecaseforpeoplebeingresponsibleforsomeoftheBoneBed#1depositsleavesonewithnaggingdoubt.Thekindsofanimalsandthesingleradiocarbondate
seementirelyreasonableforthesedeposits.Clearly,asBement(1986:62)recognizes,carnivoresactivelyworkedbonesinthesedeposits,butthelackofstonetools
orresharpeningflakescombinedwiththefewmarksattributabletohumanbutcheringdon'tseemtototalenoughevidencetointerprethumanprocessesasresponsible.
IfthepotentiallycontemporaneousLeviZoneIdepositsaredemonstratinganything,theyareshowingusthatpeopleweremaking,using,anddiscardingchippedstone
materialsby12,500yearsago.

TheBurnhamSite,Oklahoma:APreliminaryReport

ABOUT380KMDOWNtheCimarronwatershedfromtheFolsomsite,theaccidentaluncoveringofPleistocenesedimentshasledtoapuzzlingfindofartifactsseemingly
associatedwithalongextinctformoflargehornedbison.Namedafterthelandowner,theBurnhamsitewastestedbrieflyinOctober1986andSeptember1988.
Exceptforpartialsortingofmaterialrecoveredduringwaterscreening,preliminaryexaminationofrecoveredbonesandartifacts,andinitialdatingofdeposits,detailed
studyofthissiteanditscontentshasyettobegin.Giventhequestionsthathavearisenalready,muchmorefieldworkmustbedone.

TheBurnhamsiteis2kmsouthoftheRedHills(Figure1),erodedHighPlainsremnantsconsistingofeasttrendingridgesandmesaswithsouthfacingescarpments
cappedwithTertiaryoutwash(theOgallalaFormation)fromtheRockyMountains(Fay1965Fenneman1931:2830).Sixkmssouthofthesiteisamajorsalt
deposit(theBigSaltPlain)alongtheCimarronRiver.PermiansandstonesandshalesunderlietheRedHillsandformaneroded,southslopingsurfaceonwhich
Pleistocenelakesandstreamshaveleftdeposits(Miller1975Myers1959Stephens1960TaylorandHibbard1955).TheBurnhamsiteconsistsofthree
Pleistocenefluvialdepositswithin75mofeachother,uncoveredduringthe1986constructionofafarmpond.

LargebonesobservedinthesesedimentspromptedacalltotheOklahomaArcheologicalSurvey,andourinitialvisitresultedinthediscoveryofapartiallydamaged,
largehornedbisonskull.InOctober1986,sixdayswerespentrecoveringthisskullandtestingtheimmediatelyadjacentPleistocenesedimentsfortheirpotentialto
yieldinformationontheirage,origin,environments,andnearbysettings.Duringsubsequentsortingofwaterscreeneddebris,chertflakesofundoubtedhumanorigin
werefound,particularlyfromsedimentsnearthebisonskull.InSeptember1988,14dayswerespentfurthertestingthedepositstosee

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ifmorebisonboneswerepresent,tolearnifmoreflakesortoolswereassociated,andtodocumentbetterthestratigraphyandcontextofthisfind.

Allexcavationswereinmetersquaresoftwogrids(oneofeachsideofthepond)whicharemappedrelativetoadatumestablishedontheundisturbedknolleast
southeastofthepond(Figure3).Allexcavationsweredoneinarbitrary10cmlevels,thedepthsofwhichwererecordedrelativetothedatumelevation.All
excavatedfillwaswashedthrough2mmmeshhardwarecloth,andrecovereddebriswasbaggedaccordingtogrid,square,level,depthoflevel,date,andnamesof
excavators.Everyeffortwasmadetouncoverbones,flakes,andtoolsinsitusotheycouldbepieceplottedandtheirdepths(relativetodatum)recorded.
Stratigraphicprofileswererecordedalongnorthsouthandeastwestwallsbetweensquares.

TheWesternExposures

TWOFLUVIALDEPOSITSoccuronthepond'swestside.Thenorthernmostdeposit,calledtheNorthwestExposure,isonaneastprojectingpoint(seeNWGridinFigure
3)whereanorthwestsoutheastorientedremnantofanaggradedchanneliscompletelyuncovered.Thechannelfillisagrayloamyfinesandthatisatleast80cmin
maximumthicknessandcontainsthousandsofaquaticsnailsandoccasionalbones.Theselatterincludeelementsfromasyetunspeciatedturtle,bison,horse,and
proboscidean(anexfoliatedtusksegmentinitiallywasvisiblehere).Nogravelwasexposedinthisdeposit.

TheNorthwestExposurewastestedbya1by6mtrench(NWGridinFigure3)inSeptember1988.Nearly2cubicmetersofchannelfillwereexcavatedand
waterscreened.Onlythesouthernmostthreesquaresweretakentothechannel'sbottom:arelativelysmoothcontactwithanunderlyingred,softfaciesoftheMarlow
(Permian)sandstone.Thisbottomisatelevation96.5(relativetodatum).Alarge,triangularboulderofwaterworndolomitecaprock(fromtheRedHillsescarpment)
wasfoundrestingonthechannelbottom,andpiecesofthickwalledboneandoccasionalturtleshellwerefoundaroundit.Otherboneandturtleshellfragmentswere
recoveredfromlevelsofothersquares.Allboneislessthan15cminmaximumdimensionanddisplaysfacesandedgesroundedandsmoothedbywaterbornesand.
Severalcharcoalfragmentsweremappedandrecovered,butnonehavebeenradiocarbondated.Nochippedstonetoolsorflakeswereobservedinthefield,andthe
waterscreeneddebrishasnotbeensorted.

Thesecondfluvialdepositonthepond'swestsideisdesignatedtheSouthwestExposureandis20msouthoftheNWGrid.Thisseconddepositisatleast

Figure3.
ContourandexcavatedgridmapfortheBurnhamsite(34Wo73),WoodsCounty,Oklahoma.

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13mincrosssection(northsouth),is40to60cmthick,andhasitsbaseatelevation97.4(relativetodatum).Fivemofsoilpotentiallyoverlicthisexposure.The
depositconsistsofagraybrownloamyfinesandthatcontainsfewaquaticsnailsandrarebisonbones.Theseareeithercompleteoronlyslightlybrokenanddisplay
littlestreaminduceddamageorabrasion.Nearitssouthernedgethisdeposithasathinlensofpebblesandcobbles.Noartifactshavebeenobservederodingfrom
anyofthisdeposit.Twocharcoalfragmentswerecollectedwithin10cmofitsbottom,butnonehavebeenradiocarbondated.

Withthelimiteddataathand,theoriginsandthecontemporaneityofthesetwodepositsareunknown.Giventheirdifferentappearancesandchannelelevations,they
maywellbeofdifferentages.Acceleratordatingofthecharcoalfragmentsfromeachundoubtedlywouldclarifytheirtemporalrelationships.Extensivebackhoe
trenchingandstratigraphicprofilestudywouldhelpdeterminetheirorigins.

TheEasternExposure

MOSTATTENTIONHAScenteredonthepond'seastside.Here,from1to2.5mofsoilwereremovedandaonceverticalbankmadeintoa60degreeslope,exposinga
grayloamysandchannelfillthatcontrastsstarklywiththeredPermiansandstone(Figure4).Thisalluvialdepositisatleast10mwideand2mthick.Itsbaseis
deeperthanelevation95.8(relativetodatum),butexcavationshavenotclearlypenetratedthedeposit'sfloororfull):exposedacrosssection.Arecentlyerodedgully
(farrightofFigure4)showsthegrayalluviumextendsatleast5meastofthegradedslope.Atelevation98.8(relativetodatum),a10to15cmthicklayerof
calicheisvisibleonthenorthside(Figure4),anditappearstoextendoverthenorthernthirdoftheaggradeddeposit.Oneveryfriablebisonbonewasobserved
erodingfromthiscalichelayer.Abovethecalichetheprofileisunclear,butitseemstobe30to40cmofgrayfinesandysedimentthatcontainsfewaquaticsnail
shells.Whatwasabovethissedimentisuncertain.Theerodedgradedsurfacenowisclutteredwithlargeangularblocksofcarbonate.Gravelhasnotbeenobserved
erodingfromthealluvium.

Thealluvialdeposit(designatedtheEastExposure)wasstrikingnotonlyforitscolor,butalsobecauseitcontainedthousandsofgastropodshellsandsomebones.
Oneoftheselatterwastheskullofalargehornedbisonfoundpartiallyexposed(pointbinFigure4)atelevation96.49neartheapparentbaseofthealluvium.

RecoveringtheskullentailedestablishingtheEastGridandexcavatingfoursquares(S1W22,S2W22,S1W23,andS2W23inFigure5)aroundtheskull.This
workrevealedthebulldozerhadmixedonly10

Figure4.
Lookingeast,theBurnhamsite'sEasternExposureofPleistocenealluvialdepositsinPermian
sandstone.Pointamarksthemassivecalichelayerthatappearstooverliethealluvialdeposit.
PointbisthelocationoftheBisonalleniskull.PhototakenAugust1986.

 Page352

Figure5.
PlanviewofBisonalleniremainsandnearbyartifactsinthe
EastGridoftheBurnhamsite.

to15cmoftheuppermostsedimentsinafewplaces,butitsbladehadshearedawaypartoftheskull'slowerrightside.Theskullwasupsidedowninagrayloamy
finesand,butitslefthorncoreprojecteddownintoanunderlyingredloamysandthatseemscoarserthantheoverlyinggraysediment.Whileuncoveringtheskull,
otherbisonboneswerefoundinboththegrayandredsediments.Amostsurprisingfindwasalargesubangularcobbleoflocal(DayCreek)chert30cmbelowthe
skullintheredloamysand(Figures5and6).Aspreviouslynoted,gravelisnoticeablyabsentinthisalluvialdeposit.Exceptforthesouthern30cmofsquareS1
W22,whichwasdug15cmdeepertoextractthelefthorncoreandanearbyscapula,thefloorsofthefoursquaresweretakentoelevation96.56(relativetodatum),
adepthneartheboundarybetweenthegrayandredloamysandystrata.

Inthelab,sortingofresiduewaterscreenedfromsedimentsremoveddirectlyaroundtheskullandfromlevels6and7(elevation96.76to96.56)resultedinthe
discoveryof16small,usuallybrokenbutnotwaterwornflakesofchert.Examinationofthelargecobblefoundundertheskullrevealedtwoflakesstruckfromone
face.

ThesehintsofthepresenceofhumansstimulatedfurthertestingoftheEastExposureduringSeptemberof1988.Atthistime,thefourpreviouslydugsquareswere
excavatedtoelevation96.1,andsixnewsquareswereestablishedtothenorthandonetothesouth(Figures3and5).Thesenewlyaddedsevensquareswere
excavatedtoelevation96.0(0W23),96.1(0W22,N1W22,N1W23),96.2(S3W21),and96.6(N2W22andN2W23).Inaddition,squares0W16and0
W17(Figure3)wereexcavatedto97.9(2.1mbelowdatum)tosampletheuppermostchannelfillandtrytorecovercharcoalorsufficientsnailshellsforradiocarbon
dating.Alltotaled,notquite10cubicmetersofalluviumhavebeendugfromthe13squaresworkedintheEastGrid.

EastExposureStratigraphyandDating

PERSPECTIVESANDUNDERSTANDINGoftheEastExposurestratigraphyareverylimited,asonlyanarea2mwide(eastwest)by6mlong(northsouth)hasbeen
excavated.Unfortunately,thistrenchisn'tdeeporlongenoughtoshowclearlythedeposit'sboundarieswiththePermiansandstone.Untiltheseboundariesareknown
anduntilalongitudinalprofileeastwardhasbeenobtained,littlecanbesaidaboutthestratigraphicsequence,theoriginsofthestrata,orthehistoryoftheformationof
thedeposit.

Theexposedprofilescreateafirstimpressionthattherearebuttwostrata:agrayloamyfinesandunderlainbyaredloamysand.However,colorandtextural
differencesindicatetheprofileismorecomplex(Figure7).Thegrayloamysandactuallyhasatleastfiveexpressions(Figure7)basedonsubtletexturalchangesand
theprevalenceofvariegatedswirlsofred,yellow,orgreen.Numerousgastropodshellsoccurinthegrayloamysandunits,andpreliminaryanalysisoftheseshells
indicates98percentarespeciescommontoslow,sluggishmovingwater.Anotableoccurrencewithinthegrayloamysandislumpycarbonateconcretions,sometimes
measuringupto5cminmaximumdimension.Oneseriesformsadiscontinuouslayeratroughlyelevation97.06thisseriesoccurred

 Page353

Figure6.
Bisonalleniskullwithfrontalingrayloamysandswhilehorncoreextendsintoredloamy
sands.Thelargeangularflintcobbleisintheredsedimentsundertheskull.November1,
1986,photowithviewtothesouthsoutheast.

Figure7.
NorthsouthprofilealongWest22lineofBurnhamsite'sEastGrid.

 Page354

insituabove(34cm)thebisonskull.Acharcoalfragment(atelevation97.06)recoverednearthesecarbonatesinsquare0W22(Figure7)wasacceleratordated
at40,9001500yrB.P.(AA3840).Twosamplesofsnailshellsfromthelowestexpressionofthisgrayloamysand(betweenelevation96.76and96.56insquare
S1W22Figure7)alsoweredated:31,150700yrB.P.(Beta23045)and35,890850yrB.P.(AA3837).Thebisonskullwasinthislowestgrayloamysand.

Anabruptirregularboundaryseparatesthegrayloamysandunitsandtheunderlyingredloamysand(Figures7and8).Thisloweststratumhasfarfewer,andusually
broken,gastropodshellsthanthegraysediments,butbisonbonesdefinitelywerepresentwithintheuppermost15cm.Occasionalpeasizedpebbleswererecovered
fromtheredloamysand,andoneangularlimestonecobblecamefromthenorthwestpartofsquareS2W22(Figure5).Severalcharcoalfragmentswerefoundinthis
stratum,andonefromelevation96.26insquareS1W22(Figure7)yieldedanacceleratordateof26,820350yrB.P.(AA3838).

Theradiocarbondatesareinreverseorderoftheirverticaloccurrencesinthedeposit.Thus,thedepositcanbestbeinterpretedasbeingatleast26,000yearsold.
Becauseofitsredcolorandsandytexture,itsoccasionalsmallpebblesandrarecobbles,anditsfew(andusuallybroken)snailshells,thebasalredloamysandmight
bealluviumerodedfromthesoftPermiansandstoneanddepositedunderdifferentconditionsthantheoverlyinggrayloamysands.However,thereisaverydramatic
boundary(Figures7and8)betweenthesetwostrata.Thesometimesflaring,sometimesundercutboundaryatteststosomekindofturbationthatoccurredafterboth
stratawerepresent.Theverticalmovementofsedimentscouldresultfromtheactionofspringsorperhapseventhechurningofsedimentsbyanimals.Thehighly
variegatedcolorsandthepresenceofcarbonateconcretionsmightbecluestofluctuatinggroundwater.Clearly,muchisyettobelearnedaboutthedepositional
environmentsresponsiblefortheobservableprofiles.

EastExposureFauna

EXCEPTFORTHEBISONskull,noformalanalyseshavebeenundertakenonanybonesrecoveredfromtheEastExposure.Mostbisonbonesarestillinplasterjackets
awaitingcarefulcleaningandexaminationforbutcheringmarksorothercluestotaphonomicprocesses.

Abadlybrokenandweatheredbisontooth,afewturtleshellfragments,andmanygastropodshellswererecoveredfromthegrayloamysandabovethelumpy
carbonatesatelevation97.06.Bonesofthebisonwereclusteredinthesouthernmostfivesquares(Figure5)betweenelevations96.2and96.0.Elsewhereatthis

Figure8.
Dramaticboundarybetweengrayloamysands(top)andredloamysands(bottom)alongnorth
wallofsquares0W22and0W23ofBurnhamEastGrid.PhototakenSeptember29,1988.

 Page355

depthwererecoveredanantlerfragment,severalpiecesofdeersizedbones,turtleshellfragments,andoccasionalbonesofsmallanimals.Aspreviouslynoted,
gastropodshellsareabundantinthegrayloamysands,muchlesssointheredloamysand.Recently,horse(Equussp.)boneshavebegunerodingfromthegray
loamysandsatleast1.5mabovethebisonskull.

Thebisonisrepresented(Figure5)byanearlycompleteskull,arightmandible(undertheskull),arightscapula(squareS1W22),avertebrasegment(S1W22),a
carpalbone(S1W23),twothoracicvertebrae(S2W22),andsevensegmentsofribs(S2W23,S2W22,andS3W21).Anunidentifiedboneofthisanimalis
plottedinthesquareS1W22profile(Figure7)andisevidencemoreelementslietotheeastofwhathasbeenexposed.Thisbone,theskull,themandible,the
vertebrafragment,andthreeribsectionswereinthegrayloamysand,whereasallotherrecoveredelements(andthelefthorncore)wereintheredloamysand.In
contrasttootherbonesfoundintheEastGridandtheNorthwestGrid,thebisonbonesshowlittlesmoothingorabrasionfromstreamflow,andtheyarenot
weathered,suggestingtheywerenotexposedlongbeforeburial.Theribsandthoracicvertebrahaveangularbreaks.

Basedonhorncoredimensions(diameter,length,andcurvature)andskulldimensionsandattributes(narrowfrontalandprojectingorbital),theBurnhambisonskullis
mostcomparabletosuchextinctformsasBisonalleniandBisoncheneyi.RepresentedbyafewscatteredfindsacrossthewesternUnitedStates,theseformsare
poorlyknownintermsoftheiragesandpositionsinbisonevolution(SkinnerandKaisen1947:183186,197199).Onewouldexpectthemtobetransitional
betweenBisonlatifronsandB.antiquus,thespecieshuntedbyClovisandFolsomPaleoindians.

EasternExposureArtifacts

TWENTYFIVECHIPPEDstoneartifactshavebeenrecordedthusfarfortheEasternExposure.Nonearebelievedflakedbynaturalprocesses.Gravelisvirtuallynonexistent
inthesediments,andtheartifactsdisplayflakescars,bulbsofforce,platforms,andterminationsthatareunmodifiedbywaterinducedabrasionorpolish.Moreover,
mostoftheartifactsareofchertsorflintthatarelithologicallydifferentfromthefewsmallpebblesfoundinthesediments.Severalartifactsareofmaterialexotictothe
Cimarronwatershed.

Figure9.
Fourmicroflakesrecoveredinlowestgrayloamy
sandsedimentsaroundthebisonbones,Burnham
EastGrid.Viewofdorsalfaceswithplatformson
top.Thetoptwospecimenshaveoverhanginglips
ontheirventralfaces.

Theartifactsincludeaflakedsubangularcobble,abrokenscrapingcuttingimplement,anedgefragmentfromanapparentbiface,and22microflakes.Theselatterare
alllessthan12mminmaximumdimension,andonlyfivearecomplete.Fourmicroflakes(Figure9)haveoverhanginglipsontheventralsidesoftheirplatformsand
representflakesfromresharpeningbifaces.Afifthmicroflakealsomaybefromabiface,whereasfiveothershaveplatformsmorelikethoseonunifaceimplements.
Theother12microflakesareeithermidsectionsorterminationsofprobableresharpeningflakes.SevenmicroflakesappeartobeoflocalDayCreekchert,whereas
anothersevencompareclosely(color,grain,inclusions)withvariouschertsfromtheEdwardsPlateau(Texas),onewithNiobrarajasperofnorthwestKansas,and
sevenofchalcedonyorchertfromunknownsources.Allmicroflakeswerefoundbelowthelumpycarbonate(elevation97.06)theirverticaldistributionsare:level
96.96(n=l),level96.86(n=l),level96.76(n=l),level96.56(n=2),level96.5(n=2),level96.3(n=2),level96.2(n=2),andthegraysand),loamaroundthebison
skull(n=11).Allcome

 Page356

fromsquaresS1W22,S1W23,S2W22,andS2W23,theonlysquareswhoseresiduehasbeensortedtodate.

Alarge(12.4by10.8by9.7cm262.1g)subangularcobbleoflocal(DayCreek)chertwasuncoveredintheredloamysand30cmbelowthebisonskull(Figure
6).Thiswaterworn,patinatedcobblederivesfromtheDayCreekFormation,whichisexposedintheRedHillsescarpmentsjust2kmsnorthofthesite(Fay
1965:7778).Thecobblehasseveralacuteanglesthatcouldhaveservedaschoppingedges,buttheonlyunpatinatedflakescarsareonoppositesidesofafacewith
essentiallyrightangles.Oneedgehasa1.8by2.0cmflakescar,andtheopposingedgehasasingle3.2by2.7cmhingeflakescar.Thesescarsresembleeffortsto
testthecobbleforitsknappingsuitability.

Abrokenscrapingcuttingimplement(Figure10)camefromsquare0W23(Figure5)atelevation96.6,adepthattheboundarybetweenthegrayandreddeposits.
Ithasadiagonalbendingtypebreakbutmeasures34mmlong,23.5mminmaximumwidth,and7mminmaximumthickness.Nearlycontinuous,bifacial,minute
scalarscarsoccuralongitsmarginthesescarsappearwornandabradedunderamicroscope.For13mmalongoneedge,threeoverlappingscalarscarsextend7
mmonitsconvex(ventral)face(Figure10).Thepatinated,flat,oppositefacedisplaysaprominenthingescarterminationcreatedbeforethetoolwasbroken.The
material'scolorationandtextureresembleAlibatesagatizeddolomite.

Anapparentbifaceedgesection(24.5mmlong,21mmwide,and8mminmaximumthickness)camefromtheredsandyloamnearelevation96.4.Althoughnot
foundinsitu,itcamefromthewesternmost25cmofsquare0W22(Figure5).ThematerialprobablyisDayCreekchert.Minutebifacialscalarscarsoccuralongits
edge.Onefaceismostlypatinatedcortexwithsegmentsofsmallflakescars.Theoppositefacehassegmentsofthreelargeflakescars.

Figure10.
Scrapingcuttingimplementfromsquare
0W23,elevation96.6,EastGridofthe
Burnhamsite.Overlappingscalarscars
ofpreparededgevisibleontopoftool.

BurnhamSiteDiscussion

THEBURNHAMSITEhasyieldedbisonbones,somebrokenhuntingbutcheringimplements,andminuteflakeslikethoseresultingfromresharpeningsuchimplements.All
werefoundinancientsedimentsnearthebottomofadeepchannel.Thesearefamiliarcharacteristics.Theyarethecluesusedtodescribe10,000yearoldHigh
PlainsbisonkillsfromWyomingtoTexas(FrisonandStanford1982HarrisonandKillen1978Wheat1972).ButinlightofwhatweknowabouttheBurnhamsite,
issuchaninterpretationvalidthere?Notnow.

Atthistime,allthathasbeenestablishedisthatthesitehasancientdepositscontainingthebonesofabisonmucholderthanthespecieshuntedbyClovisandFolsom
humans.Surprisingly,thesesamedepositsareyieldingbrokenimplementsandflakingdebris.Theformsandmaterialoftheseobjectsarecomparabletothosefound
atSouthernPlainsPaleoindiansites.IffoundwithClovisorFolsompointsthehumanoriginoftheBurnhamassemblagewouldneverbequestioned.Sowhatarethey
doingindepositsthatareatleast26,000yearsold?Eithertheyoccurtherebecauseofstratigraphicmixingthatcan'tyetbedocumented,ortheyaretherebecause
humanswerepresentatthattimeandwereinvolvedwiththedeathordismembermentofthatancientbison.Resolutionoftheseoptionsmustcomefromadditional
fieldworkthatexposesmoreperspectivesoftheaggradeddeposit,thatclarifieswhetherornotculturalmaterialsarepresentonlyinthelowestsediments(those
aroundthebison),andthatpermitsmorefirmlyestablishingtheagesofallthestrata.Itishopedthatsuchfieldworkcanbeundertakensoon.

 Page357

SummaryofPleistocenePeopleandtheSouthernPlains

FORNEARLY60YEARS,interdisciplinaryresearchonSouthernPlainsPaleoindiansiteshasdevelopedanenviablearchaeologicalrecordonthelatePleistoceneandearly
Holoceneresidentsoftheregion.Notonlyistheculturalsequencewellestablished,butourknowledgeoftheages,adaptivepractices,andenvironmentalconditions
pertainingtospecificculturesisincreasingwhilebeingrefined.TheunequivocallybestevidenceforPleistoceneresidentsaretheClovisandFolsomcultures.By
10,500yearsago,peopleusingFolsompointswerefollowingherdsofBisonantiquusinpatternedwaysovertheSouthernHighPlainsandmostoftheeroded
easternandwesternmargins.Bandorganizationseeminglywaswelldeveloped,andatleastsomehuntingactivitieswereundertakenthatinvolvedaggregationsof
bands.Some800yearsearlier,humansusingClovisspearpointsalsowerewellrepresentedthroughouttheregion.Longrenownedfortheirmammothhuntingskills,
Clovisbandsactuallywereforagersinsettingsunlikeanyknownintheregiontoday.Consideredtheregion'searliesthumaninhabitants,Clovispeoplemanifestan
awarenessthatbespeaksalongfamiliaritywiththeregion.Thearchaeologicalproblemisfindingevidencethattheyhadancestorsherebeforethem.Todate,onlythe
LeviShelterseemstoholdtantalizingcluestopreClovisoccupants,thatis,someoneresidingintheregionamillenniumorsobeforetheClovisflorescence.

MoreproblematicalaretherecentfindingsatnorthwesternOklahoma'sBurnhamsite.Here,bonesofabisonprecursortoB.antiquuswerefoundwithartifactsin
sedimentsdatingatleast26,000yearsago.Whilemuchisyettobelearnedtoconfirmthesite'sageanditscluestobisonhuntersinatimetwiceasoldasClovis,the
sitepresentlyisourbestopportunitytostudythePleistocenepeoplingoftheregion.Toparaphraseafriend(Lowe1987:9),it'spleasingtothinkthatnobodyknows
howthepastwillturnout!

Addendum

SINCETHISPAPER'Spresentation,threeextensiveseasonsoffieldworkhavebeencompletedattheBurnhamsite.Inthefallof1989,interdisciplinarystudieswere
conductedwithsupportfromtheNationalGeographicSociety(Grant#414489),severalstateandlocalagencies,andnumerousOklahomacitizens.Morefieldwork
wasconductedin1990andagainin1992,thelattersupportedbytheNationalScienceFoundation(Grant#DBS9120314).Allofthisworkclarifiedstratigraphic
relationshipsandrecoveredanotablevertebrateandinvertebratefaunalrecorddatingfromroughly25,000to42,000yearsago.Nearly60artifacts(mostbeing
retouchflakes)wererecoveredfromthethirdlowestoffourstratified,iceageponddeposits.Althoughnotpreciselydated,thisartifactbearingdepositisbetween
28,000and32,000yearsold.ReportsonthesefindingsarebeingpreparedforsubmissiontoQuaternary,ResearchandAmericanAntiquity.Amonographonall
workandfindingsattheBurnhamsitewillbepublishedin1999bytheOklahomaAnthropologicalSociety.

Acknowledgments

DraftsofthispaperhavebenefitedfromtheconstructivecriticismsofJackHofman,BobBrooks,PeggyFlynn,andKentBuehler.Kentmeritsspecialrecognitionfor
preliminarilyanalyzingthelithicmaterialsfromtheBurnhamsite.TheKeith,Gene,andVicBurnhamfamiliesareacknowledgedgratefullyforalltheirinterestand
cooperation.TheBurnhamsitefindingswouldnotbeavailablewereitnotfor27selectvolunteersfromtheOklahomaAnthropologicalSociety.Encouragement,good
advice,andinsightontheBurnhamstudyhavebeenprovidedbyBobBrackenridge,RussellGraham,LarryBanks,andspecialcolleaguesBrianCarter,Wakefield
Dort,LarryMartin,JimTheler,LarryTodd,JackHofman,andPeggyFlynn.Dr.MichaelMares,DirectoroftheOklahomaMuseumofNaturalHistory,isgratefully
acknowledgedforfundstoradiocarbondatetheBurnhamsite.DougDonahueandAustinLongoftheUniversityofArizonaNSFAcceleratorFacilityfor
RadioisotopeDatingareacknowledgedfortheirparticularinterestandcontributionstodatingtheBurnhamsite.Finally,IthankJulieRachelforherworkonthe
graphicsandNevaGrottsforrunningerrandsandinterferencewhilethispaperwasbeingwritten.

 Page358

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PleistocenePeoplesofMidcontinentalNorthAmerica
BradleyT.Lepper

Abstract

MidcontinentalNorthAmerica,asdefinedforthepurposesofthispaper,encompassesavastareafromtheAlleghenyMountainswestwardtotheupperMississippi
RiverbasinandtheeasternfringeoftheGreatPlains,andfromtheOhioRiverbasinnorthwardtotheGreatLakes.InthelatePleistocene,thisregionwasadynamic
mosaicrangingfromephemeraltundraandspruceparklandinthewakeofthewaningLaurentideicesheettoacomplexdeciduousandconiferousforestinthesouth.

ThisregionhasyieldedthemostcompellingevidenceforpreClovisoccupationsyetidentifiedinNorthAmerica.MeadowcroftRockshelterinPennsylvaniaandthe
ShriversiteinMissouriarewidelyregardedasthebestcandidatesfordemonstratingthepresenceofhumansinNorthAmericapriorto12,000yrB.P.

CertainlythisregionhasarichrecordoftheeasternClovisoccupation.Largenumbersofflutedpointshavebeenrecoveredhere,generallyconcentratedindiscrete
sitesinthenorthanddispersedasisolatedfindsinthesouth.Suchpatternsofdistributionlikelyareareflectionofpaleoenvironmentalvariabilityandhaveimportant
implicationsforunderstandingregionalClovisadaptations.

Futureresearchinthisregionshouldbeorientedtowardtheinvestigationofthreebasicthemes:(1)thetimingandnatureofthePaleoindianradiationintothe
midcontinent(2)settlementandsubsistencepatternsofeasternClovispopulationsand(3)thePaleoindian/earlyArchaictransition.Thefruitfulpursuitofthesegoals
willrequireincreasedmethodologicalandtheoreticalsophistication.Surveyswillneedtobedesignedexplicitlytolocateearlysites.Suchsurveysmustbesensitiveto
thepotentialimportanceofisolatedfindsandcognizantofthegeologicalcontextsinwhichearlysitescanoccur.

Perhapsmostimportantly,theutilityofasimplistic,unilinealmodelofculturalevolutionforinterpretingthePaleoindianarchaeologicalrecordmustbequestioned.
Thereisnoevidenceforaspecializedbiggamehuntingadaptationintheeasternforests,andtheoftassertedclaimforapancontinentalhomogeneityinClovis
technologymaywellbeanartifactofanalyticandpreservationalbiases.

OhioHistoricalSociety,1982VelmaAvenue,Columbus,Ohio432112497

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Introduction

THEPURPOSEOFTHISPAPERistoreviewtheevidenceforPleistocenepeoplesinmidcontinentalNorthAmericaandtoofferrecommendationsforfutureresearch.Itmay
seempresumptuoustoentitlethepaperPleistocene''peoples"when,infact,whatwearedealingwitharcscatteredbitsofchippedstonetools,butsucharcthe
limitationsofthedata.ThetidereflectsnotsomuchanintimatefamiliaritywithanymidwesternPleistocene"people,"butratherthegoalweallarestrivingforof
transformingthebarestonesandbonesintoavividunderstandingofadynamicpeopleandtheirchangingenvironment.

Theregionunderconsiderationhere,midcontinentalNorthAmerica,extendsfromtheeasternfringeoftheGreatPlainstothewesternslopesoftheAppalachian
MountainsandfromtheGreatLakessouthwardtotheOhioRiverbasin(Figure1Table1).GordonWilley(1966:248)dividedthisgeneralregionintothree
archaeologicalsubareas:theGreatLakesSubarea,theUpperMississippiSubarea,andtheOhioValleySubarea.Forthepurposesofthisreview,theMississippiand
OhioValleysubareaswillbecombinedintoaMidcontinentRiverineSubarea.

Willey'ssubareas,definedonthebasisofregionalvariabilityinarchaeologicalassemblages,reflectadegreeofenvironmentalvariabilitywithintheeasternwoodlands
whichinfluencedtheculturaladaptationsofNativeAmericanpopulationsthroughoutprehistoryexcept,somewouldargue,intheverybeginning.Oneschoolof
thoughtdescribestheprogenitorsofNativeAmericanpeoplesasbearersofahomogeneousUpperPaleolithichuntingculture(e.g.,Haynes1980b)andsuggeststhat
culturalevolutionintheNewWorldmaybeunderstoodasaprocessof"settlingin"(e.g.,Storck1988a:248cf.Binford1983:197BraidwoodandReed1957),
wherebythesespecializedhuntersgraduallyattainedwhatCaldwell(1958)describedas"PrimaryForestEfficiency":anincreasingefficiencyinexploitingtheforest,
manifestedinthedevelopmentofambushhunting,seasonalcycles,andthediscoveryofnewsourcesofnaturalfoods(Caldwell1958:viiseealsoKellyandTodd
1988:233foranupdatedformulationofthesameidea).

Inotherwords,thefirstpeopleimposedtheiressentiallycarnivorouswayoflifeonthediverseenvironmentsofAmericaandonlylaterlearnedwith"careandcaution
andendlessexperimentthevirtuesoflocalplants"(Eiseley1955:10seealsoKellyandTodd1988Mason1962StoltmanandBaerreis1983West1983).

Thisisasimplistic,unilinealmodelofhumanadaptationandculturalevolutionwithquestionableunderlyingassumptions.Itassumes,forexample,thatculturalevolution
isafundamentallygradualprocess.Itassumesthattheacquisitionofknowledgeisthe

Figure1.
MapofprincipallatePleistocene/earlyHolocenearchaeologicalsitesinmidcontinentalNorth
America.(RefertoTableIforsiteinformation).

 Page364

Table1.
LatePleistocene/EarlyHoloceneArchaeologicalSitesinMidcontinentalNorthAmerica.a
Illinois
1.BigCreek(MunsonandFrye1965)
2.Bostrom(Koldehoff1983)
3.LincolnHills(Koldehoff1983Howard1988)
4.ModocRockshelter(Fowler1959Stylesetal.1983)
5.Mueller(Koldehoff1983)
Indiana
6.Magnet(Smith1987)
7.Newburgh(Tankersley1989)
8.Raaf(Tankersley1989)
9.Rockport(Tankersley1989)
10.Schafer(Tankersley1989)
Iowa
11.CherokeeSewer(AndersonandSemken1980)
12.RummelsMaske(AndersonandTiffany1972)
Kentucky
13.Adams(15Ch90)(Sanders1988)
14.Adamsmastodon(Walters1988)
15.BigBoneLick(Tankersley1987)
16.EnochForkRockshelter(Bush1988)
17.Ledford(Tankersley1989)
18.Parrish(Webb1951)
Michigan
19.Barnes(Voss1977)
20.Gainey(Simonsetal.1984)
21.Gorto(BuckmasterandPacquette1988)
22.Holcombe(Fittingetal.1966)
23.Leavitt(Simonsetal.1987)
24.Rappuhnmastodon(Wittry1965)
Minnesota
25.PelicanRapids(Jenks1936)
Missouri
26.Dalton(Chapman1975)
27.Kimmswick(Grahametal.1981GrahamandKay1988)
28.RodgersRockshelter(WoodandMcMillan1976)
29.Shriver(Reaganetal.1978)
30.Walter(Biggsetal.1970)
NewYork
31.Lamb(Gramly1988)
Ohio
32.CooperHollow(BroseandLee1980)
33.EppleyRockshelter(Brush,personalcommunication1987)
34.NoblesPond(GramlyandSummers1986)
35.MunsonSprings(Allison1989)
36.SandySprings(Cunningham1973)
37.SquawRockshelter(Brose1988)
38.Welling/NellieHeights(Lepper1986aPruferandWright1970)
Ontario
39.Banting/Hussey(Storck1979)
40.Brohm(MacNeish1952Julig1988)
41.Crowfield(DellerandEllis1984)
42.Cummins(Dawson1983Julig1988)
43.Fisher(Storck1983)
44.MudPortage(Steinbringetal.1987)
45.Parkhill(Roosa1977)
46.RushBayRoad(SteinbringandNielsen1986)
47.Sheguiandah(Lee1957)
48.ThedfordII(DellerandEllis1986)
49.Udora(Storck1988b)
Pennsylvania
50.KelloggFarm(McConaughyetal.1977)
51.MeadowcroftRockshelter(Adovasioetal.1983)
52.StateRoadRipple(Konitzky1988)
WestVirginia
53.BlennerhassettIsland(Hyde1960)
54.Denison(Moxley1982)
Wisconsin
55.Aebischer(Mason1988)
56.Boazmastodon(PalmerandStoltman1976)
57.Chesrow(Overstreet1987Mason1988)
58.Kouba(Ritzenthaler1966Kouba1985)
59.Renier(MasonandIrwin1960)
a
RefertoFigureIforsitelocations.

 Page365

limitingfactorinculturalevolution,anditimplicitlysuggeststhatfundamentalprinciplesofanimalecologydonotapplytohumanhuntergatherers.Specifically,the
modelimpliesthatthediversifyingselectiveforcesdrivinganadaptiveradiationcouldbeabrogatedbyculturalconservatism.Inotherwords,itisarguedthat
Paleoindianswouldhavemaintainedthehighlyspecializedhuntingwayoflife,presumablydevelopedwhentheyinhabitedthearcticwastesofnortheastAsiaand
Beringia,evenaftertheyhadmigratedintotheresourcerichforestsofthemidcontinent.

Environment

TheIceAge

REGARDLESSOFPRECISELYWHENhumansfirstenteredtheNorthAmericanmidcontinent,thelandscapeintowhichtheymovedbelongedtotheIceAge.Thecomplex
choreographyofthewaxingandwaningPleistoceneicesheetsandtheriseandfallofoceanlevelsshapedthegeographyofthePaleoindianworldandultimately
determinedtherouteandtimingofhumanmigrationsintotheAmericas(e.g.,Fladmark1983).

Itisimpossible,inareviewofthislength,tocharacterizeadequatelythefullspectrumofchangingenvironmentsacrossaregionasvastandvariedasthemidcontinent.
Severaloverviewsareavailable,andtheseshouldbeconsultedforamorecomprehensivepictureofthechangingenvironmentsofthePleistocene(e.g.,Bernaboand
Webb1977CLIMAP1976COHMAP1988Davis1976Delcourtetal.1980FultonandAndrews1987Jacobsonetal.1987KarrowandWarner1988
Ogden1977RuddimanandWright1987Shane1987Watts1983Wright1970,1976,1981).Thisreviewwillattemptmerci),tosketchtheoutlinesoflate
Pleistoceneenvironmentsasacontextfortheconsiderationofcontemporaneoushumanadaptivestrategies.

TheWisconsinicereacheditsmaximumextentinthemidcontinentat21,000yrB.P.intheeastand14,000yrB.P.inthewest(Mayewskietal.1980:86).It
extendedasfarsouthas37northlatitudeinIllinois.Finegrainedpaleoenvironmentalstudiesundertakeninthemidcontinentrevealthestrongpresenceofdeciduous
treesinthepredominantlyconiferousforestsgrowingincloseproximitytotheglacialmargin(e.g.,GillespieandClendening1968Gruger1972)andtheco
occurrenceofarcticandtemperateanimalspecies(e.g.,Grahametal.1983HofmanandGrady1987).Theseobservationsindicatethatmodernzonesofvegetation
arerecentphenomenaandthatplantandanimalspeciesrespondindividuallytochangingenvironmentalparameters.ThemoreequableclimateofthePleistocene
allowedamorecomplexmixofplantandanimalspeciestodevelop.Inotherwords,milderwintersandcoolersummersresultedinanenvironmentalmosaicthathas
noanalogueintheworldtoday(BrownandCleland1968Graham1976GrahamandMead1987Guilday1984Lundeliusetal.1983Morgan1987).

By14,000yearsago,theLaurentideicesheethadbegunarapid,butspasmodic,retreatfromthemidcontinent(Andrews1987Mayewskietal.1980).After11,200
yrB.P.,theicemarginhadretreatedsofarnorththatitsmeltwaternolongerdrainedsouthwardthroughtheMississippiOhiosystem(Baker1983:118).By10,000yr
B.P.,theicesheethadretreatedentirelybeyondthemidcontinentregion,withtheexceptionofaminorreadvanceintoLakeSuperiorandnorthernMichiganat9900
yrB.P.(Andrews1987:29).

Thefreshlydeglaciatedlandscapeofthenorthernmidcontinentwouldhaveappearedtemporarilytundralike.However,the"openbareareas"(Shane1976:107)
revealedinthewakeoftherecedingmidcontinentalglacialmarginwerenottrue"tundra,"butratherexpansesofwaterlogged,highalkalinetillwithlowlevelsof
nitrogenandlittleorganiccontent(e.g.,Watts1983).Suchlandscapesmaydevelopdenseconiferousforestswithin35to40years,evenincoldsubarcticlatitudes
(CrockerandMajor1955seealsoBirks1980).Inthesubstantiallylowerlatitudesofthemidcontinent,therecoverytimealmostcertainlywouldhavebeenless,
owingtothehigherincidenceofsolarradiationandotherfactors(RuddimanandWright1987).Itislikelythatonlyintheextremenorthernportionsofthe
midcontinentweretundralikeenvironmentssustainedforaprolongedperiod.NorthernMinnesota,northernWisconsin,andsouthernOntariowereareasinwhich
tundralikevegetationmayhavepredominatedforatimefollowingdeglaciation(KarrowandWarner1988Wright1976,1981).

Somedeciduouselementsarepresentuniversallyinfullglacialpollenprofilesacrossthemidcontinent(e.g.,BrownandCleland1968:118Gruger1972Shane1975
TaggartandCross1983).Frequently,thesedataareattributedtoredepositionorothercontamination.However,therecoveryofdeciduousmacrofossilsfrom

 Page366

lateglacialdepositsinPennsylvania(Cushman1982),WestVirginia(GillespieandClendening1968),andIowa(Watts1983:308)confirmthathardwoodspecies
constitutedasignificantpercentageofthelateglacialforestmosaic.ThedistributionofanimalspeciesinthelatePleistocenemidcontinentreflectsthesamecomplex
mosaic(e.g.,Graham1976GrahamandMead1987Guilday1984Lundeliusetal.1983Morgan1987).

Insummary,adiversearrayofindependentandcorroboratingdataindicatethatthecomplexenvironmentalmosaicofthelatePleistocenemidcontinentincludeda
substantialmesic,deciduouscomponent.InthenorthernreachesoftheGreatLakesSubarea,thiscomponentmayhavebeenrestrictedtoisolatedpatchesof
hardwoodtreeswithinapredominantlyconiferousforest/parkland.Suchpatches,evenifinfrequent,wouldhaveprovidedadiversityoffloralandfaunalresourcesfor
earlyPaleoindiangroupsandcertainlywouldhavebeenonefocusofsubsistenceactivities.Patchesoftundralikevegetationwouldhavebeenlocalizedandshort
lived.

TheEndofanAge

BETWEEN14,000AND7,000yearsago,theenvironmentoftheNorthAmericanmidcontinentwastransformedfromacomplexandfluctuatingecologicalmosaictoa
relativelystableandlatitudinallystratifiedseriesofdiscreteforesttypes.Onefacetofthischangewastheextinctionofnumerousmammalianspecies,a
disproportionatenumberofwhichweremammalsoflargebodysize(>20kg).Extinctionisanormalprocessinevolutionaryhistory,particularlyduringperiodsof
climaticchange.However,theapparently"instantaneous"natureofthelatePleistoceneextinctions(cf.Grayson1989)andthesimultaneousappearanceoftheClovis
complexthroughoutNorthAmericahavesuggestedtosomethathumanhuntersdrovethesebiggameanimalsintoextinction(Martin1967,1973).Oneofthemost
importantproblemsinPaleoindianresearchcentersonunderstandingtherelationshipsbetweenthedynamicenvironmentsofdeglaciation,theextinctionofthe
Pleistocenemegafauna,andtheappearanceoftheCloviscomplex(e.g.,BrownandCleland1968Grayson1987,1989Lundelius1988MartinandKlein1984
MeadandMeltzer1985Storck1988c).

EarliestPeoplingoftheMidcontinent

Introduction

WHOWERETHEEARLIESTpeoplestooccupytheNorthAmericanmidcontinent?Formanyscholars,theCloviscomplexrepresentsthematerialcultureoftheinitialhuman
occupationofNorthAmerica(e.g.,Haynes1980b).However,afewsitesinthemidcontinentnowarechallengingthisconservativeposition.

MeadowcroftRockshelter

MEADOWCROFTROCKSHELTERisadeeplystratifiedrocksheltersitesituatedonthenorthbankofasmalltributaryoftheOhioRiverintheunglaciatedAlleghenyPlateau
ofsouthwesternPennsylvania(e.g.,Adovasioetal.1982,thisvolume).Aninterdisciplinaryteamofscholars,directedbyJ.M.Adovasio,undertooktheintensive
excavationofthissiteasalongtermresearchproject(Adovasio1982).Between1973and1978,impeccableexcavationproceduresuncoveredalongsequenceof
humanoccupations.

Theearliestculturaloccupationsatthissite,fromthemiddleandlowerlevelsofStratumIIa,wereattributedtoapreCloviscomponentpredating15,000yrB.P.
(AdovasioandCarlisle1988:239)(seeTable2).AlthoughparticularaspectsofthelaterHoloceneoccupationsatMeadowcrofthavearousedsomecontroversy
(e.g.,claimsforearlyWoodlandmaize[Lopinot1988Wymer1987]),theclaimsofalatePleistocenehumanpresencepriorto12,000yrB.P.resultedin
considerableandheateddebate(e.g.,Adovasioetal.1980,1981Dincauze1981Haynes1977,1980aKelly1987Mead1980).

TheculturalassemblagedocumentedfromlowerStratumIIahasbeenplausiblyarguedtorepresentapreClovisUpperPaleolithictechnology(Adovasioetal.1988).
Theseveralradiocarbondatesforthisstratumareentirelyconsistentwiththisinterpretation.Thereareno"anomalous"laterPaleoindianorArchaicartifactsassociated
withthesedatedearlylevelsthatmightsuggestsubstantialmixingorcontamination.

ItisunfortunatethatafinalreportontheMeadowcroftexcavationshasnotbeenpublished.Argumentsonbothsidesofthedebateoccasionallyhavegeneratedmore
heatthanlight.Butpersonalities,dogma,andwishfulthinkingaside,theavailabledatafromMeadowcroftsuggestthatsmallgroupsofgeneralizedforagersoccupied
midcontinentalNorth

 Page367

Table2.
ChronometricDatesforPutativePreClovisCultural
ComponentsinMidcontinentalNorthAmerica.
site/reference date labnumber
MeadowcroftRockshelter,PA(Adovasioetal.1988)

19,6002400yrB.P. (SI2060)

19,100810yrB.P. (SI2062)

16,175975yrB.P. (SI2354)

15,120165yrB.P. (SI1686)

14,925620yrB.P. (SI1872)

13,270340yrB.P. (SI2488)

13,2401010yrB.P. (SI2065)

12,800870yrB.P. (SI2489)

Shriver,MO(RowlettandGarrison1984)

14,8501500yrB.P.TLdatesa

13,2502400yrB.F.

Sheguiandah,Ontario(Lee1956)

9130250yrB.P. (W345)

RushBayRoad,Ontario(Steinbring1986)

8450550yrB.P. (BGS1103)
a
Thermoluminescencedates,notstrictlycomparable
withradiocarbondates.

Americapriorto14,000yearsago(Adovasioetal.,thisvolume).

ShriverSite

THESHRIVERSITEisamulticomponentopensiteoverlookingtheGrandRiverinMissouri(Reaganetal.1978).Archaeologicalinvestigationsundertakenherein1975
bytheUniversityofMissouriuncoveredstratifieddepositsthatyieldedevidenceofatleasttwoPaleoindianoccupations.AnupperPaleoindiancomponent,which
includedaflutedpoint,wasuncovered25cmaboveanearlierassemblagecontainingnoassociateddiagnosticprojectilepoints(Figures2and3).Thedeep
componentrepresentsapreparedcoreandflakeindustry.Thelithictechnologyisdescribedasbeing"reminiscentoftheOldWorldLevalloisoidtechnique"(Reagan
etal.1978:1272),althoughtheauthorsbelatedlyacknowledgethat"itwouldbewelltoavoidattachingthe'Levalloisoid'label"tothisassemblage(Reaganetal.
1978:1274).

Regardlessofthelabelappliedtotheassemblage,theShriversiteyieldedclearevidenceforculturalmaterialstratifiedbeneathaflutedpointoccupation.Reaganetal.
(1978:1274)suggestthatthedeepcomponentrepresentsadistinctpreClovistechnology.However,inseparateanalyses,Reagan(1976)andRowlett(1981)
recognizethattherearestrongtechnologicalcontinuities.Infact,Reaganarguesthatinspiteofslightdifferencesinfunctionaland"cultural"attributes,the"two
assemblagesareproductsofthesamelithictradition"(Reagan1976:217).Thequestionremains,however,justhowoldisthedeepestoccupationatShriver?The
singleflutedpointfromtheupperPaleoindianstratumisarguedtobemostsimilartoaFolsompoint(Reaganetal.1978:1273)therefore,theunderlyingcomponentis
notnecessarilypreClovisinage.

Unfortunately,ithasnotbeenpossibletoresolvethequestionthroughradiocarbondating(Reaganetal.1978:1274Rowlett1981:14),soalternativedating
techniqueshavebeenexplored.Thermoluminescence(TL)dateswereobtainedfortheflutedpointcomponent,whichindicatedanageof10,6501100yrB.P.
(RowlettandGarrison1984:22).AlthoughTLdatesarelessreliablethanradiocarbondeterminations,thisisanacceptableestimateforaFolsomoreasternfluted
pointoccupation(cf.Haynesetal.1984).ThedeepcomponentatShriveryieldedaTLdateof13,2502400yrB.P.(RowlettandGarrison1984:22).Inother
words,itismostlikelythattheearlyoccupationdatestobetween15,650and10,850yrB.P.Significantly,thisrangeencompassesthedurationoftheCloviscomplex
(Haynesetal.1984)(seealsoTable3).

TheShriversiteundoubtedlyholdsextremelyimportantdataforunderstandingtheearlyPaleoindianoccupationofthemidcontinent.Atpresent,themostparsimonious
interpretationoftheShriversitePaleoindiancomponentsisthattheybothrepresentCloviseraorlateroccupations.Itispossiblethatthedeepcomponentispre
Clovisinagebutevenifitisnot,thesuperpositionoftwoormoreearlyPaleoindianoccupationsoffersanopportunityuniqueinthemidcontinenttostudychanging
adaptivestrategiesthroughthiscriticalearlyperiod.

RushBayRoad

THERUSHBAYROADsitecomplexisaseriesofoccupationslocatedontheflanksofoutwashfansandkameterracesinnorthwesternOntario(Steinbring1986
SteinbringandNielsen1986).Steinbringdescribestheartifactassemblagerecoveredfromthese

 Page368

Figure2.
AselectionofstonetoolsfromtheShriversite,Missouri.AD)arefromthe
upperPaleoindiancomponentEM)arefromthedeep,possiblypreClovis
component.Rowlett(1981)incorrectlyincludesCwiththedeepcomponent.
(PhotographcourtesyofRalphRowlett,UniversityofMissouri.)

sitesasan"UnmodifiedFlakeToolIndustry"(Steinbring1986:10)similartotheearlyassemblagefromShriver(SteinbringandNielsen1986:10).Theglacial
landformsonwhichthesitesaresituatedappeartohavebeendepositedapproximately11,000yearsago(Steinbring1986:10SteinbringandNielsen1986:8).A
radiocarbondateof8450550yrB.P.(BGS1103)wasobtainedforoneoccupationlevel,thusthesitedoesnotappeartopredatetheCloviscomplex.
Nevertheless,Steinbringsuggeststhatthesite'soccupantswerearelictpopulationof"preprojectilepoint"peopleslivinginanisolated,unglaciatedrefugium
(Steinbring1986:14SteinbringandNielsen1986:8,12).Theseargumentsareprovocative,butforthemtobeplausibletheremustbemoresecureevidenceofthe
allegedancestralpreClovisoccupation.

Summary

INSUMMARY,MeadowcroftRockshelterisregardedastheonlysiteyieldingsubstantiveevidenceforahumanpresenceinmidcontinentalNorthAmericapriortothe
easternflutedpointoccupation.Itisnotpossible,onthebasisofcurrentdata,toindicatewhatrelationship,ifany,existedbetweentheearlyinhabitantsof
MeadowcroftandthebearersoftheClovisindustry.TheShriverandRushBayRoadsites,andpossiblytheearliestcomponentsatthecontroversialSheguiandahsite
onManitoulinIsland(Lee1954,1955,1957cf.Buckmaster1988Julig1985),areinterpretedhereasprobablyrelatedreflectionsofanasyetunappreciated
variabilityinCloviseratechnology.

TherearevaguebuttantalizingcluesfromlocalitiessuchastheBigCreeksiteinIllinois(MunsonandFrye1965cf.Griffin1968:124),EppleyRockshelterinOhio
(N.Brush,personalcommunication1987),andEnochForkRockshelterinKentucky(C.Ison,personalcommunication1988),whichsuggestthattherecordofearly
occupationsatMeadowcroftmaynotbeunique.UntilsuchevidencefromothersitesreplicatestheMeadowcroftsequence,theconclusionsoffered

 Page369

Figure3.
Additionalartifactsfromthe
deepcomponentatShriver.
(PhotographcourtesyofRalph
Rowlett,UniversityofMissouri.)

byAdovasioetal.(Adovasioetal.1983,thisvolume)maynotbeacceptedbyeveryone.

AlthoughMeltzer(1989:484)cogentlyhasobservedthatonesiteshouldbeenoughto"prove"thecaseforapreClovisoccupation,thefactremainsthatthisonesite
hasnotsufficed.TheprincipalreasonsforthisappeartobeunrelatedtothequalityofdatafromMeadowcroft.Instead,theseobjectionsinvolveacomplexsetof
preconceptionsaboutwhatapreClovisindustryshouldlooklike,whichelementsshouldcharacterizelatePleistoceneenvironmentsinthisregion,andthedemeanor
thatshouldbeadoptedwhenpresentingcontroversialmaterial.

Table3.
ChronometricDatesforEarlyPaleoindianSitesinMidcontinentalNorthAmerica.
site/reference date/lab.number association
Gainey,MI(Simonsetal.1987Payne a EasternClovis
12,3601224yrB.P.TLdates
1987)

DurstRockshelter,WI(Griffin1965)
StateRoadRipple(36CI52),PA
(Herbstritt1988)
CloudsplitterRockshelter,KY(Cowanet
al.1981)
Shriver,MO(RowlettandGarrison1984)
11,420400yrB.P.
11,610300yrB.P.(M812) PossiblehearthNodefinitecultural
associations
11,385140yrB.P.(UGa878) Paleoindian
11,278200yrB.P.(UCLA23401) Paleoindian
10,6501100yrB.P.TLdatea EasternClovis

PleasantLakemastodon,MI(Fisher1984) 10,395100yrB.P.(Beta1388) Possiblebutcheringmarks

Willardmastodon,OH(Falquetand
Hanebert1978)
Kentuckymammoth,KY(Vesperand
Tanner1984)
Leavitt,MI(Simonsetal.1987)
9520205yrB.P.(GX4534) Nondiagnosticstonetoolsinpossible
association
8630310yrB.P.(Beta?) EasternClovispointsinpossible
association
7886115yrB.P.(AA1223) EasternClovis

1100600yrB.P.(AA1222) [ParkhillPhase]
a
Thermoluminescencedates,notstrictlycomparablewithradiocarbondates.

 Page370

FlutedPointOccupationoftheMidcontinent

Introduction

ANUMBEROFRECENToverviewsofthePaleoindianoccupationofeasternNorthAmericahaveincludedsynthesesofthemidcontinentalrecord(e.g.,Ellis1989Funk
1978LepperandMeltzer1991MacDonald1983Meltzer1988MeltzerandSmith1986Storck1979,1988c).Thisreviewwillemphasizethemostcurrent
researchsincethepublicationoftheseearliersummaries,butnewinterpretationsalsowillbeofferedforolddata.Thesubsequentdiscussionwillfollowthegeographic
divisionsestablishedpreviouslyinthispaperandwillbeorganizedaccordingtothefollowinggeneralsubjectheadings:chronology,technology,settlement/subsistence
patterns,andritualandart.

Chronology

THEEARLIESTUNDISPUTEDhumanpresenceinNorthAmericaisrepresentedbystonetoolassemblagescontainingflutedprojectilepoints.Theseartifactsfirstwere
identifiedascomponentsofalatePleistoceneindustryatBlackwaterDrawinNewMexico(Howard1935).Sitescontainingsuperficiallysimilarprojectilepointforms
havebeendocumentedfromAlaskatoTexas(andfurthersouth)andfromNovaScotiatoCalifornia.TheearliestreliableradiocarbondatesonClovissiteswerefrom
thesouthwesternUnitedStates,wheretheyrangeconsistentlyfrom11,500to11,000yrB.P.(Haynesetal.1984).Thegrowingsampleofradiocarbondated
PaleoindiansitesinnortheasternNorthAmericasuggestsasomewhatlaterandlongerrangeof11,000to10,000yrB.P.(Haynesetal.1984).

ThechronologyoftheearlyPaleoindianoccupationofthemidcontinentisproblematic(seeTable3).Currently,therearenoreliableradiocarbondatesforanyfluted
pointsiteintheregion.ItishopedthatthissituationwillberemediedwhensamplesfromtheUdorasiteinsouthernOntario(Storck1988b),theNoblesPondsitein
northeasternOhio(M.Seeman,personalcommunication1989),andtheMunsonSpringssiteincentralOhio(Allison1989FrolkingandLepper1990)are
processed.

GreatLakesSubarea

AFLUTEDPOINToccupationattheGaineysiteincentralMichiganwasdatedbythermoluminescence.Thistechniqueisnotdirectlycomparabletoradiocarbondating,
buttheresultsobtainedaresuggestiveandworthyofnote.Twosamplesyieldeddatesof12,3601224yrB.P.(Simonsetal.1987:28)and11,420400yrB.P.
(D.Simons,citedinPayne1987:34).

ThePleasantLakemastodon,insouthernMichigan,wasdatedto10,395100yrB.P.(Beta1388).Fisher(1984,1987)hasarguedthattheanimalwasbutchered
byPaleoindianshowever,nostonetoolsordebitageweredocumentedinassociation.

MidcontinentRiverineSubarea

THEFLUTEDPOINTcomponentattheShriversiteinwesternMissouriwasdatedbythermoluminescenceto10,6501100yrB.P.(RowlettandGarrison1984).Asof
thiswriting,theGaineyandShriverTLdatesaretheonlychronometricdeterminationsformidcontinentalflutedpointsitesthatarereasonablyconsistentwithdatesfor
flutedpointsitesinotherregions(cf.Haynesetal.1984).Itmustbeemphasized,however,thatthesedatesarenotconsideredequivalenttoradiocarbondates.

ThedeeplystratifiedStateRoadRipplesiteinwesternPennsylvaniahasproducedaverysmallassemblageofnondiagnosticlithicartifactsinassociationwithtwo
featuresstratigraphicallybelowanearlyArchaiccomponent(G.Konitzky,personalcommunication1989).Charcoalfromoneofthesefeatureswasdatedto11,385
140yrB.P.(UGa878)(Herbstritt1988Konitzky1988).ThesedatasuggestthataninsituearlyPaleoindiancomponentispresentatthissite.

Finally,testexcavationsatEnochForkRockshelterineasternKentuckyuncoveredaseriesofculturaloccupationsincludingearlyArchaicandPaleoindian
components(Bush1988).Acharcoalsampleassociatedwithchertdebitage11cmbelowasmalllanceolateprojectilepointyieldedadateof10,960240yrB.P.
(Beta15424)(Bush1988).Bush(1988)documentedchertflakesatleast11cmbelowthisdatedlevel,andevenearlierdatesrecentlyhavebeenobtainedonthese
deeperoccupations(C.Ison,personalcommunication1989).

 Page371

Technology

Introduction

ITHASBEENARGUEDthatPaleoindiantechnologyreflectsamonolithic,homogeneousculturaltraditionwhichemergedfromtheAsianUpperPaleolithicandexploded
acrosstheAmericas(e.g.,Mason1962West1983).Certainly,thebasicPaleoindian"toolkit,"documentedfromsitesacrossNorthAmerica,is"surprisingly
similar"(Ritchie1983:30seealsoFunk1978:17Haynes1980b:119):

Inadditiontotheflutedprojectilepointitcomprisesmainly:otherunifaceandbifaceknivesunifaceend,sideandspokeshavescrapersgraversborersdrillsflint
wedges...andafewroughstonehammersandanvils(Ritchie1983:30).

However,the"uniformity"inPaleoindiantoolkitsprobablyhasbeenexaggeratedbyseveralfactors(see,forexample,EllisandDeller1988).Flutedpointsmay
resembleeachothersuperficiallywhilehavingbeenproducedfromdifferenttechnologicaltraditions(e.g.,YoungandBonnichsen1984).Moreover,similarities
betweenflutedpointsinthemidcontinentsometimesdonotextendbeyondthemerepresenceoflargebasalthinningflakes.Finally,Paleoindiansitesinthe
midcontinentthusfarhaveyieldedevidenceforonlythelithiccomponentofthematerialcultureofthesepeople.TheperishablecomponentsofPaleoindiantechnology
probablywouldreflectmoreinterregionalvariability.

GreatLakesSubarea

RECENTARCHAEOLOGICALresearchinsouthernOntarioandsouthernMichiganhasrevolutionizedourunderstandingofPaleoindianprehistoryinthemidcontinent(e.g.,
Deller1979,1988DellerandEllis1988Ellis1984Garrad1971Jackson1983Julig1984,1988Roosa1965,1977Shott1989Simonsetal.1984,1987
Storck1982,1984a,1984b,1988aWrightandRoosa1966).Perhapsthemostsignificantadvancehasbeenthedefinitionofthreedistinctflutedpointtypeswhich
arearguedtocorrespondwiththreePaleoindianculturalcomplexes(DellerandEllis1988Ellis1984Storck1984a).Itisfurtherarguedthatthesecomplexes
representstagesinPaleoindiantechnologicaldevelopmenthowever,theproposedsequencehasnotyetbeencorroboratedstratigraphically.

GaineypointsaresimilartoClovisandarethereforeconsideredtorepresenttheearliestculturalcomplexintheGreatLakes(e.g.,DellerandEllis1988)(seeFigures
4and5).Barnespoints,partoftheParkhillcomplex,aresmaller,fullyfluted,fishtailedpointssimilartoCumberlandpoints(Roosa1977)(Figure5).Crowfieldpoints
aresmall,thinpointssimilartoHolcombe,butwithdefinite,oftenmultiple,fluting(Figure5).

ThesethreetypesappeartoencompasstheflutedpointvariabilityinsouthernOntario(DellerandEllis1988:255)andperhapsmuchoftheGreatLakesSubarea.The
majorityofsitesaresinglecomponent,

Figure4.
FlutedprojectilepointsfromtheUdorasite:1)basalfragmentreworked
intobifacialdrill2and4)basalfragmentsbrokenduringuse3)
extensivelyresharpenedpointalsobrokenduringuse.
(FigurecourtesyofPeterStorck,RoyalOntarioMuseum,Toronto,
andtheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,OregonState
University,Corvallis.)

 Page372

Figure5.
SelectionofflutedprojectilepointsfromOntario:1)Gaineypoint,Upper
Mercerchert,Fernhill2)Gaineypointbase,Onondagachert,Thedfordarea
3)Barnespoint,FossilHillchert,ThedfordIIsite4)Barnespoint,FossilHill
chert,Parkhillsite5)Crowfieldpoint,Onondagachert,Crowfieldsite6)
Crowfieldpoint,FossilHillchert,Crowfieldsite.
(PhotographcourtesyofChristopherEllis,UniversityofWaterloo.)

andeachcomplexfavoreddifferentrawmaterials.ThesecharacteristicsoftheGreatLakesPaleoindianarchaeologicalrecordfacilitatedthediscoveryanddefinitionof
thevariouscomplexes.

MidcontinentRiverineSubarea

FLUTEDPOINTSintheMidcontinentRiverineSubareahavenotprovensoamenabletotypologicalanalysis.ThegeneralizedGainey/Clovispointisubiquitousthroughout
themidcontinent(Figure6),butonlyrareexamplesofthemorespecializedBarnesandCrowfieldpointshavebeendocumentedsouthoftheGreatLakes(e.g.,
Lepper1986a).ItispossiblethatasimilarprojectilepointcontinuumeventuallywillbeestablishedfortheMidcontinentRiverineSubarea,butlargesitesarerarehere
andlocalitiesare,almostwithoutexception,multicomponent.Moreover,althoughPaleoindiangroupsinthisregionhadclearpreferencesforparticularrawmaterials
(e.g.,Tankersley1989:271),thesamechertsourceswereusedcontinuouslybyprehistoricpeoplesformorethan10,000years.Asaresult,Paleoindiancomponents
generallycannotbeidentifiedunlessadiagnosticprojectilepointisrecovered.Significantly,althoughsouthernchertsourceswereusedbyGreatLakesPaleoindian
groups(e.g.,theGaineysiteassemblageconsistspredominantlyofOhioUpperMercerchert[Shott1989Simonsetal.1984]),noflutedpointscraftedfromGreat
LakeschertshavesofarbeendocumentedintheMidcontinentRiverineSubarea.

Finally,althoughWisconsinandMinnesotaareincludedhereintheGreatLakesSubarea,theflutedpointsdocumentedfromthesestates(e.g.,Figure7)appearto
havemoreincommonwiththemelangeofflutedpointformsfromtheMidcontinentRiverineSubareathanwiththetypesdefinedforMichiganandOntario(Mason
1986Steinbring1974StoltmanandWorkman1969O.C.Shane,III,personalcommunication1989).ThissuggeststhatlatePleistoceneculturaldevelopmentsin
theeasternGreatLakesmayhavebeenaspatiallyrestrictedresponsetouniqueconditions.

 Page373

Figure6.
SelectionofflutedprojectilepointsfromCoshoctonCounty,
Ohio:1)basalfragmentbrokenduringmanufacture2)complete
pointexhibitingextensiveresharpening3)basalfragment
brokenduringuse.
(PhotographcourtesyoftheJohnsonHumrickhouse
MemorialMuseum,Coshocton,Ohio.)

Settlement/SubsistencePatterns

Introduction

THEFIRSTDOCUMENTEDClovissites,locatedinthePlainsandSouthwest,wereassociatedwiththefossilremainsofmammoth.Indeed,thesesitesoftenwerediscovered
whenpassersbynotedthehugemammothboneserodingfromthebankofanarroyo.Itislikelythatdeerorantelopebonesfoundinsimilarsituationswouldnothave
excitedsuchinterest.BecauseofthispotentialbiasinthesampleofCloviskillsites,theimportanceofmammothsintheClovissubsistenceeconomy,evenonthe
Plains,isnotatallclear(Grayson1988).Nevertheless,manyarchaeologistsaccepttheinterpretationthatClovispeoplewerespecializedmammothhunters(e.g.,
Haynes1966,1980bMartin1973West1983).

ThearchaeologicalrecordoftheflutedpointusingpeoplesinmidcontinentalNorthAmericalonghasbeenregardedasdisappointingintermsofevidenceforelephant
hunting(e.g.,Quimby1960:2733).Nevertheless,ithasbeenarguedthattheuniformityinPaleoindiantechnologyacrosssuchawideareamustreflect''ahighly
conservativewayoflife,attunedtotherequirementsofaspecializedsubsistencepatterndependentontheubiquitousmegafaunaofthelatePleistocene"(Funk
1978:17).

Figure7.
SelectionofflutedprojectilepointsfromMinnesota:1)large
completepoint2)smallpointwithbrokentip3)Folsompoint.
(FigurecourtesyofO.C.Shane,III,TheScienceMuseumofMinnesota,St.Paul.)

 Page374

ThegeneralpracticeofusingtheoftenmorecompleterecordofthePaleoindianoccupationofwesternNorthAmericatofleshouttherelativelyimpoverishedeastern
Paleoindianarchaeologicalrecordhasalonghistory(e.g.,Shetrone1936).However,theassumptionthatwhatis"true"foroneareawillbetrueforanotherisan
argumentoflastresortthatisnolongernecessary.ThemidcontinenthasyieldedarichPaleoindianarchaeologicalrecordthatmustbeunderstoodonitsownterms.
ForcingittoconformwithinterpretivemodelsframedontheHighPlainsdoesjusticeneithertotheeasternrecordnortothewesternmodels.

GreatLakesSubarea

THEEVIDENCEFORMAMMOTHormastodonhuntingintheGreatLakesSubareaistenuousandunconvincing.Quimby(1960:2733seealsoMartin1967:97101Mason
1986:191192)notedthatthedistributionofflutedpointsinMichiganwascorrelatedwiththeknowndistributionofmastodonsand,inspiteofthefactthatnofluted
pointhadeverbeenfoundindirectassociationwithamastodon,assertedthatthisrelationshipwasaresultofintensivePaleoindianpredationontheseanimals.
However,thesamplesofflutedpoints,aswellasthesamplesofdocumentedmastodonfossils,areaffectedbydifferentialcultivationintensityandcollectorbias
(Lepper1983,1986bseealsoDirst1985:4Hurley1965:68).

ThegeneralargumentsofQuimby(1960)findlimitedsupportinthespecificclaimsofPalmerandStoltman(1976)andWittry(1965).PalmerandStoltman(1976)
discusstheBoazmastodon,discoveredin1897insouthwesternWisconsin,andpresenttheclaimsoftheoriginalexcavatorsthataflutedpoint:wasfoundin
association.

Wittry(1965)presentsapreliminaryreportontheexcavationoftheRappuhnmastodoninsouthwesternMichigan.Wittry'sargumentthattheanimalhadbeen
butcheredbyhumansisbasedonthedisarticulationofthebones,allegedbutcheringmarksonsomeofthebones,andthepresenceofananomalous"layerofwood
poles"(Wittry1965:18).

Fisher(1984,1987)recentlyhasadvancedsimilarargumentsinsupportofthehypothesisthatseveralmastodonsitesinMichiganrepresentPaleoindianmastodon
procurementandbutchery.Patternsofdisarticulation,cutmarksacrossthebones,andsophisticatedtaphonomicanalyseshaveprovidedthebasisforFisher'sclaim
thatmalemastodonsintheirprimewerebeinghunted(orscavenged)byPaleoindiansinthelateautumn(Fisher1987).But,aswiththeRappuhnmastodon,nolithic
artifactswererecoveredfromanyofFisher'smastodonsites,inspiteofthefactthat"lithictoolsmusthavebeenusedtosomeextent"(Fisher1984:272).Evenif
PaleoindiansintheGreatLakesSubareawerereligiouslyconservinglithicrawmaterial(Fisher1984:272),theywouldnothavecuratedsmallresharpeningflakes,such
asareubiquitousattheKimmswickmastodonkillsiteinMissouri(GrahamandKay1988:233).

Fisher's(1987)currentargumentisthatthesiteshehasinvestigatedrepresentunrecoveredwintermeatcaches,andnotmastodonprocurementorprocessingloci.In
hisinterpretation,amastodonwasbutcherednearbyandchoiceportionsofthedisarticulatedcarcassweretransportedtoapondandsubmergedintheicywatersfor
storageandlaterretrieval.Insomecases,themeatwasweighteddownwithcobblesorbouldersandthelocationwasmarkedwithuprightpostsdrivenintothepond
bottom(D.Fisher,personalcommunication1989).

Thisscenariopresentsacompellingandparsimoniousinterpretationofthedata.Itis,however,notnecessarilythecorrectinterpretation.Forexample,G.Haynes
(1988)hasdemonstratedthatapparentcutmarksmaybeproducedonthebonesofAfricanelephantswhentheyare"trampledagainstcoarsesubstratessuchas
gravelorsand"(Haynes1988:153).Thisdoesnotmeanthatthe"cutmarks"observedonMichiganmastodonbonesarenatural.Itdoessuggestthatthereare
alternativenaturalexplanationsforthephenomenadocumentedbyFisher.UntilanactualmastodonkillorscavengingsiteisdiscoveredintheGreatLakesSubarea,or
untilaPaleoindianartifactisrecoveredindirectassociationwithoneofthesehypotheticalmeatcaches(cf.Frison1976),itmustbeconcludedthatthereisnodirect
evidenceforPaleoindianmastodonbutcheryintheGreatLakes.

InsouthernOntario,PaleoindiansitesbelongingtotheParkhillcomplexconsistentlyhavebeendocumentedinassociationwiththestrandlineofglacialLakeAlgonquin
(e.g.,Storck1982,1984b).Someofthesesitesareextremelylarge(e.g.,theParkhillsite[Roosa1977]),andthislargesize,coupledwiththestrategicorientationof
thesites,suggeststhattheyrepresentbasecampsforthecommunalhuntingofcaribou(DellerandEllis1988:261Peers1985Roosa1977:353Storck1982).A
similarassociationofPaleoindiansiteswiththestrandlinesofglaciallakes

 Page375

hasbeendocumentedfromotherareasintheGreatLakes(e.g.,Overstreet1987Peru1967).Nevertheless,theimportanceofcaribouhuntinginthisregionprobably
hasbeenexaggerated.

Storck(1982)acknowledgesthatarchaeologicalsurveystrategiesinsouthernOntariohadbeenfocusedonglaciallakestrandlinesand"...theresultingsettlement
patterndataprobablyrepresentonlyalimitedaspectofthetotalsettlementpattern"(Storck1982:25seealsoDellerandEllis1988:261262).Recentsurveys,
conductedintheinteriorofsouthcentralOntario,confirmthepresenceofPaleoindiansininteriorsettingsnotassociatedwithstrandlines(Jackson1984).Such
indicationsofamoregeneralizedlandusepatternsuggesttoJacksonthatPaleoindianhuntersexploitedabroadrangeofspeciesintheGreatLakes(Jackson1988).

ExcitingnewdiscoveriesattheUdorasiteinsouthernOntariosubstantiatethisargument(Figure4).RecentexcavationsatthisGaineycomplexsiteuncovereda
featurecontainingabundantartifactsanddebitagealongwith293gofcalcinedanimalbone(Storck1988b).Mostofthebonescouldnotbeidentified,butthey
includebonesofcaribou,hare,andArcticfox(SpeissandStorck1990).

MidcontinentRiverineSubarea

THEPALEOINDIANarchaeologicalrecordoftheMidcontinentRiverineSubareaisquantitativelyandqualitativelydistinctfromtherecordoftheGreatLakesSubarea.
FlutedpointfrequenciesarehigherbyanorderofmagnitudeintheMidcontinentRiverineSubarea(see,forexample,Jackson1978:86SeemanandPrufer
1982:162).Moreover,theseartifactsarerecoveredprimarilyasisolatedfindsintheMidcontinentRiverineSubarea(e.g.,HolstenandCochran1986:17Pruferand
Baby1963:2Schwartz1965:8),whereasintheGreatLakesSubarea,flutedpointstendtooccurinlarge,singleoccupationhabitationsites(Meltzer1984,1985).

RarelargesitesintheMidcontinentRiverineSubareagenerallyarequarryrelatedsitesreflectingmultiplereoccupations.ExamplesincludeLincolnHillsinIllinois
(Howard1988Koldehoff1983),AdamsinKentucky(Sanders1988Yahnig1989),andWelling/NellieHeightsinOhio(Lepper1986aLepperandWright1989
PruferandWright1970).

AggregationsofPaleoindianartifactsalsooccurinlocalitiesofferinganespeciallyfavorableenvironmentalsituation.SitessuchasSandySpringsinOhio(Cunningham
1973)andBigBoneLickinKentucky(Tankersley1989)arelocatednearsalinesprings,whichareperennialattractionsforadiversityofgameanimals.Soitisnot
simplythatsitesdonotoccurintheMidcontinentRiverineSubarea,butthatthenatureoftheoccupationsisdifferent,producingadifferentarchaeologicalsignature
onethatisdominatedbywidelyscattered,isolatedflutedpoints.

Ithasbeentypicalofarchaeologiststounderestimatethesignificanceof"isolatedfinds"andbemoanthefactthatsofewPaleoindian"sites"havebeendiscoveredin
theMidcontinentRivefineSubarea(e.g.,Moeller1983cf.Brooks1979).EarlyattemptstousetherecordofisolatedPaleoindianpointstolearnsomethingaboutthe
Paleoindianoccupationofthemidcontinentgenerallywerelimitedtogrosscountsofflutedpointspercountyorperphysiographicregion.Distributionalanalysesofthis
sorthavedominatedPaleoindianarchaeologyinthemidcontinentandtheirresultshavedemonstratedoverwhelminglytheabundanceofisolatedflutedpointsinthis
region(Broyles1967Chapman1967Dorwin1966Griffin1968Mason1958PruferandBaby1963Quimby1958Ritchie1957Rolingson1964Seemanand
Prufer1982Shetrone1936).

Unfortunately,thesedatasetsshareanumberoflimitations.Thebroad,statewidedistributionsarebiasedbydifferentialcultivationandcollectingintensity(Lepper
1983).Also,lumpingtheisolatedflutedpointoccurrencesintomoderncountiesorlargersamplingunitsmasksthemicroenvironmentalvariabilityoftheindividualfind
spots.

InordertostudyPaleoindiansettlementandsubsistencepatternsintheMidcontinentRiverineSubareaitmustberecognizedexplicitlythattheisolated,flutedpointis
theprimarymanifestationofthePaleoindianarchaeologicalrecordinthisregion(Meltzer1984).Isolatedfindsmustbeanalyzedastruesites,notmerelyastalliesona
statemap.RecentstudiesofthisnaturehaveyieldedimportantinformationonPaleoindianlandusepatterns.

ThecentralMuskingumRiverbasinineastcentralOhioisaregionwitharichPaleoindianarchaeologicalrecord,owingtothepresenceofextensiveoutcropsof
UpperMercerchert,thefavoredrawmaterialofOhioPaleoindians(PruferandBaby1963).Prufer(1971)intensivelystudiedthedistributionofPaleoindianartifacts
inthisareaandconcludedthatflutedpointstendedtooccurinconcentrationsatthe"confluencesofminorstreamswiththeWalhondingandTuscarawas

 Page376

river,"butthat"Strayfindsoccurredthroughoutthevalleys"(Prufer1971:309).

Lepper(1986a,1988)developedaclassificationsystemthattranslated"strayfinds"into"settlement"typesandrestudiedthedistributionofflutedpointlociinthe
centralMuskingumRiverbasin.Largeworkshop/habitationsites,suchastheWellingsite(PruferandWright1970),weresituatedonexposedfloodplainterracesin
closeproximitytochertoutcropsandintermediateworkshopsites.Huntingsites,definedonthebasisofisolatedfindsofcompleteflutedpointsorpointsbrokenin
use,werewidelydistributedthroughoutthehillsandvalleysofthedissectedAlleghenyPlateau.ThislandusepatternsuggeststhatPaleoindiansinthisregionwere
exploitingdispersedfaunalresourcessuchaswhitetaileddeerorelk(Lepper1986a,1988seealsoLantz1984Lepper1989LepperandMeltzer1991).

Koldehoff's(1983)analysisofPaleoindiansitesassociatedwiththeimportantoutcropsofBurlingtonchertinsouthwesternIllinoisproducedbroadlysimilarresults.
ThedistributionofsitesbetweentheLincolnHillsworkshop/habitationsiteandtheMuellersitecomplexsuggestsasettlement/subsistencepattern"basedprimarilyon
elkhuntingandotherfaunalandfloralresourcesoftheuplandprairiesandsavannas"(H.Winters,citedinKoldehoff1983:223).Comparabledatawereobtained
acrosstheMississippiRiverinsoutheasternIowa(ShutlerandCharlton1980).

Asincreasinglydetailedstudiesofflutedpointdistributionsareundertakeninthemidcontinent,thepictureofPaleoindiansettlementpatternsbecomesmorecomplex
andcomplete.InKentucky,GatusandMaynard(1978)andSandersandMaynard(1979)notedanapparentassociationofflutedpointswithsinkholes.However,
Niquette's(1986)surveyofPaleoindianpointsinsouthcentralKentuckyyielded39flutedpoints,onlyoneofwhichwasrecoverednearasinkhole.Holstenand
Cochran(1986)conductedasurveyofPaleoindiansitesintheUpperWabashdrainageofnorthernIndianatotestacommonmodelofPaleoindiansitelocation,
whichpredictedthatmostsites"wouldbelocatedonhighpointsoverlookingtheconfluenceofastreamwithalargerstream"(HolstenandCochran1986:1cf.Prufer
1971).Theresultsobtainedbythissurveysofardonotsupportthe"overlook"model.

ThewesternLakeEriebasininnorthwesternOhioisarguedtohavebeenavoidedbyPaleoindians(PruferandBaby1963SeemanandPrufer1982).However,
recentsurveysinthisregionhavedocumentedlargenumbersofsurfacefinds"indiversephysiographicsettings"(Stothers1982seealsoPayne1982).

TheseresultssuggestthatPaleoindiangroupsintheMidcontinentRiverineSubareawerenotpracticingaspecializedbiggamehuntingsubsistencestrategy.Theland
usemodelsindicatinghuntingpatternsfocusedonwhitetaileddeerorelkaresupportedbypaleoenvironmentalreconstructionsandapplicationsofoptimalforaging
theory(Ford1977LeachandConaty1988Rule1983).

PerhapsthemostimportantsiteforclarifyingthenatureofPaleoindiansubsistenceintheMidcontinentRiverineSubareaistheKimmswicksiteineasternMissouri
(Grahametal.1981).Clovisprojectilepointshavebeendocumentedhereinclearassociationwithmastodonremains.Butthissiteismorethanamastodonkill.In
fact,adiversefaunaisrepresented,including23speciesofmammalsinadditiontofish,amphibians,reptiles,andbirds(GrahamandKay1988:232).Thereisgood
evidencethattheextinctgroundslothGlossotheriumwashunted,alongwithwhitetaileddeerandturtle(GrahamandKay1988:233).Therefore,althoughthe
KimmswicksitehasyieldedevidencefortheonlyconfirmedmastodonkillineasternNorthAmerica,italsohasdemonstratedthatClovisforagershuntedwhitetailed
deer.Indeed,whentheentirefaunalassemblageisconsidered,thedata"suggestadiverseeconomyfortheClovishunters"(Grahametal.1981:116).

 Page377

RitualandArt

Introduction

GIVENTHELIMITEDnatureofthelatePleistocenearchaeologicalrecordinthemidcontinent,itwouldbesurprisingiftherewasmuchdirectevidenceforaceremonial
componentofPaleoindianculture.Moreover,thereisalackofestablishedarchaeologicalmethodandtheoryforanalyzingorevenrecognizingprehistoricritual.In
spiteoftheseseverelimitations,therearedatathatgiveusbriefglimpsesintothebeliefsystemsofthePaleoindianhuntergatherersofthemidcontinent.

GreatLakesSubarea

THECLEARESTEXAMPLEofaPaleoindiansiteinmidcontinentalNorthAmericareflectingceremonialactivitiesoftheseearlypeopleistheCrowfieldsiteinsouthern
Ontario(DellerandEllis1984).Feature#1atthesiteconsistedofashallowbasininterpretedasacremationburial.Thisconclusionisbasedonthepossible
associationofcalcinedbonewiththousandsoffragmentsofheatfracturedchertartifacts,aswellastheuniquecharacterofthereconstructedlithicassemblage.More
than200Paleoindianartifactswerereconstructedfromthisfeature.Theabsenceof"chertwastage,"thelackofmanufacturingfailuresandofartifactsbrokeninuse,
andthepresenceofseveralunusualartifactformssuggestthatthisassemblagerepresentsafunctioningtoolkit,whichterminateditsuselifeinaceremonialcontext
(DellerandEllis1984:4950).

Apossiblecacheof13flutedbifaceswasdiscoveredbyDellerandEllis(1992)attheThedfordIIsite,alsoinsouthernOntario.Thisassemblageisquitesimilartoa
collectionofexquisiteflutedprojectilepointsandpreformsdocumentedfromtheLambsiteinwesternNewYork(Gramly1988).Gramlyinterpretstheseartifactsas
"burialfurnishings,"althoughnoevidenceofskeletalmaterialoranysubplowzonefeatureswereencountered(Gramly1988:6).Itispossiblethatthesematerials
represent"insurancegear"(Binford1979)cachedforfutureusebutneverreclaimed.Thisinterpretationissupportedbythediscoveryofotherapparenttoolcachesat
GreatLakesPaleoindiansites.Acacheof80graverswasrecoveredfromtheKoubasiteinsouthernWisconsin(Ritzenthaler1967butseeKouba1985),andapit
featurecontaining''oversixtytoolsandlargechertflakes"wasidentifiedattheUdorasiteinsouthernOntario(Storck1981).

Finally,althoughNorthAmericahasyieldednoevidenceforPaleoindianartrivalingthespectacularcavepaintingsofPaleolithicEurope,therearehintsinwestern
OntariothatNativeAmericanartistictraditionsmayextendtheirrootsintotheearlyHolocene.TheMudPortagesiteconsistsofarchaeologicaldepositspartially
overlyingabedrocksurfaceuponwhichareinscribednumerouspetroglyphs.Somenaturalisticrepresentationsofanimals,definedasLakeoftheWoodsStyle,were
buriedunderArchaicmaterials,suggestingtoSteinbringetal.(1987)thatsomeofthepetroglyphsmaybepreArchaic.

MidcontinentRiverineSubarea

INCONTRASTTOthemeagerevidencedocumentedfortheGreatLakesSubarea,thearchaeologicalrecordofPaleoindianritualfortheMidcontinentRiverineSubareais
virtuallynonexistent.TheRummelsMaskesiteineasternIowaconsistsofan"isolatedcache"of20flutedpointsandpointfragments(AndersonandTiffany1972:58).
ApartfromasomewhatapocryphalaccountofasimilarcacheofflutedpointsfromLorainCounty,Ohio(Vietzen1973:32)thereisnootherreportedevidencefor
possibleearlyPaleoindianritualactivitiesintheMidcontinentRiverineSubarea.Andagain,thesecachesmayrepresent"insurancegear"ratherthanceremonial
features.

LatePaleoindianTransition

Introduction

STRATIFIEDSITESontheWesternPlainshavedocumentedacleartransitionfromflutedpointindustriesassociatedwithextinctmegafaunatoaseriesofunfluted
lanceolateprojectilepointcomplexesassociatedwithincreasinglylargenumbersofbisonremains(Judge1974Wormington1957).Theoccurrenceofbothfluted
pointsandavarietyofunflutedlanceolatepointformsinmidcontinentalNorthAmericahasledmanyscholarstobelievethatthisregionparticipatedinasimilar
transition.However,theCherokeeSewersite,ontheeasternmarginoftheGreatPlainsinwesternIowa,istheonlydocumentedsiteinthemidcontinentwith
lanceolatepointsinassociationwithbisonremains(AndersonandSemken

 Page378

1980butseealsoNewmanandJulig1989).Moreover,theradiocarbondatesforthissitesuggestthattheeastwardexpansionofthePlainsPlanocomplexeswas
relativelylate(seeTable4).

AreviewofradiocarbondatesobtainedforlanceolatepointassemblagesinmidcontinentalNorthAmerica(Table4)suggeststhatageneralizedlanceolateshapehas
beenapopularprojectilepoint/knifeformthroughatleastthelateArchaic.Inviewofthis,itisprobablethatmuchmaterialidentifiedintheliteratureas"late
Paleoindian"actuallyislateArchaic.Nevertheless,therearedataindicatingthatalanceolatepointpattern(Bonnichsenetal.1987:413418)didfollowtheflutedpoint
complexesinmidcontinentalNorthAmerica.

GreatLakesSubarea

FLUTEDPOINTCOMPLEXESappeartobeabsentfromtheGreatLakesSubareaby10,400yrB.P.(DellerandEllis1988:251).Thecontinuedimportanceofcaribou
procurementinthesubsistenceadaptationofGreatLakespopulationsissuggestedbythesinglecariboubonerecoveredfromtheHolcombesite(Fittingetal.
1966:14)andthepossiblecalcinedcariboubonefragmentsfromtheCumminssite(Julig1984:194).However,proteinresiduesonPlanotraditionartifactsfrom
Cumminsindicatethatavarietyofgamespeciesweretaken,including,perhaps,Bison(NewmanandJulig1989).Continuityinritualisperhapsevidencedbythe
discoveryofnumerouscremationburialsoftenassociatedwithcachesofbrokenlanceolateprojectilepoints(e.g.,BuckmasterandPaquette1988Julig1984:192
MasonandIrwin1960Ritzenthaler1972).

MidcontinentRiverineSubarea

UNFLUTEDLANCEOLATEpointformsaredocumentedfromtheMidcontinentRiverineSubareaasearlyas10,960240yrB.P.(Bush1988).TheDaltonlanceolate
pointcomplexappearsinthesouthernportionsoftheregionby10,500yrB.P.(Goodyear1982:389)(seeTable4).Notchedprojectilepointsappearinthesame
regionasearlyas10,000yrB.P.(Goodyear1982:389)(seeTable5).

ThereisincreasingevidencethatlanceolatepointandnotchedpointcomplexeswerecontemporaneousandsympatricintheMidcontinentRiverineSubarea(Brose
1988Mason1981:116Mocas1977).ThelimitedevidenceforfaunalandfloralremainsintheselatePaleoindian/earlyArchaiccontextsreflectsacontinuous
subsistenceadaptationfromtheearliestPaleoindiansinthemidcontinentthroughtheearlyArchaic.Elkremainsandcharrednutfragmentswererecoveredfromlate
Paleoindian/earlyArchaiccontextsattheCooperHollowandBurrillOrchardsitesinnorthernOhio(Brose1988).

EvidenceforDaltonsubsistenceismoreabundantandcorrespondinglydiverse.McMillan(1976:214)identifieddeer,alongwithsometurtle,turkey,fish,andavariety
ofsmallmammalsfromtheDaltonlevelsofRodgersShelterinsouthwesternMissouri.Hickorynutsandblackwalnutsalsowere"apartoftheDaltonsubsistence
base"(McMillan1976:224).

ConclusionsandRecommendations

MASON(1981:115)CONCLUDEDthattheflutedpointtradition"underwentanadaptivebifurcation"inthemidcontinent.Lanceolatepointcomplexesdevelopedfirstinthe
GreatLakesregion,andearlyArchaicnotchedpointcomplexesdevelopedshortlythereafterintheOhioValley.Thedatadiscussedhereinsuggestthatthisconclusion
issubstantiallycorrect,althoughthe"adaptivebifurcation"appearstohaveoccurredmuchearlierthanpreviouslysupposed.Moreover,itisnotcorrelatedwiththe
changesinprojectilepointmorphologythatcharacterizethePaleoindian/Archaictransition.Thearchaeologicalrecordoftheearliestflutedpointcomplexesinthe
midcontinentalreadyreflectstwodistinctadaptivestrategiescorrespondingtotwodiverseenvironments(MeltzerandSmith1986).

TheMidcontinentRiverineSubareawaslargelyunglaciated,andtheportionsofthisareathatwereglaciatedhadbeenfreeoficeforathousandyearsbeforefluted
pointwieldingforagersoccupiedtheregion.Acomplexmosaicenvironmentdevelopedhere,includingasubstantialmesicdeciduouscomponentsimilarin
composition,thoughnotinstructure,totheHoloceneforestsofthisregion(LeachandConaty1988).

TheearliestPaleoindianpeoplesinthissubareaweregeneralizedforagersutilizingabroadspectrumofresources.Pleistocenemegafaunawereexploitedinfrequently
aspartofarichsmorgasbordoffloraandfauna.Asaresultoftherichnessandstabilityoftheenvironment,flutedpointsherearemanyandvaried.Thisvariability
doubtlessincludesbothregionalvariants


Table4.
RadiocarbonDatesforLatePaleoindianandOtherLanceolatePointAssemblagesinMidcontinentalNorthAmerica.
site/reference
MeadowcroftRockshelter,PA(Adovasio 12,800870yrB.P.(SI2489)
etal.1988)
EppleyRockshelter,OH(Brush,personal
communication1987)
CooperHollow,OH(Brose,personal
communication1989)
EnochForkRockshelter,KY(Bush1988)
ModocRockshelter,IL(Fowler1959)
RodgersShelter,MO(Chapman1975:235)
SquawRockshelter,OH(Brose1988)
Sheguiandah,Ontario(Lee1956)
AuroraRunRockshelter,OH(Mason
1981:116)
CherokeeSewer,IA(Andersonand
Semken1980)
Cummins,Ontario(Julig1984)
Lawrencesite,KY(Mocas1977)
BurrellOrchard,OH(BroseandLee1980)
EastSteubenville,WV(CraneandGriffin
1958Dragoo1959)
LateArchaicopensite,OH(Mortonand
Carskadden1975)
GlobeHillShellHeap,WV(Murphy1977)
MeadowcroftRockshelter,PA(Adovasio 397085yrB.P.(SI2058)
etal.1988Boldurian1985:144)
Davidson,Ontario(Kenyon1980)
NeboHilltypesite,MO(Brownand
Ziegler1981)
PinegroveCemetery,MI(Simons1972)
HelmerickShelter,MO(Chapman1975)
Freeworth,OH(Stothers1983)
BylerMound,OH(Zakucia1956,1974)
Page379
date/lab.no. association
BracketingdatesforMillerlanceolate
11,300700yrB.P.(SI2491)
12,185130yrB.P.(UCLA2589C) lanceolatepoint
9890100yrB.P.(UCLA2589E)
12,590195yrB.P.(DIC446) lanceolatepointswithLeCroypoints
10,960240yrB.P. Wheelerlanceolate
10,651650yrB.P.(C907) Daltoncomplex
9101440yrB.P.(C908)
10,480650yrB.P.(ISGS48) Daltoncomplex
10,200330yrB.P.(M2333)
9480160yrB.P.(DIC586) "Plano"withKirkvariantinburial
9130250yrB.P.(W345) DatedpeatoverliesAquaPlano
assemblage
9110yrB.P. "Plano"withKirk
8570200yrB.P.(UCLA1877F) AgateBasincomponent
8445250yrB.P.(UCR490)
8482390yrB.P. Cremationburialfrom"Plano"site
747085yrB.P. lanceolatepointinburial
7325125yrB.P.(UGa436)
7265305yrB.P.(UGa240)
7120120yrB.P.(DIC734) Stringtownstemmedwithtanlyand
MorrowMt.points
4220500yrB.P.(M229) Steubenvillecomplex
4130100yrB.P.(I7604) "Plano"withLateArchaic
4120220yrB.P.(CWR184) Steubenvillecomplex
Steubenvillecomplex
378085yrB.P. Satchellcomplex
355565yrB.P.(UGA1332) NeboHillcomplex
3305135yrB.P. Satchellcomplex
3010110yrB.P.(N110)
321090yrB.P.(Gak504) Sedaliacomplex
319065yrB.P.(DIC2589) Satchellcomplex
311580yrB.P.(SI1150) Steubenvillecomplex

 Page380

Table5.
RadiocarbonDatesforPreKirkEarlyArchaicComponentsinMidcontinentalNorthAmerica.
site/reference
ModocRockshelter,IL(Fowler1959)
St.Albans,WV(Broyles1971)
GrahamCave,MO(Chapman1957
Klippel1971:22,2728)
date/lab.no. association
10,651650yrB.P.(C907) BigSandywithDaltoncomplex
9101440yrB.P.(C908)
9850500yrB.P.(M1827) KessellsidenotchedwithCharleston
comernotched
9700500yrB.P.(M130) ThebesandSt.CharleswithDalton
complex
9470400yrB.P.(M1928)
9290300yrB.P.(M1889)

andchangethroughtime,butunlessseveraloftheseformsarerecoveredinastratifiedsite,itisdifficulttodeterminewhichprocesseswereatwork.Eventually,fluting
wasabandonedentirely,butthesamelifewaycontinuedforthousandsofyearsunchangedinmostotherrespects.

TheGreatLakesSubarea,duringthelatePleistocene,wasanactiveenvironmentstillinthethroesofdeglaciation.Paleoindianpeoplesmovingintotherapidly
changingboreal/deciduousparklandwereconfrontedwithkaleidoscopicchallengesandopportunitiesastheicesheetwaxedandwanedandglaciallakesroseand
fell,appearedanddisappeared.Thefloraandfaunaofthisregionwereneitherasrichnorasdiverseastheresourcesofthemorestableenvironmentstothesouth.
Paleoindianpioneers,movingnorthintotheGreatLakesSubarea,wouldhavebeencompelledeventuallytofocustheirhuntingeffortsonthemostabundantand
predictableresourceinanotherwiseunpredictableenvironment(MeltzerandSmith1986:12).Butbecauseoftherelativeinstabilityoftheenvironment,thisregionwas
inhabitedlaterbyPaleoindiangroupsandpopulationdensitywouldnothavebeenasgreat,atleastinitially.Asaresult.,flutedpointsaremuchlesscommoninthe
GreatLakesregionandthevariabilityismorelimitedinsomeareas.TheseriesofflutedpointcomplexesdefinedforOntarioandMichiganmayrepresentsomesortof
culturalevolutionary"punctuatedequilibrium,"withthepresumablyearlyandgeneralizedGaineycomplexrapidlytransformingintothespecializedParkhillcomplex.
Aspectsofthisspecializedwayoflifeareperpetuatedinthesubsequent"AquaPlano"complexes(Quimby1960:34),butthistransitionisnotwellunderstood.

ItwillhavebecomeclearbynowthatverylittleconcerningthePleistocenepeoplesofmidcontinentalNorthAmericaiswellunderstood.Butmuchprogresshasbeen
madeinthelastseveralyearsand,asanalyticalmethodsimprove,knowledgeofthisearlyperiodwillcontinuetogrow.

FutureresearchonthePleistocenepeoplesofmidcontinentalNorthAmericashouldnotbeconstrainedbythepontificalpronouncementsputforthbytheauthorsof
overviews.Theessenceofthescientificendeavoristhefreedomofindividualscholarstopursuewhateverproblemsandissuesareofinterest.Nevertheless,with
regardtothePaleoindianprehistoryofthisregion,thereissomuchthatisnotknownthatitmaybeusefultoorganizeourignorance.

First,andmostfundamental,areissuesofchronology.Whendidhumansfirstenterthemidcontinent?WhendidClovisforagersfirstlaunchtheirflutedprojectilesin
thevalleysoftheMississippiandOhiorivers?Andwhenwasthisformabandonedinfavoroflanceolateornotchedpoints?Withoutasecuretemporalframeworkwe
cannotbegintoprovideanswerstomoreinterestingprocessualquestions.Answerstothese"simple"questionsofchronologywillnotcomeeasilyorcheaply.
MeadowcroftRocksheltermayhaveyieldedevidencefortheearliesthumansinmidcontinentalNorthAmerica.Butthedatawillnotbeaccepteduniversallyuntiland
unlesstheMeadowcroftsequenceisreplicatedatanothersite.Inordertoattempttoreplicatethesedataitwillbenecessarytodesignandfundlongtermresearch
projects(seealsoNicholas1984).Afterall,Meadowcroftwasnotduginaday.

QuestionssurroundingtheoriginsoftheCloviscomplexaside,verylittlereallyisknownaboutbasicaspectsofthepeopleswhomadeandusedthese

 Page381

characteristicartifacts.MuchofwhatiswrittenaboutearlyPaleoindiansettlementandsubsistencepatternsinmidcontinentalNorthAmericaisbasednotondatafrom
thisregionbutonextrapolationsfromsitesexcavatedontheGreatPlains.Thisoverviewhashintedatthevariabilityinadaptivestrategiesthatmaybepresentwithin
themidcontinent.FutureresearchshouldbeorientedtowardsexploitingthefullrichnessanduniquenessofthePaleoindianarchaeologicalrecordofthemidcontinent
sothatempiricallybasedcomparisonscanbemadewithotherregions.Itisnolongerreasonablesimplytoassumethat"theClovisculture"isasingle,homogeneous
culturalentity(cf.Haynes1980b).

Finally,havingaddressedproblemsofPaleoindianculturehistoryandthereconstructionofpast"lifeways,"itisonlyfairtomentionafewofthereallyinteresting
questionsofcultureprocess.Whathappened10,000yearsago?HowaretheenvironmentalchangesthatdefinethePleistocene/Holocenetransitionrelatedtothe
archaeologicallyobservedchanges,whichdemarcatePaleoindianandArchaicculturalpatterns?Thisreviewhaspresentedevidencesuggestingthat,formuchofthe
midcontinent,the10,000yrB.P.rubiconisaredherring.Inthisregion,earlyPaleoindianadaptivestrategiesappeartobeessentiallycontinuousthroughtheearly
ArchaicandtheenvironmentalchangesatthecloseofthePleistocenebeganmuchearlierandculminatedearlierthan10,000yrB.P.Therefore,theeasy(if
environmentallydeterministic)explanationisdeniedus,andweareleftwiththedisconcertingtaskofreexaminingourbasicunitsofinvestigation:Whatis
"Paleoindian?"Whatisthe''Archaic?"AscurrentlyappliedinmidcontinentalNorthAmerica,theselabelsmaysignifydistinctprojectilepointconfigurationsandnothing
more.Thisisnotnecessarilybad,butitshouldbeexplicit.The"Paleoindian"labelhascarriedtoomuchunnecessarybaggagefortoolong.

"That'sagreatdealtomakeonewordmean,"Alicesaidinathoughtfultone.

"WhenImakeaworddoalotofworklikethat,"saidHumptyDumpty,"Ialwayspayitextra."

Postscript

SINCETHISPAPERwaspresentedinMayof1989,anumberofdiscoverieshavebeenmadethathaveaddedsignificantlytoourknowledgeofthePleistocenepeoplesof
themidcontinentandtheenvironmentinwhichtheylived.Inaddition,severalimportantsyntheseshaveappearedthatoffernewtheoreticalapproachesandalternative
perspectivesonthedataandissuesaddressedinthisreview(Anderson1990Dincauze1993GramlyandFunk1990Julig1991LepperandMeltzer1991see
alsothevariouspapersinDancey1994DillehayandMeltzer1991TankersleyandIsaac1990).InthispostscriptIrefertosomeofthenewdiscoveriesandbriefly
touchupontheirimplications.Ithasnotbeennecessarytodevelopatotallynewsetofconclusionsandrecommendations.Indeed,Iambothpleasedandchagrined
thatsolittleemendationofmy1989synthesishasbeenrequiredpleasedatmyforesight,butchagrinedathowlittle,insomeways,wehaveadvancedtowarda
clearerunderstandingofthePleistocenepeoplesofthemidcontinent.

Environment

ASURPRISINGDEGREEofresolutioninthepaleoenvironmentalrecordofthenorthernhemisphereisrevealedinseveralrecentpapers.And,asourresolutionimproves,it
becomesclearthatclimaticchangesthroughoutthelatePleistocenecouldbeextremeandremarkablyabrupt(e.g.,Alleyetal.1993Dansgaardetal.1989
GreenlandIcecoreProjectMembers1993JansenandVeum1990).Forexample,theYoungerDryasclimaticevent1 ,whichoccurredapproximately10,700years
ago,seemsnowtohaveendedwithabangoveraperiodofscarcely20years(Alleyetal.1993Dansgaardetal.1989:533).Clearlythetempoofatleastsomeof
theclimatechangesduringthelatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenewasmuchfasterthanmanyofusassumed(althoughothershaveappreciatedthisfactforsome
timesee,forexample,Morgan[1973]).ThisdiscoveryhasimportantimplicationsforourideasabouthowPaleoindiansadaptedtothesometimeswildlyshifting
environmentsofthemidcontinent.

 Page382

Chronology

THERESTILLISNOfirmchronologicalframeworkonwhichtohangtheshredsandpatchesthatcomprisethetapestryofPaleoindianarchaeologyinmidcontinentalNorth
America.Butthesituationhasimprovedsince1989.

MeadowcroftRocksheltercontinuestoarousecontroversyanddefyconsensus(seeHaynes[1991]andTankersleyandMunson[1992]versusAdovasioetal.
[1992]).Mattersarenothelpedbythefactthattherestillisnofinalreportonthisfundamentallyimportantsite.

Therearenowradiocarbondeterminationsforaflutedpointoccupationsiteinthemidcontinentcomparabletothosefromotherregions.Thesedatesarenotfromthe
UdorasiteortheMunsonSpringssite,bothofwhichfailedtofulfilltheradiometricpromisetheyappearedtohavein1989(LepperandGill1991Storck1990).

Earlyin1992(themuchballyhooedquincentennialofoneratherbelated"discovery"ofAmerica),Broseannouncedaseriesofradiocarbondatesforthesocalled
"PaleoCrossing"sitelocatedinnortheasternOhio(BroseandBarrish1992).Thissiteconsistsofnumerousflutedprojectilepoints,associatedtoolsanddebitage,
and,miraculouslypreservedbeneaththemidcontinent'sseeminglyubiquitousplowzone,subsurfacefeatures.Charcoalfromapostmold,remainsofapossiblehouse,
wasdatedto12,250100yrB.P.(AA8250)andsoilhumatesfromacylindricalpityieldedtwodisparatedatesof923080yrB.P.(AA8252)and13,100
100yrBP(AA8251)(BroseandBarrish1992:1).Thislessthanperfectlyresolvedchronologyhasbeenrefined,tosomeextent,byaseriesofnewdates.Brose
nowclaimsthatthePaleoindianoccupationof"PaleoCrossing"datesto10,99075yrB.P.(averageofthreedates)(Brose1992Hall1993a:3).

TheBurningTreemastodonsiteislocatedincentralOhioneartheMunsonSpringssite(No.35onFigure1).FisherandI,aftermanyandlonganimateddiscussions,
interpretthissiteasaPaleoindianmeatcache(Fisheretal.1991,1994).Aseriesofradiocarbondatesonbone,gutcontents,andassociatedpeatandsprucewood
provideasolidageassessment.Onebonesampleyieldedadateof10,86070yrB.P.(Pitt0832).AsecondsampleofXADpurifiedbonecollagen,processedby
ThomasStafford,producedamorereliabledateof11,39080yrB.P.(AA6980).Datesongutcontentswere11,45070(Pitt0832)and11,660120yrB.P.
(Beta38241/ETH6758).Sprucewoodandpeatassociatedwiththeskeletonyieldeddatesof11,47090(Pitt0841),11,720110(Beta35045),12,23070
(Pitt0833),and12,62090(Beta35046)(Fisheretal.1991,1994Lepperetal.1991).ThesearerelativelyearlydatesforaneasternPaleoindiansite,butsince
nolithicartifactswererecoveredfromtheexcavations,itisnotpossibletoattributethislatePleistoceneabattoirtoanyparticularculturalmanifestation.

Settlement/SubsistencePatterns

IFTHEINTERPRETATIONoftheBurningTreemastodonasabutcheredanimaliscorrect(Fisheretal.1991,1994),thenthequestionoftheimportanceofproboscideans
forthedietofmidcontinentalPaleoindiansmustbereconsidered.Furthermore,theinterpretationofthislessequivocalsitehasimplicationsfortheacceptanceofthe
severalothereasternsiteswhichFisherandothershavearguedalsoreflectPaleoindianbutcheryofmastodonsandmammoths(e.g.,Fisher1987andvariousother
referencescitedinthe1989portionofthisreviewKirkpatrickandFisher1993Overstreetetal.1993).

RecentexcavationsattheMartin'sCreekmastodonsiteineastcentralOhioofferevenmoredefinitiveevidenceofPaleoindianexploitationofmastodon(Hall1993b).
Here,Brushrecoveredahandfuloflithicflakesindirectassociationwithmastodonbones,andoneoftheseflakesbearsproboscideanbloodresidue(Brushetal.
1994).

Inspiteofthisapparentstampedeofbutcheredmastodons,therestillisnoevidencetosupporttheoncepopularnotionofspecializedelephanthuntersineastern
NorthAmerica(cf.Lepper1993LepperandMeltzer1991).BrushalsorecoveredcervidbonesattheMartin'sCreekmastodonsite,andcervidbloodresiduewas
identifiedononeoftheotherflakes(Brushetal.1994).

Althoughitisnotanewclaim,anapocryphalreferencetoaflutedpointlodgedinanelkskeletonfromSilverLake,Ohiofinallyshouldbelaidtorest.Mason
(1981:99)reportedthediscoveryinGreatLakesArchaeology,but,concernedthatgeneralreaderswouldbeintimidatedbyscholarlyreferences,hegavenosource
fortheclaim.ThereportappearstohaveoriginatedinapaperbyOgden(1977:19)whocites"R.S.Baby,pers.commun."astheauthority.Baby,formercuratorof
archaeologyfortheOhioHistoricalSociety,isnowdeceased.MarthaPotterOtto,current

 Page383

curatorofarchaeologyforOHS,isnotawareofanydiscoveryofaflutedpointinassociationwithanelkinOhio(M.P.Otto,personalcommunication).

ItislikelythattheelkinquestionactuallywasrecoveredfromLakeMacOCheeinLoganCounty,Ohio(Goslin1961).Therightscapulaandoneribboreevidence
ofahealedwoundfromastoneprojectile,butonlyminutefragmentsofflintremainedembeddedinthebone.Goslinconcludedthat"thetimeatwhichtheanimal
receivedthewoundisnotdetermined"(1961:85).

Finally,reportsontwoPaleoindiansites,onelocatedintheRiverineSubareaandoneintheGreatLakesSubarea,shedmuchlightonregional(aswellastemporal)
variabilityinlithictechnology.TheThedfordIIsite,aParkhillcomplexsiteinsouthwesternOntario,istreatedablybyDellerandEllis(1992).Sanders'(1990)report
ontheAdamssite,aClovisworkshopoccupationinwesternKentucky,ismorelimitedinscopeduetothenatureoftheartifactsample.

LatePaleoindianTransition

THEREHAVEBEENfewrecentcontributionstoresearchonthetransitionfromthePaleoindiantotheearlyArchaicwaysoflife.TheManningsite,alongtheOhioRiverin
southwesternOhio,offerssomepotentialinthisregard(Lepper1994LepperandCummings1993).Aculturalresourcemanagementprojectuncoveredadeeply
buriedseriesofthreeoccupations.Theearliestcomponentdatestoca9800andtheintermediateto9720290yrB.P.(Beta27476).Themostrecentoccupationis
datedtotheearlyArchaicbythepresenceofKirkcornernotchedprojectilepoints.Nodiagnosticartifactswererecoveredinthetestingoftheearlieststrata,butthe
presenceofPicea(spruce)charcoalassociatedwiththetwodeepestoccupationssuggeststhattheculturalsequenceattheManningsite"spansthetransitionfroma
mixedconiferdeciduousforesttoafulldeciduousforest"(LepperandCummings1993:33).

Conclusion

OVERTHELASTfiveyears,significantstrideshavebeenmadeintrackingtheelusivefirstpeoplesofthemidcontinent.Itrustthatthenextfivewillseeevenmore
advances.IlookforwardtothenextWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericasandhopethat,bythetimeitconvenes,someofthequestionsleft
unansweredinthisreviewwillberesolved.PerhapsbythenthefinalreportonMeadowcroftRockshelterwillbeout.

Acknowledgments

MydeepestappreciationisextendedtoRobsonBonnichsenforpresentingmewiththechallengeandopportunityofsynthesizingrecentresearchonthePaleoindian
occupationofthemidcontinent.Itwouldnothavebeenpossibletoaccomplishthisoverviewwithoutthegraciouscooperationofthemanyscholarswhosuppliedme
withinformationontheircurrentresearch.Specialthanksareextendedtothefollowing:JeffreyBehm,DavidBrose,DavidBush,GeraldConaty,DonaldCochran,
ChrisEllis,DanielFisher,RussellGraham,WilliamGreen,LawrenceJackson,PatrickJulig,MarvinKay,BradKoldehoff,GustavKonitzky,ElizabethLeach,Ronald
J.Mason,DavidMeltzer,PatrickMunson,CharlesNiquette,DavidOverstreet,DonnaRoper,RalphRowlett,MarkSeeman,JackSteinbring,PeterStorck,and
KenTankersley.

CarlAlbrechtoftheOhioHistoricalSocietyassistedwiththedraftingofFigure1,andKaySmitheditedanearlydraftofthemanuscript.Helpfulcommentson
subsequentdraftswereprovidedbyDenaDincauze,ChrisEllis,PatJulig,DaveMeltzer,DonnaRoper,andDeeAnneWymer.Theircontributionsaregratefully
acknowledged,butanyerrorsofomissionorcommissionthatremainaresolelytheresponsibilityoftheauthor.

Finally,mythankstoKarenA.,BenjaminR.,andPeterR.Lepper.Theirsacrificeshavemadethisworkpossible.

 Page384

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pp.157172.UniversityPressofKansas,Lawrence.
1976IceRetreatandRevegetationintheWesternGreatLakesArea.InQuaternaryStratigraphyofNorthAmerica,editedbyW.C.Mahaney,pp.119132.
Dowden,Hutchinson,andRoss,Stroudsburg,PA.
1981VegetationEastoftheRockyMountains18,000yearsAgo.QuaternaryResearch15:113125.

Wright,H.T.,andW.B.Roosa
1966TheBarnesSite:AFlutedPointAssemblagefromtheGreatLakesRegion.AmericanAntiquity31:850860.

Wymer,D.A.
1987ThePaleoethnobotanicalRecordofCentralOhio100B.C.toA.D.800:SubsistenceContinuityAmidCulturalChange.Ph.D.dissertation,OhioState
University,Columbus.

Yahnig,C.H.
1989TheChristianCountyCluster:PaleoindianArtifactsfromFourClovisSitesinAmerindlandnearHopkinsville,Kentucky.InTheFirstWorldSummit
ConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas,Abstracts,editedbyJ.TomenchukandR.Bonnichsen,pp.72.CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,
UniversityofMaine,Orono.

Young,D.E.,andR.Bonnichsen
1984UnderstandingStoneTools:ACognitiveApproach.CenterfortheStudyofEarlyMan,UniversityofMaine,Orono.

Zakucia,J.
1956TheBuylerMound,AMiddleWoodlandManifestation.EasternStatesArchaeologicalFederationBulletin15:1011.
1974NewRadiocarbonDatesfromtheUpperOhioValley,AppendixA.InTheBoartsSite:ALithicWorkshopinLawrenceCounty,Pennsylvania,byJ.M.
Adovasio,G.F.Fry,J.Gunn,andJ.Zakucia.PennsylvaniaArchaeologist44(12):100102.

Notes

1.Thesocalled"YoungerDryasclimateevent"may(Shane1987)ormaynot(Morgan1987)berepresentedinthepaleoenvironmentalrecordofeasternNorth
America.Thepointhereisthattherateofclimatechangecouldberapid,evenwhenmeasuredonthescaleofanindividualPaleoindian'slifespan.

 Page395

RadiocarbonChronologyofNortheasternPaleoamericanSites:DiscriminatingNaturalandHumanBurnFeatures
RobsonBonnichsen1
RichardF.Will2

Abstract

Anassessmentoftheradiocarbonchronologyof13PaleoamericansitesfromnortheasternNorthAmericaindicatesthat54percentofthesesiteshaveyielded14C
datesofHoloceneage.Thesedatesareregardedastooyoungbysiteinvestigators.Othersitesproduced14CdatesofHoloceneandlatePleistoceneage,andin
manycasestheoriginofdatedcharcoalisnotclear.Theauthorsemphasizetheimportanceofusingasiteformationapproachforunderstandinghowcharcoalis
incorporatedintoarchaeologicaldepositsandindeterminingwhetheritisofnaturalorculturalorigin.

Variousprocessesareresponsibleforintroducingandmixingcarbonizedplantremainsintoarchaeologicalsitedeposits.Forestfires,alluvialtransport,treethrows,
andcookinghearthsarebutafew.Frequently,however,thediscoveryofcharcoalinsitesisinterpretedastheuniqueproductofhumanbehavior,especiallywhen14C
datescorroborateexpectationsofarchaeologicalage.Butarchaeologicalsitesoccuronthenaturallandscapeandassucharesubjectedtothesamenonhuman
processesthataffectthenonculturalenvironment.Unlessnaturalandculturalfeaturesinarchaeologicaldepositscanbediscriminated,thendoubtremainswhethera
14Cdatedcharcoalsampledatesahumanoranaturalevent.UsingnortheasternNorthAmericaasanexample,itissuggestedthatsome14Cdatedfeatureson

Paleoamericansitesmaydatenaturalevents,andnottheculturalactivityresponsibleforthecreationofthearchaeologicalremains.

InviewoftheambiguitythatexistsinthechronologyofnortheasternPaleoamericansites,itisimpossibleonthebasisoftheexistingradiocarbonchronologyaloneto
ascertainwithcertaintyifPaleoamericansitesintheNortheastareasoldaselsewhereinthecountry.Theplacementofsitesonancientlandformsassociatedwith
deglaciationdoessuggestthathumancolonizationlikelywascoincidentwithregionaldeglaciation.
1
.Director,CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,355WenigerHall,OregonStateUniversity,CorvallisOR97331.
2
.ArchaeologicalResearchConsultants,Inc.,71OakStreet,EllsworthME04605.

 Page396

Introduction

CURRENTKNOWLEDGEofthechronologyofPaleoamericanprehistoryinnortheasternNorthAmericaisbasedlargelyonaseriesof14Cdatesfromafewsitesobtained
overa40yearperiod.Asnewsiteshavebeenfoundanddated,acorpusofdatesgraduallyhasdevelopedthatnowservesasthefoundationforunderstandingwhen
humancolonizationoccurredinthisregion.These14Cdates,andsomeassumptionsregardingcontemporaneitywithdatedPaleoamericansitesinotherregions,based
onsimilaritiesinartifactform,providethetemporalframeworkforrelatinghumanpopulationstolatePleistocenelandscapesofthisregion.

Humancolonizationandadaptivepatternscanberelatedmosteffectivelytopaleoenvironmentsbyuseof14Cdatesfromarchaeologicalsites.Infact,14Cdatingplays
apivotalroleinreconstructingthehistoryofthepastbyallowingthecorrelationofdiversepaleoenvironmentalandarchaeologicalrecordsfromthesametimeperiod.
Someresearchershaveevenarguedthat14Cdatingisthemostimportantpostwardevelopmentinarchaeologyadevelopmentthathasrevolutionizedarchaeology
(Levine1990:33).Despiteitsprofoundimpactonprehistoricstudies,however,theresometimeshasbeenalackofmethodologicalrigorinassessing14Csampleorigin
andaccuracyofdatingresults.WiththeobjectiveofenhancingourunderstandingoftheearlychronologyofNortheastprehistory,wehaveapproachedtheanalysisof
thenortheasternradiocarbonrecordbydrawingonprinciplespresentedbycontemporaryapproachestositeformationandtaphonomy.Theseapproachesquestion
theoldassumptionthatonlyhumanbehaviorneedbeconsideredindecodingpatterningfoundinthearchaeologicalrecord.Recentinnovativeresearchemphasizesthe
needfordevelopingcriteriafordiscriminatingbetweenpatterningcreatedbynatureversushumanbehavior.Somearchaeologistshaveconcentratedonsiteformation
(Schiffer1983,1987,1988WillandClark1996WoodandJohnson1978)otherresearchershavefocusedonhowvariousprocessesaffectboneassemblages
(Binford1981,1983BonnichsenandSorg1989).Theseconceptualframeworksforexplainingsiteformationandassemblagecompositionhaveimplicationsfor
approachestoreconstructingthepast.Asignificantshiftinperceptionhascomewiththerecognitionthatgeologicalandpaleoecologicalprocessesyieldoutcomesthat
canbeconfusedwiththoseproducedbyhumans.

Onepurposeofthisstudyistoexplorehowcharcoalbecomesburiedanddistributedinarchaeologicalsites.Ratherthanassumingthatcharcoalfromarchaeological
sitesalwayshasahumanorigin,weexplorethelikelihoodthatbothhumansandnatureintroducecharcoalintoarchaeologicaldeposits.Forexample,whentreesare
uprooted,theyleavedepressions.Availablecharcoalcanbetransportedintotreethrowdepressionsbywind,sheeterosion,orothermechanisms.Treethrow
depressionsserveascatchmentbasins,andafterburialmayresemblefirehearthstotheuntrainedeye.The14Cdatesobtainedoncharcoalfromsuchfeaturescan
causegreatfrustrationandmorethanalittleretrospectiveanalysisonhowtointerpretsitecontextandage.Butunlessthe14Cdatesareconsideredanomalous,then
thereiseverylikelihoodthaterrorinfeatureidentificationwillgounnoticed.Taylor(1987:108)suggests"thecauseofthemajorityofseriouslyanomalous14Cvaluesis
amisidentificationofsamplecontextprovenance."Iftwoormoreburialmechanismsyieldsimilarcharacteristics,theriskofmisinterpretationissignificantlyincreased.
Chamberlin's(1897)approachofmultipleworkinghypothesesprovidesavehicleforconsideringalternativeexplanationstoaccountforcharcoalprovenance.To
demonstratethatonecompetinghypothesisismorelikelythananotherrequiresdevelopmentofempiricalcriteriathatcanbeusedtodiscriminateamonghypotheses.

Webeginwithadiscussionofafewofthenaturalprocessesthatcanintroducecharcoalintoburiedsediments.Thepresentationofmodernforestfireandtreethrow
dynamicsandtheireffectsonthestratigraphicrecordsetsthestageforconsiderationofthe14CchronologicalrecordfromtheNortheast.Understandingthesenatural
processespermitsthedevelopmentofsignaturecharacteristicsfordistinguishingbetweentheresidueofhumanhearthsandtheresidueoftreethrowsandforestfiresin
thestratigraphicrecord.Theutilityofthisapproachforinterpretingarchaeologicalsitecontextsisexploredbyexaminingtherecordfrom14CdatedPaleoamerican
sitesinnortheasternNorthAmerica.

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ForestFires,TreeThrows,andHearths

MODERNANALOGSprovideadirectapproachforunderstandinghowculturalandnaturalprocessesproduce,deposit,andpreservecharcoalinshallowsubsurface
deposits.Here,wediscussdifferencesbetweencharcoalsamplesaccumulatedbyforestfiresandtreethrowsandhearths.

ForestFiresandTreeThrows

ONLYABOUT5PERCENToffiresarecatastrophicinnaturebuttheyaccountfor95percentoftheacreageburned(Connoretal.1989:296).Assuch,wildfiresproduce
thevastmajorityofcharcoalthathasthepotentialtointrudeintosubsurfacedeposits,includingarchaeologicalsites.Largewildfiresoftenareacoalescenceofseveral
smallerfireswithinaregion.Burningisnotuniformandoccursinamosaicpattern.Theinteractionofseveralfactors,includingavailabilityoffuel,moisturelevel,slope,
andwindvelocity,determinedirectionandintensityofburns.

Somedatashowthatburningisassociatedwithclimaticchange.Barnosky(1987:29),forexample,indicatesthataclimaticshiftduringthelastmillenniumhasledto
drierconditionsandanincreasedfirefrequencyintheYellowstonearea.InthenortheasternUnitedStates,theextentofbothpineandbirchinforestsduringtheearly
Holocenebetween10,000and8,000yearsago,asindicatedinpollensamples,"suggeststhatconditionsweredryovermuchofthisregion,andthatfirefrequency
mayhavebeenhigherthaninlatertimes"(Jacobsonetal.1987:282).Thefrequencyofnaturalfiresandtheirroleinrestructuringecosystemsispoorlyunderstood
becauseofthelackoflongtermevidence.Clark's(1988a,1988b,1989)northwesternMinnesotaresearchintotheeffectsofclimatechangeonfireregimesprovides
animportantmodelforunderstandingthelinkagebetweenfireandclimaticchange.Byexaminingfireburnscarsscorchedintothecambiumlayerofpinetrees,tree
ringdroughtindices,andcharcoalfromvarvedlakesediments,Clarkilluminateslongtermtrendsgoverningintensityandperiodicityofburning.

Bothlowintensityandhighintensityfiresoccurnaturally.Clark(1989)indicatesthathardwoodforestsusuallydecomposerapidly.Theyleavebehindalayerof
lignenamajorconstituentofplantcellwallsthatalsoisverycombustible.Coarsewoodydebrisconstitutesanothertypeoffuel.Asearlysuccessionspecies,suchas
paperbirchandaspen,dieout,theirbranchesandstemslitterthegroundandproducedangerousfireconditions.Whenfiresoccurfrequently,thesefuelsremain
sparse,donotaccumulate,andpreventcatastrophicburning.Withoutfire,athicklayeroforganichumusanddeadwoodaccumulatesontheforestfloor.Ifhumus
driesduringdroughtconditions,thestageissetforintenseburning.Undertheseconditions,firewillmoverapidlythroughtheforestunderstory,ignitingfallenwoody
debris.

Undernaturalconditions,foratleastthepast700years,periodswithoutmajorfireshavebeentheexceptioninMinnesota(Clark1989).Themaximumabundance
andfrequencyoflowintensityfiresinnorthwesternMinnesotaoccurredduringthewarmanddry15thand16thcenturies.Lowerintensityfiresburnedontheaverage
ofeveryeightyears,withhigherintensityfiresevery40to50years.Withtheonsetofthemoisterandcoolerconditionsofthe"LittleIceAge"about400yrB.P.,fire
intensitydecreaseddramatically.Smallfiresburnedevery14years,withlargerfiresevery80to90years.

The1988catastrophicwildfireintheYellowstoneregionprovidesanaturallaboratoryforinvestigatingtheeffectsofnaturalwildfiresonsediments,evenifitisargued
thattheeventwastheproductoffiresuppressionpractices(seeConnoretal.1989).Inseekingtounderstandtheeffectsofintenseburning,Connoretal.(1989)
excavatedseverallocationsintheGrandTetonNationalParkandYellowstoneNationalParkareas.Ingeneraltheyobservedthatthedepthoftheburnlayervaried
withsoiltype,moisturecontentofsoil,andintensityanddurationofthefire.Since1988wasadryyear,soilmoisturewasverylow.Thefiresburnedtheduffonthe
forestfloorandleftathinlayerofburnedmaterial,about510cmthick.Belowthislayeroccurredanunalteredsoil.AttheJohnD.Rockefeller,Jr.,Memorial
Parkway(JDRParkwaysection)southofYellowstoneNationalPark(Connoretal.1989:295,Figure2),fireburnedthroughtheduffandcharredtheuppersurface
ofroots.Wettstead(1988),workingintheAshlandDistrictoftheCusterNationalForest,Montana,reportscaseswheretherootsystemwastotallyburnedout.Only
holeswereleftinthesoil.

Firetemperaturealsoplaysaroleininfluencingwhatremainsafteraburn.Connoretal.(1989)notethatwhiteashoccurswherefuelcombustioniscomplete.White
ashisanindicatorofburnswithhighsurfacetemperaturesintherangeof500700C.Thesedepositsrapidlydisappearwithpostfireprecipitation.Forexample,
Connorandherteamfoundnoevidenceofwhiteashintheirexcavationata1979JacksonLake,

 Page398

Wyoming,burn.ThroughoutmuchoftherecentYellowstoneburn,orangestainedsoilisnoticeablewheretherewasnoprotectiveduff.Oxidationoccurswhen
temperaturesreach100700C.Soilcolorschangefromlightbrown(Munsell7.5YR6/4)toorange.Thesestainsoccurbelowdeadfallandbeneathtreesthatfell
duringthefire.Stainshastehalfmoonshapesandoccurunderthecenterofdeadwood.

TreeThrows

LARGEFIRESHAVEthecapabilitytogeneratewindsresultingfromconvectioncurrents.Thesewindscanspreadfireandaffectintensityofburningtheyalsohavethe
abilitytoproduceblowdownsoftrees.Figure1illustratesanareaofYellowstoneParkimpactedbytreefallsduringthe1988fire.Withtheremovalofsurface
vegetation,opportunitiesforerosionareenhanced.Charcoalfromburningofsurfacetimber,aswellasthestandingforest,willbecarriedbysheeterosioninto
topographicallylowareasoftreethrowpitsandbeburied.

Othernaturalactivity,suchastreesdyingfromlightningstrikes,theattackofpathogenicorganisms,orwindandicestormsandrelatedcatastrophicevents,cancause
treestotoppleover.Thelatterprocessgreatlyaffectssoilstratigraphyandliterallycanresultinthesoilbeingentirelyturnedoverthroughtime.Forexample,Norton
(1988)usedsoilturnoverhalflife(theperiodoftimeinwhichhalfthesoilhasbeenturnedover)todeterminetheareaofsoildisturbedinaNewZealandforest.He
amplifiedpreviousestimatesbyfactoringintohisequationthetendencyoftreestobecomereestablishedonmounds(LyfordandMacLean1966),theperiodoftime
inwhichaforestreestablishesitselfinanopeningandgrowstomaturity,andthepropensityofaforesttobeblownoveragain.Hearrivedatasoilturnoverhalflifeof
2,960yearsbyapplyinghismethodtoalonglivedconiferforest.Usingthisestimate,90percentofthesoilinaforestwouldbedisturbedbyuprootingtreesafter
10,000years.WhenconsideredinthecontextofnortheasternNorthAmerica,wherepaleoecologicalreconstructionsshowtheareawascolonizedbyforestaround
10,500yrB.P.(Jacobsonetal.1987),thenthepossibilityofextensivesoildisturbanceduetotreethrowingisgreat.

Treeuprootingalsoproducesfeaturesonthelandscapethatremaindiscernibleformanyyears(Figure2).Schaetzletal.1988cPutzandcoworkers(Putz1983
Putzetal.1983:1012)explainthatatreeisuprootedwhensubjectedtolateralforcesonthecrownandstemthatexceedrootsoilholdingstrengthandthatfailto
breakthestem.Soiladherestotherootsofuprootedtreesandcontributestocharacteristicpit/moundmicrotopographyandinvertedsoilhorizons.Pitsmarkthe
formerpositionoftherootsandamoundformswheresoilslumpsoffadeteriorating,displacedrootplate(Schaetzletal.1988a,1988b).

Figure1.
1988burnareainYellowstoneNationalPark.Notecommonoccurrenceoffireinducedtree
fallsprovidesopportunitiesforacceleratederosion.

 Page399

Figure2.
Illustrationofforestfollowing1979GrandTeton,Wyomingbum.Dieofffollowingburning
leadstotreefallsandpitmoundtopography.

Theinitialsizeofthepitisafunctionofdepthandhorizontalspreadofrootsystems.Theamountofsoildisturbedbyuprootingisdependentonthedepthandspread
oftherootsystem.Rootplatesizeisprimarilyafunctionoftreesize.Formanytrees,rootingdepthscontinuetoincreaseasafunctionoftreediameters,uptothelimit
of40cmatbreastheight,beyondwhichrootsystemsdonotappeartoexpand.Maximumrootplatevolumesreachvaluesof4m3.Healthytreesdisturbmoresoil
thandodeadordyingtrees.

Thesizeofapit/moundpairisconditionedbytheamountofsoilthatreturnstothepitthroughslump,wash,andsplashprocessesthatdecreasepitandmoundvolume.
Someofthefactorsthataffecttheslumpprocessaresoiltexture,structure,gravelcontent,freeze/thawactivity,rateofdecayofthebindingroots,faunalactivitywithin
andonthesurfaceoftherootplate,andefficiencyofrainwashindislodgingsoilfromtherootplate(Schaetzletal.1988a,1988b).

Pit/moundmicrosurfacescanbeclassifiedonthebasisofshapecharacteristics.Simpletreefallsusuallyresultinovoidpits.Slightbackwarddisplacementduringtree
fallmayformcrescenticpits.Partialbackwarddisplacementoftherootmassmayresultintwosmallpitsoneithersideofamound.Acompletebackward
displacementoftherootplateduringfallmayformapitontheleesideofthemound(Schaetzletal.1988a,1988b).

Theslumpofsoilparticlesandclastsfromtherootplateisaneffectivesoilmixing(pedoturbation)mechanism,oftencreatingirregularanddiscontinuoushorizons
withinthetreethrowmoundandpit.Ifrootdecayand/ordeteriorationoccursslowly,materialslumpsofftherootplateinsmallstructuralunits.Inthiscase,most,if
notall,oftheoriginalsoilhorizonationmaybelost.Ontheotherhand,rapiddecayoftherootplate,asisoftenthecasewithhardwoods,maycausesoiltofalloffthe
platebeforeotherprocessescanbreakuplargehorizonclasts,andthissoilmaybecomeburiedinthemoundorpit.Duringtheslumpprocess,largesectionsof
horizonsmayfoldovereachother.Additionally,rocks,gravel,andlargeclastsmaybebroughttothesurfacebyuprootingandredepositedinthemoundsorpits.

Visiblepit/moundlongevityisafunctionofsoilenvironmentanddatingaccuracy.Severallinesofevidence,includingtreerings,buriedwood,moundmorphology,soil,
and14Cages,havebeenusedtoestimateageofpit/moundfeatures(Schaetzletal.1988a:Table1).Thesedatasuggestagerangesfromabout2,000yearsagotothe
present.Oldermoundsmaybeleveledandpitscompletelyfilledbysedimentsandorganicmaterialstransportedbyslopewash.Onlythroughcontrolledexcavations,
suchasthoseconductedonarchaeologicalsites,willfossilevidenceforpit/moundtopographyroutinelybeexposed.Wesafelymayassumethatevidencefor
stratigraphicdisturbancebytreethrowshasgreattimedepth.

Tosummarize,factorsthatdistinguishpitscreatedbytreethrowsandforestfiresinclude:(1)pit

 Page400

depressionshavemoundsononlyoneside(2)pitsizesvarysubstantiallyindiameterfromlessthan0.5mtomorethan4m(3)pitshapeinplanviewvariesfrom
ovoidtoirregular(4)pitcrosssectionsusuallyarenotsymmetricalandprofilebottomsvaryconsiderably(5)soilinversionsand/orclastsofsoilhorizonsmaybe
presentinpitfill(6)pitfilldepositsmaycontainmixedassemblagesofcharcoalfrommorethanoneburningevent(7)rocks,artifacts,andcharcoalmaybescattered
throughoutthepitfillbutseldom,ifever,areconcentratedindiscretelayersand8)nooxidationzoneispresentinpitbottomsfromprolongedburning.

Hearths

ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICALSTUDIESdocumentthathearthsarelocationswheresocializing,cooking,manufacturing,andotheractivitiesoccur(JodryandStanford1992:155).
Thisprobablyistrueinprehistoryaswell.Althoughhearthfunctionsvaryfromareatoarea,everyoneunderstoodtheimportanceoffireforwarmth,cooking,andfor
processingactivities.Hearthsgenerallyoccurintwoforms:assimplesurfacefeatureswherefiresarebuiltonthegroundandaspits.Pithearthsprotectfiresfrom
windsandconserveenergybyretainingandradiatingheatupward.

Probablythemostcommontypeoffireplacesimplywasafireonthegroundsurface.Unfortunately,theresidualcharcoalscatterfromthistypeoffeatureisdifficultto
recognizeinarchaeologicalcontexts.DefiniteshapedhearthsfromthePaleoamericanperiodaredescribedheretoprovideanalogsforwhattoexpectinhearthsizes
andothercharacteristicsinlatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenearchaeologicalsites.LorenzoandMirambell(1986)reportoneoftheearliestpublishedhearths.This
undisturbedfeatureconsistedofacircleofproboscideantarsalbonessurroundingazoneofcharcoalabout30cmindiameterand2cmthick.AttheAgateBasinsite,
intheFolsomcomponent,theactuallimitsofsomehearthsaredifficulttodetermine.AhearthfromtheupperFolsomlevel,approximately75cmindiameterand13.1
cmdeep,isillustratedbyFrisonandStanford(1982:74,Figure2.43).ThelowerFolsomlevelhearthissemicircularinplanviewand75cmindiameter.Itwas6cm
deepandcontainedasmallamountofcharcoal(FrisonandStanford1982:71,Figure2.81).AssociatedwiththeHellGapcomponentortheAgateBasinsite,asemi
circularhearthoccurredasashallowovalbasinabout7cmindepth,withamaximumdiameterof75cm.Charcoalash,calcinedbone,andfracturedtoolswere
associatedwiththishearth.AsecondhearthintheHellGapcomponenthadasemicircularoutlinewithamaximumdiameterof75cm(FrisonandStanford
1982:141).Itsshallowbasinwasabout8cminmaximumdepthandincludedfirecrackedrocksandpartoftheproximalendofaHellGapprojectilepoint.

Bryan(1979,1988)reportsfivehearthsatSmithCreekCave,nearBaker,Nevada,inassociationwiththeMountMoriahoccupation.Eightdatesfromthesehearths
rangeinagefrom9940160yrB.P.(Tx1420)to11,140200yrB.P.(Tx1637).Althoughhearthdepthsarenotprovided,allhaveovalshapesunder1min
maximumlength,asillustratedinplanview(Bryan1988:Figure6).AshdepositsassociatedwiththesehearthssuggesttoBryanthattheywerereusedbythesame
socialgroupthroughtime.

Table1.
SomeAttributesthatDifferentiateNaturalPitFeaturesfromHearthFeatures.
Attribute NaturalFeature HearthFeature
Pitsize Fromlessthan0.5mtomorethan4min Usuallylessthan1mindiameter
diameter
Planview Variesfromovoidtoirregular Symmetrical
Crosssection Notsymmetricalandvariablefloorprofile Symmetricalwithevenfloorprofile
Charcoallocation Scatteredthroughoutpitfillandseldom Charcoalusuallyconcentratedonthepit
concentratedindiscretelayers floor
Oxidationzone Noneinpitfloor Oftenundercharcoallayerfrom
prolongedburning
Backdirtlocation Usuallyononesideonly Usuallyonmorethanoneside

 Page401

Inviewoftheabovediscussion,characteristicsselectedforidentifyingpotentialhearthsinclude:(1)pitsizesusuallyarelessthan1.0mindiameter(2)pitshavea
symmetricalplanview(3)charcoalusuallyisconcentratedonthepitfloor(4)hearthpitsintrudethroughsoildevelopmenthorizons(5)backdirtfrompitexcavation
usuallyoccursonmorethanonesideofthepit(6)pitbottomsmayhaveaburnedoxidationzoneunderacharcoallayerand(7)hearthpitsmayberocklinedto
enhancetheheatingcapabilitiesofthehearth.

TheattributesthatdifferentiatenaturalpitfeaturesfromhearthsareshowninTable1.Althoughthereissomeoverlapinsizecategories,thefeaturesaredistinguishedin
theaggregate.Inaddition,soilinversionsand/orclastsofsoilhorizonsarenotuncommonintreethrowfeaturesbutunexpectedinhearthfeatures.Hearthsmaybe
rocklined,butthisisneveracharacteristicofanaturalpitfeature.

RadiocarbonDatingNortheasternPaleoamericanSites

DURINGTHELASTDECADE,numerousPaleoamericansiteshavebeenreportedfromnortheasternNorthAmerica(Bonnichsenetal.1991Deller1988Ellis1984Gramly
1982Jackson1983Lepper1983MacDonald1983Meltzer1984,1987SpiessandWilson1987).Webeginwithadiscussionof14Cdatedfeatureswherethe
resultsclearlydidnotdatetothePaleoamericanperiod.Closerexaminationoffeaturesrevealsthattheylikelyweretheproductsofnaturalratherthanculturalevents.
Next,weexaminesiteswherelatePleistoceneorearlyHolocene14Cdateshavebeenobtained,butwhereitisdifficulttodeterminefromreportswhethernaturalor
culturaleventsarebeingdated.Theobjectiveoftheexerciseisnottocallintoquestionthescholarshipofindividualresearchers,buttomakeapleaforbetter
reportingonculturalfeaturesandsomereconsiderationofwhenPaleoamericansmayhavecolonizednortheasternNorthAmerica.Thesitesselectedfordiscussion
include:theMunsungunLakesitecomplexinnorthernMainetheNicholassiteinsouthwestern,Mainethe

Figure3.
LocationsofearlysitesinnortheasternNorthAmericathatarediscussedintext.

 Page402

Debertsite,NovaScotiatheVailsiteinwesternMainetheMichaudsiteinsouthernMainetheBullBrooksite,MassachusettsandtheDutchessQuarryCaves,
No.1andNo.8,NewYork.Abriefoutlineofsitelocation,context,andstratigraphyispresentedinconjunctionwithadiscussionoftheradiocarbondatesfrom
eachsite.Allcited14Cdatesarepresentedasuncorrectedradiocarbonyearsbeforepresent.RatherthanusetheconventionRCYRBP(radiocarbonyearsbefore
present),weuseyrB.P.tosignifyradiocarbonyearsbeforepresent.

MunsungunLakeSiteComplex

THEMUNSUNGUNLAKEsitecomplexislocatedinnorthcentralMaineinthevicinityofMunsungunLake,attheheadoftheAroostookRiverdrainagesystem(Figure
3).Duringlateglacialtimes,meltwaterstreamspartiallydissectedthebedrockbetweentheChaseandMunsungunlakebasins,creatingseveralglacialspillways.A
seriesofkameterraces,markingformerstreamlevelswhileicewasstillinthebasins,wasdepositedalongthemarginsofthespillwaychannels(Bonnichsen1984
Bonnichsenetal.1981Clay1983).TheFlutedPointandWindyCitysitesoccuronthe14mkameterraceandwerethefocusofexcavationsbyUniversityof
Maineteamsfrom1980to1983.

TheFlutedPointSite

THEFLUTEDPOINTSITEislocatedonthenorthwestendofMunsungunLakeandoccursbetweentwoglacialspillwaychannelsonasectionoftherelativelyfiatnorth
southtrending14mkameterrace.Shoveltestsindicatehumanoccupationcoveredtheentire3,000m2(1/3ha)oftheterracesurface.Terracesedimentsare
composedofgravelandareoverlainbyabout0.5mofcolluvium.TillmayunderlaythegravelandisexposedatthebaseofaunitonthcFlutedPointsite(H.W.
Barns,Jr.andD.Belknap,personalcommunication1987).Athinspodosol,apodzolicsoil,hasdevelopedinthecolluvium.Postglacialdepositionhasbeenminimal
mostartifactsoccurwithin20cmofthesurface.SeeBonnichsenetal.1991forasummaryoftheartifacts.Preliminaryartifactanalysessuggestthislocalityservedas
aworkshopformanufacturingartifactsfromnearbyMunsungunLakeFormationcherts(Bonnichsenetal.1981).

CharcoalsamplesfromMunsungunwereprocessedattheSmithsonianInstitutionRadiationBiologyLaboratory,Washington,D.C.AllsamplesreceivedNaOH/Hcl
pretreatmentaswellasnitrationpretreatmentforremovalofallunchartedcellulose,includingdissolvedrootmaterial(Stuckenrath,personalcommunication1981).

Feature1,anintrusivepit,containedscatteredcharcoal,flakes,andburnedrocks.Itwasinterpretedasahearthatthetimeofitsdiscovery.Eightcharcoalsamples
fromthefeatureyieldedradiocarbondeterminationsof2810+60yrB.P.(SI4689),300540yrB.P.(SI4691),340545yrB.P.(SI4693),310580yr
B.P.(SI4700),301570yrB.P.(SI4701),309075yrB.P.(SI4707),313065yrB.P.(SI4708),and326585yrB.P.(SI4713),withanaverageof
3103yrB.P.(Table2).

Fourcharcoalsamplesfromasecond"hearth"featureattheFlutedPointsiteyielded14Cagedeterminationsof115060yrB.P.(SI4715),74064yrB.P.(SI
4717),83060yrB.P.(SI4718),and90560yrB.P.(SI4719),withanaverageof906yrB.P.Soildatesrunonthehumiccontentofthelocalspodosol
collectedfromseveraldifferentlocationsatthesiteare80+50yrB.P.(SI4684),3550yrB.P.(SI4705),18575yrB.P.(SI4705a)41070yrB.P.(SI
4706),and94585yrB.P.(SI4703).

UponreceiptoftheseradiocarbondeterminationsoflateHoloceneage,andtheacknowledgmentthattherewerenocontaminationproblemswiththecharcoal
samples,thehypothesisthatthesefeatureswerePaleoamericanhearthshadtoberejected.Reexaminationoffloorplansandstratigraphiccontextsshowsthatthe
attributesofthesefeaturesmorecloselyresemblednaturalpitscreatedwhentreethrowcradleswerefilledwithcharcoalfromnaturalburnevents.Additionaldata
supportthisconclusion.Orme(1982)suggeststhatplotting14Cdateerrorstotwostandarddeviationsyieldsthemostreliableresultsforinterpretingradiocarbonages.
Figure4illustratesthattheMunsungunradiocarbonagesclusterintothreewelldefinedgroups.Thefirstclusterintheupperrighthandcornershowsoverlappingerror
barsbetween3500and2800yrB.P.Thesecondclusterofradiocarbondeterminationsoccursbetween1400and700yrB.P.Thethirdclusterofagesisbasedon
humicsoilsamples,whichclusterbetween650and0yrB.P.

ThefirsttwoclusterssuggestseparateforestfiresimpactedtheMunsungunThoroughfarearea.Thelastclusterofdatessuggeststhatburningeventsmayhave
destroyedtheorganiccomponentoftheuppersoil

 Page403

Table2.
RadiocarbonDatesfromNortheasternPaleoamericansites.
Site/Material* 14 LabNo. Reference
CAge
FlutedPointSitel5414
soil 8050 SI4684
cl 281060 SI4689
cl 245560 SI4690
cl 300540 SI4691
cl 340545 SI4693
cl 910100 SI4695
cl 34075 SI4696
cl 310580 SI4700
cl 301570 SI4701
cl 94585 SI4703
soil 3550 SI4705
soil 18575 SI4705a
soil 41070 SI4706
cl 309075 SI4707
cl 313065 SI4708
cl 326585 SI4713
cl 115060 SI4715
cl 74064 SI4717
cl 83060 SI4718
cl 90560 SI4719
WindyCity
(Feature1)cl 3300 SIN/A Stuckenrath,
pers.comm.1986
Nicholascl 660090 Beta81131 Wilsonetal.
1995
Debert
pitch 503370 P744 MacDonald1968
(Feature3)cl 768592 P740 ''
(Feature4) 10,466128 P743 "
(Feature7)cl 10,656134 P739 "
cl 10,545126 P741 "
cl 10,572121 P966 "
cl 10,641244 P967 "
(Feature11)cl 10,518120 P970 "
(Feature11)cl 10,467118 P970A "
(Feature11)cl 10,773226 P971 "
(Feature12)cl 10,511120 P972 "
(Feature15)c1 10,652114 P973 "
(Feature16)cl 10,837119 P974 "
(Feature17)cl 11,026225 P975 "
(Feature19)cl 10,128275 P977 "
(averageof13) 10,600 "
47**
VailSite
(Feature2)cl 10,500400 AA117
(Feature1)cl 10,600400 AA114
(Feature2)cl 10,550800 AA115
(averageof3) 10,500300
(Feature1)h 10,040400 AA116
(Feature1)cl 11,120180 Beta1833
(Feature1)cl 10,30090 SI4617
Michaud
cl 9010210 Beta13833
cl 10,200620 Beta15660
Whipple
cl 9600500 AA149a
cl 9400500 AA149a
cl 9700700 AA149b
(averageof3) 9550320
cl 10,300500 AA150a
cl 11,400360 AA150c
(averageof2) 1,050360
cl 8180360 GX7496
cl 8240340 GX7497
BullBrook
cl 6940800 M809
cl 9300400 M807
cl 8940400 M810
cl 8720400 M808
cl 8560285 GX6279
cl 7590255 GX6278
cl 5440160 GX6277
6LF21/Templeton
cl 10,190300 W3931
TurkeySwamp
cl 8739165 DIC1059
cl 7980150 DIC1060
cl 7950110 DIC1057
cl 7820215 DIC1061
cl 7660325 DIC1058
DutchessQuarryCave
CaveNo1.b 12,53037 0114317
CaveNo2.cl 5880340 DIC14447
WapanucketNo.8
cl 898100 Y1168
cl 4708140 M1350
Code:cl=charcoalh=humateb=bone
**Theaveragestandarddeviationofthe13datesis159,not

 Page404

horizonandthatmodernsoildevelopmentdidnotbeginuntilrecenttimes.CorroboratingevidenceforlocalburningisfoundintheChaseLakepollendiagram
preparedbyR.B.Davis(personalcommunication1986).ThisunpublishedpollendiagramindicatesthepresenceofhighcharcoalcountsintheChaseLakepollen
coreat3100and900yrB.P.andagaininhistorictimes.Thus,itisreasonabletoconcludethattheshallowlyburiedMunsungunLakesiteshavebeenseriously
disturbedbytreethrowsandforestfires.

TheWindyCitySite

THEWINDYCITYSITEoccurswithinathinmantleofloessonapointoverlookingtheoutletofChaseLake(Figure3).Itssurfacehasapit/moundtopographyandis
partiallycoveredbymaturespruce(Piceasp.)andaforestmat.Ashoveltestingprogramrevealedthatflakesaredistributedoverabout200m2.SeePayne(1987)
andBonnichsenetal.(1991)fordiscussionoftheartifacts.Duringthe1983fieldseason,excavationsexposedwhatinitiallywasidentifiedasahearth(FiguresSand
6).Thefilldepositscontainedwhatappearedtobegrayashinassociationwithfirecrackedrocks,andchertflakes.Acharcoallensexposedatthebottomofthe
featureyieldedaradiocarbonageof3300yrB.P.(labnumberwasnotassigned)(R.Stuckenrath,personalcommunication1986).Thisunexpecteddateledtoa
reassessmentof135mmcoloredslidesofthefeature.Amoreprobableexplanationisthatatreethrowpit,linkedwithaforestfireandsheeterosion,ledtoan
associationofcharcoal,rock,andflakeswithinthepit.TheorangecolorofthefilldepositslikelyisadisturbedBsoilhorizon.Thegrayashymaterialfromthebottom
ofthepitisnotashratheritisanA2soilhorizon,partofapostfiresoildevelopment.The3300yrB.P.determinationfromWindyCitycorrelateswellwiththefirst
clusterofdatesfromtheFlutedPointsiteanditalsocorrelateswiththecharcoalconcentrationfromtheChaseLakepollencore.

TheNicholasSite

THENICHOLASSITEislocatedonaformerterraceoftheLittleAndroscogginRiverinOxford,Maine(Wilsonetal.1995)(Figure3).Fourdiscretelocicovering
approximately25m2eachwerediscoveredatthissiteandexcavatedin1993and1994.Theyweredepositedinsandneartheterracemargin.Themajorityof
artifactswererecoveredbetween10and50cmbelowsurfacethegreatestdensitywasfoundinawellexpressedBsoilhorizon.Thesiteareahadbeenpreviously
plowedanddisturbancescausedbyrodentactivitywerediscernible.Allofthelocicontained

Figure4.
RadiocarbondatesfromtheFlutedPointsite,MunsungunLakeMaine.

 Page405

Figure5.
Planview(top)andprofile(bottom)oftreethrowpitwithcharcoallensand
flakes,WindyCitysite,northernMaine(excavationunit159S450E,Feature1).

culturalassemblagesoflithicdebitage,unifaces,andbifaces.Threelocicontainedsmallsamplesoftinycalcinedbonefragments.Thebifaceassemblageiscomposed
of39specimens,includingsmalllanceolatespearpointswithstraighttoslightlyconcavebases,somebasalthinning,andpressureflakededges.Thespecimensmost
closelyapproximateinformandtechnologyHolcombepointsfromtheeasternGreatLakesregion,whicharethoughttobeabout10,000yearsold.

Severalprobabletreethrowfeatureswereidentifiedonsite.Onefeature,however,whichwaslocatedinlocus4,wasmoreregularlyshapedthantheothers.Itwas
conicalincrosssectionandcontainedartifactstoadepthofalmost110cmbelowsurface.Pine(Pinussp.)charcoaloccurredinthefeaturebetween40and50cm
belowsurface,anditproducedadateof660090yrB.P(Beta81131).TheinvestigatorsoftheNicholassiteconsiderthis14Cdatemuchtooyoungforthe
archaeologicalassemblage.Thecharacteristicsofthisfeaturearemuchmoresimilartothoseproducedbyatreethroweventthanthoseofahearthfeature(seeTable
1).

TheDebertSite

THEDEBERTSITEislocatedattheheadofCobeqidBay,intheBayofFundy,NovaScotia(Figure3),onasandyridgeapproximately4.2kmfromthesettlementof
Debert(MacDonald1968).ExcavationsoccurredatDebertduringthe1963and1964fieldseasons.Thesiteoriginallymayhavecoveredabout20acres,butonly7
acresremainedintactafterbulldozerdestruction.

DebertwasthefirstlargenortheasternPaleoamericansitetobeinvestigatedsystematicallybyaninterdisciplinaryteamofprofessionalspecialists.More14Cdateshave
beenrunonDebertcharcoalthananyothernortheasternPaleoamericansite,otherthan

 Page406

Figure6.
CloseupoftreethrowfilldepositsFeatureIfromtheWindyCitysite,Maine.

theMunsungunLakeFlutedPointsite.ProceduresforinterpretingnortheasternradiocarbondatesfirstwereestablishedatDebertandhavesincebeenfollowed
elsewhere.

ArchaeologicalmaterialsfromtheDebertsiteoccurinsandydeposits.TheparentmatrixforallstratigraphichorizonsistheunderlyingredWolfvilleSandstone.
Excavationofeightsections(A,B,C,F,G,H,I,andJ)occurredwithinanareaof200x600ft.SectionsD,E,andOnewerescatteredoveranother20acres
(MacDonald1968:21).Tenofthe11featuresandmorethan90percentoftheartifactscamefromtheconcentratedcentralsection.MacDonald(1968:23)is
uncertainastowhethertheshiftoflocationsrepresentsatemporalsuccessionofoccupationsorsimplydifferentareasofoccupationalspecialization(MacDonald
1968:23).Fordiscussionsofthestonetoolassemblage,refertoMacDonald(1968)andBonnichsenetal.(1991).

ThirteenoftheDebert14Cdatesaverage10,60047yrB.P.(MacDonald1968).DifferenceswiththeinterpretationofthesedatesbyMacDonaldcanbefoundin
Levine(1990:4750).Feature3doesnotmatchthe10,000yearoldclusterofdatesitisassociatedwithapproximately80artifactsandproducedaradiocarbonage
of7685+92yrB.P.(P740).Ontheonehand,theaberrantdateofthisfeatureisexplainedastheresultofpostoccupationcontamination.Analternatehypothesis
toexplainFeature3isthatitwascreatedbyaforestfireat7600yrB.P.Andwiththispossibilityinmind,italsoisnecessarytoconsiderothersitedatessuspecteven
iftheyappeartodatetotheappropriatetimeperiodforPaleoamericanoccupation.Thecombinationoflocalforestfiresandbioturbationofsitedepositsmayhaveled
totheintrusionofforestfirecharcoalintositedeposits.Severallinesofevidencesuggestthisindeedmaybethecase.Forexample,inSectionF,Feature17,tracesof
aburnedtreewerefoundtoextendintothepit,blurringthepitoutline.Additionally,MacDonald(1968)reportsthewidespreadoccurrenceofthinlyscattered
charcoalaroundseveralfeatures.InSectionG,Feature12,forinstance,thindepositsofcharcoalextendoveranareacoveringapproximately6m2.

PlanviewmapsofsectionsAJintheDebertsitereportdocumentfeatureoutlines.Theirformsrangeinshapefromnearlycircular,toelongatedovoids,toirregular.
Sizesvaryfromunder0.5mindiametertoalmost2macrossthelongestaxis.Inaddition,depthoffeaturesalsovariesconsiderably.Profilesofstratigraphictrenches
arenotpresentedformostsectionsofthesite.ProfilesfromsectionsA,F,andJ(MacDonald1968:Figure7)areadjacenttofeatures15and18,respectively
(MacDonald1968:Figure7).Theseprofilecrosssectionsdisplaymoundingononesideofthepit,differentshapes,irregularbottomprofiles,andscatteredcharcoal
throughoutthe

 Page407

deposits.Takentogether,manyofthesefeaturesconformmorefavorablyinshapeandcrosssectionwithexpectationsfortreethrowsthanforhumanhearths.

StratigraphicinversionsalsooccuratDebert.InSectionD,Feature7consistsofsevendistinctpitsthatareintrusiveintotilldeposits.Thepitscontainedburnedflakes
andcharcoal,andwerepartiallycoveredbyacappingoftill.MacDonaldbelievedthatthetillcapswereproducedbypostoccupationtreethrows,butlater
concludedthatthesefeaturesrepresentedheattreatmentovens.Forestfiresandtreethrowsalsocouldaccountfortheinclusionofflakesandcharcoalandthe
inversionofunderlyingtilldepositsfromtreeuprootingintothefilldeposits.

Whenshapeandsizedataof"hearth"featuresaretakenintoaccount,alongwithinvertedstratigraphy,considerabledoubtisraisedaboutthehumanoriginsofthe
features.Byconsideringtheregionalenvironmentalrecord,acasecanbemadethattheclimaticchangethatcoincidedwiththePaleoamericanperiodmaybe
responsibleforthewidespreadburningandtheproductionofcharcoalthatwasincorporatedintoarchaeologicalsites.Mottetal.(1986)andMott(1988)report
stratigraphicandpalynologicevidenceofalateglacialclimaticoscillationinsouthernNewBrunswickandNovaScotia.Theynoteageneralwarmingtrendduringthe
lateglacialthatlasteduntilabout11,000yrB.P.,followedbyacooleranddryerintervalthatlasteduntilabout10,000yrB.P.Preliminaryevidencesuggeststhis
periodofclimaticchangemaycorrelatewiththeYoungerDryasofEurope.InhisAmericanQuaternaryAssociationpresentation,Mott(1988)notedthatspruce
(Piceasp.)advancednorthwarduntilabout11,000yrB.P.andthenretreatedsouthwardascoolingoccurred.

Coolinganddryingconditions,whichprevailedbetween11,000and10,000B.P.,mayhavefosteredtheoccurrenceofregionalforestfires.AlthoughMott(personal
communication1988)hasyettoanalyzethecharcoalcontentofhispalynologicalcores,Green's(1981:Figure2)polleninfluxdiagramfromEverittLake,Nova
Scotia,showsahighcharcoalfrequencyduringlatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenetimes.Davisetal.(1986)andJacobson(personalcommunication,1990)also
reportthatthepreponderanceofcharcoalfromChaseLake,innorthernMaine,LoonLake,ineasternMaine,andPolandSpringandSinkholePond,insouthern
Maine,bracketthePleistocene/Holoceneboundary(SeeDavisandJacobson1985:Figure1forlocationsofthesecoringsites).Collectivelythesedatasuggest
widespreadregionalburninginnorthernNewEnglandduringthePaleoamericanperiod.

IfmuchofthecharcoalfromtheDebertsiteisofnaturalratherthanofhumanorigin,thenDebertmayhavebeenoccupiedpriortoamajorregionalfirethatoccurred
about10,600yrB.P.Exactlyhowmuchearlierthesitewasoccupiedremainstobedetermined,butareasonablehypothesisisthatoccupationoccurredduringthe
warmingintervalabout11,000yearsago,asregionalicewasretreatingnorthward.

TheVailSite

THEVAILSITE,locatedinwesternMaine,occursinanintermontanevalleyalongthemarginofhumanmadeAziscohosLakeadjacenttoanabandonedchannelofthe
MagallowayRiver(Figure3)(Gramly1981a,1981b,1982GramlyandRutledge1981).Artifactualremainsoccurinreworkedsiltysandyclayeysediments.The
Vailsitehasbeenimpactedbyfluctuatinglakelevelsandicescouring,processesthatmayhaveredistributedthelargeassemblageofflakedstoneartifacts.See
Bonnichsenetal.(1991)andGramly(1982)fordiscussionoftheartifacts.

ThecomplexhistorysurroundingtheinterpretationoftheradiocarbonrecordfromVailhasbeenreviewedbyLevine(1990:5255)andwillnotberepeatedhere.
Several14CdateswereobtainedonfeaturestheyarelistedinTable2.Unfortunately,thelackofstratigraphicprofilesfromthesitedoesnotpermitthereadertoform
anindependentevaluationofthedegreeofsitedisturbance.Apersonalvisittothesiteledoneoftheauthors(Bonnichsen)toconcludethatVailhasundergoneserious
disturbance,muchinthesamemannerastheMunsungunLakesites.TheVailsitesurfacehasbeenplanedbyicerampartingandwaveerosion.Consequently,the
knobandkettletopographytypicalofextensivebioturbationisnotreadilyapparentonthesurface.

Gramly(1982:Figure7)reportsthatFeature2waspartiallydisturbedbyatreethrow.Gramlybelievedthispitfeaturemayhavebeenapossiblecachepitbasedon
thediscoveryofdebitageandalargeendscraperinthepit.However,Feature2,whichconsistedofashallowelongatedpitdatedto10,500400yrB.P.(Haynes
etal.1984),alsocanbeinterpretedasanuprootedtreedepressionfilledwithredepositedarchaeologicalmaterial.Gramlydoesnotindicatehowhedeterminedwhich
partofFeature2wasmadebyhumansandwhichpartwasproducedbyatreethrow.AswiththeDebertsite,thechronologicalaffiliationofthisfeatureseems
reasonableforaPaleoamerican

 Page408

periodaffiliation.However,theattributionofthedatedfeatureasculturalmustremainsuspect.

TheMichaudSite

THEMICHAUDSITEislocatedinsouthernMaineneartheLewistonAuburnAirport(Figure3).Thesiteisapproximately1kmsouthoftheLittleAndroscogginRiver
andimmediatelynorthofMooseBrook,atributaryoftheRoyalRiver(Spiess1985SpiessandBrush1987SpiessandWilson1987).

Thesiteoccursonanundulatingsurfaceformedbyrecentlyreactivatedsanddunes.Thesedepositsformedastheoutwashdeltaofalateglacialmarinetransgression
aneventwhichinundatedmuchofcoastalMainebetween12,80011,800yrB.P.GrayclayofthePresumpscotFormationunderliesthedunes.Artifactsfrom
Michaudweredistributedovera75m2areaandthroughouteightloci.Theseloci,whichaverage6m2,rangefromimmediatelyadjacenttooneanothertoabout30m
apart.Excavationrevealedaflakedstonetoolassemblagewithflutedpoints(Bonnichsenetal.1991SpiessandWilson1987).

Feature7,thebestcandidateforaPaleoamericanhearth,laybetweentwoartifactconcentrations.Theundercuteasternwallofthebilobatepit(SpiessandWilson
1987:Figure42)ischaracterizedashaving"...twodeepconicalpitbasesconnectedbyamoreshallowshelf"(SpiessandWilson1987:80).Nocalcinedboneor
lithicmaterialswereassociatedwiththisfeature.

ThetwocharcoalsamplesfromFeature7consistedofbothhardwoodandsoftwoodspecies,afragmentofcharredberry,andsomefrothy,noncharcoal
substancepossiblypitch.Thecharcoalyieldedagesof9010210yrB.P.(Beta13833)and10,200620yrB.P.(Beta15660),withanaverageageof9605yr
B.P.SpiessandWilson(1987:84)speculatethatpitchinsample(Beta13833)causedcontaminationandmayberesponsiblefortheyoungerdate.

Theexcavatorsreportthatmorethan40soildiscolorationfeatureswereexposedandtheseareattributedtoburnedand/orrottentreeroots.Thephysicaldatafrom
thesitealsocanbeusedtosupportanonhumanoriginforthesitefeaturesandcharcoal.Thediscoloredsoilandburnedtreerootsareindicatorsthatthereisa
historyofforestfiresatthesite.Additionally,thebilobateformofFeature7mayconformmorereadilytotheexpectationsforatreethroweventorburnedout
slantedtreeroot.

Whipple

WHIPPLEOCCURSINsouthwesternNewHampshirealongtheAshuelotRiver,atributaryoftheConnecticutRiver(Figure3)(Curran1984,1987).Thesiteissituatedon
thesurfaceofaterraceordeltaicdeposit.AllarchaeologicalremainsoccurwithinStratumIofacomplexsequenceofsedimentarydepositsofstructuredand
unstructuredfinetomediumsands.

Thesitecoversanareaofabout875m2.Unfortunately,seriouslooting,whichnearlydestroyedLocusB,occurredbetweenthetimeofdiscoveryandthetimeof
professionalexcavations.AllPaleoamericanartifacts,charcoal,andboneoccurasclusterswithintheBsoilhorizoninLociAandC(Spiessetal.1984).

CharcoalfromLocusAisamixtureofeitherspruceorpineandhardwoodfromcherry(Prunussp.)oranotherRosaceaespecies.Usingconventionaldating
procedures,pooledsamplesfromsixverticallevels(12cm)fromtheLocusAfeatureyieldedadateof8180360yrB.P.(GX7496)(Table2).Thesecond
sampleofcharcoalfromLocusCisfromsoftwood,hardwood,andwilloworpoplar.ApooledsamplefromLocusC,collectedfrom6to11cmaboveaflutedpoint
fragment,producedanageof8240340yrB.P.(GX7497).

ToclarifytheageofWhipple,Haynesetal.(1984)usedtheTAMSmethodtoproducefiveadditionaldates.TwosampleswereselectedfromLocusC.Onesample
(7060)consistedoftwolumpsofconifercharcoalandtheother(7034)consistedoffourlumpsofhardwoodcharcoal.Theconifercharcoalproducedthreevalues:
9600500(AA149a),9400500(AA149a),and9700700(AA149b)yrB.P.,withanaverageof9550320yrB.P.Thehardwoodcharcoalproduced
datesof10,300500(AA150a)and11,400360(AA150c)yrB.P.,withanaverageof11,05060yrB.P.

Haynesetal.(1984)suggestthereareatleasttwodistinctpopulationsofcharcoalpresentattheWhipplesite.Withtheobjectiveofdetermingthetimeofoccupation
atWhipple,Curran(1984:13)averagesallfiveagestoobtainaweightedmeanof10,680400yrB.P.Averagingisparticularlyinappropriatebecauseitisuncertain
thatallfiveagedeterminationsprovidevaluesforthesameevent.Onthebasisofpublishedinformation,itisnotpossibletodeterminewhetherthetwopopulationsof
charcoalfromWhippleareofhumanornaturalorigin,oracombinationofthetwo.

 Page409

BullBrook

BULLBROOKISLOCATEDinnortheasternMassachusettsinaseaboardlowlandsetting(Figure3).Thesiteconsistsoftwosections:BullBrookIandBullBrookII
(Curran1987Grimes1979Grimesetal.1984).ThesiteislocatednearPlumIslandSoundandliesondeltalikesandandgraveldeposits.

Thesitewascollectedbynonspecialistsovera20yearperiodinresponsetoacontinuingearthremovaloperation.Artifactsandthousandsofpiecesofdebitage
wererecoveredfromanareameasuring8hectares.BullBrookIconsistsofatleast12lociandmorethan1,000tools.BullBrookII,locatedabout300mfromBull
BrookI,hasyieldedatleastsixlociand487tools.

Byers'(1959)andGrimes'(1979)attemptstodeveloparadiocarbonchronologyforthisimpressivesitehaveresultedinaseriesofHoloceneagedates.Thesedates
aredifficulttoevaluatebecausecollectionprovenanceisabsentfromthepublishedliterature.Byers(1959:428)notesthesamplethatproducedtheageof8720400
yrB.P.(M808)apparentlywasinassociationwithchipsandartifactsandcontainedafewrootlets.Grimes'(1979)attempttoprovideamoresecurechronological
frameworkforBullBrookdidnotproducepositiveresults.Agedeterminationsof8560285(GX6279)yrB.P.onwoodcharcoalfrompineandoak,7590255
(GX6278)yrB.P.onmixedpineandoakcharcoal,and5440160(GX6277)yrB.P.onoakcharcoalreflectproblemssimilartothoseencounteredbyByers.

ThescatteredseriesofsevendatesfromBullBrookrangeinagefrom5440to9300B.P.(Table2).Fromtheabove,itisclearthatthe14CdatesfromBullBrookdo
notmeetexpectationsforaPaleoamericansite,whichcontainsanundeniableflutedpointassemblage.Theabsenceofdetailedprovenanceforthedatedcharcoal
samplespreventadeterminationfrombeingmadeastowhetherthecharcoalfromthissitewasofhumanornaturalorigin.

Templeton(6LF21)

THETEMPLETONSITE(6LF21)islocatedonthefirstterraceoftheShepaugRiverfloodplaininWashington,Connecticut(Moeller1980)(Figure3).Earlycultural
bearingdepositsoccurjustaboverivergravelsinabandofclaycoatedsand.Excavationof42.75m2,orapproximately90percentofthesite,ledtotherecoveryof
approximately7,400archaeologicalspecimens.

CharcoalfromredoakfoundinthePaleoamericanlevelproducedasingledateof10,190300(W3931)yrB.P.(Table2).Thesamplecamefromasmallstained
area,about10cmindiameter,withintheclaycoatedsandzoneofsquare9.0N4.5W.Thenearestdiagnosticartifactsoccurredwithin75cmofthecharcoal.A
crosssectionexposureofthestainrevealedamicrofeaturewithanerraticoutlinethatcircumscribedflakesandchunksofcharcoal.

ThecharcoalstainapparentlydidnotoriginatefromahigherlevelandwassealedwithinthePaleoamericancomponent.Moellerproposesthecharredwoodoccurred
inapostmold,whichburnedasaresultofalocalfire.Hereasonedthatasthefiremovedclosertotheground,thelikelihoodofcharringincreasedbecauseofthe
decreaseinoxygennecessaryforcombustion.ThesharpbuterraticboundariesofthecharcoalconcentrationhaveledMoellertodismissthenaturaloriginpossibility
thatthecharcoalisfromburnedroot.However,charcoalfrom6LF21couldbeofnaturalratherthanhumanorigin,becausetherearenoacceptedcriteriafor
differentiatingarootburnfromthatofapostmold.

TurkeySwamp

THETURKEYSWAMPsiteislocatedinthenortheasternportionofNewJersey'scoastalplainwithintheheadwatersoftheManasquanRiverdrainagesystem(Cavallo
1981)(Figure3).Thesiteoccursinfloodplaindepositsalongasmallriverapproximately61.5mfromanunnamedtributaryoftheManasquan.

Testingin1974suggeststhatundisturbedarchaeologicaldepositscoveranareaof185by231m.ThesetestsrevealedlateArchaic,earlyWoodland,andlate
Woodlandcomponents.By1981,excavationbytrowelhadexposed263.05by3.05m(10x10ft)squarestoadepthof139152cmbelowthesurface.

Atotalofsevenculturalcomponents,includingaPaleoamericanone,werediscovered.Paleoamericanremainsoccurwithinamicropodsolsoilinthebottomofthe
B3,andintheC1andCsoilhorizonsatadepthof72108cmbelowthesurface.Thesedepositsrelinquishedaseriesofbasallythinned,triangularprojectilepointsas
wellasotherartifacts.

Fivecharcoalsamples(Table2),apparentlyfromasinglefeature,yieldedagesof8739165(DIC1059),7980150(DIC1060),7950110(DIC1057),
7820215(DIC1061),and7660325(DIC1058)yrB.P.(Cavallo1981:8).Thefeaturefromwhichthese

 Page410

charcoalsampleswerecollectedisnotdescribed,norisdiscussionofferedinthispreliminaryreporttoexplainthe1,100yeardiscrepancybetweenthe8739and
7660dates.Cavellohasreservationsaboutthesedatesandleavesopenthepossibilitythatthecharcoalisintrusive.HesuggeststheTurkeySwampassemblage
representsablendoflatePaleoamericanandearlyArchaicstylisticelementsandisoflatePaleoamericanage.Thelackofsupportingdocumentationonsample
provenanceandcompositionprecludesadetaileddiscussionofthisseriesofdates,whichappeartofalloutsideofthePaleoamericanperiod.

DutchessQuarryCaves

DUTCHESSQUARRYCAVESoccurinakarstareaonthenorthwesternrimofMountLookoutnearFlorida,OrangeCounty,NewYork(Funk1972Funketal.1969
Funketal.1970Kopperetal.1980SteadmanandFunk1987)(Figure3).Attentionfirstwasdrawntotheareawiththediscoveryofalargecave,sincenamed
DutchessQuarryCaveNo.1.LessercavesandfissuresoccurinthisfaceofOrdovicianageHalcyonLakecalciticdolostone.

DutchessQuarryCaveNo.1,acylindrical,dolomitesolutioncavity,is20mlongand5.2mwideatthemouth.Thecaveoccursatanelevationof177m.Evidence
forhumanoccupationisfromthethreeupperstrata.Movingfromtoptobottom,Stratum1AisadarkmiddenlenswithlateWoodlandartifactsStratum1Bisalight
brownzonewithtracesofArchaicoccupationStratum2isawhitecaveearth.Associatedwiththeartifactswerethebonesof44species,includingfish,amphibians,
reptiles,birds,andmammals(Guilday1969).Ofthesespecies,onlywoodlandcaribou(Rangifertarandus)hadnotbeenrecordedhistoricallyfromNewYork.The
caribouboneswerefoundinapparentassociationwithaflutedpointoftheCumberlandstyleatthebaseofStratum2(Guilday1969)andyieldedadateof12,530
370yrB.P.(I4317)(Table2).

SteadmanandFunk(1987)suggestthatthecaribouboneandflutedpointassociationdonotprovideasecuredatefortheearliestknownoccupation.Theyarguethat:
(1)thedateisearlierthanwesternflutedpointsitedatessummarizedbyHaynes(1982)byabout1,000years(2)althoughthecaribouboneandflutedpointwere
stratigraphicallyassociated,theymayhavebeendepositedatdifferenttimesand(3)thebonedatemaybeunreliable.

During1978and1979,Kopperetal.(1980)usedaresistivitymetertolocatesevenmorecavitiesinthedolostoneofMountLookout.Themostsignificantoftheseis
DutchessQuarryCaveNo.8,whichismuchsmallerthanDutchessQuarryCaveNo.1andislocatedabout15mtotheeast.

Excavationstoadepthof3mbelowtheoriginalsurfaceatDutchessCaveQuarryNo.8encounteredwallstratifieddeposits.Themostsignificantartifactsaretwo
fishtailedflutedpointsfromStratum3andtheupperpartofStratum5.SteadmanandFunk(1987)indicatethatarichfaunalandplantmacrofossilrecordalsois
presentinDutchessQuarryCaveNo.8.

Kopperetal.(1980:133)believedthatthearchaeologicalmaterialsinthecavewerelargelyofextraneousorigin.DuringPaleoamericantimes,therewasnotenough
headroomtostandcomfortablyinthecave.Largebreakdownblocksweretransportedintothecaveviaataluscone.Slopewashalsoplayedanimportantrolein
depositingthecavefill.

Asmallsampleofcharcoalfromthevicinityoftheflutedpointsproducedadateof5880340yrB.P.(DIC14447)(Table2).Kopperetal.(1980)offertwo
explanationstoaccountforthisdate.ThedepositsmayhavebeentransportedintothecaveduringArchaictimesfromolderdeposits.Or,charcoalmayhaveintruded
intothePaleoamericanlevelfromahigherArchaiclevel.

Conclusions

OUROVERVIEWofPaleoamericansitesinnortheasternNorthAmericasetsthestageforconsideringhowFirstAmericansresearchintheNortheastcontributestoour
overallunderstandingofthepeoplingoftheAmericas.Aspreviouslynoted,theradiocarbonrecordfromtheNortheasthasdevelopedinapiecemealfashionasnew
siteswereexcavated,dated,andreportedovera40yearperiod.Byfocusingonthetotalpopulationofdates,ratherthanonindividualsitesashasoftenbeenthe
case,sometrendsemergethataffectourunderstandingofthehumanchronologyofthisregion.Thesetrendsinclude(1)siteswithflutedpointsthathaveyielded
radiocarbonagesoflessthan10,000yrB.P.,(2)siteswithflutedpointsthathaveyieldedradiocarbonagesofHoloceneandlatePleistoceneage,and(3)siteswith
datesoflatePleistoceneage.Eachofthesepatternswillnowbediscussed.

ThefirstpatternincludessiteswithHoloceneradiocarbonages.ThesesitesincludetheWindyCity,

 Page411

FlutedPoint,andNicholassitesofMaine,BullBrookIandBullBrookII,Massachusetts,theDutchessQuarryCaveNo.8,inNewYork,andtheTurkeySwamp
siteofDelaware.TothesecanbeaddedtheWapanucketNo.8ofMassachusetts,withdatesthatrangefrom3898to4708yrB.P.(RobbinsandAgogino1964).
Thesesevensites(includingWapanucketNo.8)constitute54percentofthedatedsitesthathaveyieldedflutedpoints.Thesedatesseemtoreflecttheageofintrusive
charcoal.

ThesecondpatternofsiteswithHoloceneandPleistocenedatesincludesthreesitesor23percentofthepopulationofdatedsites.InthecaseofDebert,MacDonald
recognizestheHoloceneagecharcoalasintrusive,butsupportstheviewthatthedatesgreaterthan10,000yrB.P.arefromcharcoalproducedbysiteoccupants.
TheinvestigatorsoftheWhippleandMichaudsitesalsobelievethatsitecharcoalisofhumanoriginanddatethetimeofsiteoccupation.Aspreviouslynoted,
however,these14Cdatesmaydatenonculturaleventsactualhumanoccupationmaydateearlier.

ThethirdpatternofsitesoflatePleistoceneageincludesthreesites(23percentofthepopulation).Ofthese,thesiteinvestigatorsofVailandTempletonproposethat
thedatedcharcoalisofhumanoriginandthusprovidesadateofhumanoccupation.InvestigatorsoftheexcavationsatDutchessQuarryCaveNo.1believethatthe
12,000yrB.P.dateistooearlyforaflutedpointoccupation.

Fromtheabovediscussion,itisclearthatmorethan50percentoftheflutedpointsiteshaveyieldedcharcoaltooyoungtobeacceptedbytheirinvestigatorsand
signalsthatthereisconsiderableambiguityinthewaythatthearchaeologicalrecordisandhasbeeninterpretedatnortheasternPaleoamericansites.Alternative
interpretationsarepossibleforothersiteswhosecharcoalhasbeenattributedtohumansbythesite'soriginalinvestigators.

InseekingtounderstandtheambiguityofthechronologypatternsfoundinnortheasternPaleoamericansites,considerationneedstobegiventositeformation
processes.Bothnaturalandhumanbehavioralprocessescanleadtotheburialofcharcoalinarchaeologicalsites.Aparticularlytroublesomeissuehasbeenthelackof
criteriafordiscriminatingbetweencharcoalproducedbyhumansandfoundinhearthsandcharcoalfoundintreethrowpitsthatoriginatedfromnaturalburns.Modern
analogsdrawnfromthe1988YellowstoneburnandfromforestfiresinnorthwesternMinnesota,coupledwithareviewofthetreethrowandarchaeologicalhearth
literature,permitthedevelopmentofcriteriafordiscriminatingbetweenhumanhearthsandnaturalcharcoalintrudedintosubsurfacedepositsbytreethrowsand
burning.Naturalprocessessuchasrootburning,sheeterosion,alluvialtransport,aeolianredeposition,alongwithgeoturbationandbioturbationprocesses,can
transportanddepositcharcoalproducedbyforestfirestoarchaeologicalsites.

SomeofthenortheasternPaleoamericanperiodsitereportswithdated14Crecordshavebeenexaminedusingthecriteriafordiscriminatingbetweenforestfire/tree
throwpitsandhumanhearths.Interestingly,14Cdatesthatareconsideredanomalousarereadilyinterpretedasintrusionsandpossiblycausedbytheintroductionof
forestfirecharcoalintothearchaeologicaldeposits.Whenpitfeatures,whetherornottheycontainartifacts,yieldcharcoalwitha14Cdatethatmeetschronological
expectations,thenthefeatureisusuallyacceptedasculturalinorigin.Insomeofthesituationsdescribed,treethrowpitscontainingforestfirecharcoalmaymore
adequatelyexplainsomeofthesefeatures.

WidespreadburningduringPaleoamericantimesmayberelatedtoglobalclimaticchange.Changesintheseasonalandlatitudinaldistributionofsolarradiationare
producedbychangesinearthsungeometry.The22,000yearprecessioncycleregulatesthetimeofyearwhentheearthsundistanceisatamaximumorminimum
andthusaffectsseasonality(COHMAP1988:1044).Between12,000and9,000yearsago,summerswouldhavebeenwarmeranddrierthanatpresentandwinters
cooleranddamper.Theseconditionsledtoacceleratediceretreat(Hughes1987),rapidrestructuringofvegetation(Jacobsonetal.1987Webb1988),andlowered
lakelevels(Webb1990).

Driersummerssetthestageforregionalburning.Evidencefromregionalpalynologicalcoreswithcharcoalrecordsindicatesthattheproductionofcharcoalisnot
constantthroughtimeandthatthepreponderanceofcharcoaloccursatthelatePleistoceneearlyHoloceneboundaryinMaineandNovaScotiacoringsites(Daviset
al.1986Green1981Jacobson,personalcommunication1990).Theseenvironmentalchangessuggestthatweshouldexpecttofindmoreintrusivecharcoalinsites
ofPaleoamericanagethanothertimeperiods.

Radiocarbondatingisnotsufficientinandofitselffordeterminingtheculturalattributionofpitfeatures.Anageestimatethatmeetsexpectationsofsiteagedoesnot
provideproofthatthecharcoalisofhuman

 Page412

origin.Descriptivestandardsfordocumentingcharcoalcontextneedtoincludecleardescriptivestatementsofcharcoalcontextandbeaccompaniedbyplanviewand
crosssectiondrawingsoffeatures.

Newapproachescanimprovechancesofidentifyingcharcoalorigin.Whenformulatingsiteformationhistories,allpossiblelinesofevidenceshouldbeconsidered.For
example,surfaceburningofartifactsisanoftenoverlookedlineofinformation(Payne1987).Thermallyspalledrocksareanotherpotentialsourceofinformation
(Connoretal.1989).Anotherimportanttechniqueistheuseofmagnetometerstoisolateburnedareasanddeterminemagneticalignmentsofstonesinsuspected
hearths.Ausefulapproachtodetectregionalburningentailsexamininglocalpollendiagramsforcharcoalpeakstoseeifthesecorrelatewithcharcoalfromthe
archaeologicalrecord,ashasbeendocumentedforMaine.Clark(1988b)indicatesthatthereisagoodcorrelationbetweenterrestrialburningandcharcoalfoundin
lakecores.

Theabovediscussionclearlysignalstheneedforinterdisciplinaryeffortsinvolvingarchaeologists,geochemists,stratigraphers,soilscientists,andradiocarbon
specialiststounderstandthesiteformationprocessesresponsibleforaffectingarchaeologicalsites.ThisisespeciallypertinenttothestudyofPaleoamericanperiod
sitesinnortheasternNorthAmericawherenaturalprocessesoccurringinforestedenvironmentshavehadmorethan10,000yearstoaffectthearchaeologicalrecord.

Inclosing,wecannotsaywithcertainitythatthePaleoamericanperiodofnortheasternNorthAmericaisasoldaselsewhereinAmericanoryounger.Theoccurrence
ofsitesonpaleolandformsassociatedwithglacialspillwaychannelsandmeltwaterstreamstendstosupporttheviewthatnortheasternsitesareasoldasotherfluted
pointsitesinAmericaandthatthesepeopleadvancedasglacialicereceeded.Tomorefullyunderstandhowhumansparticipatedinthepaleoenvironmentsoflate
glacialtimes,emphasismustbeplacedonclarifyingtheambiguitythatcharacterizesthechronologicalrecordfromthisregion.

Acknowledgments

WewouldliketothankDonHall,KarenTurnmire,andseveralexternalrefereesforsuggestionsthatledtoimprovementsinthemanuscript.SteveBicknell,University
ofMaine,preparedthefigures.WeareparticularlygratefultoMelissaConnoroftheMidwestArchaeologicalCenterforgenerouslysharingunpublisheddataonthe
Yellowstoneburn.

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NoVestigeofaBeginningnorProspectforanEnd:TwoDecadesofDebateonMeadowcroftRockshelter
J.M.Adovasio1
D.Pedler2
J.Donahue3
R.Stuckenrath4

Abstract

Eversincethepublicationofthefirstofmorethan50internallyconsistentradiocarbondatesfromMeadowcroftRockshelter(36WH297),intenseandsometimes
acrimoniouscontroversyhasswirledaroundthetimingoftheinitialhumanoccupationofthisdeeplystratifiedsite.CriticsofalatePleistocenepresenceatthislocality
havequestioneditsstratigraphy,floralandfaunalassociations,the''character"ofitsearliestartifactassemblage,andwithparticularvigortheradiocarbondates
fromthesite'sbasaldeposits.Whilemostconservativeassessmentsconcedea12,000yearinitialoccupancy(cf.Fagan1995),itnonethelesscontinuestobeasserted
thatthesite'searlierdateshavesufferedparticulateornonparticulatecontamination.Databearingonmyriadaspectsofthiscontroversyhavebeenpublishedsince
1975,andinthecontinuingdebatemanyoncevocalcriticshavebecomesilent,bored,orperhapsboth.Toprovidebackgroundforthisdebate,theMeadowcroft
radiocarbonchronologyandrelatedissuesarereviewed,andtocontinueitanew,assertionsofparticulateandnonparticulatecontaminationarereassessedand
evaluatedinlightofcurrentinformation.Theweightofallavailabledatacontinuestosuggestthatthissitestillrepresentsthebestandearliestevidenceforthepresence
ofhumanbeingssouthoftheglacialfrontinNorthAmerica.Morespecifically,theevidencefurthersuggeststhatNativeAmericanspossessingatechnologically
sophisticatedcoreandbladebasedlithictechnologynotattypologicalorchronologicalvariancewithpossibleSiberianprototypeswerepresentinsouthwestern
Pennsylvaniaby10,60012,000yearsagoattheverylatest.

Introduction

FivegenerationsofgraduatestudentshavepassedthroughanthropologydepartmentsinAmericanacademicinstitutionssincethepublicationoftheinitialMeadowcroft
Rockshelter(36WH297)radiocarbonchronologyin1975(Adovasioetal.1975).Theselegionsofstudentshavebeenexposedtooneoranotherviewofthevalidity
andreliabilityoftheseeminglyevergrowingMeadowcroftradiocarbonchronology,whichnotsurprisingly,reflectedtheoutlook(positive,neutral,ornegative)oftheir
teachers.AsnotedinAdovasioetal.(1990:348),somestudentsacceptedtheantiquityofthesiteassoonasthefirstdateswerepublished,
1
.Anthropology/Archaeology,andGeologyMercyhurstCollege,EriePAMercyhurstArchaeologicalInstitutePennsylvaniaHistoricalandMuseumCommission.
2
.MercyhurstArchaeologicalInstitute,MercyhurstCollege,EriePA.
3
.DepartmentofGeologyandPlanetarySciences,UniversityofPittsburgh,PittsburghPA.
4
.UniversityofPittsburghRadiocarbonLaboratory,PittsburghPA(deceased).

 Page417

othersrejectedpartofthechronologyastooold,andstillothersposedaseriesofquestionswhichinoneformoranotherhavebeenreiteratedtothisday.

Overthesamespanoftime,andevensincethepresentationoftheinitialversionofthiscontributiontotheFirstWorldSummitonthePeoplingoftheAmericasin
1989(Adovasioetal.1989),therehavebeennotinsignificantchangesinthefieldofNewWorldPaleoindianstudies.NumeroussitesinNorthandSouthAmerica
havebeenadvancedascandidatesforlatePleistocenehumanoccupationoftheNewWorld,onlytoenjoyaWarholesque15minutesoffame(cf.Adovasio1993)
beforedisappearingintoobscurity.(Interestingly,thisphenomenonhasoccurredorispresentlyoccurringinrespecttomanyofthesitesdramaticallyunveiledor
presentedwithhighhopesatOronoin1989.)Themajorityofthesesiteswererescindedbecausetheysufferedoneoranothercriticaldefect,reservationsaboutwhich
couldnotbecounteredwithanyconvincingdata.However,severaloftheputativelyearlysitesnotablyincludingMeadowcroftandMonteVerdeinChileasnoted
byMeltzer(1993:75),have"cheatedarchaeology'sactuarialtables"bysystematicallyrebuttingoratleastaddressingcontroversialissues,ofteninalongseriesof
detailedpublications.

Thepresentformofthiscontributionrepresentsanupdateandexpansionofouroriginaldiscussioninviewofdevelopmentswhichhaveoccurredsince1989,made
possiblethroughthegenerosityofvolumeeditorR.Bonnichsen.Assuch,ourexplicitlysynopticapproachdrawsfromAdovasioetal.(1990:348)andother
publicationsaboutMeadowcroftfromthepartisancamps,bothpro(Adovasio1993Adovasioetal.1988Adovasioetal.1990,1992)andcon(Haynes1991
TankersleyandMunson1992),aswellasfrommoreorless"neutral"observers(Dincauze1989Fagan1990,1991,1995Fiedel1992Meltzer1993).Itishoped
thatthislatestrenderingofthecontinuingreservationsabouttheantiquityofMeadowcroftRockshelterandthevalidityofitsearlyradiocarbonchronologywillserve,if
nothingelse,tointroduceyetanothergenerationofstudentstotheongoingMeadowcroftcontroversyandprovideapartiallyannotatedguidetotheliteratureonthe
site.

TheMeadowcroft/CrossCreekArchaeologicalProject

MEADOWCROFTROCKSHELTERisadeeplystratifiedmulticomponentsitelocated48.3km(30mi)southwestofPittsburgh,Pennsylvania,and4km(2.5mi)northwestof
Avella,WashingtonCounty,Pennsylvania.ItissituatedonthenorthbankofCrossCreek,asmalltributaryoftheOhioRiver,some12.2km(7.6mi)eastofthe
creek'sconfluencewiththatriver.Thesiteisatypicalimmaturesandstonereentrantorientedroughlyeastwestwithasouthernexposure(DonahueandAdovasio
1990).Itiselevated15.1m(49.4ft)aboveCrossCreekandca.259.9m(852.5ft)abovemeansealevel(msl).Therockshelter'sextantoverhangcoversanareaof
ca.65m2(699.4ft2)andstandsca13m(42.6ft)abovethemodernsurfaceofthesite.

MeadowcroftRockshelteroriginallywasdiscovered(andsubsequentlyprotected)byAlbertMiller,whosefamilyhasownedthepropertycontinuouslysince1795.
ThesitewasbroughttotheattentionofJ.M.AdovasiothroughtheeffortsofMillerandthelateP.Jack,CaliforniaStateCollege,California,Pennsylvania.Itquickly
becamethefocalpointofalongtermmultidisciplinaryproject,themostintensivefieldphaseofwhichbeganinthesummerof1973andterminatedinthefallof1978.
Additionalfieldworkwasconductedin1982,1983,and1987,withmajorreexcavationofthesite'sHolocenedepositsoccurringin19941995.Theanalysisand
publicationphaseisongoingandtodatehasgeneratedsome75articles,bookchapters,monographs,andpapers.Thefinalreportisinpreparation.Duetotheunique
multidisciplinaryexpertisebroughttobearoneveryaspectoftheresearch,facilitatedinverylargepartbymassivefinancialsupport,theMeadowcroftexcavationsare
widelyconsideredtorepresentthestateoftheartinclosedsiteexcavations(cf.Custer1996Fagan1990,1995Feder1996)

The11colluviallyandattritionallyemplacedstrataidentifiedatMeadowcroft,whichincludeStratumI(theculturallysterileshale"basement")and10overlying
lithostratigraphicunits(i.e.,StrataIIXI)ofwidelyvaryingthicknessandcomposition,extendtoamaximumdepthof4.6m(15.08ft)andhaveproducedwhatis
presentlythelongestintermittentoccupationalsequenceintheNewWorld.Thesesedimentsyieldedsome20,000artifacts(principallyflakedstone),morethan150
firepits(finaltalliesfromthe19941995excavationseasonarenotyetavailable),33firefloors,52ashandcharcoallenses,16specializedactivityareas,

 Page418

and21refuse/storagepits.Thesite'secofactualyieldismassiveandincludesnearly1millionfaunalremainsandca.1.4millionplantremains.

TherockshelterexcavationswerecomplementedbyarchaeologicalreconnaissanceoftheCrossCreekdrainage,whichcoveredca.14,164.5ha(35,000acres)and
identified236additionalprehistoricsites.Allofthesesitesweresurfacecollected,22weretested,andtwowereextensivelyexcavated.Theresultantcorpusofdatais
asdetailedaprehistoricrecordascurrentlyexistsforanycomparablysizedstudyareaanywhereintheAmericas,ifnottheworld.

TheoldestarchaeologicalmanifestationidentifiedatMeadowcroftandseveralotherlociintheCrossCreekdrainageistheMillercomplex.NamedafterAlbertMiller,
thiscomplexappearstorepresentthepioneerpopulationintheupperOhioValleyand,possibly,theNortheast.Fromatechnologicalperspective,theMillercomplex
lithicdebitagesamplereflectssecondaryandtertiarycorereductionandbifacethinningfromlatestagemanufactureandtherefurbishingoffinishedimplements.The
specimenscreateaclearimpressionthatanessentiallycuratedlithictoolkitwasbroughttoMeadowcroftbyitsearliestinhabitants.Interestingly,thesite'sinitial
populationsseemtohaveexploited,oratleastutilizedthroughexchange,rawmaterialsfromafairlyfarflungseriesofquarries.TheseincludeFlintRidgeinOhio,
severalKanawhachertsourcesinWestVirginia,thePennsylvaniajasperquarrieslocatedwelltotheeastofthesite,andthelocalMonongahelachertoutcropsinthe
CrossCreekdrainage.Thiswiderangingprocurementpattern,inturn,suggeststhatthe"serialquarryscenario"proposedbyCuster(1984)mightexhibitatruly
venerablepedigreeineasternNorthAmerica.

TheflakedstoneartifactinventoryfromlowerandmiddleStratumIIaatMeadowcroftRocksheltercontainssmall,prismaticbladesthatweredetachedfromsmall,
preparedcores.AlthoughcoresthemselveswerenotrecoveredatMeadowcroft,theartifactassemblagefromthenearbyandapparentlycontemporaneousKrajacic
sitecontainsagreatvarietyofthedistinctiveMeadowcroftstylebladeimplementsandseveralsmall,cylindricalpolyhedralcores.Recoveredaftertheinitialstudyof
theMeadowcroftlithicassemblagehadbeenundertakenin1975,theKrajaciccorespreciselyparallelthecorereductionstrategypreviouslypositedforthe
Meadowcroftblades.

In1976,asmall,lanceolatebiface,subsequentlycalledtheMillerLanceolateprojectilepoint,wasfoundinsituontheuppermostlivingflooroflowerStratumIIaat
MeadowcroftRockshelter.Thisfloorisbracketedaboveandbelowbyradiocarbonassaysof11,300700yrB.P.and12,800870yrB.P.,respectively.This
unflutedbifaceistheonlyMillerLanceolatepointthusfarrecoveredfromadirectlydatedstratigraphiccontext(thoughothershavebeenrecoveredelsewherein
theCrossCreekdrainage),andparticularcaremustbeexercisedinformulatingevenaprovisionaltypologicaldefinition.

ManypotentiallydiagnosticfeaturesoftheMillerbifacearedifficulttoidentifybecausethetypespecimenhadbeenresharpenedinantiquityandthereforehas
undergoneaconsiderableamountofchangefromitsoriginalorprototypicmorphology.Itisalmostcertain,however,thattheprototypeMillerLanceolatewaslonger.
Theanglesofarticulationbetweenitslateralmarginsandbasesuggestthatthemaximumwidthmayhavebeenachievedtowardthedistalendofthebiface.One
fragmentaryartifactfromtheKrajacicsitecollectionconformsexactlyinmostofitsdiagnosticcharacteristicstotheMillerLanceolateprototype.Togetherwiththe
prismaticblades,theMillertypespecimenisofspecialinterestbecauseofitsgreatageandbecauseitreflectsitsmaker'ssophisticatedknowledgeofflakedstonetool
manufacture.

Collectively,thesedatasuggestthatthefirstinhabitantsofeasternNorthAmericaemployedatechnologicallystandardizedandsophisticated,small,polyhedralcore
andbladebasedindustryofdecidedlyEurasiatic,UpperPaleolithic"flavor."Notsurprisingly,althoughthisassemblageisuniqueineasternNorthAmerica,itreflects
preciselythesortoflithicreductionstrategythatshouldbeevidencedatthistime.Moreover,thisassemblageisnotatvariancetechnologicallyorchronologicallywith
itspossibleSiberianprototypes.

Itshouldbenotedthatdespiteunfoundedobservationstothecontrary,nothingintheMillercomplexlithicsuiteoccursinorisapparentlyrelatedtoanylatercultural
manifestations.Itsuniqueblademakingtechnologyinparticularisunknowninlatercontexts.Additionally,thoughpartiallycoevalatleastinitslaterstageswithClovis,
fewconnectionsbetweenthesetwoearlyculturesarepresentlyapparent.

Inthelongview,itappearsthattheMillercomplexpopulationscanbetentativelycharacterizedasgeneralizedhunterforagersratherthanspecializedhunters,and,
further,thatdespitetheirgeographicallycircumscribeddistribution,theyrepresentthebaselineasof1998forallsubsequentculturaldevelopmentsintheupper
OhioValleyand,perhaps,easternNorthAmerica.

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HistoryoftheDebate

ASNOTEDINADOVASIOetal.(1990:348349),initialcriticismsofthepossibleantiquityofMeadowcroftRocksheltercenteredaroundquitebasicandunderstandable
issues.Followingtheappearanceofthefirstdatelist(Adovasioetal.1975),whichincluded"only"17radiometricdeterminations,itwascorrectlypointedoutthata
largegapexistedbetweenthelateArchaicdatesandtheearlierPaleoindiandates.Itwasfurthersuggestedthatmanymoredatesneededtoberun,andthisWas
done.ItwasalsosuggestedthatadditionaldatesbeobtainedfromlaboratoriesotherthantheSmithsonianInstitution,andthistoowasdone.

Bythelater1970s,almost40dateswereavailablefromtwolaboratories,butanewsetoflooselyinterrelatedissueswasraised.Thesequestions,eloquently
articulatedbyHaynes(1980)andMead(1980),amongothers,concernedthepossibilityofsomesortofcontaminationoftheearlierdatesontheonehand,andthe
appropriatenessoftheassociatedfloraandfaunaontheother.Haynes(1980:583584)suggestedthatwhileparticulatecontaminationoftheolderMeadowcroft
samplesprobablywasunlikely,asolublecontaminantmayhavebeenintroducedintothedeepestsamplesviagroundwaterpercolationorsomesimilarmechanism.
Regardingthefaunaandflora,Mead(1980:579587)concludedthattheecofactualmaterialsassociatedwiththeoldestculturebearingstratawerediscordantwith
thenprevalentreconstructionsoflateWisconsinanenvironments.Interestingly,asof1980notasingleoneofthehundredsofAmericanandforeignarchaeologistswho
visitedthesitebetween1973and1978orwhowroteaboutitfromafarquestionedtherigororprecisionoftheexcavationordatarecoverymethods,orthevalidity
ofthestratigraphy,context,orassociationsofthedates,artifacts,orecofacts.Withseveralnotableexceptions,fewcriticismswereeverraisedontheseissuesunlike
severalothersitesthathavebeenadvancedaspreCloviscandidates.

ThecollectiveresponsetoHaynes,Mead,andothers(Adovasioet.al1980)wasamongtheearliestoftheexpositionsofthedatingissueandrelatedmatters
preparedbytheMeadowcroft/CrossCreekresearchgroup.Bytheearly1980s,alongseriesofpublicationshadappeared,culminatinginaneditedvolume(Carlisle
andAdovasio1982)thatwentthroughfourprintingsandthatpresentedtheresultsofawellattended,daylongSAAsymposiuminMinneapolis,Minnesota.This
collectionaddressedandreassessedfromavarietyofanglesthedatingproblemaswellasthenatureanddegreeofallegeddiscordanceoftheassociatedfloraand
fauna.

Later,majorcontributionstothedebateincludetwolengthytreatmentsofpaleoenvironmentalreconstruction(Adovasioetal.1984,1985),whichexpanded
considerablyontheearlierassessmentsprovidedinAdovasioetal.(1977a,1977b,19791980a,19791980b).Theworksstressedthegenerallynondiagnostic
characteranddiminutivesizeoftheoldestfloralandfaunalassemblagesatMeadowcroftandunderscoredtheuniquetopographic,geomorphologic,andmicro
environmentalcircumstancesofthesite'sgeneralsetting.Inourviewthesepointsareworthreiterating,astheyarestillvalidtoday.

TheentirefaunalandfloralassemblagefromthelowerreachesofStratumIIaatMeadowcroftconsistsof278bonesand11.9gramsofplantremains,respectively.
Ofthismeagertotal,only11bonesareidentifiable,althoughasomewhatgreaterdiversityoftaxaarerepresentedintheslightlylargerfloralassemblage.Asnotedin
Adovasioetal.(1984:358359),theidentifiablevertebrates,whitetaileddeer(Odocoileusvirginianus),southernflyingsquirrel(Glaucomysvolans),andpassenger
pigeon(Ectopistesmigratorius),suggestbutdonotdictateatemperatesetting,whilethefloralassemblageindicatesamixedconiferhardwoodforestdominated
byoak(Quercussp.),hickory(Caryasp.),pine(Pinussp.),andperhapswalnut(Juglanssp.),withhackberry(Celtissp.)asanunderstoryelement.Thesetwo
datasets,inturn,aretakentosuggestthatnoradicalecologicalreorganizationoccurredatthesitethroughoutitsentireoccupationalsequence.Putanotherway,and
paraphrasingGuildayetal.(1980),anyenvironmentalchangesthatoccurredduringthelongspanoftimerepresentedintheMeadowcroftoccupationalsequencetook
placewithinapredominantlymastforestcontextandwereofsuchaloworderthatthebiotawerenotseriouslydisturbedatthesite.Asnotedabove,this
interpretationhascausednolittledistresstosomecriticsandcontinuestobecitedbyseveralauthorities(e.g.,Curran1996Haynes1991)asaproblemarea.

Inthisregard,wereiteratethattheCrossCreekdrainageatthetimeofitsinitialoccupancylayfarsouthoftheglacialfront.ThelateWisconsinandeglaciation
commencedmuchearlierthanpreviouslyestimated(cf.Adovasioetal.1984),withtheresultthattheicemarginalreadyhadretreatedtothegeneralvicinityofthe
presentshorelineofLakeErie(some150km[93

 Page420

mi]tothenorth)whenMeadowcroftwasfirstvisited(Adovasioetal.1996).WealsostressthatMeadowcroftoccursinatopographicalsettingwhichinonerecent
yearhad4050morefrostfreedaysthandidcontiguoushigherelevationsanddrainages.Indeed,modernCrossCreekhasmore"southerly"temperatureregimes
thananyotherdrainageinthearea.Ifthisisnowthesituation,itmaywellhavebeenthecaseprehistorically.ThefactthattheCrossCreekdrainagetrendsgenerally
eastwestratherthannorthsouthalsomayhelptoexplainitsenduringtemperateecology,aswellasthesouthernexposureoftherockshelter.

ConsistentwiththegreaternumberoffrostfreedaysisMeadowcroft'slowerelevation(259.9m[852.5ft]abovemsl)comparedtootherareasintheCrossCreek
drainage,andespeciallyinrelationtootherpaleontologicsitestowhichthesiteisfrequentlycompared(e.g.,Hosterman'sPit[377mabovemsl]andNewParis
SinkholeNo.4[465mabovemsl],PennsylvaniaClark'sCave[448mabovemsl],VirginiaorBakerBluffCave[450mabovemsl],Tennessee).Takenasawhole,
Meadowcroft'suniquetopographicsetting,coupledwithitsconsiderabledistancefromtheicefront,areinourviewmorethansufficienttoaccountforthe
allegedly"ecologicallyanomalous"temperatecharacteroftheMeadowcroftmicroenvironmentasreflectedinthedeepestdeposits.Buttressedbysimilardatafrom
otherlocalities,whichstronglysupportamosaicratherthanuniformconditionsinglacialfrontenvironments,thesedataweresufficienttoanswertheecological
objectionsofsomeofthemostardentcriticsofthesite(e.g.,Dincauze1981),butthecontaminationissuewasnotstilled.Indeed,asaresultofthepapersand
publicationscitedabove,itwassuggestedthatyetmoreassaysberun,thatstillotherlabsbeused,andthatAMSbeappliedtosmallcarbonsamplestoresolvethe
datingissueofthiscriticallyimportantsiteonceandforall.Asisdetailedbelow,thisandmuchmorehasbeendone.

Between1985andtheFirstWorldSummitonthePeoplingoftheAmericasin1989,theissueofpossiblecontaminationwasreiteratedbyHaynes(1987)and
Tankersleyetal.(1987)fromtwoslightlydifferentperspectives.AstratigraphicelementwasinjectedbyKelly(1987),andDincauze(1984)continuedtoquestion(as
shedidin1981)thenonPaleoindiancharacteroftheoldestlithicassemblagesfromthesiteaswellasthealleged"hiatus"betweenthelatestPaleoindianandmiddle
Archaicdeposits.Allofthecriticsofthemid1980ssuggestedyetmoremeasurestoclarifythedatingissue,andthesewereundertakeninsomecaseslongbefore
thecriticalsuggestionsappearedinprint.OuroriginalsubmissiontotheFirstWorldSummitonthePeoplingoftheAmericas(Adovasioetel.1989)addressedmany
ofthequestionsraisedbyHaynes,Tankersley,andothersandwasfollowedbyanarticleinAmericanAntiquity(Adovasioetel.1990),whichrepresentedaslightly
modifiedversionofthatearlierpaper.

Intheearly1990s,Haynes(1991)andTankersleyandMunson(1992)againraisedthespecterofcontamination,whileDincauze(personalcommunication1995)
persistedinquestioningthePaleoindianascriptionofthelowerandmiddleStratumIIaMeadowcroftlithicassemblage.AresponsetoTankersleyandMunsonwas
providedin1992(Adovasioetel.1992),andamoregeneralcommentaryonthebroaderissueoftheoverallantiquityofMeadowcroftandotherputativepreClovis
sitesappearedin1993(Adovasio1993).

ThespecificcommentsmadebyHaynes(1991),whichactuallyappearedafterthepreparation(butnotpublication)oftheresponsesnotedabove,havenotheretofore
beenansweredinprint.Theneedforaresponseandthegeneraldirectiontakenbythemostrecentroundofexchangeshaveconvincedthepresentauthorsthatthe
salientdetailsoftheMeadowcroftradiocarboncolumnandcertainrelatedfactsareworthrepeatingyetagain,althoughlikeMeltzer(personalcommunication1994),
weseriouslydoubtthatthedatingcontroversywilleverbesettledtothesatisfactionofallparties.

TheMeadowcroftRadiocarbonColumn

ONEHUNDREDFOURcharcoalsamplesfromMeadowcrofthavebeensubmittedtofourlaboratoriesforradiometricdating.TheMeadowcroftcharcoalcamefromfire
pits,firefloors,orcharcoalfeatureswiththeexceptionoftwocarbonizedbasketryfragments,oneofwhichwillbediscussedfurtherbelow.Todate,52ofthese
sampleshaveproduceddates(Figure1).Allbutfourdatesareinternallyconsistentandinabsolutestratigraphicorder,thefourexceptionsbeinglowmagnitude
reversalsor"flipflops"occurringinthemiddleArchaic,lateArchaic,andlateWoodlandperiods.Thevalidityofthe39datesyoungerthan12,800yrB.P.thatis,
themajoritysuiteofdatesthat

 Page421

Figure1.
RadiocarbonchronologyfromMeadowcroftRockshelter(36WH297).

 Page422

includesthe"later"PaleoindiancomponentaswellastheentireArchaic,Woodland,latePrehistoric,andearlyHistoricperiodsinthesitedepositshasneverbeen
seriouslyassailed,thoughTankersleyandMunson(1992:321322)raisedthepossibilitythatsomeofthesedatesmaybecontaminatedaswell.Inthisregard,wecan
onlyrestatethatallofthepostPleistocenedatesfromMeadowcroftareassociatedwithtemporallydiagnosticprojectilepointsand/orceramicsappropriatetoand
fullyconsistentwiththeirradiocarbonagesasderivedfromcomparativestudiesofothersitesineasternNorthAmerica.Thisconsistentseriesofartifactsspecifically
includes21namedprojectilepointtypesrangingfromKirkSerratedandKanawhaStemmedtoMadison,threewellestablishedceramicwares(HalfMoon,Watson,
andMonongahela),andseveralotherchronologicallysensitivediagnosticartifacttypes,noneofwhichoccuroutsidetheirknowndaterangeorpositioninthe
chronologicalsequenceasestablishedatscoresofothersites.Inlightofthis,wecanonlyrestatethatiftheupperlevelsatMeadowcroftareerroneouslydated,soare
allofthemyriadsitesthathaveproduceddiagnosticspresumedtobeofsimilarage(seeAdovasioetal.1992:329330).

Thepersistentquestionsthathavebeenraised,bothrecentlyandinthepast,havebeen(again,withtheexceptionofTankersleyandMunson[1992])directedsolely
atthe13remainingdatesolderthanca.12,800870yrB.P.,ofwhichonlysixhaveclear,undeniable,andextensiveartifactassociations.Critiquesofthevalidityof
theradiocarboncolumnasawhole,therefore,havebeenclearlyselectiveanddirectedonlyatthestratathatpredatetheapparentlyeveryoungerClovisefflorescence
nowplacedatca.11,20010,900yrB.P.

Asiswellknown,mostofthequestionsarticulatedaboutthepre12,800yrB.P.dateshaveconcernedthepossibilitiesofeitherparticulateornonparticulate
contamination,thoughasnotedabove,evenHaynesdoesnotseriouslyentertainthepossibilitythatparticulatesplayedaroleinthepossiblecontaminationofthe
deepestMeadowcroftdates.Rather,inhismostrecentdiscussionofthedates,Haynes(1991)reassertsthatdissolvedorsolublecontaminantsprobablyare
responsibleforanypostdepositional,artificialagingofthelowerStratumIIasamples.

Interestingly,Haynes(1991)reintroducesthenotionthattheassociatedecofactualassemblageis"Holoceneincharacter"andthatthereisnostratigraphicbreakor
changeatthePleistoceneHoloceneboundary(cf.Haynes1980),whichheplacesatca.11,000yrB.P.Wealreadyhavecommenteduponthefloralandfaunal
associationsbutaresomewhatsurprisedthatHaynescontinuestocitetheir"anomalous"character,particularlysincesimilarly"mixed"floralassemblageshavenow
beenshowntobequitecommonincontemporarytimesandsettingsjustwestofthegeneralstudyarea(cf.Shane1994:722).

TheissueoftheabsenceofastratigraphicbreakatMeadowcrofthasbeenthoroughlydiscussedpreviously(Adovasioetal.1980),andwecanonlyassumethatit
hasbeenresurrectedbecauseHaynes,basedonhisexperienceintheAmericanSouthwest,isconvincedthatthereisacontinentwide(ifnotaworldwide)
stratigraphicsignatureforthePleistoceneHoloceneboundary(PHB)inthenorthernhemisphere.Althoughspaceprecludesanextendeddiscussionofthisprovocative
idea,itmaybestatedthatextensiveevidencesuggeststhatsuchasignatureisabsentfromopensitecontextsinmuchofwesternNorthAmericaandisnotevidenced
atallinsimilarsitesettingsineasternNorthAmerica.EveniftherewerearecognizablePHBsignatureinalluvialorfluvialsettings,theextensionofsuchasignatureto
closeddepositionalenvironmentslikecavesandrocksheltersisbaseless,sincedepositioninmostsuchcasesiscontrolledbylocalstructuralfactorsandnotbymacro
climaticevents(DonahueandAdovasio1990).TheabsenceofsuchasignatureinbotharchaeologicalandpaleontologicclosedsitesineasternandwesternNorth
Americawouldseemtoargueconvincinglyagainstitsuniversalityorthedepositionalhiatusitallegedlymarks.

Haynes(1991)alsosuggeststhattheentiresedimentpackageabovebasalStratumIisofHoloceneorigin,despitethefactthatthefluvialCrossCreekterracebelow
thesitehasbeendatedontheOhioRivertothe23rdmillenniumB.P.(Adovasioetal.1980:592)anddespitetheutterabsenceofalluvialsedimentationorsignificantly
higherstreamlevelsafterthatdare.Underthesecircumstances,itissimplynotparsimonioustoascribethe>4m(13.1ft)columnofMeadowcroftsedimenttothelast
11,000years.Thepresenceofpreculturalradiocarbondatesinthedeepestportionofthedepositionalsequencewouldseemtoconfirmthisobservation,unlessof
coursetheyalsoarecontaminated.

Haynes(1991)devotesthebulkofhismostrecentMeadowcroftcommentstoathoughtfulandquiteusefulexpositionofthenatureofsolublecontamination,andhow
torecognizeandtestforit.

 Page423

Figure2.
RepresentativesampleofsmallprismaticbladesfromPaleoindianoccupationlevelsat
MeadowcroftRockshelter(36WH297).

 Page424

Hereasserts,onthebasisofatleasttwosamplesfromlowerStratumIIa,thatthereisaseriouspossibilitythatallofthelower(andmiddle?)StratumIIasamplesare
contaminated,eitherbyoldersolublecarbonorthattheymaynotbecarbonatall(seebelow).Hesuggestsseveralsourcesofpossiblecontamination,includingcoal
depositsupthehydropicgradientfromtherockshelterandsocalled"mung"frombeneaththeculturallayersoflowerStratumIIa.Hethenspeculatesonthepossible
originsofthecarbonaceous"mung"andnotesthatobservationsaboutthepreservationofapaleodriplinesignatureinthedepositsdonotnullifythepossibilitythat
groundwatermayhavecontaminatedthedeepestfirepits.Finally,Haynessuggestsanumberofwaystoresolvetheageoftheoldestculturebearingdepositsat
Meadowcroft.Attheriskofbeingrepetitive,theauthorswishtoaddressthefollowingissueswithrebuttalsthatarenotinanysense"new."

SolubleContamination

ASNOTEDINAdovasioetal.(1990:351352),inonlytwoofthe13samplesfromlowerandmiddleStratumIIawerehumicacidextractionsarrestedforfearthattoo
littlesamplewouldbelefttoassay.Further,inonlytwooftheremaining11sampleswasthedissolvedfractionolderthanthesolidfraction.Theoccasionaloccurrence
ofoldercarboninradiocarbonsamplesisnotasunusualasHaynessuggests.(Inanycase,sucholdermaterialcanberemovedduringpretreatment[cf.Adovasioet
al.1980:590].)ItshouldbenotedthatduringthecourseofAMStestingofoneofthenonculturalsamplesfromlowerStratumIIa,theOxfordLaboratoryconclusively
indicatedthatthesolublefractioninthatsamplewasyoungerthantheresidueandfurtherthattheresiduewas,infact,charcoal.Similarly,whenI.StehliofDicarb
Radioisotope"blinddated"alowerStratumIIasamplethatis,examineditwithoutanylocationalorstratigraphicdatasheconcludedthatthesamplewascharcoal
andwasnotcontaminated.WhileneithertheOxfordnorDicarbassaysconclusivelyprovethelackofsolublecontaminationofthelowerandmiddleStratumIIa
samples,theycertainlydonotsupportsuchapossibility.Thefactthatbothoftheselaboratoriesconfirmedthecharcoaloriginandcharacterofthedatedmaterial
stronglycorroboratestheconclusionsoftheSmithsonianInstitutionandUniversityofPittsburghradiocarbonlabsthatthematerialdatedfromtheotherStratumIIa
sampleswasalsocharcoal.

Thenotionthatthe"mung"maybeapotentialsourceofcontaminationpresumesthatsomehow,eitherinparticulateordissolvedform,preciselytherightamountof
thissubstanceenteredthedeeperPaleoindianfirefeaturesandtherebycontaminatedtheminsuchawayastosystematicallyrenderthemartificiallyolderinexact
stratigraphicsequence.Asnotedabove,itisnomorelikelythatprogressivelysmallerdosesofparticulate"mung"wereintroducedintothecharcoalsamplesthanwere
similardosesofparticulatevitrite(i.e.,vitrain)orfusain(cf.Adovasioetal.1992).Toposittheintroductionofdissolved"mung"istosuggestyetanother"couldhave
ormighthavebeen"scenariosimilartothoseraisedbyTankersleyandMunson(1992).Weconcurthatthisscenarioorindeedmanyothersaretheoreticallypossible
whichisnottosayletaloneprovethattheyeverhappened.

MechanismsofContamination

CRITICALTOTHEISSUEofanyofthesolublecontaminationscenariosisthemechanismofcontamination.AccordingtoHaynes(1991),thelikeliestchoiceisgroundwater
fluctuation.HaynesdismissesthelackofanyevidenceforalowwatertableatMeadowcroftbynotingcorrectlythat,ingeneral,latePleistocenewatertableswere
higherthantodayand,further,thatsinceCrossCreekisaneffluentstreamtheeffectsofsuchahigherwatertablewouldbemorepronounced.Haynesconjectures
that,infact,Pleistocenewatertablesweresufficientlyhightonotonlyrepeatedlyfloodthedeeperdepositsbutalsotointroducethe"mung"itselfandtheStratumIIa
samples,whichmaynotbecharcoal.

Wefindtheseconclusionsinsupportableforseveralreasons.First,asnotedpreviously(Adovasioetal.1980:592),the3to9mterracebelowMeadowcroftisin
excessof20,000yearsoldand,inconjunctionwiththeabsenceofanyoverbankdepositsmorethan10mabovethecurrentstreamlevel,stronglyarguesthatCross
Creekwasneversubstantiallyhigherinthepastthanitisnow.Currently,thesurfaceofuppermostStratumXIatMeadowcroftRockshelterstands15.1m(49.4ft)
abovethecreekand6to12m(19.7to39.4ft)abovethe22,000yrB.P.Pleistoceneterrace.Thedeepestoccupationsurfacewithinthecolluvialpileispresentlyca.
11m(36.1ft)aboveCrossCreek

 Page425

and5to7m(16.4to23ft)abovethelatePleistoceneterrace.ToproposeaperchedwatertablehighenoughtosequentiallyinundatethedeeperStratumIIa
occupationsurfacesunderthesecircumstancesstretchescredulitytoanextreme.Similarly,Haynes'ssuggestionthattheStratumI/IIashalesandstonecontactisa
likelyplaceforgroundwatersheetflowtobeconcentratedisbeliedbythefactthatoutsidetherocksheltertothewestwherethiscontactisplainlyvisible,nosuch
sheetflowisdemonstrable.

ThePaleoDriplineSignature

HAYNES(1991)SUGGESTSthatwemayhavemisinterpretedthesignificanceofthepresenceofapaleodriplinesignatureinthedepositsatMeadowcroftbecausethe
timingofthecreationofsuchasignatureisincorrect.Thisandarelatedissueareactuallyascriticaltothewholegroundwaterpercolationscenarioasthetopographic
dataofferedaboveandmeritextendedcomment.

MeadowcroftRockshelterisasandstonerockshelter.Thedepositswithinthesitearederivedlargelyfromthreesources:grainbygrainattritionofsandfromtheroof
andwallsoftheshelter,detachmentofroofspalls,andlimitedsheetwashfromtheeasternandwesternedgesofthesiteafterportionsofthemodernroofcollapsed.
ThesandstoneatMeadowcroftiscementedwithCaCo3notSi02andisrelativelyfriable.Indeed,attritionoccursonadailybasiswithoutinterruptionand
producesasedimentrainonthesite,which,amongotherthings,precludesallpedogenesiswithinthedeposits.ThissedimentrainalsoisthesourcefortheCaCo3in
thedeposits.HaynesderivestheCaCo3intheMeadowcroftsedimentpilefromilluviationandsubsequentprecipitationatcapillaryfringeswithincreasingdepth.This
happensinopensitesettings,butitisnottheprocessoperatingatMeadowcroftor,indeed,inmostsandstonerockshelterswithCaCo3cement.

Insuchsites,CaCo3accumulatesinsidethedriplinepreciselybecauseitcannotbecarriedaway.Itisnotasecondarydeposititisaprimarydeposit.Moreover,

Figure3.
RepresentativesampleofsmallprismaticbladesfromtheKrajacicsite(36WH351)intheCross
Creekdrainage,southwesternPennsylvania.

 Page426

Figure4.
CylindricalpolyhedralcoresfromtheKrajacicsite(36WH351)
intheCrossCreekdrainage,southwesternPennsylvania.

Figure5.
TypespecimenMillerLanceolateprojectilepointfrom
MeadowcroftRockshelter(36WH297).

itoccursinthedepositsfromtoptobottomwithinthedripline.Outsidethedripline,theCaCo3isilluviated,andthedegreeofilluviationnormallyisafunctionofdepth
belowsurface.Astheroofretreats,agradientiscreated,which,inthecaseofMeadowcroft,extendstotheverybaseoftheStratumIIadeposits.Thisgradient
directlyreflectstheretreatoftheroof.Underthesecircumstances,ifgroundwaterhadfluctuatedasmuchasHaynes'contaminationscenariosuggests,itwouldhaveto
obliteratetheprimaryCaCo3signature.Thepresenceofthesignature,coupledwithnoevidencewhatsoeverofsubsurfaceflowstructuresorevenpostdepositional
grainmodificationbymovingwater,suggeststousthatthereisnopossibilityletaloneprobabilitythatgroundwaterfluctuationscontaminatedthestratified
PaleoindianfirefeaturesinlowerandmiddleStratumIIa.

Inthisveinwereiteratethattheanthropogenicoriginofthefirefeaturesisincontrovertibleand,contrarytothesuggestionsofKelly(1987),thereisabsolutelyno
evidenceofstratigraphicmixingviabioturbationorhumanactivityinlowerandmiddleStratumIIa.Indeed,asnotedbyAdovasioetal.(1990:349),thereisadefinite
andclearcutseparationofsuperimposedlivingfloors,notonlyonbothqualitativeandquantitativegeological,geochemical,andsedimentologicgrounds,butalsoon
thebasisoflithicrefittingandrawmaterialstudies,whichshownosignificantcrosshorizonartifactmovementwhatsoever.Perhapssignificantly,severaloftheMiller
complexartifactsrecoveredfromfirefeaturesarealsothermallyaltered,furtherunderscoringtheirpenecontemporaneitywiththosethermalphenomenainshort,they
arenotintrusive.

AminoAcidRacemization

ALMOSTASANAFTERTHOUGHT,Haynes(1991)concludesbynotingthattheaminoacidracemizationagesintwoshellsamplesfromthe14,00015,000yrB.P.
occupationlevelatMeadowcroftmaybe1020percentinerror.Weagreeentirely,butnotethatevenifthisisthecaseandeveniftheerroristowardthe''younger"
side,thesamplesareminimally11,60012,000yearsold,whichmakesthemsubstantiallyolderthanthemeanageof11,000200yrB.P.currentlyattributedby
Haynes(1993)toClovis.

 Page427

TheDatingIssueinaNutshell

HAYNES(1991:814)SUGGESTSthattheMeadowcroft/CrossCreekresearchgrouphasnevertestedinatrulyobjectivefashionthealternativesuggestionsor
hypothesesproposedbyhimselfandothersitecritics.HeconcludeshiscommentarybyrecommendingtheAMSdatingofwalnut(Juglanssp.)shellsfromlower
StratumIIa,ameanswherebyhemightbeconvincedoftheantiquityofthesite(asuggestionechoedbyMeltzer1993).Inlightofthepasttwodecadesofresearch
(andthetime,effort,andexpenseentailedtherein),wefindthisfirstobservationcurioussincemostofourworkontheearlyoccupationssince1978hasoccurredto
satisfy,oranswerthequestionsandrecommendationsofothers.Wehavenot,asHaynes(1991:8)asserts,"madetherulesordefinedthestandards."Rather,they
havebeenimposedonusbyothersandwehavewillinglycomplied.

AsHaynes(1991)notes,theseniorauthorismorethansympatheticwiththeideaofAMSdatingtheJuglanssp.shells,butforfairlysimplereasonsthereisserious
doubt(aswenotedpreviously)thatthiswillresolveanything.Ifthenutshellsprovetobeasoldasthefeaturederivedcharcoal,theiragesmaybejustaseasily
attributedastheproductofsolublecontaminants.ItisperhapsusefultoremindthereaderthatoneoftheoldestradiocarbondatesfromlowerStratumIIaat
MeadowcroftisonapieceofcarbonizedBetulalikebark(thebasketryfragmentmentionedabove),asubstancewhosechemicalbehaviorasadatingmediumisno
differentfromthatofcarbonizednutshells.Hayneshasalreadydiscountedthebarkfragment,soournegativeprognosisisnotwithoutfoundation.

Figure6.
Postulated"prototype"MillerLanceolate
projectilepoint.

OverviewandPrognosis

DESPITETHECONTINUEDobjectionsofthesite'scriticsandconsideringthesupportingdataaccumulatedthroughtwodecadesofresearch,thepresentauthors(among
others)arestillconvincedthatMeadowcroftrepresentstheearliestbonafideevidenceofhumanoccupationsouthoftheglacialiceinNorthAmerica.Applyingthe
mostconservativeinterpretationofthedata,weconcludethatevenifonlytheyoungestdatefromuppermiddleStratumIIaisvalid,theminimumageforthepresence
ofhumanpopulationsinthisportionofPennsylvaniaisontheorderof10,60012,000yrB.P.Ifthesixdeepestdatesunequivocallyassociatedwithculturalmaterial
areaveragedaprocedurewithwhichweareuncomfortableinstatisticaltermsthenhumansweredefinitelypresentatthissite(andbyimplication,throughoutmuch
andperhapsalloftheAmericas)sometimebetween13,955and14,555radiocarbonyearsago.

AswestressedattheFirstWorldSummitonthePeoplingoftheAmericas(Adovasioetal.1989)andinAdovasioetal.(1990),itisimportanttonotethatthe
earliestMeadowcroftdatesthathaveextensiveartifactassociationsdonotargueforanyradicalextensionof11,500yearClovis"baseline."Thereiscertainlyno
evidenceatMeadowcroft,ashasbeenpositedforsomeothersites(e.g.,PedraFurada,Brazil,andPendejoCave,NewMexico)foraninitialsiteoccupationat
20,000,30,000,40,000,ormoreyearsago.AlthoughsuchanearlytimehorizoninNewWorldarchaeologymayultimatelybedemonstratedbyworkatothersites,
theMeadowcroftdatessuggest,ratherconservatively,thathumansfirstoccupiedthislocalityperhapsaslittleas500radiocarbonyearsoratmost2,0003,000years
beforethewellestablished11,500yearClovishorizonmarker.(Indeed,asnotedbyDincauze[1989:137138],ourcurrentestimatesoftheinitialoccupationof
MeadowcroftRockshelterhavebeenreducedconsiderablyoverpreviousandprobablyoverexuberantpronouncements.)Thefrequentlycitedtwentiethmillennium
B.P.dates(SI2060andSI2062)werebothverysmall,dilutedsamples,oneofwhich(SI2060)hasaveryhighstandarddeviationof2,400years.Iftheyounger
rangeofbothofthesedatesisaveraged,then,statistically,

 Page428

Figure7.
MillerLanceolateprojectilepointfragmentfromtheKrajacicsite(36WH351)
intheCrossCreekdrainage,southwesternPennsylvania.

theearliestpossibleoccupationofthesitemayhaveoccurredca.16,770radiocarbonyearsago.

ContrarytotheassertionsofParry(1994),whoneverexaminedtheMeadowcroft/CrossCreekcollections,andDincauze(personalcommunications1995,1996,
1997),whoalongwithHaynes(personalcommunication1996),persistsincallingtheearliestMeadowcroftmaterial"Plano"or"Planolike,"thelowerandmiddle
StratumIIalithicassemblageisuniqueamongdeeplystratifiedradiocarbondatedsitesineasternNorthAmerica.Thisuniquenessisdemonstratedbytechnologically
sophisticated,smallbladesstruckfrompolyhedralcoreslanceolate,unflutedprojectilepointsandotherwellmadebifacesandunifaces(Figures27).Interestingly,
materialsofsimilarconfigurationthoughmadeoncoarserlithicrawmaterialsrecentlyhavebeenrecoveredfromtheCactusHillsiteinVirginia,wheretheywere
documentedinsedimentsofbroadlysimilarage(McAvoyandMcAvoy1997).Whatevertheultimatedistributionoftheseartifacts,theMillercomplexmaterialsfrom
Meadowcroftaretechnologicallyconsistentwithwhatseveralresearchers(e.g.,Boldurian1985Carr,personalcommunication1997)suggestshouldexistata
genuinepreClovissite.Moreover,ashasbeenstressedmanytimespreviously,intechnologicalandchronologicaltermsthisassemblageisnotdissimilartoitspossible
Siberianprototypes(Derevianko1998YiandClark1985).

Ratherthanfurtherbelaboranalreadythoroughlybelaboredpoint,andtocomefullcircletoourpresentationattheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingof
theAmericas,wepreferinsteadtoparaphraseourconclusionsfromAdovasioetal.(1989),reprintedinAdovasioetal.(1990:353).Inthefinalanalysis,however,the
precisedateofMeadowcroft'searliestoccupationisofrelativelylittleconsequence.Thisuniquesitehasproducedavastarrayofgeological,archaeological,
paleofloral,andpaleofaunaldatathatcollectivelyhelponetounderstandmoreaboutthefulltemporalandculturalrangeofaboriginalhumanlifeinthispartoftheOhio
Riversystem.Althoughtheincipientoccupationofthesitehas,understandablybutperhapsunfortunately,

 Page429

capturedthespotlight,thelion'sshareofthesite'sunquestioneddepositsareaneloquenttestimonialtothousandsofyearsofsubsequenthumanculturaladaptation.If
thesiteaccomplishesnomorethantodrawincreasedattentiontothissometimessubtle,sometimesradicallyshiftingrelationshipamonghumans,theirtechnology,and
theconditionsoftheirnaturalenvironment,itwillbeenough.

Acknowledgments

TheexcavationsandattendantanalysesatMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekdrainagewereconductedundertheauspicesoftheformerArchaeological
ResearchProgram(subsequentlytheCulturalResourceManagementProgram)oftheDepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofPittsburgh.Recentreexcavationsin
1994and1995wereconductedundertheaegisoftheMercyhurstArchaeologicalInstitute,MercyhurstCollege,Erie,Pennsylvania.Theinitial1973fieldprojectand
the19771978fieldseasonsweredirectedbyJ.M.Adovasio.The19741976fieldseasonswerecodirectedbyJ.M.AdovasioandJ.D.Gunn.The1994and
1995fieldprojectsweredirectedbyJ.M.Adovasio.Analysisofallmaterialsrecoveredduringthe19731995fieldseasonsisundertheultimatedirectionofJ.M.
Adovasio.AlbertMiller,ownerofthesite,isacknowledgedinparticularforhislongstandingsupportoftheprojectandhiswarmhumanitarianism.

Generousfinancialandlogisticsupportforthe19731978excavationsandanalyseswasprovidedbytheUniversityofPittsburgh,theMeadowcroftFoundation,the
NationalGeographicSociety,theNationalScienceFoundation,theAlcoaFoundation,theBuhlFoundation,theLeonFalkFamilyTrust,andMessrs.Johnand
EdwardBoyleofOilCity,Pennsylvania.Supportforthe1994excavationswasprovidedbytheWesternPennsylvaniaHistoricalSocietyandthePennsylvania
HistoricandMuseumCommission.The1995excavationswerepartiallyunderwrittenbytheNationalGeographicSociety.

Figure1wasredraftedandexpandedbyN.L.Yedlowski,MercyhurstArchaeologicalInstitute.Figures27weredraftedbyS.Patricia,Departmentof
Anthropology,UniversityofPittsburgh.ThispaperwastypedbyD.LaushandeditedbyD.R.PedleratMercyhurstCollege.

ThiscontributiontotheMeadowcroftsagaisdedicatedtothefondmemoryofRobertStuckenrath(19271994),whoinresponsetocriticsofthesite'sradiocarbon
chronology,wasknowntohavesaid,"F'emiftheycan'tread!"

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 Page432

TheEarlyHoloceneOccupationoftheSoutheasternUnitedStates:AGeoarchaeologicalSummary
AlbertC.Goodyear

Abstract

ThesoutheasternUnitedStateshaslongbeenofinteresttostudentsoftheNorthAmericanPaleoindianperiodbecauseoftheabundantanddiverselithicremains
foundthere.Severalthousandflutedandunflutedlanceolatepointshavebeenfoundthroughoutthesouthernstates.Ithasbeenestimatedthatthedensenumberof
lanceolatesfoundintherivervalleysofthemidSouthsurpassesthoseofthewesternUnitedStates.Generallyrecognizedpointtypeshavebeenformulatedthatare
thoughttohavetimeandspacesignificance.AmongtheflutedformsareClovisvirtuallyidenticalwiththosefromwesternClovissitesRedstoneRossCountyand
Cumberland.ThebasallythinnedorunflutedtypesincludeQuad,Suwannee,Simpson,andDalton.Basedonstratigraphicworkandradiocarbondatingdoneoutside
theSoutheast,aswellasrefinementofearlyArchaicsequenceswithintheregion,thesetypesarethoughttospanatimefromI1,500to10,000yrB.P.

Despitethehigharchaeologicalpotentialofthisregion,fewconcentrationsofPaleoindianartifactshavebeenfoundthatwouldlendthemselvestoarchaeological
excavation.MostPaleoindianpointshavebeenfoundonthesurface,oftenasisolatedfinds.GeologicalconditionsduringthelatePleistoceneearlyHolocenedidnot
producedeeplyburiedsitesovermuchoftheSoutheast,particularlyontheinterfluvialsurfaces.ThegreatestsuccessinlocatingandexcavatingdensePaleoindiansites
hasbeenassociatedwithchertquarriessuchasThunderbird,CarsonConnShort,BigPineTree,andHarneyFlats.

ThebulkofknowledgeforthePaleoindianoccupationoftheSouthcomesintheformoftypologiesandgeographicdistributionalstudies.Flutedpointrecording
surveyshavebeenestablishedformoststates.However,untilsitesareexcavatedthatpossesssufficientstratigraphicdepthand/orintegritytoallowchronologicaland
paleoenvironmentalstudies,itwillbedifficulttointerprettheseremainsintermsofculturalsystems.FieldworkneedstobeconcentratedonidentifyinglatePleistocene
earlyHolocenedepositionalenvironmentsinordertoobtainbadlyneededarchaeologicalcontexts.

Towardthatend,thischapterreviewsindetailthegeoarchaeologicalsituationsofavarietyofsitesthroughouttheSoutheastinthehopeofdiscerningpatternsthat
mightyieldcriteriaforrecognizingearlyHolocenedeposits.ExcavationsinthefloodplainsofmajordrainagesinthesouthernAppalachianshavedemonstratedahigh
potentialfordeepalluvialburialofearlysites.ApedosedimentarypatternisrecognizedwhereDaltonperiodandearlierlithicsarefoundinearlyHolocenefluvial
sands,oftenpedogenicallyunmodified,overlyingargillicBtpaleosols.ThegeologiccontactofthetwoissuggestedtorepresentthePleistoceneHolocenetransition.
TherecoveryoffaunalandotherorganicremainsintheriversandsinkholesofFloridaprovideanotherencouragingcontextthatshouldallowradiocarbondatingand
subsistencereconstruction.ThereisahighprobabilitythatintactearlysitesexistinthedrownedrivervalleysofthewestcoastofFlorida,inundatedbyHolocenesea
levelrise.

SouthCarolinaInstituteofArchaeologyandAnthropology,UniversityofSouthCarolina

 Page433

AnumberoffactorscontributetothepaucityofknowledgeabouttheculturesofthePaleoindianEra.First,themajorityofflutedpointsoccurasisolatedsurfacefinds,thus
givingnoinformationabouttheculturalmatrixfromwhichtheywerederived.Second,mostSoutheasternsitesthathaveproducedflutedpointsareshallowand
multicomponent,sothatstratigraphicallydefinedorgeographicallyisolatedpurePaleoindianassemblagesareveryrareindeed(WilliamsandStoltman1965:673).

THISPAPERISCONCERNEDwiththeearliestknownpeoplesofthesoutheasternUnitedStates.TheSoutheastisoffundamentalinteresttothestudyofPaleoindiansinthe
Americas,owingtoitsenvironmentalposition,especiallyconsideringlatitude,andthefactthatagoodportionofthisareaisandwassubtropicalinclimate.Inaddition,
thereisanextensivecoastlinepresent,includingboththeAtlanticOceanandtheGulfofMexico,whichmustbetakenintoaccountwhenconsideringthePaleoindian
landscape.Thisecologicalsituation,plustheratherdenseandimpressivePaleoindiantechnologythatisknownfortheSoutheast,combinetopiqueourintellectual
curiosityaboutancienthumanlifeinthisregion.

AlthoughtheabovequotebyWilliamsandStoltmanwaspublishedmorethan30yearsago,inmanywaysitremainsanaptdescriptionofPaleoindianarchaeologyin
theSoutheast.Generallyspeaking,untilrecently,archaeologicalstudiesinthesoutheasternUnitedStateshavenotbeenverysuccessfulindeveloping
chronostratigraphicframeworksfortheperiodfrom11,500to10,000yrB.P.,comparedtothePlainsandSouthwestandnoweventheNortheast.Thisisillustrated
inacompilationof14CdatesassociatedwithflutedpointsitesintheEastpublishedalittleoveradecadeago(Haynesetal.1984:Figure2).Allthe14Cdatesarefor
theNortheast,withnonefromtheSoutheast(cf.Meltzer1988:Table3).Asoftennoted,theNortheastdatesaregenerallycontemporaneouswithFolsomdatesand
notClovis(cf.Levine1990).TherehasbeensomemodestimprovementinthissituationfortheSoutheast,however,whichwillbediscussedinthispaper.

AtthetimeofearliergenerationsofsoutheasternPaleoindiansummaries(e.g.,Mason1962,WilliamsandStoltman1965),thepreponderanceofdatacamefrom
surfacefindsfromnonalluviallandsurfaces.Specifically,thesewereprojectilepointfindsfromplowedanderodedinterfluviallandforms,whichoftenoccurredas
individualfinds,orfromsiteswithmulticomponentoccupationalhistories.Intheensuing30years,agreatdealmoreworkhasbeendoneinpaleoenvironmental
studiesoftheSoutheast,specificallypalynologyandgeoarchaeology,whichallowssomeexplanationastothecontextualconditionofthearchaeologicalrecord.
Mitigationphaseexcavationsinculturalresourcemanagementstudiesbeginninginthe1970sproducedagreatdealofimportantdatarelatedtolatePleistoceneand
earlyHolocenegeologicalcontexts,particularlyalluvialsituations.

ProductiveresearchutilizingdataderivedfromsurfacefindsofPaleoindianlanceolatepointshascontinuedusingstatewidesurveys(Anderson1990Andersonetal.
1990Brennan1982Charles1986DunbarandWaller1983McCary1984McGahey1987).Mappingofsurfacefindsandthespatialanalysisofprojectilepoint
styleshasallowedtheevaluationofmodelsrelatedtocolonization(e.g.,Anderson1990McGahey1987),landuseandsitefunction(O'Steenetal.1986),landscape
reconstruction(Dunbar1991),andmeasuresofthescaleofregionalmobilityaswellasdirectionalityofmovement(Andersonetal.1990Goodyearetal.1989).

AsnotedbyWilliamsandStoltman(1965)andconfirmedbymorerecentlanceolatepointsurveys,themajorityofspecimenshaveoccurredasisolatedfindswith
multiplecasesfromasinglesitebeingsomethingofararity(seeAnderson1990:Table2Meltzer1988:Table2).Thispatternoflowdensity,alongwiththemarked
tendencyforPaleoindiansitestobereoccupiedbygroupsfromsubsequentearlyArchaicandotherlatertimeperiods(cf.Anderson1990:176),hasresultedina
dearthofshallow,singlecomponentPaleoindiansitesthatprovidetheassemblageclarityseeninnortheasternsites,suchasDebertandVail.Shallow,virtuallysingle
componentsiteslikeBrandandSloan,DaltonsitesinnortheastArkansas,haveproventobeexceedinglyrare.Siteswithanartifactdensitywarrantingexcavation,
suchasThunderbird,Williamson,CarsonConnShort,BigPineTree,andHarneyFlats,arenearlyalwaysassociatedwithahighqualitychertsourcewheremuchof
theartifactrecordisrelatedtostonetoolmanufacture.

Itislikelythatthenaturalpresenceofchertaffectedthedensityofpointsandothershapedtoolsonquarryrelatedsitesintwoways.First,Paleoindiangroups

 Page434

throughouttheEastwereevidentlydependentonhighqualitylithicrawmaterialfortheirtoolkits(seeEllisandLothrop1989).Thiswouldhavecausedahighrateof
reoccupationofquarryassociatedsites,relatedtotheneedtocontinuallyreprovisionportabletoolkits(cf.Goodyear1989).Second,inthepresenceofreadily
availablechertsupplies,somerelaxationinthenormallyhighdegreeofcurationmayhaveoccurred.Becauseofthecaseofreplacement,artifactlossdueto
carelessnessmayhavebeenmorefrequent,aswellastherelativelyprematurediscardofwhatwouldhavebeeninothercontextsnormallyusefultools.Evensome
completetoolsatquarryrelatedsitesmayrepresentwornoutdiscardedimplementsimportedfromapreviouslocality(cf.Binford1979Gardner1983).

Coupledwiththelanceolatepointsurveyshasbeenastronginterestinrawmaterialselectionpatternsrepresentedinthevariousstylesoflanceolatepoints.The
patternofcryptocrystallineutilizationsofrequentlynotedforNorthAmericahasbeenwelldocumentedfortheSoutheast,especiallyforflutedpoints(Gardner1974a
Goodyearetal.1989McGahey1987).Lithicrawmaterialidentificationstudiesofprojectilepointsandsearchesfortheirgeologicsourceshavebeenconducted
sporadically(DanielandButler1991DanielandWisenbaker1987GoodyearandCharles1984Goodyearetal.1983Upchurchetal.1981),butmoreare
neededacrosstheSoutheast.TheadaptivesignificanceofcryptocrystallineutilizationbyPaleoindiangroupshasreceiveddifferinginterpretations,whichinclude
evidenceofsettlementrestriction(Gardner1974b)versusatechnologicalstrategytofacilitatemobility(Goodyear1989).

AtthispointinsoutheasternUnitedStatesPaleoindianarchaeology,itwouldseemthatlittleprogresswillbemadeinunderstandingthesegroupsasfunctioningcultural
systemsuntilbetterstratigraphiccontextsareobtained.Mostofwhatisthoughttobeknownisbasedonstylisticpointtypologies,themselvesproductsofformal
evolutionaryassumptions,andcomparisonswithsimilarformsoutsidetheSoutheast.Atissueistheidentificationofdepositsthatarelikelytobeofsufficientage
(11,50010,000yrB.P.)tocontainPaleoindianmaterialandofadequatedepthorintegritytopreservedatacriticaltotheisolationanddatingofassemblages.Based
onexcavationsconductedinrecentyears,itappearsthatfloodplainsandsinkholesofferthegreatestpotentialfordepositionintheSoutheast.Cavesandshelters,
whilecontainingsubstantialdepositsinmanycases,appeartohavebeenoccupiedrelativelylate(ca.10,500yrB.P.)(Goodyear1982)andoftenexperienced
disturbancesfromhumanandnaturalsources,complicatingclearassociationswith14Cdates.AninterestingexceptiontothislatterproblemisDustCave,locatedin
northernAlabama,adeepdepositwhichexhibitsunusualstratigraphicintegrity(Driskell1994GoldmanFinnandDriskell1994).

AfundamentalproblemintheSoutheastistherecognitionanddatingofthePleistoceneHoloceneboundaryandanunderstandingoftheclimatic,environmentaland
culturaleventsthataccompaniedthistransition.Archaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalstudiesconductedwithinthepasttwodecades,particularlyintwomajorareas
oftheSoutheast,haveprovidedabodyoffielddatathatallowsynthesistobegin,which,inturn,shouldenablethedevelopmentofcriteriaforrecognizinganddating
thistransition.TheseareasaretheSouthernAppalachians,especiallythemajorfloodplainsalongtheAtlanticSlope,andthedrownedsiteslocatedinsinksandrivers
inthekarsticregionsofFlorida.Theprimarypurposeofthispaperistoreviewthesefieldstudiesinordertodocumentdepositionalagenciesandeventsandtheir
associatedarchaeologicalrecordsfortheperiodfrom11,500to10,000yrB.P.

Byconvention,theendofthePleistocenehasbeensetat10,000yrB.P.(Griffin1967Whitehead1965).Thisisanarbitrarydesignationforpurposesofworldwide
periodization(Harlandetal.1982).However,inthelowerlatitudeslikethatoftheSoutheast,thefloristicresponsestowarmerclimatecanbeseenasearlyas16,500
yrB.P,withvegetationat12,500yrB.P.beingmuchmoresimilartomodernforeststhanpreviouslateWisconsincommunities(DelcourtandDelcourt1985:1819).
OfgreatimporttothestudyofPaleoindiansintheSoutheast,aselsewhereinNorthAmerica,isthetimingoftheonsetofHoloceneaggradationsonecessaryfor
depositionandburialofPaleoindianremains(Haynes1984).Accordingly,inthispapertheearlyHolocenewillbereferredtoastheperiodfrom11,000to8000yr
B.P.

Last,thereistheimportantproblemofcorrelatingradiocarbonyearswiththatofsiderealorcalendricaltime.Historically,therehavebeennotreeringcorrelationsas
oldasPaleoindianradiocarbondatessotheissuehasbeenmoot.Dateshavebeenreportedasradiocarbonyearsbeforepresent.Lately,basedonresearchwith
GreenlandicecoresandcoralsinBarbados,thereisconsiderableevidencetoshowthatmajor14Cplateausexistedduringthecriticalperiod

 Page435

of12,000to10,000yrB.P.(Feidel1997Ellisetal.1998).InadditiontomakingcertainPaleoindiancomplexesolderthancurrentlythought,theymayalsoprovide
moretemporalroomforonephasetoevolveintoanother,i.e.,eliminatingwhatmayappeartobetemporalcompressionofprojectilepointtypes(cf.Morse1997a).

TheSoutheasternUnitedStatesPaleoindianSequence

TODATE,THEREEXISTSnosingledocumentedstratigraphicdepositthatcanbesaidtoempiricallyunderwritethefollowingculturehistoricalsequence.Paleoindian
projectilepointsoccasionallyhavebeenexcavated,butapureassemblagehasnotbeenfound.ThemainexceptiontothisstatementistheThunderbirdsite(Gardner
1974a)innorthernVirginia,locatedonthenorthernmarginoftheSoutheast(Figure1).AtThunderbird,however,theprimaryPaleoindianexpressionisClovis,
thoughithasnotbeen14Cdated.PostClovisPaleoindianoccupationsherearclessdefinitelyrepresented.Intermsofstratigraphicintegrity,theDaltonhorizonis
perhapsthebestdefined,basedonstratigraphyandassemblageanalysis.Thefollowing,therefore,isasequencewidelyrecognizedbymanyarchaeologists,butwhich,
tosomeextent,existslargelyasaconventionconstructedontypologicalgroundsandpartiallycompletestratigraphicsequences.

PreClovisPeriod(11,500?YrB.P.)

UNTILRECENTLY,thesoutheasternU.S.hasnotfaredmuchbetterthantherestofNorthAmericaintermsofgeneratingconvincingevidenceofapreClovisoccupation.
WhileoccasionalclaimsforpreClovisremainshavebeenadvanced(Lively1965Purdy1983a),compellingprooffortheirantiquityhasnotbeenforthcoming.With
theadventoftheacceptanceofthepre12,000yrB.P.ageMonteVerdesiteinChile(Meltzeretal.1997),suchdevelopmentswillnodoubtcauseNorth
AmericaniststosearchmorediligentlyforpreClovisremains.IntheSoutheast,therecentlydocumentedsiteofCactusHillinVirginia(Figure1)appearstohavea
radiocarbondatedarchaeologicalmanifestationtemporallyandstratigraphicallybelowClovis.

TheCactusHillsite(44SX202)isastratifiedmulticomponentsitesituatedinasandduneoverlookingtheNottowayRiverintheinteriorCoastalPlainofVirginia
(McAvoyandMcAvoy1997).ThereportbytheMcAvoyssummarizesexcavationsconductedin1993,asmallexcavationofaCloviscomponentin1995,anda
finalsalvageofathreatenedportionin1996.ArchaicandPaleoindianlithicartifactswerefoundlyinginastratifiedmannerwithinasanddunewhichisapproximately
1.8minmaximumthickness.Occupationsfromthe18thcenturybacktoClovisarelocatedwithinabouttheupper1mofwindblownsand.AClovisoccupationhas
beenidentifiedbycherttoolsofthetypicalPaleoindianformalongwithflutedpointsfoundinfloorsatthebottomofthesequence.Clovismaterialsarefound
stratigraphicallyinzonesofheavylamellaeformationinthelowerpartofthedunethatarepedogenicinorigin.OneClovishearthwasradiocarbondatedat10,920
250yrB.P.,basedonasampleofhardsouthernpinecharcoal.

Inthe1993seasoninanareawhereaClovisfloorwasfound,whichincludedflaketoolsandtwoflutedpoints,about7cmbelowthislevelafeaturelikecharcoal
concentrationappeared,whichcontainedsevenquartziteflakesandthreequartzite"coreblades,"thelatteralsoknownasprismaticblades(McAvoyandMcAvoy
1997:103).Woodcharcoalfromthisfeatureconsistingofwhitepinewasradiocarbondatedat15,07070yrB.P.Inthreeotherlocations,prismaticbladesmade
fromlocalquartzitewerefoundinexcavationsjustbelowwhatarethoughttobeClovisartifactsurfaces.ThepreClovislithicsaremadefromquartzite,thesourcefor
whichwasnearbyrivercobbles,whiletheClovislevelshavequarziteandsignificantnumbersofchertartifactsimportedtothesite,muchofthelatterprobablycoming
fromthefamousWilliamsonquarrysitesome12milesaway.

Thespring1996fieldseasonwasconductedspecificallytodeterminewhetheradditionalpreClovisdepositscouldbefound.Sixmoreclustersofquartziteprismatic
bladeswerefound.Inoneoftheseclusters,someevidencewasfoundoftwodistinctlayersofpreClovislithics(McAvoy1997).Clustersofquartziteprismatic
bladeswerefoundsuperimposedovereachotherwiththeupperclustercontainingsmaller(<30mm)bladeswiththelowerclusterbladeswiderandthicker.Asoil
sampletakenfromahearthlikeconcentrationassociatedwithoneofthebladeclustersyieldedaradiocarbondateof16,670730yrB.P.(McAvoy1997).

 Page436

Figure1.
LocationsofPaleoindiansitesinthesoutheasternUnitedStateswithsignificantgeoarchaeologicalcontexts.

Theexcavatorofthesite,JosephMcAvoy(1997),believesthatthebladeclustersfoundinthe1993and1996seasonsrepresentapreflutedpoint(preClovis)
occupationbygroupsmakingprismaticbladesonpreparedcoresutilizingthelocalrivercobblequartzitesources.Healsobelievesthereisasuggestioninthedatathat
thereisanearlierprismaticbladeoccupationfollowedbysmallerblades.Twothin,basallythinned,trianguloidtolanceolatebifacesalsowererecoveredin
excavationsthatmaybeassociatedwiththeuppersmallerbladeclusters.

Thefindingofstratified,radiocarbondatedClovisremainsatCactusHillisverysignificantforPaleoindianstudiesintheSoutheast,andtheradiocarbondateof
10,920250yrB.P.isconcordantwithtraditionalClovisdatesoftheWest.Thediscoveryofoneandpossiblytwobladeindustriescoupledwithanobviousraw
materialchangeimmediatelybelowClovissurfacesisamajorbreakthroughinpreClovisarchaeology.Bothoftheradiocarbondatesassociatedwiththeseremains
aresubstantiallyearlierthanconventional14CdatingofClovis,afactthatreinforcestheclaimforpreClovisantiquity.However,likeanyarchaeologicalcomplex,to
gainvalidityandgeneralacceptanceitmustbeconfirmedatmorethanonesite.Ataminimum,thefindingsatCactusHillhavegivensomeconcretecluesastowhatto
lookfor.

ClovisPeriod(11,50010,900YrB.P)

THECLOVISCULTURE,oratleasttheClovisformofflutedpointasdocumentedinthePlainsandSouthwest,continuestoprovidethebasisforrecognizingtheearliest
widespreadhumaninhabitantsoftheSoutheast.TheclassicClovispoint,asfoundamongmammothremainsintheSouthwestandintheRicheyRobertssitein
Washington,tendstobealarge

 Page437

point,althoughnotuniformly,andischaracterizedbyconvexorstraightsideswitharelativelyminorbasalconcavity.

PointsliketheWesternClovishavebeenfoundthroughoutthesouthernstates(Figure2ad),althoughtheirgeographicdistributionisnothomogenousoverthearea.
Forsometime,agreatdensityofflutedpointshasbeenknownfromtheInteriorLowPlateauofnorthernAlabama,Tennessee,andKentucky(Futato1982:33
WilliamsandStoltman1965:675676).Thisregionisknownforitshighqualitycryptocrystallinelithicrawmaterialsavailableinlargepiecesandthepresenceofsalt
licks.TherealsoisasignificantconcentrationofflutedpointsintheVirginiaarearelatedtojasperandPiedmontcryptocrystallinesilicatesources(McCary1975,
1984Peck1985)suchasthosefromtheWilliamsonsite(Figure1),andinthePiedmontofNorthCarolinarelatedtothegreatavailabilityofsiliceousmetalvolcanic
rocks(Peck1988Perkinson1971,1973).AshasbeennotedbyWilliamGardner(1974b,1983:55)andothers,thereisastronggeographiccorrelationbetween
theavailabilityofcryptocrystallinerawmaterialsandthedensityofflutedpointsintheSoutheast.Thisfacttendstocomplicatestraightforwardequationsofflutedpoint
densitiesandhumandemographicpatterns.

Becauseofminimal14CdatedflutedpointassemblagesintheSoutheast,itisnecessarytocommentonthecommonpracticeofequatingflutedpointswithClovisor
Cloviscontemporarycultures.First,thereareseveralpointsfromtheSoutheastthatdomeettheformalcriteriaoftheClovispointasdefinedintheSouthwest(Figure
2ad).However,perhapsjustasmany,ifnotmore,donotmeetthesecriteria.Manysoutheasternflutedpointshaveadeepbasalindentationnotseeninthe
SouthwestClovispoints(Figure2e,f).OthershaveawaistedbasewithflaringearsalsonottypicalofWesternClovispoints(Figure2j).Second,influtedpoint
surveys,suchasthatpublishedintheArchaeologyofEasternNorthAmerica(Brennan1982:2746),itisclearthatsomepointtypes(Quad,Suwannee,and
Simpson)thatarenottrulyflutedwerecountedinthestatetallies.Furthermore,manypointsthatobviouslyarefluted,suchasCumberland,Redstone,andRoss
County,wereincludedthatdefinitelyarenotClovisstylepoints(Figure2g,h,i,e).

ThesefactswarrantcautioninmakinginferencesabouttheextentandageofClovisoccupationsintheSoutheastbasedonthesheerdensityof''flutedpoints."
RadiocarbondatesintheNortheastfromtheDebert,Vail,andWhipplesitesindicatethatanonClovisstyleofflutedpointexistedbetweenabout10,500and10,600
yrB.P.,decidedlypostClovisinage(Haynesetal.1984).However,aWesternClovisstyleflutedpointhasbeenrecoveredfromtheShawneeMinisinksitethat
alsohasanaverage14Cdateofabout10,600yrB.P.TheflutedpointsfromThunderbirdresembletheWesternClovisstyle,butthesepointsarenotdatedby14C.
Interestingly,thoughundatedby14C,theflutedpointsfoundWiththeKimmswickmastodonwereoftheWesternstyle(Grahametal.1981).Asdiscussedabove,the
dateof10,920yrB.P.fromCactusHilliscomparabletothewesternClovisdates.Onedateof11,980110yrB.P.fromtheJohnsonsiteinTennessee(Barker
andBroster1996:98)maybeassociatedwithClovisflutedpreforms.WhilethedatesfromCactusHillandJohnsonareencouraging,therearenotasyetenough14C
datesfromflutedpointsitesintheSouthtoformanycoherentpattern.

FollowingastrictlysouthwesternUnitedStatesderivedtypologicaldefinitionofClovis,anunknownnumberofClovislikeflutedpointshavebeenrecordedand
mappedfortheSoutheast.Theremay,indeed,bemoreflutedpointsintheSoutheast,butitisnotatallcertainhowmanyaretrulyClovisinoriginbasedona
comparisonWithprojectilepointformsassociatedwithelephantsintheSouthwest.Thus,theargumentthatbecausetherearemoreflutedpointsintheSoutheastthan
otherareasofNorthAmerica,flutedpointsmayhaveoriginatedhereorareatleastcontemporaneouswiththoseoftheWest,isnotnecessarilysupportedbythe
easternstatespointtallies,giventheirunrefinedtypologicalcondition.Toprovideanexampleofhowseriouslymisleadingsuchstatementscanbe,Floridaisreported
tohavewellover1,000"Paleoindian"pointsrecorded(Brennan1982:29).However,themajorityofthesearenotfluted,butareoftheSuwanneetype(cf.Purdy
1983b:29).Infact,JamesDunbar,basedonhisextensivefamiliaritywiththeFloridapoints,estimatesthatonly10percentoftheFloridalanceolatesarefluted
(Dunbaretal.1988:451cf.Goodyearetal.1983:51).

AnotherpatternconcerningthedistributionofClovispointsintheSoutheastrelatestotheirrelativescarcityontheSouthAtlanticandGulfcoastalplains.Atthetimeof
his1962classicsynthesis,RonaldMasonwasabletostatethatthedensityofClovisandotherflutedpointsrapidlydiminishedfromthecentrallatitudeofMississippi
andAlabamasouthwardontotheGulfcoastalplain(Mason1962:238239).Intheinterveningyears,thispatternhasbeenverified

 Page438

Figure2.
TypesofflutedpointsfoundinthesoutheasternUnitedStates:a,Clovis,BladenCo.,N.C.b,Clovis,Williamsonsite,
Va.c,Clovis,RowanCo.,N.C.d,Clovis,SuwanneeRiver,Fl.e,RossCountyfluted,LaurenceCo.,Al.f,Clovislike,
HumphreyCo.,Tn.g,Cumberland,TaylorCo.,Ky.h,Cumberland(cast)1,Redstone,YorkCo.,S.C.j,waisted
fluted,DodgeCo.,Ga.

 Page439

(Anderson1990Andersonetal.1986Futato1982:31McGahey1987).Theincidenceofflutedpointsversusunflutedlanceolatepointsissubstantiallyhighernorth
ofthe33rdparallel,fromLouisianaeastwardtoSouthCarolina.Southofthislatitude,basallythinnedlanceolates,variouslycalledSuwannee,Simpson,Quad,and
Coldwater,predominate.AllareconsideredpostClovisinage.Aswillbediscussedbelow,theareasouthof33latitudehadvegetationdifferentfromthefloratothe
north.

WhileClovislikeflutedpointsarefoundinthelowerSoutheastcoastalplains,theymayhavespottydistributions.Forexample,inFlorida,wheretheoverallratioof
flutedpointstotheunflutedSuwanneetypeisaboutonetonine,intheAucillaRivertheratioisaboutonetothree,or33percent(Dunbaretal.1988:451).This
suggeststhattheAucillaRiverlocalitycouldrepresentaninitialcolonizationofClovispopulationsinthelowerSoutheast.Otherlocalitiessouthof33latitudewith
anomalouslyhighpercentagesofClovislikeflutedpointsshouldbesearchedforandtheirenvironmentalsituationexamined.

MiddlePaleoindianPeriod(10,90010,500YrB.P.)

APOSTCLOVISmiddlePaleoindianperiodiscommonlyrecognizedintheculturehistoricaltaxonomiesoftheeasternUnitedStates(Gardner1974bMacDonald
1968WilliamsandStoltman1965).Thebasisofthisdistinctionistypological,withsomesupportingstratigraphicdata(Walthall1980).Thisperiodisessentiallypost
ClovisandpreDaltonandshouldspanthetimefrom10,900to10,500yrB.P.

InthemidSouthregionofnorthernAlabama,Tennessee,andKentucky,theCumberlandflutedpoint(Figure2g,h)isfoundinrelativelydensenumbers.Itsemphasis
onfullfacialflutingisreminiscentoftheFolsompoint.TheCumberlandpointhasadistinctivestyleandanequallydistinctiveregionaldistribution,providingstrong
evidenceforregionalstylisticpatterningintheSoutheastduringPaleoindiantimes.Italsoappearstohavebeenflutedusinga"Folsom"likenippleplatform.The
BeaverLakepointissimilartotheCumberlandandisthoughttoberelated,butlacksfluting.AnotherdistinctiveflutedpointstyleistheRedstone(Figure2i),whichis
characterizedbyatriangular,elongatedoutlinewithemphasisonlongflutes.RedstonesalsoarecomparativelydenseinthemidSouthareabutrelativelyrareoutside
thisregion.AnexceptionmayexistintheSouthAtlanticregion,perhapsrelatedtoaconnectionwiththeSavannahRiver,whichoriginatesintheBlueRidgeMountains
andprovidesatravelcorridortoTennessee(e.g.,Goodyearetal.1989).

AnothercommonprojectilepointtypefromthemidSouththatisprobablysomewhatlaterintimeiscalledtheQuad(Figure3d).Thesepointshavestronglyincurvate
basalmargins,pronouncedears,andmayormaynothaveflutingorstrongbasalthinning(CambronandHulse1964).Intechnologyandprobablytime,theQuad
pointislikelyrelatedtotheSuwanneepoint(Figure3a,c),awellmadelanceolatepointwithanincurvatebaseandslightlyearedappearance(Bullen1975).The
Suwanneepointandarelatedstyle,theSimpson,characterizedbystronglyincurvatebasalmarginswithsharplyprojectingears(Figure3b),areabundantintherivers,
springs,anddrownedcoastalriversofnorthandwestcentralFlorida(DunbarandWaller1983).MostSuwanneeandSimpsonpointsarenotflutedbutare
frequentlyfinishedontheirbasesbyshallowbasalthinningorthroughatechniqueoflateralthinning(Figure4)(Goodyearetal.1983:46).Asarule,Suwanneeand
SimpsonpointsaremadefromTertiarycherts,whichareavailableinabeltofoutcropsrunningfromTampa,FloridatoAllendaleCounty,SouthCarolina(Goodyear
etal.1985Upchurchetal.1981).AlthoughspecimenscanbefoundinthelowerPiedmontandFallLine(Andersonetal.1990:Figure29Goodyearetal.1989),
theyareessentiallycoastalplainartifacts.

TheculturalsignificanceofthediverseformsofflutedandunflutedlanceolatepointsassignedtothemiddlePaleoindianperiodwouldberelatedtothetechnological
andstylisticvarietyrepresentedinthisgroupandtheobviousregionalpatternsintheirdistributions.MuchoftheprojectilepointvarietythatiscitedforthePaleoindian
periodintheSoutheastcanprobablybeascribedtotheformsjustreviewed.ThestrongassociationofCumberland,BeaverLake,andQuadpointswiththemid
SouthregionandtheoccurrenceofSuwanneeandSimpsonpointsonthecoastalplainsindicatethatdemographicassociationswithcertainregionswerelargelyin
placebyatleast10,500yearsago,ifnotearlier.OccasionalfragmentsofCumberlandflutedpoints,aswellasBeaverLakeandQuadpoints,havebeenfoundinthe
highlandrocksheltersofAlabama(Driskell1996Futato1980:115,1982:32Walthall1980:31),butnoClovisstyleflutedpointshavebeenrecovered.Thelight
occurrenceofthesepointformsinrocksheltersduring

 Page440

Figure3.
MiddleandlateperiodPaleoindianlanceolatepointsfromthesoutheasternUnitedStates:a,
Suwannee,SantaFeRiver,Fl.b,Simpson,PinellasCo.,Fl.,c,Suwannee,PinellasCo.,Fl.d,
Quadlike,BeaufortCo.,S.C.e,Dalton(cast),Sloansite,Ark.f,Dalton(cast),Sloansite,Ark.
g,Dalton(cast),Hardawaysite,N.C.h,Dalton,38AL135,AllendaleCo.,S.C.i,SanPatrice,
St.JohnsVar.(cast),probablyOklahoma.

themiddlePaleoindianperiodpresagesthenextperiod,characterizedbyDaltonpoints,whicharefoundextensivelyinuplandrocksheltersthroughouttheSouthand
Midwest(Futato1980:117Goodyear1982McMillan1971).

DaltonPeriod(10,5009900YrB.P.)

THEENDOFTHElanceolatePaleoindianpointtraditioncomeswiththeoccurrenceofwhatiscalledtheDaltonpointortheDaltonhorizon.Elsewhereithasbeenargued,
basedonstratigraphicstudiesandlimited14Cdating,thattheDaltonperiodshoulddatewithinaspanof10,500to9900yrB.P.(Goodyear1982).Recent14Cdates
fromazonebearingDaltonpointsatDustCave,Alabamawouldtendtosupportthisinterval(Driskell1994,1996).OtherresearcherswouldextendDaltonto9500
yearsago(MorseandMorse1983:42cf.Wyckoff1985).Theprimaryradiocarbondatedexceptiontothe9900yrB.P.upperlimitoftheDaltonhorizoncomes
fromthePackardsite,locatedinnortheastOklahoma(Wyckoff1985,1989).ThestratigraphiccontextoftheDaltonassemblagethere,however,anditsdeviation
fromtherestofthesoutheasternUnitedStatesstratigraphicsequence,suggestthatitwasredeposited(cf.JeterandWilliams1989:77).

 Page441

Figure4.
IllustrationoflateralthinningtechniqueonSuwannee
point.FromGoodyearetal.(1983:4).

ThechippedstonetechnologyofDaltonassemblagesisclearlyPaleoindianincharacter(Goodyear1974Morse1973Morse1997b),althoughsignificantadditions
suchasserrated,resharpenedbladeedgesonhaltedbifacesandadzesarepresent.ItprobablyisnotrealistictospeakofasingleDaltoncultureintheSoutheastat
thistime.ConsiderableregionalismalreadywasmanifestintheprecedingmiddlePaleoindianperiodandcontinuedduringthenext500years.AnumberofDalton
pointvarietieshavebeenrecognized:HardawayfromtheNorthCarolinapiedmont(Figure3g)Nuckolls,Colbert,andGreenbriarfromtheAlabamaTennesseearea
(DeJarnetteetal.1962)andSloan(Figure3e,f)fromtheArkansasMissouriarea.

InthecentralandwesternGulfcoastalplain,theSanPatrice(Figure3i)seriesappearstorepresentaDaltonmanifestation(Ensor1986),perhapsalateone.Within
theSanPatriceseriestherearetwomajorpointvarieties:Hope,whichlookslikeasmallDaltonpointandSt.Johns,whichhasoblique,incipientsidenotches(see
Figure3i).AttheHestersiteinMississippi(Figure1),SamBrookes(personalcommunication1991)hasfoundlanceolateDaltonswithstraightlateralmarginsand
HopevarietySanPatricelikeformsspatiallyassociatedindiscreteclusters,implyingcontemporaneity.Story(1990:Figures27and28)hasplottedthedistributionof
DaltonandSanPatricepointsandhasshownthatthetwotypesbasicallyhavedifferentregionaldistributions.SanPatriceoccursthroughoutLouisiana,exclusiveof
riverfloodplainsandcoastalzones,andincastTexas.Theseareallheavilywoodedregions.TheSanPatricepointstendtobemadeonsmall,localchertgravels.
Daltonpoints,ontheotherhand,aremadeonavarietyoflithicrawmaterialsconcentratedmoretothenorthofeastTexasandLouisiana,andoccurinawiderrange
ofenvironments"...includingthewoodededgeoftheGulfCoastalPlain"(Story1990:202).ThedatingandidentificationofSanPatriceassemblageshavebeen
hinderedbythelackofwellstratifiedorsinglecomponentsites(e.g.,Webbetal.1971).

AvailablefaunalevidenceindicatesthatmodernplantsandanimalswerethefocusofsubsistencebyDaltontimes.Inarealsense,Daltontechnologyappearstobea
somewhatmodifiedPaleoindiantoolkitappliedtomodernorHolocenebiota.Inthisrespect,DaltoncanbeconsideredthebeginningoftheearlyArchaicperiodin
theSoutheast.TherealsoisevidenceofasubstantialpopulationincreaseduringDaltontimescomparedwithpreviousperiods.Sitesandpointsincreasebyafactorof
fiveto10fromtheClovisandmiddlePaleoindianperiods(Anderson1990:Table3).

LatePleistoceneEarlyHoloceneEnvironments

BASEDONPALYNOLOGICALstudiesperformedinthepast30yearsbyWilliamWatts,DonWhitehead,andHazelandPaulDelcourt(DelcourtandDelcourt1985),afairly
detailedfloralandclimaticreconstructionisavailableforthelatePleistoceneandearlyHoloceneperiodsintheSoutheast.

Fromtheperiodofabout12,500to8500yrB.P.,thereexistedauniqueforestdescribedasacool,mesic,broadleavedforest(Figure5)dominatedbybeechand
hickory(DelcourtandDelcourt1979,1985Watts1980).Thismixedhardwoodforesthadcoolersummersthantoday,withabundantmoistureavailableduringthe
growingseason.Thisspeciesrichmesicforesthaddefinablelatitudinalboundariesbetween37and33northlatitude(Delcourtetal.1983:164).Referringto
previousstatementsonthedistributionofflutedpoints,moreoftheClovisandClovislikematerialcomesfromthisareaofcool,mesicforest.

Southof33latitudeduringthesameperiod,vegetationwasverysimilartothatoftoday(Figure5).Thecoastalplainswerewarmandtendedtobedroughty.
Vegetationconsistedofmodernspeciesdominatedbyoak,hickory,sweetgum,andpine(DelcourtandDelcourt1983).InFlorida,surfacewaterwasseverely
restrictedasaresultofloweredsealevelonthekarstcontrolledhydrologyandbyreducedrainfall.

 Page442

Figure5.
LatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenevegetationcommunities
at14,000andI0,000yrB.P.intheeasternUnitedStates.
FromAndersonetal.(1990:Figure2)adaptedfromDelcourtandDelcourt(1981).

 Page443

ItshouldbenotedthattheSoutheastwasnotinanysenseglaciatedorglaciallyinfluencedduringthistimeperiod.Thesebasicfloristicdifferencesaboveandbelow
33latitudewerecontrolledbythepositionofdifferentweathersystems.ThePacificairmassdominatedtheareaofthemesicdeciduousforestandtheMaritime
Tropicalairmasscontrolledthecoastalplains(DelcourtandDelcourt1983).Thus,thefirstClovispopulationsintheSoutheastencounteredahardwoodormixed
hardwoodandpineforest(Figure5).

AccordingtopaleontologicalreconstructionsbyS.DavidWebb,therewasasimilarfaunaldistributionbylatitude.Inhisimportantsynthesis,Webb(1981)identifies
threedistinctfaunalregions(Figure6):anorthernBorealzonecoveringthemidAtlanticstatesaTemperatezonepositionedataboutthelatitudeofSouthCarolina
andaSubtropicalregionsituatedfromabout33latitudesouthwardintopeninsularFlorida.AgreatdealofbioticvariationoccurredwithintheSoutheast,withthe
middleTemperateandSubtropicalzonesbeingveryecotonalanddiverse.SomespeciesfromtheTemperatezonerangedsouthintotheSubtropicalregion,making
theSubtropicalregiononeoftherichestandmostdiverseintermsoflatePleistocenevertebrateremains(Webb1981:I77).Webb,aswellasEdwardsandMerrill,
agreethat"...duringthelatePleistocenetheregionfromFloridatotheCarolinasapproachedoptimalconditionsfortheearliestAmericans"(EdwardsandMerrill
1977:35).

ThePleistoceneenddatesforthesezonesarenotwellestablishedanditisdifficultatpresenttopreciselyrelatethemtohumanpopulations(Goodyearetal.1989).It
seemsprobableatthispointthatthemegafaunaofthePleistocenedidnotsurviveaslongassomeradiocarbondateshavesuggested.

TheanalysisofpublishedradiocarbondatesbyDavidMeltzerandJimMead(1985)isrelevantherewithregardtodefiningtheenddatesofPleistocenemegafauna.
Theirstudies,basedonstrictcriteriaofdatereliability,haveindicatedthatthesefaunawereverylikelyextinctby10,500yrB.P.,andthereisastrongsuggestionthat
theyweregoneby10,800yrB.P.ThisparallelsthearchaeologicalfindingsforClovisversusFolsomintheWest,wheremammoth,horse,camel,andother
economicallyusefulmegafaunawerelastusedbyClovispeoples,andonlynowextinctbisonwereassociatedwithFolsom.Basedonthestratigraphyofthe
PleistoceneHolocenetransitionandthelackofextinctmegafaunainpostClovissites,Haynes(1984)hasarguedthatextinctiontookplaceduringClovistimesand
wascompletenolaterthan10,500yrB.P.TosomeextentthisargumentissupportedbydatafromtheSoutheast,wheretheavailablefaunalremainsassociatedwith
Daltonindicateonlymodernanimalswereused(Goodyear1982).

Figure6.
LatePleistocenefaunalregionsofthe
southeasternUnitedStatescoastalplains.
FromWebb(1981)asadaptedbyCarbone(1983).

ThedatingoftheextinctionofproboscideansandothereconomicallyimportantNorthAmericanmegafaunaiscriticaltotheexplanationofwhysolittlearchaeological
evidenceofmegafaunalexploitationhasbeendiscoveredintheEast(cf.Meltzer1988).Ifthesespecieswereessentiallygoneby10,900or10,800yrB.P.,
particularlyiftheClovisoccupationoftheSoutheastlagsbehindtheWestbyacenturyortwo,wearesearchingforaverynarrowwindowintimewithinwhichsuch
anassociationwaspossible.ThisscenarioneedstobegivenmoreseriousthoughtinmodelingClovisagesubsistencestudiesintheSoutheast.

 Page444

Thefinalpaleoenvironmentalconditionthatmustbementionedisthatofloweredsealevels.AttheendofthePleistocene,worldsealevelsbegantorise.However,for
theperiodfrom12,000to9000yrB.P.moresubaeriallandmasswasavailableforhumanoccupationthantodayandnodoubtallcoastalsiteshavebeeninundated.
InFlorida,loweredsealevelsandanapparentlydrierclimatehadapronouncedeffectonsurfacewateravailability(Brooks1972),whichisreflectedintheutilization
offamousearlysitessuchasWarmMineralSpringsandLittleSaltSpring.ThiswaswhatWilfredNeill(1964:20)calledthe"waterhole"effectonbothanimaland
humanpopulations,resultinginageographicconcentrationofarchaeologicalremainsinspringsandrivers.AscanbeseenbasedontheworkofDunbarandothers
(DunbarandWaller1983:Figures12),mostofthePaleoindianpointsinFloridahavebeenrecoveredfromthekarstregion,whichprovidedmorereliablefreshwater
resources.

EvidenceofExtinctPleistoceneFaunaUtilization

EVIDENCEOFHUMANutilizationofPleistocenefaunaispresentintheSoutheast,especiallyinFloridafreshwatersprings,sinkholes,andrivers.Thebestknownexamples
aretheivory"foreshafts"andpoints(Figure7),whichhavebeencomparedtosimilarpiecesfromClovissites(Cotter1962JenksandSimpson1941).Amateur
divershavecontinuedtofindworkedivoryartifactsintheAucillaandIchetuckneeriversofnorthFlorida(Dunbar1991:Table1).Thepresumptionhereisthatthe
ivorywasworkedwhilefresh.Neill(1964:23)statesthat"inFlorida,fossilivoryischalky,inclinedtosplitintosheets,andunsuitableformanufactureintopoints."
Haynes(1982:389390)hasofferedevidence,basedonthemodificationofproboscideantuskstructure,thativoryprobablywasworkedwhilegreen.

Intheearly1970s,underwaterexcavationswereconductedattheGuestsite,locatedeastofOcala,Florida(Figure1),whichhasbeeninterpretedasamammothkill
site(Hoffman1983Rayl1974).AbonedepositwasfounderodingoutofthebankofSilverSpringsRunabout3munderwater,locatedseveralkilometers
downstreamfromthemainsprings(SilverSprings).Anapparentlyinsitumammothwasdiscoveredduringexcavation(Hoffman1983:Figure1),whichyielded"a
smallstemlesspoint...inthevicinityoftheproximalendoftherightfemurclosetotheilium.Chertflakeswere[also]foundintheareaoftheribsand
vertebra"(Hoffman1983:84).Hoffman(1983:Figure2)providesaphotographofthispoint,whichappearslanceolateandbasallythinnedorfluted,butwithan
excurvateratherthanconcavebase.WiththeexceptionofRayl's(1974)master'sthesis,nopublishedreportisavailabletoallowscientificevaluationofthisexcavation
andgeohydrologicalcontext.Thisisanunfortunatesituation,astheGuestsiteappearstobeapossibleexampleofPaleoindianextinctmegafaunautilization.

Figure7.
Completeivoryforeshaft,307mmlong,fromSloth
Hole,AucillaRiver,Florida(UF136494).
Photographandinformationcourtesy
ofS.DavidWebb,Florida
MuseumofNaturalHistory.

ThefamousunderwatersiteofLittleSaltSpringinsouthwestFlorida(Figure1)producedanassociationofasharplypointedstakeapparentlydrivenintoanextinct
speciesoftortoise(Geochelonecrassiscutata),foundlyingonitsback.Thetortoisewas26mbelowthepresentwatersurfaceofacenoteonaformerlydry

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14
ledge.Theinvestigatorsbelievetheanimalwaskilledwiththestakeandcookedwhereitwasfound.A Cdateonthestakewasassayedat12,030200yrB.P.
(Clausenetal.1979:609).Nootherorganicartifactsordiagnosticchippedstonetoolswerereportedthatdatetothisage.Otherwoodenartifactswererecoveredin
thespringthathavebeen14Cdatedbetweenabout9500and9000yrB.P.(Clausenetal.1979:Table1).Assumingnocontaminationofthe12,030date,this14C
valuecouldbepreClovisinage.

BasedontheirunderwaterexcavationsatnearbyWarmMineralSprings(Figure1),CockrellandMurphy(1978:1)reportacombined14Cdateof10,310yrB.P.
basedon16assaystakenfromthegeneralareaofwhattheydescribeasaflexedhumanburial.Theburialanddatedmaterialwerecollectedfromaledge13mbelow
watersurface.Workedbonefromthesiteisallfrommodernfauna.TheearlieststoneprojectilepointsaresidenotchedinformfollowingtheGreenbriarandBolen
types(CockrellandMurphy1978:Figure6),whichshoulddateabout10,000yrB.P.TheworkofClausenetal.(1975)atthissamesiteproducedsimilarresults.
Twohumanboneswerefoundinstratifiedorganicdepositsthathadaccumulatedonthe13mledge.Adateof10,260190yrB.P.wasobtainedonwoodfromthe
samelevelasoneofthehumanbones.Fourradiocarbondatesrangingfrom9880to10,630yrB.P.wereobtainedfromfour10cmlevels.Allfaunarecoveredwere
modernspecies.

ThissamesituationappliesattheCutlerFossilsite,adrysinkholelocatednearMiami(Figure1).Heretheearliestfirmarchaeologicalevidenceofoccupationoccurs
atabout10,000yrB.P.,basedonDaltonlikeprojectilepointsand14Cdates(Carr1987:6263).

AlthoughlatePleistocenefaunaoccurabundantlyatLittleSaltSpring,WarmMineralSprings,andtheCutlersite,withtheexceptionoftheextincttortoiseatLittle
Salt,agoodassociationbetweenpeopleandextinctfaunahasnotyetbeenmade.ThiscouldimplythattheearliestpenetrationofhumansintosouthFlorida,as
witnessedbythesethreesites,maybetheDaltontimeperiod(10,50010,000yrB.P.).Thepreservationoforganicremainsatthespringsites,includinghuman
brains,isnothingshortofextraordinary(Clausenetal.1979:203204),suggestingthataClovisorevenpreClovisoccupation,ifpresent,couldbeeasilydatedand
determined.

ThemostunequivocalevidenceofhumanuseandcontemporaneitywithextinctmegafaunaisthatofaBisonantiquusskullwithabrokenchertprojectilepoint
embeddedinitsfrontoparietalbone(Webbetal.1984).ThisspecimenwasfoundbyahobbydiverintheWacissaRiverinJeffersonCounty,Florida(Figure1).The
pointbasewasmissing,thusprecludinganytypologicalidentification.Radiocarbondatesofbisonboneindicateanageofabout11,000yrB.P.

InriverbedsofthekarstregionofnorthandcentralFlorida,includingtheSuwannee,SantaFe,Ichetucknee,Wacissa,Aucilla,Withlacoochee,andOklawaha,
numerousfindsoflatePleistocenemammalbonesandPaleoindianageartifactsarepracticallylegendary(Mason1962MilanichandFairbanks1980:3548Neill
1964Purdy1981WallerandDunbar1977Webb1974Webbetal.1984).Withtheexceptionofthewelldescribedfindofabutchermarkedvertebral
mammothspine(Bullenetal.1970)andtherecentlypublisheddescriptionofsixobviousboneandivorytools(DunbarandWebb1996),thismodifiedfaunalmaterial
hasnotbeensystematicallydescribedandpublished.BriefreferencesintheliteraturetootherworkedorbutchermarkedmegafaunalspecimenscuratedattheFlorida
MuseumofNaturalHistoryandinprivatecollections(Dunbaretal.1989a:473498Webbetal.1984:390)indicatethatasubstantialbodyoffaunaldatanowexists
whichmeritssystematicstudy.Useofthescanningelectronmicroscopeisofferingnewavenuesfordistinguishingbetweenhumanandnaturalagenciesinthe
modificationofarchaeofaunalremains(JohnsonandShipman1986cf.Dunbaretal.1989a).

Attheveryleast,theKimmswickmastodonsite(Grahametal.1981)insoutheasternMissouri(Figure1)andtheWacissaRiverbisonkill(Webbetal.1984)both
showunmistakablythathumanswerepresentintheSoutheastatatimeearlyenoughtobecontemporarywithlatePleistocenemegafaunaandinfactincorporated
themintotheirsubsistencebase.ItshouldbeobviousthattheunderwatersitesofFloridademonstrateenormouspotentialforelucidatingthispoorlyknownaspectof
theearliesthumaninhabitantsoftheSoutheast(cf.DunbarandWebb1996).

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LatePleistoceneEarlyHoloceneDepositionalSystems

BASEDONTHEWORKofC.VanceHaynesandothers,itisevidentthatovermuchofNorthAmericasouthoftheWisconsinice,therewasamarkedperiodoferosionat
theendofthePleistocenedatingbetween12,500and11,500yrB.P.(Haynes1968).Thiswasabroadgeologicandprobablyclimaterelatedeventwherestream
regimensweredominatedbynetdegradationandchannelincision.Clovissites,whetherintheWest,Midwest(Kimmswick),orEast(Thunderbird,Shawnee
Minisink),exhibitinitialhumanoccupationatthecontactofthepreviouserosionalsurfaceandthefirstepisodeofHoloceneaggradation(Haynes1984:350).Basedon
radiocarbondatedgeologicalstratigraphyofClovissitesintheWestandcomparablestratigraphiccontactsintheEast,Haynes(1984:350)estimatesthatthefirst
episodeoffluvialaggradationbeganabout11,000yrB.P.

Contemporaryenvironmentalscientistshavefocusedontheroleoffloodsandtheircapacitytomovefloodplainsawayfromstatesofdepositionalequilibriumby
erosionoraggradation(Knox1976).Climatehasemergedasthemacrodeterminantoffloodsmediatedregionallybytheeffectofvegetation(Delcourt1985Knox
1984).

Basedonhistoricfloodrecords,J.C.Knoxhasshownthatitisduringperiodsofextremeclimaticshiftsratherthanaverageclimaticconditionsthatfloodplainsmove
fromdepositionalregimestothosedominatedbyincisionordegradation.Hehasspeculatedthatseverestorms,especiallythoseoccurringtemporallyinclusters,are
mostresponsibleforcausingriverstoinciseanderodetheirfloodplains(Knox1976,1984).FortheeasternUnitedStates,Knoxhypothesizesthatwhenweather
patternsaredominatedbyzonalatmosphericmovementacrosstheMidwest,violentstormsarelessfrequentandfloodplainstendtowardequilibriumandaggradation.
Weatherpatternsdominatedbymeridionalairflow,ontheotherhand,producefrequent,severethunderstormsandconcomitantmajorfloodsresultinginfloodplain
degradation.ThisoccursasaresultoftheArcticairmassflowingsouthwardinthewinterandthemovementoftheMaritimeTropicalairmassmovingnorthward
duringthesummer(Delcourt1985:22Knox1984).

Aspreviouslymentioned,paleovegetationreconstructionsbasedonradiocarbondatedfossilpollenassemblageshavedemonstratedtheprehistoricrealityofthenow
extinctmesichardwoodforestwhichexistedfrom33to37northlatitude(Figure5).TheclimaterepresentedbythisforestisinterpretedbyDelcourtandDelcourt
(1984:276)as"cooltemperate"withabundantmoistureduringthegrowingseason.TheDelcourts(1984:280)attributethepresenceofthisforesttotheinteractionof
thePacificairmassdominatingduringthewinterandtheMaritimeTropicalairmassinthesummer.Theclimateduringthistime(12,5008500yrB.P.)isalso
regardedasexhibitingmaximumseasonalitycomparedtoclimatesbeforethisandafterward(DelcourtandDelcourt1984:280).Sometimeduringthe12,000to
11,000yearinterval,theArcticairmassmusthavemadeitspresencefeltinthesouthernlatitudes,owingtotheseparationoftheCordilleranandLaurentideicesheets
(BrysonandWendland1967DelcourtandDelcourt1984:278).Thiswouldhavecausedstrongmeridionalairflow,supportingKnox's(1984)stormhypothesis.

ForthesoutheasternUnitedStates,PaulDelcourt,followingKnox(1984),hasshowntheeffectsofclimateandvegetationindeterminingtherateofoverlandsurface
runoffofprecipitationandtheresultantcapacityforerosionofthelandscape(Delcourt1985).AtAndersonPondinTennessee(36latitude)andatCupolaPondin
Missouri(37latitude),theonsetofthemesicdeciduousforestmarkedlyreducedtheamountofmineralsedimentflowingintothebasinscomparedtotheprevious
fullglacialborealforest(Delcourt1985:2021).Inotherwords,closedcanopiedhardwoodforestsprotectedlandsurfacesfromerosion,reducingthesediment
availabletorivervalleys.

Tothesouth,palynologicalandsedimentologicalstudiesconductedonlakesinthesouthernAtlanticandGulfcoastalplainshaverevealedsimilarlowratesofmineral
sedimentationduringthefullglacialtoearlyHoloceneperiods(i.e.,fromca.20,000to8000yrB.P.).Forestssituatedontheinterfluvesweredominatedbyoak,
hickory,andsouthernpine,indicatingatemperateclimatewithdroughtysummers.Matureforests,coupledwithlowprecipitationduringthesummers,wouldbe
responsibleforminimizingoverlandflowofsedimentintopondsandlakesandintothewatershed(Delcourt1985:21).After8000yrB.P.,summerprecipitation
increased,owingtotheinfluenceoftheMaritimeTropicalairmass,causingpondstodeepen,coniferoustreestoincrease,andmineralsedimentationratestoincrease
(Delcourt1985:23).

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Delcourt's(1985)sedimentologicalandpalynologicalworkwithnonriverine,interfluvialpondsiteshelpsexplaintheminimallystratifiedconditionofmanyuplandor
interriverinePaleoindiansitesthroughouttheSoutheast.Vegetationcoverwassufficienttopreventsoilmovementbybothcolluvialandeolianagencies.Asdiscussed
belowadifferentclimaticandfloristicsituationexistedinpeninsularFlorida,wherebysedimentwasmovingandaccumulatingonPaleoindiansites.

Largelyowingtofederallyfundedmitigationprojectsofwaterreservoirs,geologistsandarchaeologistshaveworkedtogethertostudythepaleohydrologyandalluvial
historiesofsoutheasternUnitedStatesrivervalleys.Ingeneral,alluvialfeaturescontainingclearrepresentationsofarchaeologicalassemblagesbegantoconsistently
appearatabout9500yrB.P.withwhatiscalledtheKirkphaseorKirkcornernotchedcluster,sonamedforacornernotchedprojectilepoint(Broyles1966
Chapman1976ClaggettandCable1982Coe1964).WiththeonsetofKirkphaselithics,typicallyseenisanunbrokenalluvialandarchaeologicalseriesof
depositionsthroughtheHolocene,indicatingfloodplainsedimentologicalregimesdominatedbyaggradationwithminorepisodesoferosioninthelateHolocene.

PriortotheKirkphasethereisoftenrecordedinthegeologicalrecordanerosionalhiatuslikethatdiscussedfortherestoftheUnitedStatesattheendofthe
Pleistocene.RecognizinganddatingthiserosionalcontactarecriticalforunderstandingtheHoloceneaggradationthatwassonecessaryforburyingandpreserving
Paleoindianremains.Geoarchaeology,ortheapplicationofgeologicaltechniquestoaidinsolvingarchaeologicalproblems,hasbeenconductedextensivelyinfield
studiesthroughouttheSoutheastinrecentyears,yieldinganinterestingdatabaseofcasestudiesthatcanbeexaminedprofitably.Therestofthissectionwillreview
andevaluateanumberofthesestudiesinanefforttosummarizethestateofknowledgeregardinggeologicalcontextsanddepositionalenvironmentsofthePaleoindian
timeperiod(12,00010,000yrB.P.).

Owingtospecialgeomorphic,andthusdepositional,propertiesrelatedtoeach,thereviewwillbebrokendownbyfloodplainstudiesinthesouthernAppalachian
MountainsandPiedmont,andfloodplainsandotherdepositionalsituationsoccurringonthecoastalplains.Aswillbeseen,theriversofthesouthernAppalachiansare
rockboundwithnarrowfloodplains,whichtendstoproducedeepalluvialdepositsconducivetoarchaeologicalstratigraphyandpreservation.Thenonrockbound
riversofthecoastalplains,ontheotherhand,permitgreaterlateralchannelmigrationandthusdevelopthinnerdeposits.FurthersouthinpeninsularFlorida,thecoastal
plainisunderlainbylimestone,resultinginspecialdepositionalfeaturessuchasspringsandsinks,whichhavefacilitateduniquegeologicalandarchaeologicaldeposits.
Finally,whenconsideringcoastalplainlandforms,thosethathavebeeninundatedbysealevelrisemustalsobeconsidered,suchasthosethatareknowntoexistin
theGulfofMexico.

TheSouthernAppalachians

LittleTennesseeRiver,TellicoReservoirProject

EXTENSIVEDEEPSITEexcavations,directedbyJeffersonChapmanduringthe1970s,wereconductedbytheUniversityofTennesseeintheLittleTennesseeRivervalley
(Figure1)asmitigationmeasuresfortheTellicoDam.Usingabackhoe,deeplybuffedalluvialsitesweresystematicallysearchedforasdeepas7.01mbelowthe
floodplainsurface.

NoinsitualluviallyburiedPaleoindianremainswereencountered,althoughsurfacefindsofflutedpointshavebeenmadeonolderadjacentterracesandhillsides
(Chapman1985:145).OneobviousflutedpointwitharesharpenedbladewasfoundattheBaconFarmsiteinanearlyArchaicKirkphaselevel,butwasevidently
redeposited(Chapman1978:55).TwoDaltonpointsinredepositedcontextsalsowerefound,onefromStratumHatIcehouseBottom,whichwasalateearly
ArchaicKirklevel,andanotherfromRoseIslandfromalateearlyArchaicSt.Albanshorizon(Chapman1977:49).Theearliestinsituburiedalluvialsitesweredated
toearlyArchaicKirkcornernotchedhorizonsbeginningat9500yrB.P.,basedonseveralradiocarbondates(Chapman1985:146).Holoceneagesedimentswere
presentasmuchas3mdeeperthantheKirkhorizonmaterialsbutproducednoartifacts.

GeologicalandarchaeologicalstudiesofthelowerLittleTennesseeRivervalleyhaveprovidedthedataforamodeldevelopedbyPaulDelcourt(1980)oferosion
andalluvialdeposition,whichcanexplainthelackofburiedpre10,000yrB.P.sites.Chapmanhassummarizedthismodelasfollows:

From1979surveysandbackhoetrenchprofiles,DelcourthasidentifiednineQuaternaryalluvialterraces.Thesesurfaceswerecreatedthroughvalleyincisionbythe
LittleTennesseeRiverinresponseto

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theprogressivedowncuttingoftheTennesseeRiver.Quaternaryglacial/interstadialcyclesmodulatedthemechanicalproductionofrockdebrisunderperiglacial
conditionsonmidtohighelevationsintheGreatSmokyMountains,whichresultedinreworkingofsedimentdownslopeandvalleyaggradationduringlateglacialand
interglacialtimes.DuringtheearlyHolocene,increasedprecipitationcausedsedimentsderivedfromtheexposedrockdebrisonmountainslopestoaccumulaterapidly
inthevalleys,thusformingathickseriesoffirstterraces(Delcourt1980b)[Chapman1985:144].

Chapman(1985)surmisesthatPaleoindiansites,ifpreserved,wouldbepresentinT1.AvailableradiocarbondatesfromT2rangefrom27,595to32,330yrB.P.,
indicatingthattheseterraceswereformedpriortoPaleoindianoccupations.ThepossibilityexiststhatflutedpointsitesmightexistonremnantpointbarswithinT1,
althoughsitediscoverywillbedifficult.AccordingtoChapman,thegreaterlikelihoodisthatany10,000to11,000yrB.P.culturaloccupationswouldhavebeen
erodedbythehighlydynamicfloodsattheendofthelateglacialperiod.TheincreasedprecipitationatthebeginningoftheHoloceneevidentlyresultedinthe
extremelyrapidformationofT1.Toillustrate,radiocarbondatesofnonarchaeologicalsedimentslocatedfrom6.1to6.7mbelowsurfacearecontemporarywith
datesfrominsituearlyArchaicKirkhorizons3mhigher(i.e,9000to9500yrB.P.),indicatingsomethingofthespeedwithwhichT1wasformed(Chapman
1985:144145).

DuckRiver,Tennessee,ColumbiaReservoirProject

THECOLUMBIARESERVOIRProject(Figure1)combinedarchaeologicalandgeologicalapproachesinthestudyofthedepositionalhistoryofthemiddleDuckRiver
duringthecourseoftheHolocene.Extensivebackhoetrenchingallowedareconstructionofthealluvialstratigraphyoftherivervalleybeginningwiththelate
Pleistoceneandcontinuingtothepresent(Brakenridge1984).''SeverebedrockandfloodplainerosionoccurredneartheendofthePleistocene,andamajor
erosionalunconformitywascreated"(Brakenridge1984:9).TheearlyHoloceneaggradationwasidentifiedanddatedtoapproximately9000yrB.P.basedon
diagnosticartifacts.SeveralpreDaltonflutedpointswerefoundatornearthesurfaceoftheT2Armoursoils,whichwerethemoststablelandsurfacesnearestthe
river(TurnerandKlippel1989:61).DeeplyburiedArchaicoccupationswerefoundinT1sediments,withradiocarbondatesasoldas8885yrB.P.Sedimentsof
T1a1(earlyArchaic)andT2b(Paleoindian)ageswerepenetratedbutnotwellsampledbybackhoeandbulldozercuts,owingtotheirgreatdepthandunstabletrench
conditions(Klippel,personalcommunication1991).

NashvilleBasin,CumberlandRiver,Tennessee

ASPARTOFTHEIRstatewidePaleoindianprojectilepointandsitesurvey,staffoftheTennesseeDivisionofArchaeologydiscoveredseveralalluviallyburiedandstratified
PaleoindianandearlyArchaicsitesalongtheCumberlandRiverwithintheNashvilleBasin.TheJohnsonsite(40DV400)(Figure1),founderodingfromthesouth
bankoftheCumberlandRiver,yieldeddiagnosticprojectilepointsspanningClovisthroughbifurcates(Brosteretal.1991).Totalarchaeologicaldepthisontheorder
of8m,withculturallymodifiedhorizonsofburnedclay,charcoal,andorganicmatterevidentinthecutbankprofile.Fromthelowestculturallayer(StratumIV),wood
charcoalwasobtainedfromagenerallygatheredsampleyieldingadateof11,700980yrB.P.Aflutedpreformbasewasfound30cmaway.Ashallowbasin
feature,33cmdeepand62cmwide,wasrecordedintheupperportionofthelowestculturalunit.Thebottomofthisbasincontained"darkgrayashmixedwith
charcoal,burnedbone,andnumerousbifacialreductionflakes"(Brosteretal.1991:9).Aradiocarbondateof12,660970yrB.P.wasobtainedonthisfeature
(Brosteretal.1991:9).AsecondbasinshapedfeatureinStratumIVknownasFeature6,producedadateof11,980110yrB.P.onunidentifiablecharcoal
(BarkerandBroster1996:103).StratumIVisthoughttobeClovisinage.Some26flutedpreformshavebeenrecoveredfromthesite,20ofwhichwereinsituwithin
StratumIV(BarkerandBroster1996:112).ThreeClovispointshavebeenfoundwashedoutonthelowerbeachbelowtheprofile.

AnotheralluvialsitefounderodingintotheCumberlandRiverwasthePuckettsite(40SW228).Thissitealsohasproducedthefullrangeoffluted,lanceolate,and
earlyArchaicprojectilepointtypes.Testexcavationsrevealed"...anintactlevelofDaltonprojectilepointsoverlainbyasubstantialKirkcornernotchedcomponent.
AradiocarbonsamplefromtheDaltoncomponenthasproducedadateof9790160yrB.P."(BrosterandNorton1996).

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Publishedinformationinanexpandedformislimitedatthispointforthesesites,aswellasfortheimportantKentuckyLakesiteofCarsonConnShortonthe
impoundedTennesseeRiver,discussedbelow.However,thedensityofearlydiagnosticartifacts,includingflutedpoints,thepresenceofvisuallyapparentnaturaland
culturalstratigraphywithcharcoalandbonesurviving,plusthegreatdepthofburial,togetherprovideanencouragingsituationforestablishingthegeologicalcontext
necessaryforPaleoindianstudiesintheSouth.ThethreeradiocarbondatesfromtheJohnsonsiteseemcomparativelyoldandintwocasestheirlargestandard
deviationspreventpreciseculturalassociation.Attwosigmas,bothdatesarewithintheNorthAmericanClovisrange.The11,980datewiththesigmaof110yrs
seemsearlierthanwesternClovisdatesevenatthreestandarddeviations.TheradiocarbondateassociatedwiththeDaltoncomponentatthePuckettsiteseemsright
forlateDalton.

KentuckyLake,TennesseeRiver,Tennessee

OFSEVERALFLUTEDPOINTsitesfoundinsurveyingtheKentuckyLakeregionoftheTennesseeRiverbytheStateofTennessee'sDivisionofArchaeology,thesiteof
CarsonConnShort(40BN190)(Figure1)hasreceivedthemostfieldwork.ThesitewasrecordedaspartofthesurveyconductedbyJohnBrosterandMark
Norton(1993).ItiscomprisedofsevendistinctareasexposedatthesurfaceonpartiallyfloodedterraceridgeslocatedneartheoldPleistocenechannelofthe
TennesseeRiver.

Oneofthesevenareas,AhasreceivedintensivemappingandtestingWith1msquareunits.AreaAis50by300mandhasproducednearlyexclusivelyClovis
flutedpreforms,points,andrelatedunifacialtools,alongwithaminorCumberlandoccupation.TestinghasindicatedintactPaleoindianlithicmateriallocatedfrom30
to55cmbelowsurfaceassociatedwithtwodistinctsoilstrata.SeveralclustersoffirecrackedchertwerefoundthroughouttheareaofthePaleoindianartifacts,
suggestingdeflatedhearths.

SubsequentradiocarbondatingofoneclusterindicateslateArchaicusage,althoughlateArchaicartifactsarenotfoundonthesite(BrosterandNorton1996).

Withapproximately1,700toolsrecoveredasof1994,onlyaminorquantityarepostPaleoindianinage,indicatingaratherdenseflutedpointsite.CarsonConn
Shortisdefinedasa"quarryworkshop"byBrosterandNorton(1996),asitissituatedwithinafewhundredmetersofhighqualitychert.Thesiteisdominatedby
flutedpreformsandprismaticblades,whichprobablyindicatetheprimarymanufacturingactivities.Thesiteissignificantbecauseofitsstratigraphicintegrityandthe
dominationofthelithicassemblagebywhatisapparentlyaClovisrelatedtechnology.Accordingtotheauthors,thismaybeoneofthelargestClovissiteseverfound
intheSoutheast(BrosterandNorton1996).

CarsonConnShort,likethesitesdiscussedabovefortheCumberlandRiverintheNashvilleBasin,hasenormouspotentialforsolvingbasicproblemsinsoutheastern
Paleoindianstudies,nottheleastofwhichistheageandoriginofClovisculture.Sophisticatedfieldstudiesemployingtechniquesoffluvialgeologyandsoil
morphologywillbeneededtofullydocumentwhatappearstobeexcellentstratigraphiccontext.

MiddleTennesseeRiverValley,Alabama

RECENTPUBLICATIONSonthefamousQuadsiteandgeographicallyrelatedsites,suchasPineTreeandStonePipe(Figure1),allowsomegeoarchaeological
interpretationstobemadeoftheseimportantPaleoindiansites.

AlthoughthesesiteshaveenjoyedacertainprominenceineasternUnitedStatesPaleoindianstudiesbecauseoftheexceptionalquantitiesofPaleoindianandearly
Archaicartifactstheyhaveyielded,fullscaleintensivearchaeologicalexcavationsbyprofessionalarchaeologistsnevertookplace.Thesiteshaveremainedlargely
inaccessibleastheyarecoveredbythewatersoftheWheelerReservoirandhavesustainedmuchdamageduetowatererosionfromloweringandraisingthe
reservoirlevel.Testexcavationswereconductedbyamateurarchaeologistswhoreportedonthestratigraphicconditions(e.g.,CambronandHulse1960Hulseand
Wright1989).Thesetestexcavations,conductedinthebackwaterareasofthefloodplainawayfromthecontemporaryriverchannel,indicatedthattheearlylithic
materialwasnotdeeplyburiednorclearlysegregatedstratigraphicallyfromArchaicremains.

BasedonrecentvisitstothesesitesbyCharlesHubbert(1989),someclarificationisavailableforthegeologicalsituationofthefloodplaininthevicinityoftheQuad
site.Hubbert(1989:151)reportstherearefromthreetofour"levees"presentoneithersideof

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theriver.Thefirstoftheseisalongthepresentriverbank.Artifactsrecoveredfromthebankindicatetheleveeisonly7,000to8,000yearsold.Paleoindianandearly
Archaicbifacesarenotfoundhere.Upto4mofalluvialsedimentshaveaccumulatedsince8000yrB.P.Levee2isabout180mbackfromthechannel,isfrom90m
to180mwide,andrunsnearlycontinuouslyforseveralmilesalongthefloodplain.PaleoindianandearlyArchaicartifactsarefoundthathaveerodedfromLevee2.
Peagraveldepositsoftencanbeseenexposedonthislevee.Levee3occursfrom90mto180mawayfromtheriverandlikeLevee2producesnumerousclusters
ofPaleoindianandearlyArchaiclithicmaterials.Itexhibitsnopeagravel.Hubbert(1989:154)reportsthatLevees2and3haveyieldedaboutequalquantitiesof
PaleoindianandearlyArchaicartifacts,aswellassporadicoccurrencesoflaterHoloceneculturaloccupations.Thefourthleveeisabovethelakelevelandis
essentiallyuneroded(Hubbert1989:155).

OnLevee2,Hubbert(1989:156)measuredthedistancefromthehighestlateralrootscarof11treestumpstothepresentgroundsurfacetoestimatetheamountof
modernsoillossduetoerosion.Basedonthesemeasurements,hedeterminedthatabout48cmofsedimenthavebeenlost.Thissedimentisdescribedassiltthat
coveredtheartifactsafterloweringofthelakelevel."Beneaththedarksilt,thesurfaceuponwhichtheartifactsrestisayellow/orangetoyellow/bluemottledclay
whichappearstobesterile"(Hubbert1989:156).

ItappearsthatduringthePaleoindiantimeofoccupationoftheQuadsitelocality,theprimaryoccupationsweresituatedonLevees2and3.Hubbert(1989:154)
suggeststhatLevee2wouldhavebeenthenearestriverbankforhumanoccupation.Inanyevent,littleornosedimentwasaccumulatingontheselandsurfacesto
affordburialandstratigraphicseparationofPaleoindianartifactsfromsubsequentArchaicoccupations.Inthisregard,theyareliketheT2terracesdescribedforthe
LittleTennesseeRiverandthemiddleDuckRiver,whichproducedPaleoindianartifactsatorneartheirsurfaces.

DustCove,Alabama

DUSTCAVEISlocatedinthekarsticuplandsnorthoftheTennesseeRivernearFlorence,Alabama(Figure1).In1988itwastestedbyateamfromtheAlabama
MuseumofNaturalHistoryunderthedirectionofBoyceDriskellandfoundtohavedeeplyburiedArchaicdeposits.Subsequentexcavationshaverevealednearly5
mofartifactbearingsedimentsranginginagefromanestimated10,500to5200yrB.P.(Driskell1996).Thesiteisnoteworthyforitsdeepstratigraphy,preservation
offaunalandfloralremains,andundisturbeddeposits,indicatedbyalongstringofradiocarbondatesinchronologicalorderbydepth(Driskell1994:20Goldman
FinnandDriskell1994).

Twonaturallydefinedarchaeologicalhorizonsareofinteresthere.Firstistheearlysidenotchedcomponentcorrespondingtowhatiscalled"BigSandyI"orBolen
sidenotchedelsewhereintheSoutheast.Radiocarbondatesplacethisbetween9000and10,000yrB.P.Nearlyadozensidenotchedpointshavecomefroman
approximately40cmthicklayer,alongwithothertypicalearlyArchaicflaketools(Driskell1994).Thesedimentsassociatedarelocalcolluviuminorigin.Faunal
remainsfromthissidenotchedhorizonandtheearlieronebelowareallHoloceneandindicateadiversebiota(Grover1994).

Thelowesthorizonisreferredtoas"latePaleoindian"(Driskell1996).Radiocarbondatesindicateanagespreadbetween9990140yrB.P.and10,39080yr
B.P.Sedimentsinthelowestartifactbearinglayerpossessmuscovite(mica),indicatingalluviumdepositedbytheTennesseeRiver(GoldbergandSherwood1994).
Sedimentsabovethiszonearenearlyfreeofmica,indicatinglocal,colluvialsources.DiagnosticprojectilepointsincludeoneeachofCumberland,Quad,and
Hardawaysidenotched,twoDaltonlikefragments,andthreeBeaverLakepoints(Driskell1996).

ComparedtoothercaveandsheltersitesoftheSoutheast,DustCaveisexceptionallywellpreservedandexhibitsgreatclarityinitsstratigraphy.Theearlyside
notchedcomponentisessentiallytypologicallypure,withlaterKirkcornernotchedpointslyingaboveitandearlierDaltonandpreDaltonprojectilepointsbelowit.
Clovistypepointsandrelatedartifactsaremissingfromthesequence,afactCollinsandhiscolleagues(Collinsetal.1994)attributetoalatePleistocene,pre10,500
yrB.P.flushingoutofalluvialsedimentsdepositedbytheTennesseeRiverwhenitwasflowingatahigherlevel.Thequalityofgeoarchaeologicalandbiologicaldata
preservedatDustCaveandtheinterdisciplinaryworkbeingundertakenthere(GoldmanFinnandDriskell1994)guaranteethatthissitewillformabenchmarkinthe
studyofthePleistoceneHolocenetransitionfromanarchaeologicalperspective.

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SmithMountain,Virginia

SMITHMOUNTAINisadeep,stratified,alluviallyburiedmulticomponentprehistoricsitewithinanancientleveeofthePiedmontportionoftheupperRoanokeRiver
(Figure1).TheleveeislocatedinandadjacenttothefloodpoolofupperLeesvilleLake,whichisanartificialimpoundmentoftheRoanoke.Duetoheavyshoreline
erosionfromwaterlevelfluctuations,numerousearlyArchaicandsomePaleoindianbifaceshavebeenfoundalongthebeach(Childress1993,1996).Twolocihave
producedartifacts,anareadesignated44PY7,locatedattheheadofthelevee,and44PY152,whichislocatedatthefoot.Thetwolociareabout300mapartand
togetherareconsideredtheSmithMountainsite(Childress1993).Becauseofsitelossduetoerosion,investigationswereundertakentoassesstheirstratigraphic
integritybytheWilliamandMaryCenterforArchaeologicalResearch,withtheaidoftheRoanokeChapteroftheArcheologicalSocietyofVirginia(Blantonetal.
1996).Owingtologisticalproblemsoffluctuatingwaterlevelsandextremelyhardsoil,44PY152receivedmostofthefieldinvestigation.

Site44PY152wassubsurfacetestedbytheWilliamandMaryteamin1994.Tenbucketaugertestsweredugoveralengthofabout70malongtheleveecrestwith
nineof10testsproducingartifacts.Two1x2mtestunitswereexcavatedtoevaluateburieddeposits.Augertestingindicatedarelativelyhomogenousdepositwithno
distinctstratigraphicbreaks,exceptacobblelayerencounteredbetween1.95and2.85mbelowsurface.Aburiedartifactdepositwasfoundfrom120to180cm
belowsurfaceconsistingofquartzandchertflakes(Blantonetal.1996:37).Testunit1wasplacedonthebeachinanareaofhighartifactdensityandduginsix10
cmlevels.Onlydebitageandundiagnosticbifacefragmentswererecovered,mostoftheseinthefirst0.5m.Basedonabsoluteelevationbelowtheleveesurface,the
firstlevelcorrespondedtoStratumV,adeeplyburiedartifactproducinghorizoninthelevee.Testunit2wasplacedontheleveetop.Abackhoewasusedtoremove
soildownto1.4mbelowgroundsurfacetoStratumV,atwhichpointeight10cmlevelswereexcavated(Blantonetal.1996:45).Artifactswererecoveredinthe
firstsevenlevelsconsistingofdebitageandprojectilepointfragments,onesuggestiveofasidenotchedpoint.Basedondepthandlithicrawmaterials,StratumVis
thoughttobePaleoindianearlyArchaic.

Geoarchaeologicalstudieswereconductedintestunit2becauseofmaximumprofiledepth.Schuldenrein(1996:99)identifiedthreemajoralluvialcyclesandtheir
associatedpalcosolswithin2.4mofalluvium.Alluvialunit3,thedeepestandoldesthorizon,beganatabout1.4mbelowsurfaceandwasobservedinprofiletoabout
2m.Theupper0.5mofunit3correspondedwithStratumV,theburiedPaleoindianearlyArchaicdeposit.Itwascappedbyafragipanwhichisthoughttohave
helpedpreserveitsarchaeologicalintegrity.Schuldenrein(1996:102)classifiedthesoilmorphologyoftheupperportionofalluvialunit3(StratumV)asa3ABand
attributedthehighdegreeofhumificationtohumaninputs.Thisinterpretationisbolsteredbygeochemicalanalysisthatshowedhighvaluesofpotassiumand
phosphorous.TworadiocarbondateswereobtainedfromStratumV,8810130yrB.P.and9863130yrB.P.,confirmingitsearlyHoloceneage.Subsequentto
thisfieldwork,Childress(ChildressandBlanton1996)obtaineda14Cdateof10,15070yr.B.P.oncarbonizedwoodfragmentsexcavatedinanexposedlayerof
theerodigbankprofilefurtherwestoftheWilliamandMaryexcavations.Thislayerwasabout0.8minthicknessandisthoughttocorrespondbydepthand
archaeologicalcontenttoStratumV.Thedateof10,150wouldfurthercorroboratetheearlyHoloceneageofthisstratum.

Thelowerportionofalluviulunit3(StratumVI)wasarchaeologicallysterile.Significantly,however,a3BtpaleosolwaspresentwhichSchuldenrein(1996:102)
describesas"...themostdeeplyweatheredandonlyargillicsolumidentified."Onlytheupper0.2to0.3mofthispaleosolwasobserved.Augertestingbelowthatfor
about1.14mencounteredthecobblezonedetectedelsewhereinaugering.

Althoughdeepsubsurfacetestingofthissitewaslimited,thereisaratherclearexpressionofanearlystableHolocenesurfacewithpresumablyPaleoindianandearly
Archaicartifactsassociated.Oneflutedpointandthreeotherweaklyflutedorbasallythinnedpointshavecomefromtheadjacentbeachsurfaceimplyingsometypeof
preDaltonoccupation.Underneaththe3ABpaleosolwasadeeplyweatheredargillicsoil(3Bt)thatappearstobearchaeologicallysterile.Assumingthe3ABsurface
containsthePaleoindianmaterial,thiswouldappeartomatchthegeoarchaeologicalstratigraphicsequenceoftheThunderbirdsitewhereaClovisoccupationoverlay
the"Clovisclay"whichFoss(1974)showedtobeaburiedargillichorizon.

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TheHawRiverProject,NorthCarolina

ARCHAEOLOGICALANDgeologicalinvestigationsattwostratifiedsites(31Ch8and31Ch29)locatedontheHawRiverfloodplaininthePiedmontofNorthCarolina
(Figure1)providedanunusuallyclearstratigraphicpictureofthePleistoceneHoloceneboundaryanddocumentedthepresenceofalatePaleoindianDalton
component.ThefieldworkwasconductedaspartofculturalresourcemanagementmitigationstudiesinadvanceoftheB.EverettJordanReservoir(Claggettand
Cable1982).

Withina2mthickHolocenealluvialdeposit,successiveprehistoricoccupationswererecovered,beginningwithDaltonandterminatingintheWoodlandperiod.The
underlyinggeologicstructureoftheHawRiveralongthisstretchistheIndianCreekfaultzone,whichcausestherivertopondduringfloodstage,resultingina
depositionalbasin.DuringtheearlyandmiddleHolocene,depositiondominatedthefloodplainprimarilythroughoverbankdeposits,whicheffectivelybuffed
archaeologicalremains(LarsenandSchuldenrein1990:178).

ArtifactbearingHoloceneT1sedimentsimmediatelyoverlieanerodedandweatheredPleistocenesurface(T2)consistingofsandysilts.Itisestimatedthatthelate
Pleistocenesurfacewasexposedtoerosionandweatheringforaslongasamillennium."ThisisbasedontheoccurrenceofPaleoindian/earlyArchaic(Hardaway
DaltonandClovis)projectilepointswithintheburiedstratum"(LarsenandSchuldenrein1990:178).ThecontactbetweenthelowerT1andthePleistocenesurface
wasverysharp,suggestingthatanypreDaltonoccupationmayhavebeenscouredaway.Selectedexcavationsintothissurfacerevealedsporadicfindsofdebitage
thoughttobefortuitousintrusionsfromDaltonandearlyArchaicoccupationsabove(Cable1982:317).NopreDaltondiagnosticartifactswereencounteredinthe
HawRiversiteexcavations.

ImmediatelyoverlyingtheerodedlatePleistoceneterracewerefinetomediumgrainedsandsfromoverbankdeposition,whichmarkedtheonsetoftheHolocene
aggradationoftheIndianCreekfaultzone.ThisisreferredtoastheHardawayDaltonoccupation,asrevealedat31Ch29,BlockA(Cable1982:317).Withinan
approximately18cmthickmediumsandlayer,twoDaltonpointswerefound,referredtolocallyasHardawayDaltons,asdescribedfromtheHardawaytypesite
(Coe1964).Otherassociatedlithicartifactsincludeaunifacial"adz"liketool,endscrapers,andflakeblanks.Noorganicremainswererecovered,whicheliminated
radiocarbondating.EarlyArchaiccornernotchedPalmerandKirkpointswerefoundabovetheHardawayDaltonlayer.Noorganicswerepreservedinthislayer
eitherthusradiocarbondatesareunavailablefortheearlyArchaiclevels.

TheHawRiverProjectprovidescriticaldatatowardthestudyofthePaleoindianperiodintheSoutheast.First,thewellpreservedoccupationalsequencerevealedin
theT1terraceindicatesthat,atleastintheremnantarearepresentedby31Ch29,HolocenesedimentationbeganatDaltontimes(10,50010,000yrB.P.).The
HolocenesedimentsformedaclearstratigraphicandtexturalbreakwithearliererodedPleistocenesediments.Theseexcavationsalsodocument,usingthebest
geologicalcontextspossible,thestratigraphicseparationofDaltonpointsfromlaterearlyArchaicnotchedpoints(cf.Goodyear1982).

TheBaucomSite,UnionCounty,NorthCarolina

THISALLUVIALLYSTRATIFIEDArchaicsitewasoriginallydugbyartifactcollectorsfromthePiedmontArchaeologicalSociety.ItislocatedonthesouthbankoftheRocky
RiverinUnionCounty,NorthCarolina(Figure1).ApublishedreportdescribedseveralDaltonpointsandearlyArchaicnotchedpoints,areconstructionof
excavationlevelsandfeatures,andradiocarbondates(PeckandPainter1984).Onedateinparticular,11,1001530yrB.P.(AA351),basedoncharcoal,was
exceptionallyoldbuthadaverylargeerror(PeckandPainter1984:37).ThedatewassaidtohavecomefromtheHardawaysidenotchedlevel(PeckandPainter
1984:23).ThisdatealsowasnotedbyHaynes(1987:Figure1)butwasnotdiscussed.SampleAA351wassubsequentlyrerun,yieldinganewdateof8170110
yrB.P.(VanceHayneslettertoRodneyPeck,1987).AccordingtoHaynes,thelattervalueisthemorereliable,owingtoitsgreaterprecision.

GiventheexistenceofalluviallyburiedDaltonandotherearlyArchaicdiagnosticlithics,plusreportsofhearthsandthepresenceofearlyHolocenecharcoalas
witnessedbythe14Cdates(PeckandPainter1984),GoodyearandHaynes(1987)testedthesiteusingbackhoetrenchestodocumentthestratigraphyandtoobtain
new14Cdates.PreliminaryresultsindicatethattheDaltonandearlyArchaicoccupationshaveexperiencedsomeverticalmixing,aninterpretationsupportedbysmall
sampleAMS14Cdatesthatalsodonotappeartobetemporallyinorderbydepth.The14Cdatesfromthisworkalsoindicateapossible

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depositionalhiatusatthePleistoceneHolocenetransition.Althoughfinalinterpretationshavenotbeendeveloped,fieldworkdidindicateaHolocenedepositatleast
2.7mdeepbearingevidenceofcontinuousprehistoricoccupationfromDaltontoWoodlandtimes.

UpperSavannahRiver,RichardB.RussellReservoir,GeorgiaandSouthCarolina

BEGINNINGINTHELATE1970Sandcontinuingthroughtheearly1980s,extensiveculturalresourcemanagementmitigationresearchwasconductedintheupperreaches
oftheSavannahRiveranditstributariesinthecentralPiedmontofGeorgiaandSouthCarolinarelatedtothebuildingoftheRichardB.RussellReservoir(Figure1).A
multidisciplinaryprogramofenvironmentalreconstructionwasundertakenpriortomucharchaeologicalexcavationinordertosetanecologicalperspectivefor
archaeologicalstudies(AndersonandJoseph1988Carboneetal.1982).Geologicalandpedologicalfieldworkwasorientedtowardidentifyingandmappinglate
PleistoceneandHolocenesedimentsandlandforms,inpart,todiscoverburiedPaleoindianandArchaicperiodremains(Fossetal.1985Segovia1985).

Basedongeologicalandarchaeologicalfieldwork,Segovia(1985)reconstructedtheevolutionoftheSavannahRivervalleyintheprojectarea.Duringthelate
Pleistocene(probablySangamonage),aperiodofpronounceddepositionoccurred,resultinginathingraveldepositoverlainbyupto6mofreddishmediumtofine
sands.AttheendofthePleistocenethisdepositwaseffectivelyremovedfromthevalleybydowncutting,leavingonlyafewterracesalongvalleywallsorremnant
islandsprotectedonbedrockhighs.StrongrunoffoftheSavannahRivercontinuedduringtheearlyHolocene,includingscouringofthebedrockperhapsaslateas
10,000yrB.P.basedon14Cdatesoforganicmatterlyingonbedrock.Sometimebetween10,000and9000yrB.P.,heavychannelrelatedaggradationbegan,
resultingintherapidaccumulationofupto4mofrelativelysandysedimentsduringtheearlytomiddleHolocene.

Becauseoftheirstratigraphicintegrityandpreservation,twoalluviallyburiedsites,GreggShoalsandRucker'sBottom,receivedextensivegeologicaland
archaeologicalstudy,yieldingdatarelevanttothePleistoceneHolocenetransition.Thesetwositesformtheprimaryempiricalbasisforthebroaderreconstructionof
thelateQuaternaryevolutionoftheSavannahRivervalley.

GreggShoals(9Eb259)(Figure1)waslocatedonahighterrace/leveeatthejunctionofPickensCreekandtheSavannahRiverontheGeorgiasideoftheriver.The
sitewasunusualfortheentirereservoirareainthatca.6mofHolocenealluviumweredepositedoverbedrock.Theupper3mofalluviumcontainedanunbroken
archaeologicalsequencebeginningwiththelateKirkphase(9000yrB.P.?)andcontinuingonthroughtheMississippian(TippittandMarquardt1984).NoDaltonor
preDaltondiagnosticartifactswereexcavatedfromthesite.Overa30yearperiod,thesiteexperiencedconsiderableerosionfromtheraisingandloweringofan
upstreamdam.Severalprivatecollectionsobtainedfromthebeachcontaineddiagnosticartifactsfromallperiods,beginningwiththeearlyArchaicKirkphase.Three
Daltonpointswereallegedtohavebeenfoundonthebeachbutthereweredoubtsbytheprincipalinvestigatorsconcerningtheartifacts'provenience(Tippittand
Marquardt1984:14).BecauseofitsunusualdepositionalthicknessanditsexposurerevealingthePleistoceneHolocenecontact,thesitereceivedconsiderable
geoarchaeologicalstudy.

TwoterracesegmentsatGreggShoalswerepreservedenoughtoprovidedataontheonsetofHoloceneaggradation.About200mnorthofthesiteproper,inan
areaoftheterraceprotectedfromlatePleistoceneerosionbybedrockexposures,apotentiallycompletesedimentarysectionwasobserved.Upchurch(1984a:A14)
detectedtwobasicdepositionalregimes,a"backleveeswampfill"followedbya"valleyfillcloselyakintoleveeandhighenergyterracedeposits."Thelowestbed
(A16)consistedofcoarsesandandcobbles,interpretedasthalwegmaterialindicatinglateralmovementoftheriveroverthisspot.Itispossiblethatthesecoarse
sedimentsarePleistocene(Upchurch1984a:A23).Abovethislayerwasabedofgrayclaywithlensesoforganicmatter(A14,A15),includingwhatappearstohave
beenlargecedarlogs.Thesepeatlensesalsowerefoundintheimmediatevicinitylyingdirectlyonbedrock(cf.Segovia1985).Threeradiocarbondates,10,370
140yrB.P.,10,170140yrB.P.,and10,000140yrB.P.,wereobtainedforthepeatmaterial(Segovia1985:5).Overlyingtheclayandpeatbedwasaclay
sandlayer,indicatinga"classicexampleofbackleveeswampfill"(Upchurch1984a:A22).Abovethisbeganbedsdominatedbyfineandmediumsizedsand,
indicativeofleveebuildingcharacteristicofthemodernriver.

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Thesecondterracesegmentwasobservedintheriverbankatthesiteitself.Herethesectionrestedonbedrockwithlittleevidenceofbackleveefillandthalweg
deposits.ThisisattributedtothefactthatthisportionoftheterracewasnotrockdefendedandwaswashedbyPickensCreek.Thelowestbedabovethewaterline,
B18,wasasandygrayclay,whichUpchurchcorrelateswiththeclaypeatlayerupstreamthatproducedthe10,000yearold14Cdates(Upchurch1984a:A24).
Clayrichsedimentsabovethisbedsuggestcrevassesplaydepositioninabackleveeswamp.Afterthisoccurred,sanddominatedleveematerialreflectingregular
Holoceneterracebuildingwasdeposited.

Archaeologicalexcavationsadjacenttothisexposurerecoveredartifactsasdeepas3.1mbelowsurface.KirkcornernotchedandotherlateearlyArchaicpoints
(90008000yrB.P.)weretheearliestculturalmanifestationsencounteredinexcavations.Bedrockwascontactedabout3.2mbelowtheearlyArchaiclevel(Tippitt
andMarquardt1984:62).

GreggShoalsissignificantforitslackofpreDaltonandprobablyevenDaltonremains.ThegeologyindicatesthatpriortotheDaltonperiod,GreggShoalswas
representedbyascouredbedrocksurface,anactivechanneloftheSavannah,andperhapsthebeginningofalevee.Theclaysandorganicsfromthebottomofthe
terraceareinterpretedbyUpchurchasrelatedtothebackswampofalevee.The10,37010,000yrB.P.14Cdatesobtainedonpeatshouldbecontemporarywith
theDaltonhorizon.Thefactthatsomeofthisorganicmatterwasrestingonbedrocksuggeststhatitdatesthebeginningofalevee,itselfaproductoftheonsetof
Holoceneaggradation.Thus,thetransitionfromthePleistocenetotheHoloceneasrecordedatGreggShoalswouldindicatethatalluviationnecessarytoburyand
preservearchaeologicalremainsdidnotbeginuntilnearly10,000yrB.P.,toolatetoprovidesedimentationnecessaryforPaleoindiansiteoccupationandburial.

ThesecondmajorsitestudiedthatwasrelatedtothePleistoceneHolocenetransitionwasRucker'sBottom(9Eb91)(Figurel)(AndersonandSchuldenrein1983,
1985).ThiswasanextensivemulticomponentsitethatcontainedacompleteprehistoricculturalsequencebeginningwiththeearlyArchaic(9500yrB.P.)and
probablyClovisperiod,andendingintheMississippian,allwithina1.3mthickdeposit.Thesiteislocatedonalinearterraceleveeformationparalleltothe
SavannahRiverontheGeorgiasideimmediatelyupstreamfromVanCreek.The1.3mHolocenedepositwaslyingonaneroded,weathered,relictPleistocene
terrace.TheterminalPleistoceneterracesurfacewasmarkedbyanargillicBhorizonincoarsemediumsands(AndersonandSchuldenrein1983:197).Excavations
0.8mdeepintothisunitproducednoartifacts.Withina160m2excavationunit,anextensiveearlyArchaicdepositwasencounteredsome0.8to1mbelowsurface,
characterizedbygroundsidenotchedandPalmerlikecornernotchedpoints(AndersonandHanson1988).Theseareestimatedtodatebetween10,000and9500
yrB.P.AsingleClovisflutedpoint(AndersonandSchuldenrein1983:Figure2j,k)wasrecoveredatthesamedepthasthenotchedpointassemblage,inanareaWith
adenseclusterofPalmerpoints.NodefiniteassociationcouldbemadebetweentheClovispointandanyothertoolsorfeatures.Theflutedpointwasmadeofafine
blackchertcharacteristicofchertsnativetotheRidgeandValleyprovince.ThreeoftheearlyArchaicnotchedpointsrecoveredweremadeofasimilarmaterial.

Itisnotclearwhethertheflutedpointwasinsituorhadbeenculturallyredeposited(i.e.,scavengedbyearlyArchaicgroupsandleftonthesite).Severalsmallblack
chertflakesalsowerefoundinthe160m2excavationarea,suggestingtoolfinishingormaintenanceactivities.Itisnotknownwhetherthisdebitagerelatestothe
ClovispointorthePalmercornernotchedpoints(AndersonandSchuldenrein1985:296).Iftheflutedpointwasinsitu,whichitmaywellhavebeen,itindicatesa
conflatedstratigraphy(AndersonandJoseph1988:107).

ThepresenceofaClovispointstratigraphicallyatthetransitionofthePleistocenetotheHolocenedoesfittheerosionalsituationsooftencitedfortheSoutheast.The
firstwelldocumentedculturalassemblageburiedbyHolocenealluviumatRucker'sBottomisthesideandcornernotchedearlyArchaicmaterial.Some28notched
pointswerefoundwithina0.2mthicklevelofalluvium.(Thesingle"HardawayDalton"pointdescribedforthissite[AndersonandSchuldenrein1985:Figures10,
11B)appearstobeaheavilyresharpenedsidenotchedpoint).IftheonsetofHoloceneaggradationdatesto10,000yrB.P.inthecentralSavannahRivervalley,as
suggestedatGreggShoals,Clovisageoccupationsontherelictterrace,suchasthatfoundatRucker'sBottom,wouldhavelittleornosedimenttoseparatethem
fromsucceedingArchaiccomponents.

TwootherflutedpointsfromtwodifferentsitesalsowereexcavatedfromtheRussellReservoirsites.Awaterwornblackchertflutedpointwasfoundina

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culturallyredepositedcontextinaMississippianperiodmiddenimmediatelysouthofGreggShoalsatClydeGulley(9EB387)(TippittandMarquardt1984:85,8
10).AClovislikeflutedpointwasexcavatedfromSimpson'sField(38AN8)whilesearchingforsubplowzoneWoodlandfeatures(Woodetal.1986).Thesitewas
situatedonthefloodplainoftheSavannahRiveronalongPleistoceneterraceboundedbytwocreeksandalowarea.Theexcavationunitthatproducedthefluted
pointwaslocatedonaslightridgeofthefloodplain,whichisanerodedPleistoceneterrace.Theflutedpointwasfoundjustbelowtheplowzone,embeddedinlight
reddishbrownsandyclay(Woodetal.1986:5561).AnearlyArchaiccornernotchedpointandtwounifacialflaketoolsalsowerefoundwithin20mofthefluted
point.Thus,likeatRucker'sBottom,PaleoindianandearlyArchaicartifactswerefoundlyingatacommonlevelonthesurfaceoftheerodedlatePleistocenesurface.

Insummary,theRichardB.RussellReservoirarchaeologicalfieldstudiestendtoconfirmSegovia's(1985)reconstructionfortheSavannahRivervalleyfloodplainat
theendofthePleistocene.BecauseofgreaterdischargeduringtheterminalPleistocene,therivermovedlaterally,removingPleistocenedepositsandscouringthe
channelbottomstoexposebedrock.ThesurvivingPleistoceneterraceswouldhavestoodsome5mabovetheriverbottom,providingstarkreliefbetweentheriver
anditsbanks.TheseelevatedPleistoceneterraceremnants,accordingtoSegovia,wouldhaveprovidedthebestfloodplainfeaturesforhumanhabitation,although
easyaccesstotherivermayhavebeenlimited.DuringtheinitialperiodofHoloceneaggradation,theseterraceremnantswouldhavebeentoohightoreceivemuch
floodsediment,afactbornoutbytheminimalsedimentthicknessesatsitessuchasRucker'sBottomandSimpson'sField.VeryearlyHolocenedeposits(11,000
10,000yrB.P.),ifpreserved,wouldbeonornearbedrock,asrevealedatGreggShoals.

Rae'sCreek(9Ri327),RichmondCounty,Georgia

RAE'SCREEK(Figure1)wasamulticomponent,alluviallystratifiedsitewithearlyArchaic(9000yrB.P.)throughColonoindian(300yrB.P.[A.D.1700])
occupations.Excavationswereconductedaspartofculturalresourcemitigationmeasuresrelatedtotheconstructionofahighwayandtheuseofthesiteasaborrow
pit(Crook1990).

ThesiteislocatedonthefloodplainoftheSavannahRiveratthefalllinebetweenthePiedmontandthecoastalplainwithinthecityofAugusta.Aseriesofshoalslie
immediatelytothenorthofthesite.Rae'sCreekislocatedonatrianguloidlandform,400mlongand175mingreatestwidth,parallelingtheSavannahRiver,which
occurssome200mfromthesite.Tothesouth,thebroaderendisborderedbyRae'sCreek.Geologicalandarchaeologicalanalysesindicatethatthelandformisa
Holocenepointbarwhichrisessome4mabovethesurroundingfloodplain(Crook1990:22,23).

Grainsizeanalysisindicatedthatthe4.6mthickaccumulationofalluviumareallsandsformedbyamigratingpointbar(Mathews1990).AnearlyArchaicKirk
midden,definedbyaKirkcornernotchedpoint,anunfinishedpointpreform,andunifacialflaketoolsanddebitage,wasfoundfrom3.9to4mbelowsurface.A
single14Cdateof9060110yrB.P.wasobtainedfromthismidden.About0.6mbelowthislayerwasa"steriledensesandyclayzone(StratumR)"(Crook
1990:116).Abucketaugerwasusedtotestthiszoneforanother0.6m,revealingthattheclaycontentincreasedwithdepth(Crook1990:116).Theprofiledrawing
indicatesthatStratumRwasa"MottledOrangeandTanSandyClay"(Crook1990:Figure16).

Althoughnogeologicalopinionsareofferedinthereport(Crook1990)astotheageofStratumR,itseemslikelythatthiszonerepresentsthetopofthelate
Pleistoceneterrace.ThehighclaycontentofthiszonerelativetotheknownHolocenesandbedsabove,plustheincreasinglyclayishcharacterofStratumRwith
depth,suggestaweatheredargillichorizon.Theorangecolorindicatesoxidizationrelatedtoweathering.ThecontactbetweenStratumRandtheimmediately
overlyingbedisdescribedasscoured(Mathews1990:189).Atotalof18m2wasexcavateddowntotheRlevel,butnoartifactswerefoundassociatedWiththat
surface.

Thecontactoftheoverlyingpointbarrelatedsandsandtheunderlyingsandyclay(StratumR)provideatantalizingsituationforthediscoveryofinsituPaleoindian
remains,ifnotscouredaway.Becauseofthesandsoverlyinganargillichorizon,thecontactofT1andprobablyT2hereisreminiscentofthePleistoceneHolocene
contactsasseenattheHawRiverandRucker'sBottomsites.

 Page456

OconeeRiver,WallaceReservoir,Georgia

SURVEYSANDEXCAVATIONSconductedbyarchaeologistsfromtheUniversityofGeorgiainthelate1970srelatedtoconstructionoftheWallaceDamontheOconee
RiverinthelowerGeorgiaPiedmontresultedinthediscoveryof91Paleoindiansites.Ofthisnumber,67siteshadDaltoncomponents,withtheremainingcontaining
flutedpointsandotherearlylanceolatepointforms,suchasSuwannee.Threeofthese91sites,9Ge309,9Ge534,and9Ge136,werefoundinalluvialcontexts.The
restwerefoundonthesurfaceandnotinalluviallyactivedepositionalsituations(O'Steenetal.1986).

Themostimpressiveofthefloodplainsiteswas9Ge309.ThissitewaslocatedonaleveeofRichlandCreeknearwhereitjoinstheOconeeRiver.Atotalofthree
flutedpointswasfoundtwoinexcavationlevels(O'Steenetal.1986:Figure11a,b)andoneinthebackhoespoil.Approximately0.95moflightcoloredHolocene
sandsbearingafullArchaicthroughWoodlandsequenceofoccupationsoverlayasterile"compactreddishbrownsand"(O'Steenetal.1986:16).A4by6munit
wasexcavatedin0.1mlevelsnexttoabackhoetrenchthatproducedaflutedpointintheinitialsitetesting.Thelowermost0.6mofsandcontainedearlyArchaic
notchedpointsandtools.Twoflutedpointsalsowerefoundinthelowerportionoftheunit,oneinthe0.750.85mlevelandoneintheupperportionofthe0.85
0.95mlevel.Thereappearstobesomemixingatthesite,asaDaltonpoint,twosidenotchedearlyArchaicpoints,andtwoflutedpointswereallfoundbetween
0.75and0.95m.Athirdflutedpoint,foundinspoilfromaninitialbackhoetrench,verylikelycamefromthisdepthaswell.Nohearthsorotherfeatureswere
reportedforthelowestlevelsofthesite.

ThissitewouldappeartobesituatedatthebaseofashallowHoloceneleveeoverlyinganeroded,probablyPleistoceneterrace.Thecontactbetweentheartifact
bearing,lightcoloredsandsandthereddishbrowncompactsandisillustratedassharp(O'Steenetal.1986:Figure9).Thered,compactedconditionofthebasal
sterilesandsshouldindicateanoxidized,weatheredBhorizonsoil.Withintheexcavationunit,thisterracewasdescribedassterileofartifacts,andtheflutedpoints
weresaidtobeintheHolocenesandsratherthanlyingonthesurfaceoftheterrace.O'Steenetal.(1986)classifytheflutedpointsasClovisandillustratetwobasal
portionsofflutedpoints(O'Steenetal.1986:Figure11a,b).

Site9Ge534wasdiscoveredonthesurfaceofamoderatelyelevated,alluvialfeaturewithinabackswampoftheOconeeRiver,afterthegroundhadbeendisturbed
byclearcuttingmachineryThebaseofaflutedpoint,madeofunidentifiedchert,andsomequartzflakeswererecoveredatthetimeofinitialdiscovery(O'Steenetal.
1986:2425).Two10mlongbackhoetrenchesdugto1mindepthweresubsequentlyexcavated.Nohandexcavationsorscreeningwereconducted.Thetrenches
revealedashallowalluvialdeposittoadepthof0.6m,withartifactsapparentlyrestrictedtotheupper0.2m.Thesedimentsweresaidtobelightbrownsand
(Ledbetter1978O'Steenetal.1986:24).Althoughinterpretationsarelimited,basedonthenatureoffieldworkandcontextualdescriptions,thissitedoesnotappear
tohavebeendeeplyburied.

Thethirdflutedpointsite,9Ge136,waslocatedonaleveeoftheOconeeRiver.Itwasfoundduringreservoirconstructionwhenportionsofthefloodplainwere
bulldozedtoburytreestumps.AquartzflutedpointbaseandareworkedflutedpointofunidentifiedchertwerefoundtoindicateaPaleoindianoccupation.
WoodlandandlateArchaicoccupationsalsowereevident(O'Steenetal.1986:2627).Apparentlynootherinformationisavailableforthesite.

TheOconeeReservoirstudyseemssignificantfortworeasons.First,anunusuallylargenumberofPaleoindianpointswererecoveredbothfromalluvialsitesandfrom
adjacentuplands."NinetyonePaleoIndiansitesthatproducednineearlyPaleoIndian,14latePaleoIndian,67Dalton,andthreeindeterminatePaleoIndian
componentswereidentifiedinthesurveyedareas"(O'Steenetal.1986:2,3).ComparedtootherreservoirssurveyedintheSoutheast,thisisanexceptionallyhigh
density(cf.AndersonandJoseph1988).O'Steen(1983:73)pointsoutthatabout63percentofthesurfaceareaoftheWallaceReservoirwasexposedbyclear
cutting,whichcertainlywouldenhancesitedetectioncomparedtoreservoirswhereclearcuttingdidnotprecedesitesurvey(e.g.,TaylorandSmith1978).
Nevertheless,anumberofflutedpointswerediscoveredthroughsubsurfacetestingandgrounddisturbanceonthefloodplain.Thepresenceofquartzquarriesand
nearbyPiedmontchertquarriesalsomayhaveattractedPaleoindiangroupstothislocality(O'Steenetal.1986:50,52).Thefactthatthreeflutedpointscamefrom
suchasmallarea(4by6m)from9Ge309,alongwithprobableassociatedtools,indicatesarelativelydensePaleoindiansite,onewhichwouldqualifyasa"site"inthe
conventional

 Page457

senseoftheword,asopposedtothemoreusualisolatedflutedpointfind.

Second,basedonthedataavailablefrom9Ge309,itwouldseemthatflutedpointswerefoundinHolocenealluviumandabove,ratherthanonwhatissuggestedhere
tobeaweatheredPleistocenesurface(compactreddishbrownsand).TheimplicationisthatHoloceneaggradationmayhavetakenplaceintheOconeeRiveras
earlyas11,000yrB.P.Ontheotherhand,theflutedpointslyinginphysicalassociationwithDaltonandearlyArchaicnotchedpointsmayrepresentanotherexample
ofconflatedstratigraphy,assuggestedatRucker'sBottom(AndersonandJoseph1988:107),complicatedbybioturbation.

CoastalPlains

SavannahRiverSite,AikenandBarnwellCounties,SouthCarolina

GEOARCHAEOLOGICALRESEARCHhasbeenconductednearlycontinuouslyonthe485km2DepartmentofEnergy'sSavannahRiversiteforthepastdecade.Thisresearch
hasfocusedspecificallyontheHolocenedepositionalhistoryoftheSavannahRiver(Brooksetal.1986,1989).Theroleofeustaticchangeinsealevelanditseffect
onchangingrivergradientshasbeenexplicitlymodeledtoexplaintheevolutionarychangesoftheSavannahRiverintheAtlanticcoastalplainduringthelast10,000
years(Brooksetal.1986ColquhounandBrooks1986).GeoarchaeologicalfieldstudiesoftheSavannahRiversite,whichislocatedontheuppercoastalplain
(Figure1),haveconcentratedonhowandwhenalluvialterracesandpointbarswereformed,relyingonchronologicallydiagnosticartifactstodatetheirformation
(BrooksandSassaman1990Brooksetal.1989).

ThreealluvialterraceshavebeenrecognizedontheSavannahRiversitethatarerelatedtodowncuttingandlateralmigrationoftheSavannahRiver.Adjacenttoand
elevationallyabovetheactivefloodplain(To)isT1,whichisdividedintotwosubphases:T1aandT1b,basedonanescarpmentthatseparatesthem,whichranges
from36mto43mamsl.Asecondolderterrace,T2,islocatedaboveT1,beginningat43mto46mamsl(Brooksetal.1989:3031).

Asyet,nopreDaltonPaleoindianpointshavebeenfoundinsituinasubsurfacecontextontheSavannahRiversite.ThefewDaltonpointsthathavebeenexcavated
werefoundabout1mindepthinpointbardepositswithintheT1aterrace.TheDaltonperiod(10,50010,000yrB.P.)occupationsaretheearliestverifiedhuman
presenceonT1alandforms.Basedongeologicalandarchaeologicaldatagatheredtodate,Brooksetal.(1989:58)believethatDaltonandpreDaltonremainswillbe
foundonT1borthetoeofT2,sincelowerelevationlandformswereformedtoolateorwerescouredbylateralmigrationoftheSavannah.Alluvialdepositionofpoint
barsonT1aandT1bterracesisthoughttobearesultoflateralmigrationoftheSavannahRiverduringtheearlyHolocenewhentheriverflowedasamorebraided
likestreamorpossiblyinmultiplechannelsduringfloodstage.SomeT2andT1blandformsmayhavebeenstranded,receivingnofurtherpointbardepositionwhen
theSavannahmigratedtowardtheGeorgiasideofthevalley.Paleoindianartifactsinthesesituationsmayberelativelyshallow,lessthan0.8m(Brooksetal.1989:30,
5758).

ThesiteofPenPoint(38Br383)hasthusfarreceivedthemostthoroughgeoarchaeologicalstudyontheSRSfacility.It"isapointbarlocatedatthetoeofT1aatthe
confluenceofPenBranchandtheSavannahRiverswamp"(Brooksetal.1989:59).Archaeologically,thesiteissignificantasitmanifestsanunbrokenprehistoric
culturalsequencebeginningwithDaltonandterminatingwiththelateWoodlandperiod,allcontainedwithin1m.Thesedimentsaredominatedbysandsthatare
visuallyazonalwithrespecttodepositionalstructure.Grainsizeanalysisverifiedfourpointbar,sedimentfiningupwarddepositionalsequences.

OneDaltonlikepreformorpointwasrecoveredfromthe0.850.90mlevel,whichistheearliestarchaeologicaldiagnosticrecoveredfromthesite.Flaketoolsand
debitagewerefoundasdeepas1m,includingasidenotchedTaylorpointfrom0.95to1m(BrooksandSassaman1990:189Sassaman1985).Brooksand
Sassaman(1990:189)relatetheDaltonoccupationtothetopofthefirstpointbardepositionalsequence,whichrangesfrom1to1.6mbelowsurface.Belowadepth
of1.6to3.4m,grainsizedistributionsarehighlyerraticfromleveltolevel,anindicationofchannelsandsrelatedtolateralmigrationoftheSavannah.ThepreDalton
sedimentsareconsideredtobeinitialT1asubphaseterracedevelopment(BrooksandSassaman1990:191).Nocharcoalorotherorganicswererecoveredfromthe
lowerportionsofthesitesuitablefor14Cdating.

 Page458

TaylorHill,9Ri89,RichmondCounty,Georgia

THISMULTICOMPONENTsiteproducedPaleoindianandArchaicartifactsduringatestingprojectrelatedtotheproposedrelocationofarailroadnearAugusta,Georgia
(ElliottandDoyon1981).Thesiteisinpurealluviumandislocatedabout0.5kmwestofthepresentSavannahRiverchannel.TwoDaltonpointswerefoundina
controlledsurfacecollectionof18,100m2,andthreewereexcavatedwithinmultipletestunitstotaling45m2.Onecompleteflutedpointandthebaseofafluted
preformwereexcavatedinsubplowzonesoil.Thetotaldepthofthearchaeologicaldepositisabout0.8m.

Eleven2m2andone1m2excavationunits(45m2)revealedagenerallystratifiedpreceramicdepositnormallyreachingmaximumdepthsbetween0.7and0.8m
belowsurface.EvidenceofmiddleandearlyArchaiccomponents,aswellasDaltonandflutedpointoccupations,iswelldocumentedbasedonrecoveredprojectile
points.Itisclearfromthedistributionsofdiagnosticartifactsbylevels(ElliottandDoyon1981:Table12)thatconsiderablemixingofthevariousPaleoindianand
Archaiccomponentshastakenplace.Atotalof565stonetoolswasrecoveredfrombelowtheplowzoneinthepreceramiczone,mostofwhichareprobably
PaleoindianandearlyArchaicinage.Theseincludevariousendandsidescrapers,retouchedmicroblades,gravers,flaketools,andmultifunctionalunifaceforms
(ElliottandDoyon1981:Table15).ComparedtoothersitesintheSoutheast,thenonbifacetoolassemblageofTaylorHillisremarkablydense(Meltzer1984:212).
Accordingly,ithasbeeninterpretedinvarioussettlementmodelsoftheearlyHoloceneasahabitationsite(ElliottandDoyon1981)orspecializedlogisticalcamp
(AndersonandHanson1988Andersonetal.1990:2930).Furthermore,thestonetoolcollectionbearsastrongresemblancetothatoftheBrandsiteinnortheast
Arkansas(ElliottandDoyon1981:152cf.Goodyear1974).

LittledataareavailabletoassessthegeologicalsituationoftheearliestoccupationsofTaylorHill.TheDaltonpoints,theflutedpoint,andtheflutedpreform,aswellas
sideandcornernotchedearly,Archaicpoints,occurinabrownsandsome0.5minthicknessoverlyinga''sterilelightbrownsand"(ElliottandDoyon1981:Figure
53).Excavationsdidnotextenddeeperthan1m.Sedimentsfromthesitewereshownbygranularanalysistobealluvialinorigin,withmoresandinthelowerportion
oftheprofile(ElliottandDoyon1981:192).ThesandyknolllikeconditionofthefieldtodaysuggestsaseriesofpointbarsdepositedduringthelatePleistoceneand
earlyHolocenewhentheSavannahwasflowinginamorebraidedlikechannelconfiguration,assuggestedbyBrooksetal.(1989),basedonthesituationinthe
easternsideofthevalley.Unfortunately,thetotaldepositionoveraseveralthousandyearperiodisnotverythick.Nevertheless,theexistenceofasitesuchasTaylor
HillisencouraginginthattheSavannahoritsfloodstagechannelswereflowingindiverseplacesontheearlyHolocenefloodplainandaccordingly,ifchannelssuchas
thiswerecutoffrapidlyandassociatedlandformsstrandedwithnosubsequentreoccupation,somespatiallyisolatedPaleoindiansitescouldbepresentlessthan1m
belowsurface(cf.Brooksetal.1989:5861).

Smith'sLakeCreek,AllendaleCounty,SouthCarolina

TWOEARLYLITHICSITESlocatedabout300maparthavebeenstudiedinAllendaleCountySouthCarolina.Thesitesareburiedintheeastbankofthe
floodplainalongSmith'sLakeCreek,asmalltributaryoftheSavannahRiverasitflowsthroughthemiddlecoastalplain(Figure1).ItisknownthattheSavannah
RiverflowsthroughSmith'sLakeCreekduringtimesofflooding.Thesitesrepresentquarry/workshopsrelatedtochertprocessingofrivercobblesfoundnearbyin
thebottomofthecreek.EachsiteexhibitsabasalPaleoindianlanceolatecomponentsealedbyriveralluviumandboundedbyacharacteristicsetofpaleosols
(GoodyearandCharles1984GoodyearandFoss1993Goodyearetal.1985).

ThePaleoindianoccupationoftheCharlessite,38AL135,isrepresentedbyanasyetundefinedearlylanceolatepointassemblagecharacterizedbybasallythinned
andflutedbifacepreforms(Figure8).TypicalPaleoindianunifacialflaketoolsarepresent,indicatingotheractivitiesbesidesquarryingandbifacemanufacture.The
Paleoindiancomponentexistsasastratigraphicallydiscreteunit(Figure9)situatedjustabovethePleistoceneterrace.Weatheredcoastalplainchertartifactsoccur
from1to1.25mbelowsurface,housedinpedogenicallyunmodifiedfluvialsands(C)orslightlyweatheredsandyloam(BC),andimmediatelyoverlieasimilarbut
archaeologicallysterilefluvialsand.ThesesandsandsandyloamsprobablyrepresentthefirstfloodsoftheearlyHolocene.Theyoverlietwoargillichorizons(4Btl,
SBt2),which,

 Page459

Figure8.
EarlylanceolatebifacesfromtheCharlessite,38AL135,Smith'sLakeCreek
AllendaleCounty,S.C.:a,Daltonpoint(rhyolite)b,Simpsonpointc,fluted
preformd,flutedpreforme,bifaciallythinnedpreform.

accordingtoJohnFoss,basedonheavyargillicdevelopment,arePleistoceneinage(Foss1986Goodyear1992GoodyearandFoss1993).

Basedontestexcavations,bucketaugering,andbackhoetrenching,itisknownthatthePaleoindianhorizonextendssome30mbackfromthebankintotheterrace
(Goodyear1992).Giventhefloodsealedconditionofthediscreteburiedlayerasobservedinthecutbank(Figure9),itispossiblethatitrepresentsasingle
Paleoindianoccupation.Theculturalidentityofthismaterialisyettobedetermined.Surfacecollectionstakenfrominfrontoftheerodingbankprofilehaveonly
yieldedbifacepreformsintheirearlystageofreduction.Aflutedpreformcamefromtheprofile(Figure8c),aswellasotherbasallythinnedandflutedlanceolate
fragments(Figure8d).Lithicmaterialdredgedfrominfrontofthesitehasyieldedotherlanceolatepreforms(Figure8e).OnerhyoliteDaltonandachertSimpsonlike
point(Figure8a,b)werefoundsome50mdownstreamwheretheyhaderodedfromtheterrace,indicatingalaterPaleoindianpresence.NofinishedPaleoindian
pointshavecomefromthebankprofileorfromtestexcavationsbehindit,norhaveanybeenrecoveredfromunderwaterdredgingofthecreek.Thepreformshownin
Figure8e,theclosesttobeingfinishedofalltheexamples,camefromthecreekinfrontoftheburiedlayerinthebank.Itwasfoundintwopiecesandreconstructed.
Itsfinalintendedstateisambiguous,althoughitappearstobepostClovisinthatitisanonfluted,wellthinnedbifaciallanceolate.

ExtensiveexcavationsoftheremainingmaterialintheterraceareplannedfortheCharlessite.Hopefully,largeblockexcavationswillresultinsomediagnostic
lanceolatesassociatedwithchertprocessingofthecreekquarry.TheapparentlyrapidburialofthePaleoindianlayeroffersthepotentialforfeaturepreservationand
charcoalforradiocarbondating.

TheBigPineTreesite,38AL143,islocatedsome300mupstreamfromtheCharlessiteandisverysimilarintermsofitsoccupationalhistoryandgeoarchaeological
context.UnliketheCharlessite,ithasrecentlyreceivedextensiveexcavations,aswellasunderwaterdatarecovery,resultinginasharperpicturefortheoccupational
history.

Backhoetestingin1992and1993toevaluatethegeoarchaeologicalcontexthasresultedinagoodunderstandingofthepedosedimentaryhistoryofthesite
(GoodyearandFoss1995).In1994and1995,atotalofnearly50m2washandexcavated,providing

 Page460

Figure9.
Photographofburiedlayerofweatheredchertartifacts
representingaPaleoindianbifaceoccupationattheCharles
site,38AL135,AllendaleCounty,S.C.

informationonthearchaeologicalsequence(Goodyear1995).

Thebasicgeoarchaeologicalsequenceisasfollows.Woodlandperiodartifactsdatingfromca.550yrB.P.to3000yrB.P.arefoundfrom30to60cmbelow
surfaceinasandyloamwithaweaklydevelopedBhorizon(Bw).ApreceramicmiddleArchaicmiddenexistsfrom60to90cm,knownlocallyasMALA(Sassaman
1985).Intermsofsoilmorphology,thismiddenisclassifiedbyJohnFossasaBw/A.From90to100cmthereexistsatransitionalzoneoffinesand(BC)with
diagnosticbifacesspanning9500to6000yrB.P.ThisislikelyatimeofminimalsedimentationbytheSavannahRiver.From100to115cmthereisanearlyArchaic
occupationtypifiedbyTaylorsidenotchedpointsandnumerouswellmadeunifacialflaketools.Daltonpointshavebeenfoundinthiszonetoo.Thereisabundant
evidenceintheformofriversmoothedcorticaldebristhatachertsourceinSmith'sLakeCreekwasbeingexploited.Easilyrecognized,spatiallydiscretelithicfeatures
arepresent,indicatingcorereduction,bifacemanufacture,andflaketoolutilization.SoilmorphologyatthisdepthisaBCinasandyloam.

Fromabout115to135cmbelowsurfaceexistsaPaleoindianlanceolatecomplexdominatedbybifacialpreformswhichexhibitstrongbasalfluting(Figure10a,b,d,
e).Thesepreformsindicatethatlargefluteflakes(ca.50mm)wereremovedpriortofinalpressureflakingandmanufacturedintoprojectilepoints.Severalofthese
flutedpreformshavebeenexcavated(e.g.,Figure10b,c)andmanymorerecoveredfromunderwaterdredgingintheadjacentcreek.Inallcases,flutingwas
accomplishedfromabeveledstrikingplatform.NonippletypepreparationshavebeenobservedhereorwiththeCharlessitepreforms.Thesoilmorphologyofthe
PaleoindianlevelisthatofaBCorCinaloamysand.ThePaleoindianmaterialexistsinaclearhorizontalfloor,ascanbeseeninthephotographofFigure11.Only
lithicartifactshavebeenrecoverednoboneispreserved.Thisbasallithichorizonisrestingonalayerofsterilefinesands(Figure11)immediatelyaboveascoured
Pleistoceneterrace.Thinlamellaehaveformedinthesterilesandsabovetheterraceor,asseeninFigure11,ratherthicklyinsterilepreculturalalluvium.Fosshas
classifiedtwoBtpaleosolsatthePleistoceneterracesurface:anupper4Btlbovera4Bt2b.Theterraceissterileofartifacts(GoodyearandFoss1995).

Theculturalidentityofthelowermostartifactzonehasnotyetbeenestablishedbasedoncompletedprojectilepoints.Thereisastrongemphasisonpercussionfluting
ofblanksintheearlystage(Figure10a,b,d,e),atraitthatwouldseemlinkedtoClovis.Theabsencethusfarofnippletypeflutingplatformswouldseemtoreinforce
this.Thatflutingormassivebasalthinningwouldtakeplacesoearlyinbifacereductionseemsunusual,althoughitisnotrare(cf.Goodyearetal.1989Morrow1995
Painter1974).However,itispossiblethattheseflutescarswereleftonatleastonefaceofthefinishedpreformandincorporatedunchangedintothefinaldesign.
Percussionflutingthatyieldsscarsupto50mminlengthwouldbelessriskyonthickblanksthanthinnerpreformsmorepronetoshatter.Atotalof10Daltonpoints
havebeenrecoveredfromthesite(Figure10c,f).Thefourthathavebeenexcavatedinsituallcamefromthe100115cmlevel.Theirrecoveryinthezoneabove
thatoftheflutedblanksreinforcestheantiquityofthelatter.

 Page461

Figure10.
LanceolatepointsandpreformsfromtheBigPineTreesite,38AL143,Smith's
LakeCreek,AllendaleCounty,S.C.:a,flutedpreformb,flutedpreformc,Dalton
pointd,flutedpreforme,flutedpreformf,Daltonpoint.

Figure11.
PhotographofPleistoceneHolocenetransitionstratigraphyexposedonsouthprofileofBHTI,E94E98,
fromtheBigPineTreesite,38AL143,AllendaleCounty,S.C.

 Page462

Basedonthenumbersoftoolsrecoveredfrombothlandexcavationsandunderwater,itisclearthatotheractivitiesweretakingplaceatthesitebesideschert
processing.Numerousunifacialflaketoolssuchassideandendscrapers,flakeknives,andgravershavebeenfound,aswellasprismaticbladesandcores.Likethe
Taylorsidenotchedoccupationabove,thePaleoindianswereexploitingchertfromthecreek,andseveralcorereductionfeatureshavebeenmapped.Featurelike
concentrationsofbifacesandunifaceshavealsobeenmapped,indicatingsomestructuredinsiteuse.Thenumberofprismaticbladesisremarkable.Manyofthe
bladesaremicrobladesinthattheyareverythinandlessthan20mmlong.Corefragmentswithmultiplebladedetachmentsalsohavebeenfound.

AMSsizedcharcoalsampleshavebeentakenfromkeylocationswithintheterraceexcavationforradiocarbondating.Charcoalsampleslargeenoughfor
conventionaldatinghavenotbeenfound.TwoAMSdatesfromearlycontextsreturnedvaluesof781080yrB.P.and472070yrB.P.,dateswhichindicate
bioturbationofsmallcharcoalfragmentsdowntheprofile.

Insum,theBigPineTreesite,likethatoftheCharlessite,holdsgreatpromiseforresolvingsomeofthesubstantiveissuesofsoutheasternU.S.Paleoindian
archaeologywhichhaveremainedintractableduetopoorarchaeologicalcontext.ThehydrogeologicalconditionsinSmith'sLakeCreekattheendofthePleistocene
andonsetoftheHolocenewereconducivetodepositionandthusarchaeologicalpreservation.Variousperiodsoflandscapestabilityonthefloodplainalsowere
amenabletosoildevelopment,providinganotherfactorwhichenhancedgeoarchacologicalcontext.Continuedexcavation,analysis,andradiocarbondatingshould
shedconsiderablelightontheperiodfrom11,500to10,000yrB.P.

Finally,itisworthnotingthatthegeoarchaeologicalsituationatbothsitesonSmith'sLakeCreekislikethatofotheralluvialsitesreviewedfortheSoutheast.Thatis,
thereisaPaleoindianlithicassemblageassociatedwiththefirstHolocenefluvialsandsoverlyingaweatheredterracewithargillicBhorizonpaleosols.

TheriaultSite,9Bk2,BurkeCounty,Georgia

THETHERIAULTSITEislocatedontheeasternbankofBrierCreek,acoastalplaintributaryoftheSavannahRiver(Figure1).Itisamulticomponentsitethatwitnessed
frequentflintknappingaswellasotheractivitiesthroughouttheHolocene.ThisportionoftheBrierCreeklocalityisknownforitssourcesofhighqualitychert
(GoodyearandCharles1984Waring1961)andahighincidenceofPaleoindianpoints(Andersonetal.1990Waring1968).

Becauseofitsrichnessinlithicartifacts,thesitereceivedagreatdealofuncontrolleddiggingbyrelichunters.Oneprofessionalreportisavailableforthesiteby
Brockington(1971),whichisbasedonexcavationsdonebyWilliamEdwardsin1966.ThefollowingissummarizedfromBrockington(1971).

Edwardsexcavated621.5msquaresinthreedifferentareasusing15cmlevels.Thequantityoflithicartifactsfromtheseexcavationswastrulyremarkable,asover
2,425kgofdebitage,973bifaces,and120identifiableprojectilepointsandfragmentswererecovered,spanning11,000yearsofprehistory.Theartifactswerefound
in"medium,wellsortedsandabout36inches[92cm]deep,overlyingasterileclaymatrix.Groundwaterwasencounteredthreetofourinches[7cm10cm]into
theclay"(Brockington1971:25).Therewerenodiscernablenaturalstratigraphicunitswithinthissand.Oneunusuallylarge(120mm)Clovislikeflutedpoint
(Brockington1971:Figure10a)wasfoundbetween76cmand86cm,immediatelyabovetheclay.TwoDaltonpointswerefound,oneat91cmontopoftheclay
andoneinthe46cm61cmlevel.Onelanceolatebiface,whichiscomparedtoa"HardawayBlade,"wasfoundinthe46cm61cmlevel.Thelatterwouldappear
tobesometypeofpostClovispreform.

AlthoughtheTheriaultsiteisgenerallystratified,thearchaeologicaldepositsappeartohaveundergonesomemixing.EarlyArchaicnotchedpointsaswellasmiddle
Archaicstemmedpointswereallfoundinthelowest30cmofthesite,alongwiththePaleoindianpoints(Brockington1971:Figure5).Theoriginofthesandoverlying
theclayisunknownhowever,BrierCreek,amediumsizedstreamover125kminlength,isalikelysource.Nogeologicanalysiswasconductedonthesediments.
JamesMichie(personalcommunication1991),whovisitedthesiteduringEdwards'excavation,hasdescribedthebasalclayashavinganorangecolor.Thisshould
indicatethatatsomepointtheclayhorizonwasweatheredorreceivedoxidizedsediments.

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MuckafooneeSite,DoughertyCounty,Georgia

THEMUCKAFOONEESITEislocatedonanalluvialterraceofMuckafooneeCreek,about700mupstreamfromitsconfluencewiththeFlintRivernearAlbany,Georgia
(Figure1).Thesitewasdiscoveredduringthetestingphaseofaculturalresourcemanagementprojectrelatedtotheuseofthesiteforborrowmaterial(Elliott1982).
Excavationswerelimitedtotwodeepbackhoetrenches,two1msquares,andasingle2msquare.Chertoutcropsarepresentinthenearbyvicinityandthesite
appearstohavebeenaquarryrelatedworkshopduringPaleoindianandArchaictimes.Thesitecontainedlithicmaterialuptoatleastadepthof0.9mandasingle
flutedpointwasfoundbetween0.7and0.8m.Artifactsweredominatedbybifacemanufactureandrelatedflakes,withsomePaleoindiantypeunifacesfoundinthe
lowerlevels.Somemixingisevident,butthePaleoindianmaterialisconcentratedinthelower0.3mofthesite.

Profiledescriptionsofthebackhoetrenchesandtestsquaresgiveagoodindicationofnaturalstratigraphyuptoadepthof1.5m(Elliott1982).Archaicand
Paleoindianageartifactsintemporalorderbydepthwerefoundconsistentlyinalightbrownsandofmediumcoarsetexturevaryingfrom0.6to1minthickness.The
upper0.3to0.5mofthisunitpossesseddarkbrownmottlesoveralightbrownsand,whichisprobablytheresultofpedogenicinfluencefromhumiczonesabove
(Elliott1982:21).Underneaththisartifactbearinglightbrownsand,fromabout1to1.5mindepth,werethreeculturallysterilehorizons.Thesewerea"mottledlight
brownandreddishbrownclayeysand,"overlyinga"compactreddishbrownclayeysand,"whichoverlaya"coarselight,almostwhitesand''(Elliott1982:22,23).The
reddishbrowncolorsoftheclayeysandsandthecompactnessofthesecondhorizonsuggesttheseareBtpaleosols.Thelowestcoarse,nearlywhitesandlayermay
beunpedogenicallymodifiedsediment.Noradiocarbondateswerereportedfromthistestingphaseoffieldwork.

GiventhatthesiteissituatedonaterraceofMuckafooneeCreeknearitsjuncturewiththeFlintRiver,alluvialburialseemsmostprobablefortheselayers.Withinthe
firstmeter,somesignificantportionofthedepositmaybeculturalinorigin,giventhedensityofdebitageinthesite.

TheHesterSite,22Mo569,MonroeCounty,Mississippi

THEHESTEKSITEislocatedontheeastbankoftheTombigbeeRiverfloodplaininnortheastMississippi(Figure1).StandiferCreekrunsintotheTombigbeejust
southeastofthesite.TheoriginalproximityofthecreektotheHestersiteisundeterminedduetomodernrechannelization(Brookes1979).

TheHestersitewasexcavatedbyarchaeologistsfromtheMississippiDepartmentofArchivesandHistoryin1973and1974,andagainin1978.Previous
uncontrolledamateurexcavationsfromoneareaofthesite(BeachumHarrison)yieldedanumberofDaltonpointsandearlyArchaicnotchedpointsandrelated
unifacialtools,promptingsubsequentprofessionalinvestigationsin1973and1974.Theavailablereportforthissiteisbasedonthefieldworkofthesetwoseasons
(Brookes1979).Thesitewasexcavatedmoreextensivelyin1978bySamuelBrookes.Althoughtheresultsofthisthirdseasonarenotyetavailableinapublished
format,SamuelBrookes(personalcommunication1991)hasprovidedmewithrelevantinformationconcerningthislatterexcavation,whichhehasgraciouslyallowed
metosummarizehere.

Theoriginalexcavationwasthatofatrench~1.5mwideby45.7mlong,excavatedin1.5msquaresin6cmarbitrarylevels.Thesinglepublishedreportforthesite
(Brookes1979)isbasedprimarilyondatarecoveredfromthistrench(67.5m2).The1978excavationsexpandedbothsidesofthistrench,resultinginatotal
excavationof135m2.

Thestratigraphyofthesitecanbedescribedasfivevisuallydistinctzones:

Zone1,fromgroundsurfaceto~0.4mdeep,isaplowdisturbed,blackhumuszoneconsistingofHistorictolateArchaicfibertemperedceramics.

Zone2isadark,redbrownsandextendingto~1mbelowsurface.Ithasahard,cementedconsistency.Novisualstratigraphyispresentwithinthiszone.However,
basedondiagnosticprojectilepoints,therearedefinableoccupationalhorizonswithinthezone,occurringintemporalorderbydepthbeginningwiththemiddle
Archaicandendingwithearly,Archaic.EarlyArchaicBigSandysidenotchedpointswerefoundinthelowerportionoftheredbrownsand.

Zone3isayellowsandoccurringfrom~1mto1.3mbelowsurface.Thecontactisverysharpbetweenzone2andzone3,astheformerliesunconformablyonthe
latter.Theyellowsandispowderywhendryandveryunstable,scarcelypermittingartifactstobe

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pedestalled.Withintheyellowsandlayer,BrookesfoundevidenceforwhathebelievesaretwoseparatePaleoindianoccupations.

Intheupperportionoftheyellowsand,aDaltonoccupationoccurredthatconsistedofthreedifferentstylesofDaltonpoints.Theseinclude24ofthetypicalstraight
sidedlanceolateform,10sidenotchedpoints,andonesquarebasedDalton.BrookeslikensthesidenotchedformtootherexamplesofDaltonsidenotching,
namelySanPatrice,St.Johnsvariety(Webbetal.1971),andHardawaysidenotched(Coe1964).

Inthelowerportionoftheyellowsandzoneabout5cmbelowtheDaltonoccupation,BrookesfoundQuadpoints.OfthesixQuadpointsrecoveredfromtheHester
site,fourwererecoveredfromthelowerportionoftheyellowsandzoneandtwofromtheupperportion.ThedesignationofalowerQuadcomponentisstrengthened
bythefactthattwoofthesixQuadpointsweremadefromexoticchertsfromtheTennesseeValleyarea,whiletheremainingfourwerefromlocalgravelchert.(All
butthreeoftheDaltonpointsweremadefromlocalgravelcherttheexceptionsbeingtwoofFt.PaynechertandoneofTallahattaquartzite).Anumberoftakesand
toolsalsoweremadefromexoticchertsintheQuadzone.

Zone4beginsatabout1.3mandcontinuestoabout1.7mbelowsurface.Itisawhitepowderysandofthesameloosestructureastheyellowsandabove.The
boundarybetweenthewhiteandyellowsandswasnotassharpasbetweenzones2and3.Zone4containednoartifacts.

Zone5consistsofayellowwhitemottledclaythatwassterileofartifacts.Basedonboretests,thisclayunitisatleast1.2mthickinthisportionofthesite.Gravel
wasencounteredfrom~3.7mto4.6mbelowsurface.

Therewereoriginallythreesandy"rises"ontheHestersitefloodplain:onedestroyedbygravelminingonedestroyedbyamateurdiggingandnowdesignated
22Mo1011,BeachumHarrisonandthethird,designated22Mo569ortheHestersiteproper,excavatedbyBrookesandassociates.Hardpackeddarkgrayclay
withnoculturaloccupationsassociatedoccursbetweenthesandrises.

EvidencealsoexistsforflutedpointoccupationsoftheHestersite.Ontheadjacentsandyrisedugbyamateurexcavators(22Mo1011,BeachumHarrison),one
completeClovispointmadeofanexoticchertwassaidtohavebeenfound,aswellasthebaseofanotherClovispoint,alsomadeonexoticchert.NoQuadpoints
werediscoveredduringtheamateurexcavation.Intherisedestroyedbygravelmining,acollectorfoundaflutedCumberlandpointofexoticFt.Paynechertonthe
surface.Inthe1978excavations,BrookesrecoveredafragmentofaFt.PaynechertClovispointreworkedbybipolarflakingfromtheDaltonzone,aswellasa
reworkedFt.PaynechertflutedCumberlandpoint.

Althoughitisclearthatflutedpoints,particularlythosemadeofexoticchert,havebeenfoundattheHestersite,theirstratigraphicpositionisnotclear.Thetwo
examplesfoundbyBrookes"insitu"intheDaltonzonewerereworkedpiecesthatappeartobeexamplesofpointsscavengedbyDaltonpeople.Theotherexamples
wereobtainedbycollectorswhooriginallydugthesite.

AlthoughthefinalanalysisandreportoftheHestersiteareyettobecompleted,thesepreliminarydatadoallowsometentativeinterpretationstobemade.

First,thereappearstobeagoodstratigraphicseparationoftheearlyArchaicnotchedpointsassociatedwiththedarkredbrownsandzonefromtheDaltonmaterial
intheyellowsandzone.Thepresenceof"notched"varietiesofDaltonsmayindicatealateDalton(ca.10,000yrB.P.)timeperiod.ThepositingofaQuad
occupationimmediatelybeneaththeDaltonlevelinzone3ishighlyprobablebutrequirespublisheddocumentation.

Second,thepresenceofflutedpointsfromthethreedifferentsandyrisesonthesiteimpliesanearlierPaleoindianoccupationoftheHestersite.Accordingto
Brookes,thelowerportionoftheyellowsandzonemanifestsahigherproportionofexoticlithics,suchasFt.PaynechertfromAlabama.Whencoupledwiththefact
thatallflutedpointsknownfromthesitearemadefromexoticcherts,thelowerportionoftheyellowsandzoneisstronglyimpliedasthestratigraphiclocationofone
ormoreflutedpointoccupations.Thefactthatthewhitesandofzone4beneaththeyellowsandthusfarhasbeensterileofartifactsreinforcesthispossibility.

Additionalstudiesofthesite,includingsedimentologyandpedology,areneededtounderstandsomethingoftheoriginandphysicalconditionofthesezones.The
sharpboundaryinstructureandcolorbetweenthedarkredbrownsandandtheyellowsandzonesimpliesadepositionalorerosionaleventorboth.Theyellowcolor
ofzone3maybesimplyironleachedfromzone2.Theloose,powderyconsistencyofthewhitesandinzone4suggeststhatthiswasrapidlydeposited,pedogenically
unmodifiedfloodalluvium.Itwouldbeusefultohaveaprofilestudyofthecontact

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14
betweenthesterilewhitesand(zone4)andthebasalclayunit(zone5),aswellas Cdatestodeterminetheonsetofaggradationindicatedbywhatareprobably
channelrelatedsands.

FloridaSilverSpringsSite(8Mr92),MarionCounty,Florida

ASORIGINALLYDESCRIBEDbyWilfredNeill(1958),theSilverSpringssite(Figure1)wasastratifiedmulticomponentsitesituatedwithinawindblownhilldeposit.Itis
locatedonthesouthsideofSilverSpringsRun,ontheedgeoftheuplandsabovethefloodplain.TheSilverSpringssite(8Mr92)isnottobeconfusedwiththeactual
headspringsoftheriver,alsoknownasSilverSprings.Thiscommercialattraction,whichalsowasapparentlyaninundatedsubterraneancave,isreferredtobyNeill
(1964)astheCavernsite.Theheadspringsareaboutahalfmileupriverfrom8Mr92.TheSilverSpringssitealsoissomewhatfamousinNorthAmerican
archaeologyaccordingtoMason(1962:240),sinceitwasatthattimeoneofthefewdocumentedcasesofflutedpointsfoundstratigraphicallybelowArchaic
occupationsintheeasternUnitedStates.

Thesite,whichwasoriginallyawoodedhillborrowedforitssand,wasdiscoveredtocontainPaleoindianmaterialwhentwoflutedlanceolatepointswerediscovered
intheremovedsand.Neillconductedexcavationsintheflattestportionoftheremaininghillsurface,recoveringflutedpointsandSuwanneelikelanceolatesandrelated
toolsinthelowestoccupationlevel.Neill(1958:3537)excavated11unitstotalingabout500ft2,usingatrowelandmeasuringthedepthofartifactsbelowground
surface.Artifactswerefewindensitybutoccurredlyingfiatinrelativelyundisturbedhorizonsthatwereinterpretedasoccupationalsurfaces.

NeillreportedWoodlandthroughPaleoindian(Suwannee)occupationsingoodstratigraphicorderwithinapproximatelythefirst2.4mofsand.Neill(1958:46)
believedtheartifactbearingsandwaseolianinorigin.Thissandlayconformablyoveranothersandunit,sterileofartifacts,whichpossessedroughlyparallelbandsof
claythathereferredtoas"laminated."Thesearenowknowntobelamellae,repeatedlyfoundinsandysedimentsoftheearlyandmiddleHoloceneintheSoutheast
andwhicharelargelypedogenicinorigin(cf.Fossetal.1985LarsenandSchuldenrein1990).

BelowtheArchaiclevels,between1.9mand2.2mbelowsurface,wasanearlysterilezonepossessingfewflakesandverylittlecharcoalorstaining,unlikethesite
abovethislevel.Atthe2.2m2.4mlevelandfrom2.5cmto10cmabovetheclaylamellae,NeillencounteredobviousPaleoindianartifacts.Theseincludedtwo
lanceolatebases(Neill1958:Plate3J,K),whicharepossiblypreformstwoSuwanneepointbases(Neill1958:Plate3D,G)andoneflutedpointmissingitsbase
(Neill1958:Plate3A).Recoveredfromthespreadsandborrowedfromthehillwereonewholeflutedpointwithlateralwaistingandears(Neill1958:Plate3B)and
onepointthatresemblesaWesternClovis(Neill1958:Plate3C).Otherassociatedartifactsincludednineutilizedflakes,twosandstoneabraders,achoppingtool,a
crudeuniface,andapossibleworkedpieceoffossilshell.Nobone,shell,orotherorganicremainswerefound,withtheexceptionofscatteredgrainsofcharcoal,
whichNeilldescribedasrelativelyplentifulthroughoutthesite.

In1973,ThomasHemmings(1975)oftheFloridaStateMuseumpartiallyexcavatedtheSilverSpringssiteanddescribedthegeology.Hemmingsplacedtwo
excavationunitsagainstthefaceoftheborrowpitnearNeill'sAandFunits.Theseexcavationstotalled102m3.Forthemostpart,Hemmingswasabletoreplicate
Neill'sstratigraphyandpostPaleoindianarchaeologicaldeposits.However,verylittlewasfoundinthelowermostlevel,asidefromafewweatheredflakesthatwere
lyingflat.Onemidsectionofaflutedpointwasrecovered1.5mbelowsurface,wellabovethe2.1m2.4mPaleoindianlevel(Hemmings1975:148,Figure6.1).
HemmingsstatesthatthedifferencesbetweenhisresultsandthoseofNeillareattributabletosamplingerror.Neill(1958:44)reportedthatninetenthsofthehillhad
beenremovedbyworkmenpriortohisexcavation,soitispossiblethatnotmuchofthePaleoindianoccupationwasleft.

Hemmings(1975)basicallyconfirmedNeill'sstratigraphicinterpretationofthesite.Hedescribestheupper2.4mofstratifiedarchaeologicaldeposits(UnitA1,Upper
Sand)asa"homogenouseoliansandwithoutcrossbeddingorotherstructure"(Hemmings1975:144).A1gradesintoUnitA2,theLowerSand,whichhasbothsand
andclay(inthelamellae)andminorelementsoflimestonegravel.HemmingsbelievesUnitA2wasformedbybothwindandslopewashfromhigherelevationstothe
south.InsomeplacesUnitA2is2.1mthick.Basedonthearchaeology,HemmingssuggeststhattheLowerSandispre10,000yearsinage.

 Page466

TheSilverSpringssite,nowlargelygone,isanimportantdatumpointinsoutheasternPaleoindianarchaeology.AsMason(1962:240)pointedout,itwas(andstillis)
oneofthefewexamplesintheEastofPaleoindianlanceolatesoccurringstratigraphicallybeneathArchaicassemblages.Furthermore,theassemblagepurityofthe
PaleoindianzoneofSilverSpringsisworthyofnote.OnlySuwanneeandwhatmaybeClovispointswerefoundinthebasalzone.Thiszonewasseparatedfrom
subsequentArchaicoccupationsbyarelativelysterilezoneabout0.3minthickness.ThefrequentsituationofreoccupationbyearlyArchaicpeopleswithchipped
stonetoolsvirtuallyidenticaltothoseoflanceolatepointmakingPaleoindiangroupsisfortunatelyabsent,addingtotheintegrityoftheSilverSpringsPaleoindian
assemblage.

HomeyFlats,8Hi507,HillsboroughCounty,Florida

THEHARNEYFLATSsite,priortoitsdestructionbyexcavationsandtheconstructionoftheInterstate75Bypass,waslocatedabout10kmeastofthecityofTampa
(Figure1).ItoriginallywassituatedonascarpoverlookingalowswampylocalityknownasHarneyFlats,forwhichthesitewasnamed.Themultiphasetestingand
excavationprojectsweresummarizedbyDanielandWisenbaker(1987).Inall,967m2wereexcavated,makingthisoneofthelargestPaleoindiansiteexcavationsin
theEast.ThetotalnumberofPaleoindianartifactsrecoveredfromtheexcavationsalsoisremarkable,asnearly1,100chippedstoneartifactswerefound,including28
examplesofSuwanneeandSimpsonpointsandtheirpreforms.SomeearlyArchaicnotchedmaterialisincludedintheassemblage,as13Bolensidenotchedpoints
wererecoveredfromthesamematrixastheSuwanneepoints,alongwithanunspecifiablenumberofassociatedunifacialtools(DanielandWisenbaker1987:4262).

ThegeologicalandarchaeologicalstratigraphyofHarneyFlatsissummarizedasfollowsfromDanielandWisenbaker(1987:Figure12,2829).Zone1,fromground
surfaceto0.15m,wasahumusrichgraysandsterileofartifacts.Zone2,from0.15to0.75m,consistedofawhitesand.OccasionalWoodlandperiodsherdswere
foundataboutthe0.4mlevel.Beginningat0.6mandextendingto0.9m,middleArchaicNewnanstemmedpointswererecovered.Thispointtypeisknowntodate
fromabout5,000to7,000yearsago.Zone3wasadarkbrownhardpansoilrangingfrom0.75to0.85mindepth.Itisbelievedthatthishardpankeptmiddle
ArchaicandlaterartifactsfromintrudingdownwardintotheSuwanneeBolenhorizon.Newnanpointswerefoundinandabovethishardpan.Zone4extendedfrom
0.85to1.05mandwasayellowbrownsand,probablystainedbyironleachedfromthehardpanabove.TwopossibleKirkpointswerefoundinthiszonefrom0.9
toImbelowsurface.Zone5occurredfrom1.05mtoitsarbitraryterminationat2m,wherewaterappearedintheprofile.Itischaracterizedasapalebrownsand.
Theupperportionofthiszone,from1to1.6m,producedtheSuwanneeBolenconcentration,withmostofthematerialfoundintheupper0.3m.Below1.3m,
artifactdensitydecreasedsignificantly.Zone6,locatedseveralmetersbelowsurfaceinmostareasofthesite,isabluishgreenclayishsandthatoverliestheTertiary
limestonesandispresumedtohaveformedduringtheMiocene.Theareafrom1.6mofZone5toandincludingZone6wassterileofhumanoccupation.

Zones1to5werebasicallypedogenicmanifestationsofahomogenoussoiltype,thatofLeonfinesand,ratherthanseparatelithologicdepositionalunits(Danieland
Wisenbaker1987:28).SedimentologicalstudiesofthesandsweredonebyUpchurch(1984b)inanefforttoreconstructthestratigraphicformationoftheHarney
Flatssite.

Upchurch(1984b)hasnotedtheexistenceofsanddunesystemsinthiscentralwestcoastFloridalocalitythatultimatelyoriginatedfromPleistocenemarine
transgressions.TowardtheendofthePleistocene,sandwasreworkedintodunesfromsandsavailableinsedimentchokedfloodplains,marineterraces,andeolian
sandsheets(Upchurch1984b).SandsintheHarneyFlatslocalityreflecttwoprimarydepositionalregimes.First,therearemarinedepositedsandsthatdominatethe
basalsectionsandhavereceivedlittleeolianreworking.OverlyingthesebasalsandsaresurficialdunetrainsformedduringthelatePleistoceneandearlyHolocene.Phi
analysisofgrainsizedistributionsfromexcavationprofilesatHarneyFlatsrevealedunimodal,lognormaldistributionstypicalofeoliantransport.Thegrainsizewas
unusuallyhomogeneousregardlessofverticalorhorizontallocationinthesite,indicatingbioturbationofanalreadyhomogenousdunesource(Upchurch1984b).
PalynologicalstudiesforthePaleoindiantimeperiodinFloridaindicatethatclimaticconditionsstillweredry(WattsandHansen1988:316317),whichwouldhave
allowedwinderosionanddepositiononthe

 Page467

landscape.GiventhemoderateslopeoftheHarneyFlatssite,itislikelythatsomeoftheeolianmaterialmigrateddownslopeascolluvium.

LiketheSilverSpringssitediscussedabove,thereisevidenceofburialofPaleoindianmaterialfrom11,000to10,000yrB.P.incentralFloridafromwindblown
sediments.Becauseofthedryandpermeablenatureofthesedimentmatrix,otheritemsofmaterialculturemadefromboneandwoodarenotlikelytobepreserved.
Nevertheless,sufficienteolianactivitywaspresenttoburyPaleoindiansites,allowingexcellentpreservationoflithicassemblages.InthecaseofHarneyFlats,
however,sedimentationofthehillsideduringtheSuwanneeandBolenoccupationwasnotsufficienttoseparatethesetwophasesstratigraphically.Asdiscussed
below,radiocarbondatesofBolensidenotchedassemblageselsewhereinFloridaindicatetheydatefrom10,000to9500yrB.P.

Page/LadsonSite,8Je591,AucillaRiver,JeffersonCounty,Florida

PAGE/LADSONISONEofseveralinundatedriversitesintheAucillaRiverbasinandislocatedapproximately80kmsoutheastofTallahassee(Figure1).Multidisciplinary
workfeaturingarchaeology,geochronology,andpaleontologyhasbeenongoingintheAucillaRiversince1983,generatingavarietyofsignificantdatarelevanttothe
latePleistoceneearlyHolocenetransition(Dunbaretal.1988,1989a).

Dunbaretal.(1988:443)notethatfreshwaterinundatedsitesinFloridaareoftwotypes:stillwatersinkholes,suchasLittleSaltSpringandWarmMineralSprings
andthosesiteslocatedinthebottomsofslowmovingriverscommoninthekarstregionofcentralandnorthFlorida.Riverbottomsiteshaveproducedmanyofthe
SuwanneepointsandworkedivoryartifactsforwhichFloridaisfamous(Mason1962MilanichandFairbanks1980Purdy1981).SincePaleoindianartifactsfound
intheseriversareinthesamedepositoratthesamesurfaceaslateprehistoricandevenmodernartifacts,littleinterpretivevaluehasbeenaccordedthembecauseof
poorcontext.However,therecentworkofDunbar,Faught,andWebb(Dunbaretal.1988)atthePage/Ladsonsitehasshownthatthereareinsitu,stratifiedlate
PleistoceneandearlyHoloceneartifactbearingdepositsindrownedsinkholeswithinformerlydryriverbeds.

TheAucillaRiverisunusualinthatitrunsbothaboveandbelowgroundthroughkarsticlimestone.WateroriginatesinthemassiveFloridaaquifersystem,ultimately
drainingintotheGulfofMexico.ThelongestabovegroundstretchoftheriverisHalfMileRise,nearly1.5kminlength.Withinthissegmentoftheriverareanumber
ofsinksfilledwithalternatinglayersofpeatandmarlcontainingPaleoindianartifactsofstoneandbone,andextinctPleistocenefauna(Dunbaretal.1988:443).Ithas
beenestablishedthattherewasageneralloweringofthewatertableinlatePleistoceneinFloridaduetoadrasticallyloweredsealevelandadrierclimate(Brooks
1972).Undersuchconditions,whatarenowflowingriverbedswouldhavebeensubaerialarroyolikefeatures.Itisthoughtthatwhentheriverswerenotflowing,
someofthesinksstillcontainedwaterinperchedponds.Radiocarbondatesrangingfrom9540to13,130yrB.P.(Dunbaretal.1988:449)onpeats,wood,and
boneindicateenoughwaterwaspresenttoalloworganicpreservationinthesinkholes.Thegeneraltrendis"preservedwoodandotherorganicremainsinthesink
bottoms(which)indicatesalatePleistocenesequenceofgenerallyshallowwatersedimentsfollowedbyasequenceofearlyHolocenegenerallydeeperwater
sediments"(Dunbaretal.1988:443).After4000yrB.P.,increasedwaterflowcausederosionofsinkdeposits,creatingstratigraphicdeflationwherebyartifactsofall
agesarefoundtogetherin"blowout"features.

Page/Ladsonconsistsoftwocontiguousinundatedsinksthathaveundergoneunderwaterexcavation.TestpitBisa4mdeepunitlocatedonthenorthernlipofthe
southernmostdepression.TestpitC,locatedonthewesternedgeofthesamesink,beganasabroadsidebutsoonwasconfinedtoasmallareaandfinallyexcavated
to7mindepth.Aseriesofcommonstratigraphichorizons,labeledzonesAthroughE,havebeenobservedinthetestunits(Dunbaretal.1988:446).

ZonesAandBrepresentredepositedlateArchaicandWoodlandrelatedsedimentsdatingwithinthepast3,400years.TheyoverliezonesCandD,whichareof
interesthere.ZonesCandDarecomprisedofpeatsandcalcareousclayswithaveryminorsandcomponent.Preservationofwoodandbone(eveninsects)inthe
calciumrichlayersisverygood.Bonefoundinsituinthesezonesiscoloredlighttanoroffwhite,whichDunbaretal.(1988:444)believerepresentsrapidburial.In
contrast,boneandivoryartifactscustomarilyfoundinFloridariverbottomsaredarkbrownfromtanninstaining(Figure7),indicatingtoDunbarandhiscolleagues
thattheyhavebeenerodedfromtheiroriginalsinkholedeposits.

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ZoneChasbeenradiocarbondatedat9450100yrB.P.,9730120yrB.P.,10,000120yrB.P.,and10,280110yrB.P.(Dunbaretal.1988:Table1).In
testpitB,sidenotchedBolenbeveledprojectilepoints,unifaces,adzes,andotherlithictoolswereassociatedwiththe14Cdateof9730yrB.P.Preservedorganic
materials,suchasdesiccatedbone,wood,andfernsporeswerefound,butnotpollen,indicatingadrylandsurfacepriortoinundation(Dunbaretal.1988:444).Only
modernfaunahavebeenassociatedwithzoneC.

InzoneCoftestpitC,Dunbarandothersexposeda6m2areaoflevelAhorizonsoildevelopmentatadepthof4minthepitand6munderthewater.Limestone,
lithicdebitage,brokenadzebits,andaBolenPlaincornernotchedpointwerefoundwithwhatappearedtobeanactivitysurface[Dunbaretal.1988:444].

Thishumichorizonhasbeenreferredtoinformallyas"TheDirt,"owingtoitshighorganiccontent.Tworadiocarbondateswereobtainedfromthishorizononcharcoal
(10,000yrB.P.)andwood(10,280yrB.P.).Adateof10,60070yrB.P.wasobtainedjustbelowthisAhorizoninunalteredzoneDdeposits(Dunbaretal.
1988:444).

ZoneDistheoldesthumanrelatedhorizon.Thiszoneisthefirsttocontainextinctfauna,includingmastodon,camel,horse,andgiantarmadillo.Thesedimentsofthis
zonearedescribedasalimesand.Artifactsincludeabolostoneandchertflakes.Asyet,noClovisorSuwanneepointshavebeenrecoveredinsitufromanyofthe
naturalzonesincludingzoneD.Six14CdatesforzoneDrangefrom10,52090to13,130200yrB.P.(Dunbaretal.1988:Table1).

ZoneEischaracterizedas"WoodyPeat"andidentifiedbyLeeNewsomascypress.One14Cdateisavailableforthiszoneassayedat18,430220yrB.P.(Dunbar
etal.1988:Table1).ComparedtozonesCandD,whichwererichincalcium,zoneEhaslesscalciumcarbonate,implyinglessbreakdowninlocallimestone(Dunbar
etal.1988:444).

Dunbaretal.(1988:450)believethereareearlierinsituoccupationsofPage/LadsonthanthoseindicatedbyearlyArchaicBolensideandcornernotched
occupations.Paleoindianlanceolates,suchasClovis,Suwannee,andSimpson,aswellasworkedivoryarepresentatthesiteinrivererodedblowouts.Giventhe14C
agesofthestratifiedsedimentsinzoneD,thereisgoodreasontothinktheywillbeinsitu.

Insum,theworkofDunbar,Webb,Faught,andothersatPage/LadsonhasdemonstratedtheexistenceofstratifiedinsitulatePleistoceneearlyHolocene
archaeologicaldepositsinwelldatedcontexts.ContrarytopreviousresultsandopinionsregardingthecontextualintegrityofFloridariversites,theyhaveshownthat,
atleastinsomeplaces,utilizationofdryriverbedswasrelatedtosinkholeswithstandingorquietlyflowingwaters,asevidencedbythepresenceofpeat.Thesepeat
andmarlfilledsinksevidentlyarestratifiedarchaeologicallyandgeologicallyandofferremarkablepreservationofnormallyabsentorganicremains,includingartifacts
ofbone,ivoryandwood.ThepresenceofflowingwaterapparentlywasalaterHoloceneevent,whichcausedthedeflationofgeologicalandarchaeologicaldeposits.
NumerouschertoutcropsintheAucillariverbedthatshowevidenceofquarryingalsoareanindicationthattheriverchannelsweredryatanearliertime(Dunbaretal.
1989b:27).

ItalsoisclearthatzoneDistheprovenienceofPaleoindianremainsdating10,500yearsagoandearlier.Basedonthespreadofthesix14Cdates(10,52013,130yr
B.P.)andtheabundanceofpreservedorganics,includinglatePleistocenemegafauna,zoneDisaprimecandidateforfurtherPaleoindianresearchatPage/Ladson.It
alsoshouldberememberedthatthelowerAucillaRiverhasthehighestdensityofClovispointsandivoryforeshaftsknownforalltheriversinFlorida(Dunbaretal.
1988:451),heighteningthepossibilitythatsuchremainsmightbestudiedanddatedinsitu.

DrownedSitesintheEasternGulfofMexico

TampaBay,Florida

BEGINNINGINTHEEARLY1960s,Suwanneepoints,bonepins,Bolenpoints,andrelatedunifacialflaketools,aswallaslaterArchaicartifactsbegantoregularlyappearin
dredgespoilfromprivateandfederaldredginginTampaBay(GoodyearandWarren1972Warren1964,1970).Theoriginoftheseartifactswastwobasicsources.
Themostcommonwereshallow(<4m)waterinundatedlatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenelandsurfacesnowafewhundredmetersfromthepresentshore
(Goodyearetal.1983:42).Onfillsandspoilislandsthatproducedearlyartifacts,thereusuallywasacontemporaryfreshwaterdrainagenearby,suggestingthatthe
artifactswerefromsitesassociatedwithformer

 Page469

creeks.Theothersourceofartifactswasoystershelldepositscommerciallyminedforuseassurfacematerialforstreetsandparkinglots(GoodyearandWarren
1972Warren1964).Thelatterdepositswereestimatedbyprivatedredgerstobebetween3and15mthickandweresubstantialenoughtoallowcommercialmining
forseveraldecades.Thepossibilitythatsomeoftheseshelldepositswererelatedtohumanexploitationhasbeenconsidered(GoodyearandWarren1972Warren
1964),althoughnodemonstrationthattheyweremiddenshasbeenattempted.Dredgeoperatorsreportedthattheoystershelldepositsfollowedtheoldriverchannels
inTampaBay,aswellasmodernshipchannels,whicharedeepenednaturalchannels(GoodyearandWarren1972:52).Theoystershelldeposits,located2and3km
offshoreandinthedeepestportionsofthebay,producedPaleoindianandArchaicstonetoolsbutfewexamplesofpottery.Evidenceofoccupationbyhumans
appearstohaveceasedinthelateArchaicperiod(ca.4000yrB.P.),whichisalsotheapproximatetimeofmodernsealevelposition.Thefills,ontheotherhand,
werecomprisedofsedimentsdredgedfromafewhundredmetersoffshoreandoftenproducedprehistoricartifactsfromalltimeperiods(GoodyearandWarren
1972:60).

Atleast26SuwanneepointsareknowntohavebeenrecoveredfrominundatedcontextseitherdredgedfromtheperipheryofTampaBayorrecoveredfromrelict
oystershelldeposits(Goodyearetal.1983).Inallprobability,theseartifactshavebeendredgedfrominsituinundatedsiteswithlittlenaturalalterationsfrom
Holocenesealevelrise.TampaBayandthewestcoastofFloridaingeneralisazerotolowenergymarineenvironmentwithlittlesedimentationexceptinriverine
settings(SamUpchurch,personalcommunication1991).Theprojectilepointsaresharpandunweathered,asareassociatedunifacialandbifacialtoolsanddebitage.
Suwanneepointsandlaterprojectilepointtypeswerenotfoundasisolateditemsbutratherindenseconcentrationswithotherlithictools,formingmeaningful
assemblages.Thisindicatesthedredgeinterceptedinsitusitesandredepositedthemonlandnearby.

TampaBayanditsupperreaches,HillsboroughBay,istheHolocenedrownedportionoftheHillsboroughRivervalley.TheothermajorlobeofthebayisOld
TampaBay,whichisconsideredtohavebeenformedbyalargekarstdepression(SamUpchurch,personalcommunication1991).GiventheknownlatePleistocene
earlyHolocenereductioninsurfacewaterinFloridaduetoloweredsealevel,itislikelythatmanyprehistoricsites,particularlythoseofthePaleoindianperiod,are
tightlyassociatedwithformerriverchannelsandtributaries.ThewatersofTampaBay,andindeedtheentireGulfofMexicoalongthewestcoastofFlorida,are
relativelyshallow,asituationthatwouldfacilitateunderwaterdatarecoveryofwhatmustbeanextraordinarilyrichearlyarchaeologicalrecordintheformer
HillsboroughRivervalley.Serendipitously,thedredgingactivitiesofthe1960sinthisregionhavegivenstrongcluesastothisunderwaterarchaeologicalmaterial.

ApalacheeBoyRegion,Florida

BASEDONTHEpredictabilityofunderwatersitesintheAucillaRiveronthelandportionoftheriver,marinesurveysareunderwaytoprojectsimilarsitelocationsin
submergedriverandkarstrelatedfeaturesinApalacheeBay(Dunbar1988Dunbaretal.1989bFaught1988,1990)TheApalacheeBayareaisthenorthernmost
reachoftheTertiaryKarstRegion,aTertiarylimestoneshelfwithlittlesedimentaccumulation,whichrunscontinuouslyoffshoresouthwardtoTampaBay(Dunbaret
al.1989b).Becauseofitskarsticnature,thisentireregionissuspectedtocontaindrownedPleistoceneandHoloceneaboriginalsitesontheOuterContinentalShelfin
geologicsituationssimilartothatobservedonshore.

MichaelFaughtandhisassociatesJamesDunbarandRichardAnuskiewicz,incooperationwithbothpublicagenciesandprivategroups,haveexaminedanumberof
potentialunderwatersitetargetsintheApalacheeBayregion,includingfreshwaterspringsissuingfromsinkholesintheGulf,limestoneandchertoutcrops,andold
riverchannelsoftheAucillaandEconfina.Todate,nodefinitePaleoindianorearlyArchaicartifactshavebeenencountered,butpreceramicArchaiclithicsitesand
quarriesappeartobecommon.Theserangeindistancefrom1to10kmoffshoreinamaximumwaterdepthof5.5m(lowfide)(Faught1990:27).Oneparticularly
interestinggeologicfeatureknownasRayHoleSpringwastestedbyAnuskiewiczoftheMineralsManagementServiceandJamesDunbaroftheFloridaBureauof
ArchaeologicalResearch.Thisspringiswithinasinkholelocated38.6kmoffshoreandlying11.6munderwater(Anuskiewicz1988:181).Thesinkmeasures7.6min
diameterandpossessesacaveatthe

 Page470

18to30mdepth.Atthetimeofthe1986visitbyAnuskiewiczandDunbar,itwasdiscoveredthatthesinkhadfilledupwithrecent(since1976)sandandshell,
leavingonlyabout3mofrelief.Thethickrecentfilldefiedtestingandcoringthus,theouterperimeterofthe:sinkwastestexcavated.Acrevice0.15mwideinthe
limestonewasexcavatedwiththehopethatartifactsmightbetrappedinit.Excavationofthecrevicefrom0.15to0.2mdeepproducedanumberofchertflakesof
probablehumanorigin.Atthe0.75mlevel,alensofoystershellwasencountered.At1m,waterloggedwoodwasfound,belowwhichthecreviceendedon
bedrock.Apieceofwoodrecoveredonthebedrockwasidentifiedasliveoakandproduceda14Cdateof822080yrB.P.Anoystershelllocatedabovethe
wooddated739060yrB.P.Theseorganicremainsimplyaterrestrialenvironmentsubsequentlyinundatedbybrackishwater(Anuskiewicz1988:184).

Theprospectsforfindingdrowned,wellpreservedPaleoindianandArchaicsitesontheTertiarykarstshelfofthewestcoastofFloridaareverygood.Current
researchstrategiesbyDunbar,Faught,Webb,Anuskiewicz,andothersincludedevelopmentofanabsolutesealevelcurvewhichcanbeusedtostratifytheshelfinto
probablelatePleistoceneandearlyHolocenesitelocationsbywaterdepth.BasedonanumberofeustaticsealevelcurvesfortheGulfofMexico,theearliestsites
(12,000to8000yrB.P.)wouldrangefrom56to177kmoffshoreandinwaterdepthsof15to53m(Faught1990:30).

Conclusions

THELATEPLEISTOCENElargescaleerosiondescribedbyHaynes(1968)formuchofNorthAmericacanbedetectedintheSoutheastaswell.Thegeologicalevidence
forthiserosionismostprevalentwithinthefloodplainsofthesouthernAppalachians(Brakenridge1984LarsenandSchuldenrein1990Segovia1985).Byexamining
palynologicalandsedimentologicaldatafrompondsandsinksintheinterfluvialzonesoftheSoutheast,PaulDelcourt(1985)hasshownthatlittlesedimentmovement
wastakingplaceoutsidethefloodplainsduringthecriticalperiodof20,000to8000yrB.P.Theerosionwithinthefloodplainsmayhavebeentheresultoffloods
relatedtointensestormclustersratherthandrought,accordingtothemodeloffloodplainerosiondevelopedbyKnox(1984).Theinfrequentpresenceofflutedpoints
atthecontactofbasalHolocenedepositsandtheerodeduppersurfacesofPleistoceneterracessuggestthatthisperiodoferosiontookplaceintheSoutheast
sometimepriorto11,000yrB.P.

CriticaltothepreservationanddatingofClovisandotherPaleoindiansitesisthematterofsiteburialbysedimentaryprocesses.Theprecedingreviewofbuffed
Paleoindiansiteshaslargelyfocusedonalluvialcontexts,sincefloodplainswerethemostgeologicallydynamicenvironmentsatthebeginningoftheHolocene.
ParticularsiteswerechosenthatmightilluminatethetimingofburialrelatedtotheonsetofHoloceneaggradation.Sometrendsinthedataareworthhighlightinghere.

Insomewatersheds,theonsetoftheHoloceneaggradationwassoenergeticandrapidthatitislikelyClovisandotherPaleoindiansitesweresweptaway.TheLittle
TennesseeRiver,reportedbyChapman(1985),qualifieshereasasituationworsenedbytheproximitytointensivewastingoftheGreatSmokyMountains,which
providedhugequantitiesofsedimentandasteeprivergradient(cf.SchuldenreinandAnderson1983).Insomecases,theearlyHolocenedepositsmaybe
extraordinarilythick,renderingaccessevenbybackhoedifficultanddangerous.ThiswasthecasewiththeDuckRiverregion,wheretheearliestHolocenesediments
wereverydeeplyburiedandnevercompletelyreached(Klippel,personalcommunication1991cf.Brosteretal.1991).

OntheAtlanticslopesideofthesouthernAppalachians,thereissomeevidence,basedonarchaeologyandlimited14Cdates,thattheonsetofHoloceneaggradation
tookplaceaftertheClovisperiod.AttheHawRiversiteinNorthCarolina,aHardawayDaltonassemblagewasfoundinfinetomediumgrainedsands,representing
aninitialpulseofHolocenealluvium.Thiszoneoverlayanarchaeologicallysterile,weathered,latePleistoceneterracesurfacecharacterizedbyclayishsiltysands.
Basedontheprojectilepoints,thisinitialdepositofsandlikelydatesaround10,500yrB.P.AtGreggShoalsontheSavannahRiverinGeorgia,14Cevidence
indicatesthattheleveeonwhichthesitewasoccupieddidnotbegintobuilduntilsometimearound10,000yrB.P.Theradiocarbondateswerefromlensesofpeat
lyingonbedrock.Thesepeatlensesindicatetheyformedinquietwaterandsubsequentlywereburiedbyflooddepositedsands.AtnearbyRucker'sBottom,aClovis
pointwasexcavatedatthesamelevelasasubstantialearlyArchaicKirkoccupation,thedeepestoccupiedzoneofthesite.Inthiscase,itislikelythatalluvial
depositiondidnoteffectivelyoccuronthe

 Page471

Rucker'sBottomterraceuntilafter10,000yrB.P.AsimilarsituationwasfoundatSimpson'sField,whereaClovispointandotherearlyArchaicartifactswerefound
lyingtogetherinthesamealluvium.TheoneexceptiontothistrendwheretheearliestPaleoindianartifactsinHolocenealluviumarepostClovisis9Ge309,locatedon
theOconeeRiverinGeorgia.Here,twoflutedpointsandaprobablethirdwerefoundinthelowerportionofashallow(1m)sandyHolocenelevee.However,the
sitewasmulticomponent,notverydeep,andevincedsomemixingfrombioturbation.Thequestionhereis,weretheflutedpointstrulyburiedinthesands,orwere
theydisturbedupwardfromthesurfaceofwhatissuspectedtobeaweatheredPleistoceneterracesurface?

RegardingthetimingoftheHoloceneaggradationonthecoastalplainsoftheSoutheast,thepicturediffersfromthePiedmont.Thereissomeevidencethatthe
SavannahRiverwasflowinginabraidedpatternatthebeginningoftheHolocene,asindicatedbypointbardepositsatPenPointandprobablyatTaylorHill.Dalton
periodartifactsareclearlyburiedineachcase,withprobablepreDaltonflutedbifacesatthelattersite.Incircumstancessuchasthese,itdoesnotappearthatburial
willbeespeciallydeep(ca.1m),creatingproblemsofstratigraphicintegritywherethereisastrongpatternofreoccupationbylaterArchaicgroups.However,in
instanceswhereachanneliscutoffandburiedbylateroverbankdeposits,thechancesaregoodthatonemightfindarelativelypureexpressionofaClovisperiod
occupation.

SmithsLakeCreek(38A1135)mayrepresentsuchasituation,wherechangesinthehydrologyofeitherSmithsLakeCreekortheSavannahRiveritselfremovedthe
chertsourcefromusebysubsequentaboriginalgroups.InthecaseoftheBigPineTreesite,theinitialhumanoccupationmaywellbeClovis,situatedasitisinthefirst
survivingdepositofHolocenesandsoverlyinganerodedandweatheredPleistoceneterrace.AsimilarsituationoccursdownstreamattheCharlessite,althoughitis
moredifficultatthispointtodiagnosetheearliestoccupationthere.ItisnotclearyetwhetherthetwositesonSmith'sLakeCreekwereburiedfromsediments
contributedprimarilyfromtheSavannahRiver,Smith'sLakeCreek,orboth.Moreworkisneededtoestablishsedimentsources.Theremaybedifferential
sedimentationratesrelatedtowhetherastreamoriginatesonthecoastalplain,usuallypossessingasmallwatershed,versusonethatbeginsinthesouthern
AppalachianMountains,involvingamuchmoreextensivedrainagebasin.

AttheTheriaultsiteonBrierCreek,Georgia,asingleClovislikeflutedpointwasfoundatthebaseofprobablefluvialsandsjustabovewhatisdescribedasaclay
matrix.However,aDaltonpointwasfoundontheclaymatrix.Aspreviouslypointedout,mixingofoccupationalzoneshastakenplaceatthislocale,sothequestion
ofwhethertheflutedpointwasoriginallyinthesandorrestingontheclaysurfaceismoot.Relativelyshallow,sandy,heavilyreoccupiedsitesdonottendtolend
themselvestoresolvingsuchstratigraphicallysensitivequestions.

TheMuckafooneeCreeksiteinGeorgiaandtheHestersiteinMississippisharetwocommontraitsthatbearonthetimingoftheHoloceneaggradation.First,both
areinalluviumfromriversthatoriginateonthecoastalplains.Second,bothhavePaleoindianartifacts,includingpossibleCloviscomponents,whichareobviously
withinsandsaswellasoverlyingsands.AtMuckafooneeCreek,althoughthebackhoeonlypenetratedtoadepthof1.5m,theartifactbearinglevelthatproduceda
flutedpointoverlayatleastthreesterilehorizons.Theseareareddishbrownclayeysand,overlyingacompactreddishbrownclayeysand,whichwasunderlainbya
basalcoarse,light,almostwhitesand.ThefirsttwoprobablyareBhorizonpaleosols.AttheHestersite,Dalton,Quad,andprobablyClovispointswereburiedin
alluvialsandsthatlayatopaclean,alluvialsandunitthat,inturn,overlayasterileclayunit.

Withonlytwositestogeneralizefrom,strongconclusionscannotbedrawn.However,thefactthatatbothsitescoarsesedimentsunderlaytheflutedpointzones
indicatesthepotentialforrapiddepositionandburialofPaleoindiansites,includingcharcoalfor14Cdating.Thesedata,likethatfromSmith'sLakeCreek,suggestthe
possibilitythatHoloceneaggradationonthecoastalplainswascontemporarywithClovisoccupationsandperhapssomewhatearlier.Wherepossible,archaeologists
needto14Cdatethealluviumunderlyingearlyoccupations.WiththeadventofAMSdating,evensmallparticlesofcharcoalcanbedatedreliablyfromalluvialbeds.
Asthingsstandnow,flutedpointsandotherdiagnosticPaleoindianartifactsarebeingusedtoindirectlydategeologicalhorizons,andtheartifacts,forthemostpart,
havenotbeendatedthemselvesbyassociated14C.

ThereisaclearstratigraphicpatternpresentatnearlyallofthesiteswherePaleoindianandearlyArchaicbifaceshavebeenrecoveredinalluviumthatpertainstothe
recognitionofthePleistoceneHoloceneboundary.AtHawRiver,probablyBaucom,Rucker's

 Page472

Bottom,Simpson'sField,Rae'sCreek,Smith'sLakeCreek,Theriault,andMuckafoonee,thePleistoceneHolocenecontactisindicatedbybasalHolocenesands
overlyinganalluvialterracesurfacethathasbeenmodifiedbytheformationofBhorizonpaleosols.TheseBhorizonsarewelldeveloped(Bt)andmoreargillicthanB
horizonsfoundintheHolocenealluvium.Theyinvariablyaresterileofartifactsintheirprimaryposition.ThebasalHolocenesandsoftenaremarkedbylamellaeifthe
grainsizeisnottoocoarse.TheBthorizonswhichhaveformedintheHolocenealluviumarenotasargillicasthoseontheolderPleistoceneterraces.Becauseof
landscapeinstabilityaccompanyingtheHoloceneaggradation,whichprovidedbotherosionandtheadditionofnewsediments,itisunlikelythatpedogenesiscould
proceedtothepointofmatureargillicBhorizons(cf.FossandSegovia1984Fossetal.1995).

ArchaeologistsandgeologistsshouldbeawareofthiscontactandcontinuetoexcavateuntilconclusiveevidenceforarchaeologicallysterileBthorizons,gravels,or
bedrockisreached.InthecaseoftheBthorizon,itisonorjustabovethisweatheredsurfacethatClovisandotherpreDaltonmaterialsshouldbelocated
stratigraphically.Aclassicillustrationofthisisthe"Clovisclay,"astronglypedogenicallymodifiedIIB2horizonunderlyingtheflutedpointdepositattheThunderbird
siteinVirginia(Foss1974).TheabrasivesandbearingfloodsoftheinitialHoloceneaggradationmay,inmanycases,havescouredawayflutedpointassemblages,
suchasseeninthesharp,undulatingcontactatHawRiverandRae'sCreek.Inanyevent,greaterareasneedtobeexcavatedontheselatePleistoceneterrace
surfacesbeforeitcanbeconcludedthattherearenoburiedflutedpointsitespresentintheSoutheast.

FurtherdownthecoastalplainandintoFlorida,climateandthekarsttopographyweresufficientlydifferentfromhigherlatitudesthatthisregionrequiresseparate
consideration.Becauseofrelativelyrecentmarinetransgressions,sedimentsfromduneshavebeenreadilyavailablefordeposition.TheFloridaclimatewasaridatthe
endofthePleistoceneand,whencoupledwithreducedsurfacewaterfromlowrainfallanddepressedgroundwaterduetoalowersealevel,conditionswereprime
foreoliandeposition.Paleoindiansitesmaybeburiedatsignificantdepths,judgingfromtheSilverSpringsandHarneyFlatssites.SitessuchasPage/Ladsoninthe
riverinedrownedsinkholesareuniquegeologicallyandarchaeologically,asarecenotessuchasWarmMineralSpringsandLittleSaltSpring.Inadditiontoproviding
abundant,reliableorganicmaterialsfor14Cdating,excellentfaunalpreservationinthesinksshouldallowunassailablesubstantiationofhumanexploitationofextinct
faunaintheSoutheast.

SaltwaterinundationofrivervalleysandthecontinentalshelfitselfnodoubthasprovidedsomeformofburialandpreservationofasubstantialPaleoindian
archaeologicalrecord.TheartifactualevidencefromTampaBayalone,thelargestembaymentonthewestcoastofFlorida,isimpressive,anoccurrencethatislikely
repeatedwithintheotherbaysalongtheGulfcoast.Theexistenceofdrownedriverchannels,sinks,andotherkarstfeaturesonthecontinentalshelf,thoughlogistically
complicatedbytheirdistanceoffshore,alsoofferasyetunrealizedpotentialforPaleoindianstudies,includingthepossibilityofpreservedevidenceformarineresource
exploitation.

Whilearchaeologistsalwaysarewisetoconsultwithscientistsinotherdisciplines,giventhegeologicalconditionsthatprevailedinthesoutheasternUnitedStatesatthe
timeofthetransitionfromthePleistocenetotheHolocene,researchteamsemployinggeologistsandsoilscientistsareabsolutelynecessary.TheworkofWilliam
GardnerandhisearthsciencecolleaguesattheThunderbirdsiteprovidedanearly(andstilladmirable)modelofsuchanapproach.Itisclearthatthefloodplainswere
themostgeologicallydynamicenvironmentsfromabout11,000yrB.P.onward,andthusthemostamenabletodepositionsoneededforPaleoindianresearch.The
factthatsomanyoftheserivervalleysarenowunderwaterreservoirsintheSoutheastshouldcausethearchaeologicalprofessiontoregardtheremainingundammed
streamsasarareandendangeredhabitat.Floodplainsneedtobeprioritizedforbothpreservationandresearchbeforetheyaretotallyremovedfromscientific
scrutiny.

 Page473

Acknowledgments

Anumberofpeopleaidedmeinthewritingofthispaperbysupplyinginformationandreadingportionsofthemanuscript.SamBrookesprovidedunpublisheddataon
theHestersite.DavidWebbprovidedthephotograph(Figure7)oftheivoryartifactfromFlorida.RodneyPeckallowedphotographyofmanyofhissoutheastern
Paleoindianpoints,whichareincludedhere.TommyCharlestookmostofthephotographsillustratedinFigures2and3.Thefollowingpeoplereadportionsofthe
manuscriptandgavevaluablecomments:DavidG.Anderson,SamBrookes,MarkBrooks,RayCrook,RandyDaniel,JamesDunbar,JohnFoss,VanceHaynes,
SamUpchurch,DavidWebb,andHenryWright.DennisBlanton,JohnBroster,WilliamChildress,CharlesHubbert,MichaelJohnson,JosephMcAvoy,Mark
Norton,andJosephSchuldenreinprovidedadditionalinformationconcerningtheirwork.ThestaffoftheSouthCarolinaInstituteofArchaeologyandAnthropology
arethankedfortheirsupport,especiallyBruceRippeteau,Director,CaroleShealy,andNenaPowell.IalsowouldliketothankRobBonnichsenforinvitingmeto
participateintheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas(1989),whereapreliminaryversionofthepaperwasread.Hispatienceandthatof
theCenter'sstaffwhilethefinalversionwasunderconstructionaregreatlyappreciated.

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 Page482

TheInhabitantsofMexicoDuringtheUpperPleistocene
JoseLuisLorenzo1
LorenaMirambell2

Abstract

InvestigationsofearlyhumanoccupationinMexicohavebeenrelativelylimited.From1952until1989,theDepartmentofPrehistorystudiednomadicand
seminomadichuntergatherergroups.From1952to1960,investigationsfocusedonexcavationofproboscideanskeletons,mostlyintheBasinofMexico.In1961
systematicexcavationsandanalysisusinginnovativemethodsandtechniquesbegan,interdisciplinarylaboratorieswereorganized,andresearchfocusedonfour
physiographicregions:endorreicbasins,drycaves,coastalregions,andalpineareas.

ThetimeofinitialhumanoccupationinMexicohasbeennamedtheLithicstageandtheculturalhorizonsdefinedhavebeentermedArchaeolithic(40/35,00014,000
yrB.P.),Cenolithic,Lower(14,0009000yrB.P.)andUpper(90007000yrB.P.)andProtoneolithic(70004500yrB.P.).Tworesearchprojectsweredeveloped:
TlapacoyaintheBasinofMexicoandRanchoLaAmapola,Cedral,SanLuisPotos,withoccupationdatesforthefirstbetween24,000and22,000yrB.P.andfor
thelatterbetween35/33,000and21,000yrB.P.

FlutedprojectilepointsClovis,Folsom,and"fishtails"arealsopresentinMexico.

INVESTIGATIONSOFEARLYhumanoccupationinMexico,asinothercountrieswithextensiveprehistoricmonumentalarchitecture,havebeenrelativelylimited.Because
archaeologicalinteresthasfocusedonarchitecturalremains,thestudyofthefirstinhabitants,intimatelyrelatedtotheproblemofthepeoplingoftheAmericas,has
beenrelegatedtothebackground.

Notwithstanding,fordecadesinMexico,therehasbeenaninterestinthecultureofthefirstAmericans.In1952,asaresultofthecontroversialdiscoveryofhuman
remainsinTepexpan,theDepartmentofPrehistorywasfoundedforthepurposeofstudyingnomadicorseminomadichuntergatherergroupsofthepast.These
groupslaterwereclassifiedwithinaculturaltraditionknownastheLithicstage.

Initsfirstphaseofwork,between1952and1960,theDepartmentofPrehistoryorienteditsactivitiestowardtheexcavationofproboscideanskeletons,mostlyinthe
BasinofMexico.Withtheseremains,evidenceofassociatedhumanactivityappearedsporadically.Duringthoseyears,prehistoricresearch,inabroadsense,was
limited,asspecificresearchprojectswerenotconductedandattentionwasgiventofortuitousfinds.Infairness,itmustbeconfessedthatresearchoriented
investigationsincorporatinginterdisciplinarystudieswereneglectedaswell.

Itwasnotuntil1961thatinvestigationsbaseduponsystematicexcavationandanalysisusinginnovativemethodsandtechniqueswereutilized.Fortheimplementation
ofthisresearch,interdisciplinarylaboratorieswereorganizedinthefieldsofpaleobotany,paleozoology,Quaternarygeology,petrography,chemistry,pedology,and
sedimentology,followedyearslaterbyachronometricdatinglaboratory(radiocarbon,thermoluminescence,andobsidianhydration).Thisbatteryofmultidisciplinary
sciencesassistedeffortsinanarchaeologicalinvestigationoffourphysiographicregions:endorreicbasins,drycaves,coastalregions,andalpineareas.

EndorreicBasins

DuringthePleistocene,theselandformsremainedclosedorbecameclosed,aswasthecaseintheBasinofMexico.Theseareascontainedlakes,providingan
environmentfavoringhumansettlement,duetothe
1
.Deceased.
2
.InstitutoNacionaldeAnthropogcaeHistoria,Mexico

 Page483

availabilityofwater,withopportunitiesforhunting,gathering,andfishing.Thesebasinsalsoyieldabundantenvironmentalinformationregardinglacustrineoscillations
andaccompanyingclimaticandpaleoecologicalchange.

DryCaves

Historically,caveswerechosenbyhuntergatherergroupsfortemporarysettlements.Becauseoftheirdryconditions,somecavescontainpreservedorganicremains
yieldingbothpaleoecologicalrecordsandevidenceofhumanactivity.Thesesitesprovidearichsourceofinformationforthearchaeologistthatisdifficulttoobtainin
othersettings.

CoastalRegions

FluctuationsinglobalmarinelevelsprovideameansfordatingQuaternarydepositswhenotherlinesofevidencearelacking.Theseareasalsoyieldinformationon
humancoastaladaptationsandseasonalaspectsofhuntergatherereconomies,aswellasafossilrecordofenvironmentalchange.

AlpineRegions

Theseareascontainevidenceofpastclimaticfluctuationsindicativeofglacialactivityorperiglacialenvironmentalconditions.

Withthesefourlinesofstudy,thedifferinggeographical,geomorphological,andecologicalaspectsofMexicowereopenedtoarchaeologicalresearchinan
investigationofearlyhumanactivity.

ChronologicStagesofHumanOccupationinMexico

THETIMEPERIODoftheinitialhumanoccupationofMexicoistermedtheLithicstage.Thisstagebeginssometimebetween40,000to35,000yrB.P.,andextendsto
approximately4500yrB.P.incertainregions,primarilyinthenorthernzone,thisperiodextendsaslateastheendofthe18thcenturyA.D.Theestablishedcultural
chronologyisbasedupontheexistenceoflithicartifacts,althoughundoubtedly,artifactsmanufacturedfromorganicmaterialsalsowerepresent.Theselithicartifacts
formthefoundationofatechnicalcriterion,associalandeconomicaspectsarehardlyperceptibleatthistime.Lorenzo(1967a),theauthorofthischronology,
commentsonthenatureofprehistoricoccupationduringtheLithicstage,explainingthathumans:

remainedopentosuchprocessesasmarginalizationorfixationonagivenculturaltradition,which,oncedetermined,integrateditssettlementinagiventerritoryorsituationand
prevailedwithveryslightvariations,sinceitwassufficienttopermitsubsistencewithoutgreatdifficulties.Withthisremainsimplicittheprincipleofmultilinearevolution
demonstratedbythecoexistenceofdifferentmodesofproductioninimmediateproximity,whichwaswhatthefirstEuropeansencountered[Editor'stranslation].

TheculturalhorizonsdefinedwithintheLithicstagearetermedtheArchaeolithic,Cenolithic,andProtoneolithic.TheArchaeolithic,asitsnameconnotes,istheoldest
period,followedbytheCenolithic.TheProtoneolithicdefinesthemostrecenthorizonwithintheLithicstage.

TherepresentativeartifactsoftheArchaeolithic(40,00035,000to14,000yrB.P.)areverycrudeanddonotdisplaygreatspecialization.Artifacttypesinclude
choppersandchoppingtools,scrapers,denticulates,shapedflakesandblades,andutilizedflakes.Theartifactsarelarge,rarelylessthan5cminlength,dependingon
thesizeandqualityoftherawmaterialusedsomearemadebyalternatepercussion,demonstratingincipientbifacialism.Themanufacturingtechniqueinvolvesthe
applicationofdirectpercussion,withalargeangleoffracture,indicativeofaClactoniantechnique.Thismethodofmanufactureistheonlytechniqueusedand
commonlyisassociatedwithanabsenceoflithicprojectilepoints.

TheCenolithicismorecomplexandbetterunderstoodthantheearlierhorizon.Ithasbeendividedintoloweranduppertimeperiods.InthelowerCenolithic(14,000
to9000yrB.P.),lithicprojectilepointsappear.Leafshapedandflutedformsarethemostcommon,withflutesmoreorlessmarkedonboththedorsalandventral
faces.FlutingfacilitatedfixingorattachingthepointtotheshaftandappearstobeatypicallyAmericantechniquewellcharacterizedbyClovisandFolsomforms,and
lesssoby"fishtail"points.Stemmedpointsalsoappearandareconsidered

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apossibleproductofedgeabrasiononthelowerthirdoftheflutedpieces,preciselywheretheshaftwouldhavebeenattached.Thismethodresultsinprojectilepoints
withoutearsortangs.Prismaticbladesweremanufacturedinabundanceand,logically,polyhedralcoresappear.

Theknappingtechniqueduringthistimecontinuestobedirectpercussion,althoughthepercussorisnolongeralwaysofstoneandusageofbone,horn,andwood
billetsoccurs.Thinnerflakesandformalbladeswithsharperedgesareobtainedthroughdirectpercussion.Indirectpercussionandincipientpressureflakingalsoare
observed,althoughnotabundantinthearchaeologicalrecord.Theseinnovationsgiverisetomorefunctionallithicimplements.

IntheupperCenolithic(9000to7000yrB.P.),agreatvarietyoflithicartifactsarepresent.Carefulfinishingofthepiecesbybothpercussionandpressureflakingis
noted.Lithicprojectilepointswithstemsandearsareabundant,althoughleafshapedpointspersist.Inthisphase,asintheearlier,choppers,choppingtools,sideand
endscrapers,perforators,andsomedenticulatesandburinsarepresent.

Artifactsmadeofgroundandpolishedstonebegintoappearaswell,intheformofmortarsandflatgrindstones.Greattechnologicalcomplexityisobserved,created
throughmanydifferentmethodsincludingpercussion,pressureflaking,andabrasionwithitsvariantofpolishing.

Thisdiverseassemblageisassociatedwithanincreaseinproductionand,therefore,animprovementinthewayoflife,althoughtheeconomicbasecontinuestobe
huntingandgathering.Cenolithicpeoplespreferentiallycollectedwildvarietiesofsquash,avocado,chile,amaranth,corn,andperhapsbeans.Asdifferentialgathering
occurredduringthisphase,thefirststepsweretakentowarddomestication.

Wehaveevidencethatobjectsweremanufacturedusingplantfibers.Theseincludedcordage,carryingnets,bags,andotheritems.Ornamentalobjectsmadeofbone,
shell,andstonewereperforatedandstrungoncords.

TheProtoneolithicperiod(7000to4500yrB.P.)isdesignatedbytheintroductionofagriculture.Thecultivationofcorn,squash,amaranth,andbeansoccursatthis
time,thoughhuntingandgatheringcontinuetobebasicactivities.Nonetheless,incipientagricultureandtheneedtocareforcultivatedlandrequiressedentismduringat
leastsomeoftheyear,althoughperhapsforonlypartofthesocialgroup.

Figure1.
BasinofMexico.

 Page485

Figure2.
ExcavatedsitesthehillatTlapacoya.

Intermsofthelithicindustry,adecreaseinthesizeofartifactsisobserved,whilesecondaryworkingisperfected.Technologicalimprovementsareseenalsointhe
manufactureofmortarsandflatmetates,withemphasisplacednotonlyuponfunction,butalsoonregularforms.Polishingtechniquesareemployedinthemanufacture
ofaxes,adzes,chisels,andbeadsthatistosay,forbothfunctionalandornamentalobjects.Attheendofthisperiod,wefindthepresenceofpotteryandmore
consolidatedagriculture(Lorenzo1967b).

Tlapacoya

THETERRITORYTHATMexicopresentlyoccupiesextendsfrom3230'inthenorthto1430'inthesouth.Thus,agreatportionofthecountryliessouthoftheTropicof
Cancer.Mexico'stopographyrangesfromseveraltensofmetersbelowsealeveltopeaksofalmost6,000minheight,andincludesglaciers,jungles,dunes,and
lakes.Inshort,thisareaencompassesaverywideclimaticvarietyresultinginnumerousecosystems.

TotheseobservationsmustbeaddedthevariantsthatsignifiedthegreatclimaticalterationsofthePleistocene.Thistimewascharacterizedbyglacialadvancesand
recessionsinthemorenorthernlatitudesandonthehighestmountainsinthetropicalzones.Theseglacialfluctuationscoincidedwithmarine

 Page486

regressionsandtransgressions.Duringperiodsofglacialadvance,enormoustractsoflandlayuncoveredalongtheGulfofMexicoandalongthePacificshores.In
generalterms,therewasdry,coldweatherinthetropicallatitudesduringthestadialsandhotandhumidconditionsduringtheinterstadials.Aseriesoflargelakeswas
presentinMexicountiltheterminalPleistoceneandperhapsintotheinitialpartoftheHolocene.Theselakes,locatedinendorreicbasins,supportedavarietyofplants
andanimalsandwouldhavefavoredhumansettlementandsubsistencealongtheirshorelines.

TheTlapacoyasitecomplexretainsarecordofpaleoclimaticalternationsthroughoutthepast35,000years(Lorenzo1986).Tlapacoyaissituatedonanancient
volcanicpromontory,whichrisessome150mabovetheplainofthenowdryancientLakeChalcotoca.2,400ma.s.l.Thesiteislocatedinthesouthernpartofthe
BasinofMexico,at1910'N,98E55'W(seeFigure1).Thegeomorphologyoftheareacomprisesalandscapeofhillsandcinderousvolcaniccones(ReyesCortes
1986).ThesiteareaisononeoftheoldesthillsinthiszoneanOligoceneMiocenevolcanicstructureformedbyanoutpouringoflamproboliteandesite,ofwhich
onlyasmallpartofitssummitremains.

Between1965and1973,excavationswerecarriedoutatatotalof18sitesontheperimeterofthehill.BestknownamongthemareTlapacoyaI,AlphaandBeta
TlapacoyaIIandTlapacoyaVIII.Thesesiteshaveproducedevidenceoftheoldesthumanoccupation(Figure2)intheBasinofMexico.Sedimentologicaland
granulometricanalyses,primarilyconductedatTlapacoyaI,AlphaandBetaTlapacoyaIIIIIIVXVIandXVII,allowedfortheconstructionofstratigraphic
correlations.Twentythreestratigraphicunitsweredefined,originatingfrompyroclastic,colluvial,peat,andlacustrinedepositionalregimes.Itwasfromtheselatter
depositsthatevidenceofhumanactivitywasrecovered,alongwithabundantfaunalremains(Figure3)(Limbrey1986).Thereare17stratigraphicunitsthatinclude
pyroclasticmaterialortephras.Thesearefurtherdividedinto61subunits(Lambert1986:77100),basedupondepositionalcharacteristics.

Significantchangesareobservedinthefaunalmaterialwithintheperiodbetween33,000to9000yrB.P.Threestagesarenoted,inwhichspeciesdisappearina
progressivepattern(Alvarez1986).Thefirststage,from33,000to22,000yrB.P.,comprisestypicallyPleistocenespecies,suchasedentates,proboscideans,
bovids,antilocaprids,equids,andcamelids.Alsowithinthisstagearetheremainsofotter(Lutracanadensis)andcapybara(Hydrochoerussp.)Thislastanimalstill
survivesinSouthAmerica,butisrestrictedtothePleistoceneinMexicoandtherestofNorthAmerica.

Thesecondstage,whichextendsfrom24,000to15,000yrB.P.(andthusispartiallysuperimposedontheearlierone)ismarkedbythedeclineofPleistocenefauna,
withspeciespresentthatarenowfoundonlyinotherlatitudes.Faunalremainsdatingtothisphaseareassociatedwithevidenceofhumanactivity.Severalfaunal
speciesrecoveredattheTlapacoyasitelocalityrepresentanimalsnowextinctorfoundinhabitatsbeyondtheBasinofMexico.Theseincludeblackbear(Ursus
americanus),anextinctspeciesofdeer(Odocoileushalli),remainsofanextinctorextirpatedantilocaprid,andtuza(Pappogeomyscastanops),whichpresentlyis
foundonlyinnorthernandcentralMexico.

Thethirdstage,from15,000to9000yrB.P.,ischaracterizedbyextantspeciesthathaveinhabitedthisregionfor33,000years.Theseincludetwospeciesofrabbit
(Sylvilagussp.),rodents(Liomyssp.,Peromyscussp.,Neotomasp.,Microtussp.),coyote(Canislatrans),raccoon(Procyon),anddeer(Odocoileus
virginianus).Remainsofthelatteralsoarepartofthecollectionofbonesassociatedwithhearthfeatures.Otherspeciesofimportancearetheleafchinnedbat
(Mormoopsmegalophylla),whichpresentlylivesindrysubtropicaltotropicalregions,andStock'svampirebat(Desmodusstockii),anextinctPleistoceneform.
ThisleadsustoinferadelayintheextinctionofspeciesattheendofthePleistoceneinthemoresouthernlatitudes(Alvarez1986:174).Fishwereabundant(e.g.,
AlganseatincellaandChirostomahumboldtianum)andundoubtedlyservedasafoodsourceforhumans,aswellassupportinganearbycolonyofaquaticbirds.

Forthemostpart,theidentifiedspeciesatTlapacoyaarefromlargemammalsand,consequently,arenot

Table1.
PhaseIVegetationalCommunities
Planiaciulifolicalpineforest
Aciculifolictemperateforest
Subtropicallatifolicmeadow
Aquaticlatifolicmeadow
Pendulifolictemperateforest
Abies,Picea,Ribes,Salix,Saxifraga,
andCompositae(largethorns)
Pinus,Quercus,Alnus,andFraxinus
OpuntiaandAgave
Scirpus,Ceratophyllum,and
Myriophyllum,aswellasLemmaand
Epilobium
TaxodiumandSalix

 Page487

Figure3.
Stratigraphiccorrelations.

 Page488

welllinkedtoaspecifictypeofclimatebecauseoftheirgreatmobility.Thus,themammalremainsprovidelittleinformationwithrespecttoenvironment,althoughthe
presenceofcapybara(Hydrochoerus)andotter(Lutra)indicatesthatgreatermoisturewasevidentduringthefirstfaunalstage.Theoccurrenceofbirds,suchas
doublecrestedcormorant(Phalacrocoraxauritus),whitepelican(Pelecanuserythrorhynochos),snowyegret(Egrettathula),commonegret(Casmorodius
albus),blackcrownednocturnalheron(Nycticoraxnycticorax),fiveduckspecies,andcommonraven(Corvuscorax),supportsthisfinding.Theavianassemblage
representsacompleteavifaunanolongerpresentintheBasinofMexico,appearingonlyoccasionallyasmigratoryresidents(BrodkorpandPhillips1986:205206).

Asweindicated,thethirdstageincludesanimalsstillpresentinthearea.Duringthe19651973excavations,extantfaunawerecollectedfromthisarea.These
includedbat(Mormoopsmegalophylla),whichisstillasporadicvisitortotheBasinofMexico,coyote(Canislatrans),severalrodents(Liomysirroratus,
Neotomamexicana,Microtusmexicanus),raccoon(Procyonlotor),anddeer(Odocoileusvirginianus)(Alvarez1986).

Studiesofvegetationindicatecontinuedclimaticfluctuationsthroughoutthepast33,000years,characterizedbyanincreaseinmesothermalaffinities.Palynological
recordshaveestablishedtheoccurrenceofsevenvegetationalphasesuptothepresenttime.Wewillconcernourselvesonlywiththefirstthree,astheyconstituteour
periodofinterest(GonzalezQuintero1986).

InPhaseI,from33,000to23,000yrB.P.,ahueheutes(Taxodiummucronatum)populatedthebanksofthelake.Theirpresenceisdemonstratedbyabundant
woodfragmentsandanalmostcompletetreetrunk,directlydatedat23,150950yrB.P.(GX0950).Withinthe33,000to23,000yrB.P.timespan,palynological
researchhasshownthatthevegetationalcommunitiesshowninTableImusthavecoexistedintheBasinofMexico,indistinctaltitudinousandedaphicpositions.

Until27,000yrB.P.,thesecommunitiesgenerallydidnotchange.Followingthistime,theplaniacucifolictemperateforestbegantoreduceinsize.Onlythegenus
Pinus,becauseofitsecologicalplasticity,wasabletowithstandanapparentdecreaseinrain.Toward23,000yrB.P.,climaticconditionsbecameharsher,andPinus
appearsasthesolearborealconstituentoftheflora.

DuringPhaseII,between23,000and14,000yrB.P.,agradualreductionofPinusisobserved.Thisspeciesalmostdisappearsentirelytowardtheendofthephase,
asdoesAbies,whichnolongerexistsinthisregion.Areductioninthelakelevelisdetectedduringthisperiod,andtheexposedshorelinebecamecoveredwith
grasses.Theclimatewasdesertlike,asrainfalldecreasedandmedianannualtemperaturesmusthavebeenabout18Cthisisdemonstratedbythelargequantityof
Ambrosiapollen.Thesedimentofthisphasewasmoderatelysaline,asindicatedbytheincreaseinchenopodsoramaranths.Floralcommunitiescomprisetwoclear
groups.

Table2.
PhaseIIVegetationalCommunities
Aciculifolictemperatemeadow Increaseinchenopods,amaranths,and
Ambrosia
Platicrasicaldesertbush Opuntia

AtthebeginningofPhaseIII,from14,000to8000yrB.P.,theclimatebecamemoremesic,asindicatedbyarapidincreaseinPinusandtheappearanceof
cyperaceae.Thevegetationinthisphaseisveryuniformwithonlytwocommunitiesclearlydistinguishable.

Table3.
PhaseIIIVegetationalCommunities
Aciculifolictemperateforest PinusandQuercus
Latifolicaquaticmeadow Scirpus

Aswepreviouslyexplained,phasesIVtoVIIIfallwithintheHolocene.Thesephasesalsoexhibitvegetationalchange,butarenotdealtwithhere,giventheinterestin
earliertimeperiods.

Inadditiontointerdisciplinarystudiesofthesite,whichprovidedapictureofpaleoenvironmentalconditions,anunderstandingofhumanoccupationatTlapacoyawas
revealedthrougharchaeologicalinvestigations.Excavationsyieldedextensiveevidenceofprehistoricoccupationatthesitelocality,whicharedividedhereintothree
areas:materialculture,humanskeletalremains,andexpressionsofhumanculturalactivity(e.g.,hearths,middendeposits,andsimilarfeatures).

AtTlapacoyaI,Alpha,inthesiteareacorrespondingtotheshorezone,threehearthswithassociatedbonemiddenswerefound.Twoofthehearthfeatureswere
datedbyradiocarbonassay:hearth1at24,000

 Page489

4000yrB.P.(A794b)andhearth3at21,700500yrB.P.(I4449).Thesedatesprovideclearevidenceofhumanactivityatthesiteabout22,000yearsago.

Inthesameareaofthesite,some2,500stonefragmentswereencounteredinsitu.Amongthesewereartifactsthatwerenotverydiscernabletypologically,owingto
theirmanufacturefromapoorqualitylocalstone.Whenworked,thismaterialagrayorpinklamproboliteandesitewithabundantphenocrysts,heterogenusmatrix,
andanirregularfracturepatternresultsinverycrudeartifacts.Thedimensionsoftheseprimaryartifactsarevariable,fluctuatingbetween25and150mminlength,
15and75mminwidth,and7to25mminthickness(Mirambell1986a,1986b).

DebitageandaknifemadefromaroundedpebbleoriginatefromrawmaterialfoundinabundanceontheancientshoresofLakeChalco.Theknifewasformedby
lateralflaking,providingacuttingedge,withportionsofthecortexontheremainderofthepiece.Thisisacoarseimplementthatwouldhavebeenusefulforheavy
cuttingtasks,possiblyfordismemberinganimalsduringbutcheringactivities.

Fromthestudyofthesematerials,wehaveconcludedthatthiswasamanufacturingarea,associatedwiththehearthfeatures,withintheshorelineoccupationstratum.
Theartifactsimplythesporadicpresenceofahumangroup,whichmanufacturedexpedienttoolsforsuchbasicfunctionsascuttingandscraping.Thislocusofhuman
occupationliesonthenortheastsideoftheshore,neararockoutcrop.

Artifactsmanufacturedfromobsidianalsowererecoveredfromthesite.ThenearestobsidiansourceisfoundattheOtumbadeposit,approximately50kmaway.
ThreeobsidianflakescomefromTlapacoyaI,Alpha.Twoofthepiecescamefromscreenedmaterialthatlayabovetheshorearea,adjacenttoaconcentrationof
animalbones,whilethethirdwasfoundinthecenterofoneofthehearths(hearthNo.1).

Alanceolatepointwithsubparallelbifacialflakingwasfound,fractureddistallyandproximally.Morphologically,itisreminiscentofa"Lerma"point.Itwasnot
possibletoestablishanexactageforthisspecimenbecauseitwasfoundwithinaveryoldrodentburrow,infilledwithupperlevelsediments.Fromitsstratigraphic
position,weconsiderthepointtobearound15,000yearsold.

FurtherexcavationsatTlapacoyaI,Beta,yieldeda"discoidal"scrapermanufacturedfromaquartzflakefoundinscreenedshorehorizonsediments.Thespecimen
hasatriangularstrikingplatformwithlightworkonalmosttheentiredorsalfaceandslightsecondaryworkonitsventralsurface.Itexhibitsevidenceofwater
polishing.Givenitsgeologiccontext,anageof22,000yrB.P.isestimated.Taxonomicallyunidentifiablebonefragmentswithclearmodificationmarksalsowere
recoveredfromthishorizon.

WorkattheTlapacoyaIIsiteyieldedaprismaticobsidianblade.Althoughwecannotprovideagreatdealoftechnologicalinformation,duetothelackofastriking
platform,studyofthepiecesuggestsitoriginatedfromacoreworkedbybipolarpercussion.Thisbladefirstwasdatedindirectlyfromitspositionbeneathatreetrunk
(Taxodiummucronatum)datedat23,950950yrB.P.(GX0959)thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatithasthesamedateasthewood.Thebladewaslater
subjectedtodatingbyobsidianhydration,whichprovidedacorroboratingdatebetween21,250and25,000yrB.P.Onthisbasis,thebladeisconsidered
contemporaneouswithTlapacoyaI(GaraBrcena1986).

AttheTlapcoyaXVIIIsite,anincompletehumancraniumwithadult,robustfeatures,wasfoundwithinastratumdatedat9920250yrB.P.(I6897).Previously,in
1968,anincompletehumanskullwasfoundoutofcontextatthesite.Althoughbothspecimensshowsimilarpatternsofmineralaccumulationontheirsurfaces,the
generalcharacteristicsaredifferent:thecraniumfirstdiscoveredin1968iselongatedandnarrow(adolichocranium),whilethesecondfindisnot.Nonetheless,we
considerthesespecimenstobeofsimilarage,asthemineralconcretionsonbothconsistofthesamematerials(LorenzoandMirambell1986).

SimilarfindsassignedtotheArchaeolithicphasealsohavebeendiscoveredatLagunadeChapala,BajaCaliforniaCaulapan,PueblaElCedral,SanLuisPotosi
Loltun,YucatanandTeopisca,Chiapas(Lorenzo1967aMirambell1994).TheremainsfoundtodateofthesefirstinhabitantsofMexicoarerareandinpoor
condition.

 Page490

TheDistributionofFlutedProjectilePointsinMexico

THEMOSTOUTSTANDINGcharacteristicofthesucceedinglowerCenolithicisthepresenceofflutedClovis,Folsom,and''fishtail"projectilepoints.Theapproximateareas
offlutedpointdistributioninMexicoarediscussedbelow.

ThreesubgroupsofprojectilepointscharacterizetheClovisgroup:typical,pentagonal,andconcavesidedforms.Thefirstcategoryisthemostwidelydistributedand
isfoundfromtheMexicanUnitedStatesbordertothehighlandsofGuatemala.TheabsenceoftypicalClovisinnortheasternMexicoandinthezonebetweenthe
NeovolcanicAxisandtheGuatemalanhighlandsissignificant.ItispossiblethatthesepointswillbefoundinthefutureinthestatesofOaxacaandGuerrero,asthe
recoveryofClovistypepointsfromGuatemala,butnotsouthernMexico,isinexplicable.TheabsenceofClovispointsinnortheasternMexicocouldbereal,
however,ratherthanattributabletoarchaeologicalignorance(GarcaB rcena1979).

PentagonalClovispointshaveamorerestricteddistribution,extendingfromnorthwesternMexico(stateofSonora)toapproximatelywestcentralMexico(stateof
Jalisco).ConcavesidedClovispointsoccurfromnorthcentralMexico(Durango)toasfarsouthasPanama.ThedistributionofpentagonalandconcavesidedClovis
pointsappearstobemutuallyexclusive,whilethedistributionoftypicalClovispoints,inpart,coincideswiththeothertwoforms.

TheregionalchronologyofClovispointsisnotcompletelyclear.TheearliestappeartoberepresentedbytypicalClovis,withanagenear12,000yrB.P.inTexas
andneighboringareas,and10,700yrB.P.inGuatemala.InMexico,about26locationswithClovistypeprojectilepointshavebeenidentifiedbutonlyonepoint,
fromSamalayuca,Chihuahua,hasbeenclassifiedasFolsom.ThoughClovispointsaredistributedacrossalargepartofMexico,thesefinds,forthemostpart,have
beenrecoveredfromsurficialcontexts(GarcaBrcena1979).

Interestinglyenough,inthesouthernstateofChiapas,borderingGuatemala,twofishtailpointswereexcavatedinassociationwithaflutedClovispointattheLos
Grifossite(Santamara1981).Thisassociationhasbeendatedbyradiocarbonandobsidianhydrationbetween9700and8000yrB.P.(Santamara1981:64).Fluted
pointsfromearliercontextshavebeenfoundinNorthAmerica,ashavefishtailpointsfromSouthAmerica.Diffusionappearstohaveoccurredfromnorthtosouthin
thefirstinstance,andsouthtonorthinthesecond.Fell'sCaveinPatagoniahasyieldedadateof10,71030yrB.P.forfishtailpoints(GarcaBrcena1979).

Figure4.
LocalityofElCedralsite.

RanchoLaAmapolaSite,ElCedral

IN1977,INTERDISCIPLINARYinvestigationsbeganattheRanchoLaAmapolasite,ElCedral,SanLuisPotos,locatedinthenorthcentralpartofMexicoat2340'N,
10043'Wandat1,700mabovesealevel(Figure4)(LorenzoandMirambell1981).ThesiteliesinanendorreicbasinwithabundantremainsofPleistoceneanimals
attractedtothisareabyitsnumerousnowdrysprings.Excavationswerecarriedoutfrom1977to1984.Theinitialinvestigationwasdevotedexclusivelyto
paleontologicalstudy,butanarchaeologistwaspresentinamonitoringcapacity.

Workbeganwithatopographicsurveyoftheareaandageologicalstudy.Priortotheremovalofalargequantityofdebris,inwhichabundantfossilizedboneand
woodremainswerefoundthathadinfilledthe

 Page491

Figure5.
ElCedralproject.Excavationprocess.

oldspring,thesitewasdividedintoquadrants(NE,NW,SE,andSW).Agridwasestablishedwith1by1munitsforstrictcontroloftheexcavation,andthe
resultantdebrisscreened(Figures5,6,and7).

Becausethesitewasaspringinanaridorsemiaridregion,itisnaturalthatfaunawouldhavefrequentedthearea.Theabundanceoffaunalremainsinasemidesert
zonesuchasthisisunderstandable,giventhatawateringholeisadangerousplace,particularlyduringdroughtwhenanimalswouldhavegatheredingreatnumber.
Forthisreason,thereisanabundanceoffaunalremains,includingproboscideans,carnivora,equids,camelids,andmanyothers.Theseanimalsmayhavearrivedto
quenchtheirthirstortoobtaineasyprey.Humansalsofrequentedthesiteduringdroughts,althoughtheirpresencemusthavebeensporadic.Amongthelargequantity
ofbonesfound,someexhibitsignsofuseastools.

Amongtheveryfewartifactsfoundinsituwasacircularscraper,manufacturedofmicrocrystallinequartz(chalcedony).Thespecimenwasmadefromaprimaryflake,
withsomecortexremainingonthedorsalsurface.Thepiecewasshapedbydirectpercussion.Theventralsurfaceissmoothexceptfortwoshortflakescars,madeto
eliminatethebulb.Thetoolcamefromastratumdatedat33,3002700yrB.P.(GX7684),anagethatissurprisingandrequiresverification.Alimestonecorealso
wasfound,whichshowssignsofhavingbeenusedasahammer.Thisartifactwasrecoveredfromastratumdatedat15,000yrB.P.Itisimportanttonotethatthe
closestknownlimestonesourcelies5kmeastandlacksanynaturaldrainagetowardthesite.

AGarypoint,whichdatesbetween7000and5000yrB.P.,wasfoundatthesite,aswellasadistalpointfragment.AlsointheNEquandrant(sectionsK,L,sectors
101and1),apitwasdiscoveredinundisturbedstrataatapproximately2.30mbelowthesurface.Thisfeaturemeasures90cmindiameterby85cmindepth.Itwas
clearlyexcavatedandinfilledwithdarkbrown

 Page492

Figure6.
ExcavationprocessatElCedral.

argillaceousmaterialwithconcretions,sedimentcompletelydifferentintextureandcolorfromthesurroundingstrata.Chronostratigraphiccorrelationofthispit
indicatesitwasdugintostratadatedbetween8000and6000yrB.P.Noculturalremainsofanykindwerefoundwithinit.Welimitourselvestoverifyingthe
presenceofthisfeature,asitwouldbespeculativetomakeinferencesregardingitsfunction,excepttonotethatitslocationontheperipheryofthespringmaybe
indicativeofeffortstoobtainpotablewater.

Duringtheinitialinvestigationofthesite,remainsofahearthringedwithproboscideantarsiwerefound.Acharcoallens,some30cmindiameterand2cmthick,was
locatedinthecenterofthehearth.Thefindwasofgreatimportance,asthepositionofthefaunalremainsandthecharcoalleavenoroomfordoubtthatitisthe
productofhumanactivity.Thecharcoalwasdatedat31,8501600yrB.P.(I10438).

Sevenadditionalhearthswerefoundin1983and1984.CharcoalfromthesefeatureswasdatedintheLaboratoriodeRadiocarbonoofthepresentdaySubdirecin
deServiciosAcadmicosofINAH(thentheDepartmentofPrehistory).ThesamplesfromHearths2and3wereinsufficientfordatinghowever,thesefeatureslay
betweenthosefromwhichdateswereobtained.

Astatisticalcomparisonofthehearthdateswasconducted.Asaresult,ithasbeendeterminedthatHearths6and7(datedat28,709827[INAH389]and
27,459812yrB.P.[INAH390])canbeconsideredcontemporaneous(Ros1984).FoursampleswereprocessedfromHearth4(INAH303,302a,302b,
and391).Twoarestatisticallyequal(INAH303andINAH391),withanaveragedateof26,333827yrB.P.Theothertwodatesdiffer:INAH302bhasan
ageof28,462507yrB.P.andINAH302aanageof33,6302066yrB.P.

Figure7.
ExcavationprocessatElCedral.

Chronologically,Hearths4,6,and7canbegroupedasbeingroughlycontemporaneous,withagesbetween26,000and28,000yrB.P.Theremainingfeatures,
Hearths1and5,produceddatesof37,6941963(INAH305)and21,468458(INAH388),respectively.Thesetwodatesprovidelowerandupperlimiting
agesfortheElCedralfeatures.

Stratigraphically,Hearths3and4sharethesamecontext,andalthoughnoabsolutedateshavebeenobtainedfromHearth3,itmaybecorrelatedwithHearth4,due
toitsspatialproximity.Hearths1(37,6941963yrB.P.[INAH305])and6(28,709828yrB.P.[INAH389])differby5cmindepth(Hearth1above,and
Hearth6below)andarenotconsideredcontemporaneous.

Hearth2,theuppermostofthesefeaturesinthestratigraphicsequence,liesat2.46mindepthandisundated.ItspositionissimilartothatofHearth5(at2.50min
depth),datedat21,468458yrB.P.Forwantofamoreprecisedate,Hearth2cantentativelybeassignedanagesimilartothatofHearth5(Figure8).

Thespanoftimerepresentedbythehearthfeatureradiocarbondatescomprisesaperiodofapproximately15,00016,000years.Itispossible,asthislocalewould
havepresentedfavorableconditionsforhumanactivities,thatthesitewasusedsporadicallybyhuman

 Page493

Figure8.
Datingofthefirepitsfound.

groupscontinuouslyduringthistime.Ontheotherhand,itisfeasiblethattwophasesmayberepresentedhere,oneolder(Hearths1and4)andtheotherlater
(Hearths5,6,and7),butalsoofconsiderableage(Ros1984).

DoubtsremainastotheaccuracyoftheElCedralradiocarbondates.Torecovermoredatablematerialandevidenceofhumanoccupation,additionalexcavationsare
planned.Unitsnearthelocusofthehearthfeatureswillbeextended,andnewexcavationswillbeplacedattheoppositesideofthechannel.Thislatterareaisof
interest,asitalsomighthaveprovidedfavorableconditionsforhumanoccupation.

Initially,theHearth1dateof37,6941963wasviewedwithmuchreservation.However,reportsfromTocadeBoqueiraodaPedraFuradainBrazil,asitedatedat
31,500yrB.P.(NiedeGuidon,personalcommunication1989),containinghearths,anassociatedlithicindustry,andanimalbonefragments,haveprovidedadegree
ofoptimismtotheinitialinterpretationofElCedral.ItisnotunexpectedforsignsofhumanpresenceontheAmericancontinentstobeolderinthenorththaninthe
south,sincethisistheroutethatthefirstAmericanslikelyfollowed.

ThosewhoquestionasignificanttimedepthforhumanoccupationintheAmericasmayallegethatthehearthsfoundanddatedatRancholaAmapolaaretheremains
ofnaturalfires.Thisevidencecannotbedismissedsoeasily.Thefeaturesaresuperimposed,varyinginsizebetween60and170cmindiameter,andcontainingsmall
fragmentsofburnedbone.Thesefeaturesareconcentratedbetweenthespringandtheadjacentlagoonrepresentingtheportionofthesitethatwouldhavebeenthe
mostfavorableforhumansettlement.Theverticalbanksofthespringwouldhavemadeaccesstowaterdifficult,whilethelagoonwouldhavecontainedstagnant,
unpalatablewaterduringperiodsofabundantmoisture.Thus,theareawhere

 Page494

Figure9.
TentativestratigraphicsummaryofElCedral,S.L.P.(A.FloresDiaz)

 Page495

thehearthsaresituated,onthebanksofthechannelconnectingthespringwiththelagoon,wouldhavebeenthebestplaceforhumansettlement.

Duringthefifthfieldseason(1982,unitsAandB104110AAandBB104110QuadrantsNWandSW),lithicmaterialsoflimestonewerefoundwithinstrata
datedatabout60007000yrB.P.Aspreviouslynoted,thenearestlimestonedepositis5kmeast,thustheselimestonepiecesareconsideredtobemanuports.The
lithicmaterialsweresubjectedtoapreliminaryclassification,asfollows:

(1)Wholestonesthosethatshownotypeofalterationbyhumanactivity,althoughtheirpresenceatthesiteindicatestheyweretransportedtherebycultural
processes.

(2)Stonesthatexhibitoneortwofracturesofunknownorigin.Itisnotestablishedwhetherthisalterationistheproductofhumanactivityorderivedfromnatural
processes.

(3)Stonesthatdisplaymorethanthreefractures,causedbynaturalprocesses.

(4)Polyhedralflakecores.

(5)Artifactscreatedfromacorei.e.,choppersandchoppingtools.

(6)Flakesdiscardedasdebitageduringmanufactureprimaryandsecondaryreductionstages.

(7)Artifactsmadefromflakesscrapersandflakeswithworkededges.

(8)Bladesprimaryandsecondaryreductionstages.

(9)Smallerundiagnosticfragmentslessthan20mmatthelargestaxis.

(10)Primarymortarexhibitingusewear.

(11)Shapeless,unclassifiablelithicfragments.

Theselithicobjectswerecoatedwithathicklayerofargillaceousmaterialmixedwithcalciumcarbonate.Thethicknessofthismaterialvaries,toamaximumof2mm,
occasionallyobscuringevidenceofculturalmodification.Itispossiblethattheexcavatedpitattheedgeofthespringisassociatedwiththehumanactivity),ofthislater
phase.

Thus,archaeologicalinvestigationsatRanchoLaAmapola,ElCedral,andSanLuisPotos,haveproducedevidenceofhumanoccupationnearaspringextending
fromabout37,000to21,000yrB.P.,followedbyalaterhumanpresencebetween7000and6000yrB.P.Thissettlementcoversasmallareaattheedgeofa
streamchannel.Duringtheperiodofoccupation,thischannelwouldhaveconnectedaspringandlagoon.Theproofofanearlyhumanpresenceissmallbutassuring:
sevensuperimposedhearthswithburned,unidentifiable,smallanimalbonefragments.Unfortunately,therearenoartifactsdirectlyassociatedwiththesefeatures.
However,severalartifactshavebeenrecordedindifferentpartsoftheexcavationindatedstratigraphiccontexts,whichcorrespondwiththedatesobtainedfromthe
hearths.

Finally,aninterdisciplinarystudyalsoisbeingcarriedoutatthesite.Parallelinvestigationsofvertebrateandmolluscanpaleofauna,palynological,paleobotanical,
geomorphic,andsedimentologicalevidence,enhancedwithaconsiderablequantityofradiocarbondates,willservetostrenghthentheculturalevidenceandprovide
insightintothepaleoenvironmentalcondtionsatthesite(seeFigure9).

TheElCedralsitehasprovidedimportantinformationabouttheearliesthumaninhabitantsofMexico,andgivesusaglimpseofwhatmayhavebeenthefirst
Americans.Becauseoftheimportanceofthissite,ongoinginvestigationshavebeenundertakenthere,tocorroborateevidenceofanearlyhumanpresenceandto
enrichourunderstandingoftheoccupation(LorenzoandMirambell19781984).

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Alvarez,T.
1986FaunaPleistocnica.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.Mirambell,pp.173203.Coleccin
Cientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

Brodkorp,P.,andA.R.Phillips
1986RestosdeAves.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.Mirambell,pp.205206.Coleccin
Cientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

GarcaBrcena,J.
1979UnaPuntaAcanaladadelaCuevadelosGrifos,Ocozocoautla,Chis.InCuadernosdeTrabajo17.DepartmentodePrehistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.
1986AlgunosAspectosCronolgicos.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.Mirambell,pp.219
224.ColeccinCientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

Genoves,S.,C.M.Pijoan,andM.E.Salas
1982ElHombreTempranoenMxico:PanoramaGeneral.InActasXCongresoUninInternacionaldeCeinciasPrehistricasyProtohistricas,pp.370
399.MexicoCity,Mexico.

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GonzalesQuintero,L.
1986AnlisisPolnico.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.Mirambell,pp.157166.Coleccin
Cientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

Lambert,W.
1986DescripcinPreliminardelosEstratosdeTefradeTlapacoyaIInTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.Lorenzo
andL.Mirambell,pp.77100.ColeccinCientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

Limbrey,S.
1986AnlisisdeSuelosySedimento.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.Mirambell,pp.6775.
ColeccinCientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

Lorenzo,J.L.
1967aLaEtapaLticaenMxico.DepartmentodePrehistoria,20InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.
1967bMesoamericanBeginnings:EconomiesBasedonHunting,Gathering,andIncipientAgriculture.InIndianMexico:Past,Present,editedbyBettyBell,pp.
2445.LatinAmericanCenter,UCLALosAngeles,California.
1986Conclusiones.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco,CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.Mirambell,pp.225287.Coleccin
Cientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

Lorenzo,J.L.,andL.Mirambell
19781984InformesdelaTemporadasdeExcavacionesRealizadasenelSitioRanchoLaAmapola,ElCedral,SanLuisPotosi.DepartmentodePrehistoria.
InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria(Mecanoestritos),MexicoCity,Mexico.
1981ElCedral,S.L.P.,Mxico:UnSitioconPresenciaHumanademsde30,000aP.XCongresoUninInternacinaldeCienciasPrehistricasProtohistricas.In
ComisinXIIElPoblamientodeAmrica.Coloquio:EvidenciaArqueolgicadeOcupacinHumanaenAmrica,Anteriora11,500aP,pp.112125Mexico.

Lorenzo,J.L.,andL.Mirambell(coordinators)
1986Tlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.ColeccinCientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

Mirambell,L.
1986aLasExcavaciones.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.Mirambell,pp.1356.Coleccin
Cientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.
1986bRestosCulturalesenHorizontesPleistocnicos.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.
Mirambell,pp.207217.ColeccinCientfica155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.
1987LaInvestigacionPrehistoricaenelInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria.InOrgenesdelHombreAmericano(Seminario),pp.307318.Ciende
Mexico,SEPMexicoCity,Mexico.
InpressLasSociedadesCazadorasRecolectoras.InHistoriaAntiquadeMxico.EnPrensa.UNAMInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,
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ReyesCortes,M.
1986Geologia.InTlapacoya:35,000AosdeHistoriadelLagodeChalco.CoordinatedbyJ.L.LorenzoandL.Mirambell,pp.5765.ColeccinCientfica
155.InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCity,Mexico.

Ros,delos,M.
1984InformeSobrelosTrabajosdeComparacinEstadsticaRealizadoSobrelasMuestras.INAH302A,INAH302BINAH303,INAH305,INAH
389,INAH390,INAH391.DepartmentodePrehistoria,INAH(mecanoescrito),MexicoCity,Mexico.

Santamara,D.
1981PrecermicOccupationsatLosGrifosRockShelter,Ocozocoautla,Chiapas,Mxico.InXCongresoUninInternacionaldeCienciasPrehistricasy
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1958MethodsandTheoryinAmericanArchaeology.TheUniversityofChicagoPress,Chicago,Illinois.

 Page497

BreakingtheImpasseonthePeoplingoftheAmericas
RobsonBonnichsen1
AlanL.Schneider2

Abstract

Untilquiterecently,thecontroversysurroundingtheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericashasdividedpractitionersintotwocampsbasedupontheirviewsaboutthetiming
ofwhentheAmericaswerefirstpeopled.InonecampweretheproponentsoftheClovisFirstmodel,avariantoftheLateEntrymodel,whohaveadvocatedthatthe
AmericaswerenotpeopledbeforeI1,500yearsago.Bycontrast,proponentsoftheEarlyEntrymodelhavearguedthattheAmericaswerepeopledwellbeforeI
1,500yearsago.ThepublicationofDillehay'sMonteVerdesitereportalongwithotherevidencenowindicatethattheClovisFirstmodelisincorrect.

Weproposethatthedebatethathasoccurredoverthepast40yearsismorecomplicatedthansimplyatimingissueitalsoisadebateaboutthevalidityofdifferent
modelsusedtoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericas.Inthespiritofadvancingthisdebate,wepresentacriticalassessmentofthelow,middle,andhighrange
theoreticalpropositionsonwhichtheClovisFirstandEarlyEntrymodelsarebased.WeconcludethatfutureresearchcanfocusprofitablyonpreI1,500yearold
sitesbydrawingonthefullrangeofspecialtiesthatmodernsciencehastooftenFirstAmericansspecialistscanenhancemodelvalidityandaccuracybyintegratingall
possiblelinesofindependentevidence.Newpaleobiologicalapproaches,whichemphasizeskeletalandgeneticstudies,appearparticularlypromisingforenhancing
ourunderstandingofwhopeopledtheAmericas.

ProblemStatement

THEINITIALPEOPLINGoftheAmericasisoneofthegreatunansweredresearchproblemsofmodernscienceandoneofthemostcontentious.Evenacursoryreviewof
FirstAmericansliteraturequicklyrevealsdifferencesonmanyissues.Muchscientificdiscussionhasfocusedontwocontrastingmodelsthatseektoexplaintheinitial
peoplingoftheAmericas.ThesecanbelooselycalledtheLateEntryandtheEarlyEntrymodels.

Importantrecentdevelopmentsinthefieldhaveadvancedthistraditionalparadigmconflict.AsnotedbyBonnichsenandTurnmire(thisvolume),therecognitionof
multiplecotraditionsasearlyasClovisinNorthAmericaandSouthAmerica,thedocumentationofsitesthatareolderthanClovis,andthepublicationofDillehay's
(1997)MonteVerdesitereportareallfactorsthatsuggestthattheClovisFirstmodelisincorrect(AdovasioandPedler1997Meltzer1997).

Thedelegationofspecialists,whichincludedrepresentativesfrombothcamps,reviewedtheMonteVerdecollectionsandsitecontext(geology,stratigraphy,and
chronology).AttheendoftheirJanuary1997trip,theyreachedaconsensusthatMonteVerdeisabonafidesite,andhaveclaimedthattheClovisFirstmodel"is
dead(Meltzer1997).

OurgoalistomovebeyondthesitelevelofinterpretationandofferacriticalappraisalofmodelbuildingproceduresusedtomodelthepeoplingoftheAmericas.Our
discussionfocusesonkeypremisesthathavebeenusedintheClovisFirstversusEarlyEntrydebateandsuggestssomemethodsforcreatingmoreadequatemodels.
Ourapproachwillrequireatwostepprocess.Thefirststepentailsrefiningtheproceduresandlogicusedtoassessdataandto
1
.Director,TheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,355WenigerHall,OregonStateUniversityCorvallis,Oregon97331
2
.Attorney,1437S.W.Columbia,Suite200,Portland,Oregon97201

 Page498

constructmodels.Thesecondstepentailsusingbetterandmoreintensivedatarecoverytechniquestoensurethequantityandreliabilityofthedataavailablefor
interpretingFirstAmericanssitesandforconstructingexplanatorymodels.

Beforeproceedingfurther,atermusedinthefollowingdiscussionneedsdefinition.Manyspecialistsusetheterm"preClovis"torefertopro11,500yearold
populationsintheAmericas.Weprefernottousetheterm"preClovis,"asitimpliesthatthereareonlytwostagesofculturaldevelopmentintheAmericas:Clovis
andpreClovis.However,ClovisdoesnotoccurineveryregionoftheNewWorldandclearlyisnotappropriateasadescriptivetermforallofNorthandSouth
America.BryanandGruhn(1989)suggesttheuseoftheterm"LowerPaleolithic"inplaceofpreClovis.Thisterm,however,impliesthatall"pre11,500"yearold
populationsintheAmericassharedacommonleveloftechnologicaldevelopment.Thatpropositionhasyettobeproven.Accordingly,weprefertousetheterm"pre
11,500''asadescriptivechronologicaltermthathasnotechnologicalorculturalimplicationsandthetermEarlyEntryformodelsbaseduponpre11,500
chronologies.

Inthefollowingdiscussion,wereviewboththeClovisFirstandEarlyEntrymodelsusingthesamecriteriatoassesshowwelleachcurrentlyexplainsavailabledataon
thepeoplingoftheAmericas.Bynecessity,wecannotcoverallpossibledatainthislimitedpresentation.Instead,wewillfocusonwhatweregardassomeofthe
mostimportanttheoreticalissuesthathaveplaguedtheFirstAmericansdebate.WhetheronesubscribestoaLateEntryoranEarlyEntryposition,thecommon
denominatoristhatallpractitionersmustengageinscientificmodelbuildingiftheywishtoexplaintheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericas.Modelbuildingentailstheuseof
theory,hypotheses,researchdesigns,procedures,andsystematics(definitionsofterms,concepts,andprocedures)toorganizeandinterpretdata.Indevelopingour
reviewoftheClovisFirstandEarlyEntrymodels,weaskaseriesofrelatedquestionsthatweproposeeachmodelmustaddressinordertoprovideanadequate
explanationofthepeoplingoftheAmericas:

Isthemodelbasedonreliablesitedatathatisclearlyofculturalorigin?

Isthemodelbasedonreliableculturalaffiliationandbiologicaldescentmodels?

DoesthemodelaccountforallavailabledatafromNorthAmerica,SouthAmerica,andEurasiathatisgermanetounderstandingthepeoplingoftheAmericas?

ModelsthatseektoexplaintheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericasfocusonoriginsWheredidtheFirstAmericanscomefrom?Whowerethey?Whendidtheyarrive
intheAmericas?Whatroutesdidtheytaketogethere?Howdidearlypeoplesadapttothenaturalenvironment?HowmanytimesweretheAmericaspeopled?

Developmentofrealisticanswerstothesequestionsinvolvestheuseoflow,middle,andhighrangetheories.InFirstAmericansstudies,thedevelopmentoflow
rangetheoryemphasizesfindinglinkagesbetweenprocessesandpatterns,aswellasdiscriminatingbetweenculturalandnaturalprocessesthatsometimescanproduce
similarresults.Thenextlevel,middlerangetheory,buildsfromthepatternsandbehavioralcorrelatesoflowrangetheoryandusesthesedatatoconstructcultural
modelsandtodevelopideasofhumanadaptationthatinvolveproposalsaboutthelinkagesbetweenculturalandthenaturalenvironment.Highrangetheoryfocuses
onanevenhigherlevelofabstractionandmovesbeyondthelocalandregionalscalesandseekstoexplaingloballevelpatternsbyfocusingonproblemssuchasthe
peoplingoftheAmericas.Theuseoflow,middle,andhighrangetheoryinconstructingmodelsaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericasseldomisdiscussedinthe
literature.Inthefollowingdiscussion,wewillusethesedifferenttheoreticalperspectivesasthefoundationforexaminingthetwocompetingmodelspresentlyusedto
explainthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

Inadditiontotheoreticalconcerns,wealsoshallundertakeabriefforayintothefascinatingarenaofhowweconstruct,use,andsometimesmisuselogicalpropositions
inourefforttodevelopanobjectiveknowledgeofthepast.Duetospacelimitations,weaddressonlysomeofthemostimportantconceptsrelevanttothistopic.
Manyadditionalpaperswouldberequiredtofullyexplorethisarea.

WithrespecttothesecondstepinvolvedinclosingtheFirstAmericans"gulf"(i.e.,useofbetterandmoreintensivedatarecoverytechniques),wesuggestthat
archaeologyhasmuchtolearnfrompaleobiologyandthemolecularsciences.Newscientificdevelopmentsarebeginningtooccurthathavethepotentialto
significantlyexpandtherangeofevidenceavailableforassessingthepastandfordevelopingmodelsabouttheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericas.Thesedevelopments
havecreatedthefoundationforanewinterdisciplinaryfieldofstudythatcanbecalledmoleculararchaeology(BrownandBrown1992).Applicationofthemolecular
archaeologyapproachwillallowustoinvestigatenewandpreviouslyunchartedaspectsofthepast.

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Untilnow,excavatorsofHoloceneandPleistoceneagesitesgenerallyhavefocusedexclusivelyontherecoveryofartifactsandotherlargescalematerials.Thisfocus
onthelargescalehascausedexcavatorstooverlooksmallscalebiologicalandculturalremains,whichinmanycasesconstituteaverysignificantcomponentofthe
archaeologicalrecord.WesubmitthatthisuntappedarenaofevidencewarrantscloserattentionfromFirstAmericansresearchers.Veryvaluableinformationcanbe
recoveredfromFirstAmericanssitesbyuseofamultidisciplinaryapproachthatcombines:(1)theuseoffinescaletechniquestoincreasetherecoveryofancient
biologicalmaterials(2)theuseofsophisticatedtechniquesofmolecularbiologytorecoverancientDNAfromnaturallyshedhumanandanimalhairandother
preservedorganicremains(3)theuseoftraceelementtechniquestoaddressdietaryandbiogenicissues,and(4)theuseofAMS14Cradiocarbontechniquesto
placespecimensintemporalperspective(Dillehay1997).

InsettingthestageforourdiscussionofhowamoleculararchaeologyapproachcanadvanceFirstAmericansstudies,webeginbyprovidingageneraloverviewofthe
natureoftheFirstAmericansdebateandthecharacterandproblemsassociatedwitheachleveloftheoryconstructionusedinthetwocompetingmodels.Following
thisbackgroundinformation,wewilloutlineoneapproachtodatarecoverybasedonintensiveresearchactivitiesattheMammothMeadowsiteinsouthwestern
Montana.Wewillthenreviewthepotentialandsignificanceofmoleculararchaeologyforextractingnewinformationfromnaturallyshedhumanandanimalhair.We
submitthatsuchinformationhasthepotentialforansweringimportantquestionsabouttheinitialpeoplingoftheAmerica.

CompetingParadigms

TheClovisFirstModel

FORDECADES,theconventionalpositionamongmostU.S.archaeologistshasbeenthattheearliestAmericansweretheClovispeoples.Theywerenamedafterthe
distinctstyleofpointusedtotiptheirspearsthatwasfirstidentifiedin1933nearClovis,NewMexico.Overtime,anumberofdifferentversionsoftheClovisFirst
modelhavebeenpresentedinthearchaeologicalliterature(Diamond1987Haynes1964Martin1967,1973,1984,1987MossimanandMartin1975).According
totheClovisFirstmodel,asmallgroupofhumanhunters,possiblynumberingunder100individuals,enteredtheAmericasfromSiberiaattheendofthelastIceAge
approximately11,50012,500yearsago.Priortothattime,theCordilleranicesheetthatwascenteredovertheRockyMountainsandtheLaurentideicesheet
centeredoverHudsonBayhadtogethercoveredmostofCanada.Theircombinedeffectwastocreateabarriertohumanmovementduringfullglacialtimes.

AttheendofthelastIceAgeasglacialrecessionbegantooccur,anopeningknownastheIceFreeCorridoristhoughttohavedevelopedbetweenthetwogreatice
sheets.MartinandotherspostulatethattheopeningofthiscorridorledtothefirstmigrationintoanunsettledcontinentfromtheOldWorld.AccordingtotheClovis
Firstview,Clovishunters,whowerearmedwithanew,highlyefficientweaponsystemanddeadlyhuntingstrategies,funneledoutofthesouthernendoftheIceFree
CorridorandrapidlyspreadacrosswhatisnowtheUnitedStatesandfromtheretotherestofNorthandSouthAmerica.

Inoneofseveralalternativesimulationscenarios,MossimanandMartin(1975)proposethathumanpopulationdoubledevery20years.Afteronly17generationsor
340years,atthisassumedrateofpopulationincreaseClovispeoplewereabletosaturatethepreviouslyunoccupiedlandscapeofNorthAmerica.Thescenario
furtherproposesthatintheirwake,theClovishuntersexterminatedupto33generaor70percentoftheavailablemegafaunainNorthAmerica.Thekillingspreedid
notstopintheU.S.Inapproximately800years,thesehuntersareproposedtohaveexpandedsouthwardintoSouthAmericaandtohaveeliminatedupto80percent
ofthelargegameinthesouthernhemispherebeforearrivingatthesoutherntipofthecontinent.

TheClovisFirstmodelhasseveralpredictiveimplicationsthatcanbetestedagainstthe

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archaeologicalrecord.Someoftheseimplicationswillbediscussedindetaillaterinconnectionwithmiddleandhighrangetheory.

TheEarlyEntryModel

LIKETHECLOVISFIRSTmodel,therealsoismorethanoneversionoftheEarlyEntrymodel.InseekingtoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericas,Bryan(1969,1973,
1977,1978,1980,1986,1987,1988,1990,1993)andGruhn(1988,1990,1994)proposeanearlymigrationfromNortheastAsiainpreWisconsinanor
Wisconsinantime.Onescenariopositsthatthesepopulationsmayhavemovedoverlandduringaglacialperiod,whensealevelsweremuchlowerthantodayandAsia
andAmericawereonecontinuouslandmass.Someinvestigators,ontheotherhand,favortheideathattheearlycolonistswereboatusingpeopleswhomovedalong
therichcoastalecotonesofthePacificRiminwesternNorthAmericaandthenonintoSouthAmerica.

BryanandGruhnarguethataninitialpopulationofmodernhumansmayhavearrivedintheAmericas50,000yearsagoandperhapsearlier.Thesepeoplearethought
tohaveadaptedtoavarietyofenvironmentalcircumstances,usingasimplecoreflaketooltechnology.Aspopulationgrowthandgeographicalspreadoftheoriginal
groupoccurred,diversificationtookplace.Adaptationstonewenvironmentsgaverisetonumeroussocialgroups,differenteconomicadaptivepatterns,andlinguistic
groups.ThissetthestageforparallelculturaldevelopmentsinNorthandSouthAmerica.

Ithasbeensuggestedthatinmostplacesevidencefortheoriginalancestralpopulationsincoastalregionshasbeendrownedbyrisingsealevels.Indirectevidencein
supportofthismodelissuggestedbythelargenumberoflanguageisolatesandmajorsubdivisionsoflanguagephylaalongthePacificNorthwestCoast,inCalifornia,
onthenorthernGulfofMexicoCoast,inCentralAmerica,andSouthAmerica.Followingtheconventionalprinciplesofhistoricallinguistics,itisassumedthatthe
developmentoflanguagediversificationisproportionaltothetimedepthofhumanoccupationofanarea(Gruhn1988).

SomeoftheprincipalpredictiveimplicationsoftheEarlyEntrymodelarediscussedundermiddleandhighrangetheory.Wewillnowconsiderhowthese
competingmodelsfarewhenassessedintermsofscientificmodelbuildingprinciples.

ReviewofModels

ANIMPORTANTBASICquestioninthetaskofexplainingthepeoplingoftheAmericasishowtomovefromempiricalobservationsofdatacollectedinarchaeological
contextstothenextlevelofmakingstatementsaboutpastbiologicalpopulationsandhumancultures.ModelerswhoseektoexplaintheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericas
ultimatelymustdevelopandintegratethreelevelsoftheory:low,middle,andhighrangetheories.SeeFiebleman(1954)foradetaileddiscussionofthetheoryof
integrativelevels.

Ateachlevel,theresearcherisinvolvedinaprocessofassessingvariouspossibilitiesandsearchingforcluestoseparateprobabilitiesfromotherpossibilities.While
wewouldliketosearchforabsolutes,thefactiswemustrecognizethatthereislittle,ifanything,inarchaeologythatcanbeknownwithanabsolutedegreeof
certainty.Evensuchsimplefactsastheprovenanceofadiscoverymustbetakenwithsomedegreeoffaith,sincetheexcavator'sreportsmaybemisleadingor
mistaken.TheresultisthatwhenwearedealingwithFirstAmericantopics,wedonotdealwithabsolutes,butwithprobabilitiesandpossibilities.

Asaresult,thequestionthatmodelersmustaddressishowtoconstructthemostsolidandreliablecasethatexplainstheavailabledata.Inmostsituations,thisis
accomplishedbytheuseofindependentlinesofevidence.Anindependentlineofevidenceisdatathatstandsonitsownmeritsandcanbeassessedinrespecttoits
ownproperties.Forexample,aseriesofmultipleoverlappingflakescarsofapproximatelythesamesizeonastoneobjectwouldsignifythataseriesofrepetitive
eventsoccurredtothespecimeninquestion.Thisredundancyofpatterningwouldbesuggestiveofpurposefulhumanmodification.Bythesametoken,usewear
analysismayrevealthattheedgeofanobjectexhibitsmicroflaking,striae,andpolish.Useweardatawould,inthiscase,constituteasecondindependentlineof
evidencethatwouldsupporttheinferencethatthespecimenisahumanartifact.Ifbloodresiduealsoisfoundonthesurfaceoftheobject,thebloodwouldprovideyet
anotherindependentlineofevidencethatwouldsupporttheinferencethatthespecimenisanartifact.Thus,themoreindependentlinesofevidencethatcanbebrought
tobearindemonstratingaparticularproposition,thegreatertheincreaseintheprobabilityoftheinferredconclusions.

Whenassessingthestrengthorreliabilityofanarchaeologicalinference,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatprobabilitiesareneverrefutedordisprovedbyasimple
possibility.Aprobabilityisrefutedordisproved

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onlybyagreaterprobability.Forexample,iftheprincipalinvestigatorofasitedeterminesthatanobjectprobablyisahumanartifactbaseduponreliableobjective
criteria,thestatusoftheartifactdoesnotchangebecausesomeoneelseraisesthepossibilitythatitmayhavebeencreatedbyanaturalevent(e.g.,tumblingdowna
hillside,tramplingbyanimals,etc.).Thepossibilitiesoftumblingortramplingarenothingmorethaninterestingconjectures.They"prove"nothinguntilsomething
happenstoelevateoneofthemtoaprobability.Bythesametoken,simplepossibilitiesdonotrefuteorcanceloneanother.Theymerelyposedifferentalternatives,
anyoneofwhichmaybetrue(Meltzeretal.1994).Theonlywaytodeterminewhichoneistrue(orwhethereitheristrue)istoobtainenoughadditionalevidenceto
determinewhetheroneofthem(orsomeotherexplanation)isaprobability.

Theaboveconsiderationshaveanimportantbeatingonhowarchaeologicalexplanationsareconstructedandrefuted.Itisnottheobligationofanexplanation's
proponenttorefuteallpossibilitiesinadvance.Suchataskisimpossiblesinceallexplanations,whetherprobabilitiesorsimplepossibilities,containsomepossibilityof
beinguntrue.Theobligationoftheproponentistoaccountforthosepossibilitiesthathaveanyreasonablechanceofhavingplayedaroleintheconditionofanobject
beinginvestigated.Ifthathasbeendone,theburdenofdisprooffallsonthosewhodisagreewiththeexplanation.Theirburdenisnotcarriedordischargedbymerely
raisingargumentsbaseduponsimplepossibilities.Insteadtheymustgathersufficientevidencetoestablishthateither:(a)thereisanotherexplanationthatisprobably
trueor(b)theoriginalexplanationisonlyapossibilityandnotaprobability.Whetherthiscanbedonebycitingpublisheddataorwhetheritwillrequirenewresearch
dependsuponthecircumstancesinvolved.

Theseprinciplesapplyregardlessofthelevelofinferenceinvolved.Whethertheyareworkingatthelow,middle,orhighrangelevelsofmodelbuilding,researchers
musttesteachinferenceorexplanationintermsofhowpossibleorprobableitis.Asnotedabove,independentlinesofevidencecanbeusedtoincreasethe
probabilityofaninference.Buteachlineofevidencemustbeassessedseparatelytodetermineitsrelativereliability.Likewise,whenmultiplelinesofevidenceare
combinedtosupportaninference,theresultingcombinationmustbeseparatelyassessedtodeterminewhetheritisaprobabilityoronlyapossibility.Withthese
principalsinmind,adetailedconsiderationwillnowbegiventowhatisinvolvedinlow,middle,andhighrangetheoryconstruction.

LowRangeTheory:Isthemodelbasedonreliablesitedatathatisclearlyofculturalorigin?

Atthelowestlevel,modelbuildersmustdealwithsitelevelinformationinconstructinglowrangetheory.Lowrangetheoryfocusesonthelinkagebetweenpattern
andprocess.Itdealswithdefiningvarioussignaturecharacteristicsthatcanbeusedtodistinguishculturalfromnaturalprocesses.Italsodealswithdefiningsignature
characteristicsthatcanbeusedtodistinguishbetweendifferentkindsofculturalprocesses.Thesefirstorderinferencesarecriticalsincetheyprovidethestructure
fromwhichmiddleandhighrangetheoryisconstructed.Forexample,thepatternsandprocessesdefinedbylowrangetheoryareusedtoisolatehumangroupsin
timeandspace,infermobilitypatterns,tracehumandispersion,inferadaptivestrategies,studythedynamicsofculturalchange,andtracephylogenticrelationships
amonghumangroupsthroughtime.

Sincetheyprovidethefoundationforallhigherlevelinferences,thequality(i.e.,accuracyandreliability)offirstorderinferencesisparamount.Atthemostbasiclevel,
researchersmustbeabletodealwiththe"ambiguity"ofthearchaeologicalrecordtodeterminewhatisrelevantandwhatisnot.Amongotherthings,theymustbeable
todemonstratethatthephenomenonthatisbeingreportedhasa"cultural"andnota''natural"origin.Ateach"turnofthetrowel,"researchersmustconsiderwhether
theobservedphenomena(e.g.,proposedartifacts,features,charcoal,etc.)wereproducedorcausedbyaculturalornaturalprocess.Isthespecimenanartifactora
geofact?Arethealignedrocksaproductofhumanbehaviorordidtheycometorestintheirpresentpositionfollowingaflashflood,arooffall,orsomeothernatural
phenomena?Wasthecharcoalproducedbyanaturalforestfireorisitfromahumanhearththatwasscatteredbysubsequentevents?

Thesearenoteasyissues.Tomakethedeterminationsrequiredforlowrangeinferences,FirstAmericansspecialistsarecompelledtobecomeasconversantwith
"natural"phenomenaastheyarewith"cultural"phenomena.Thisrequiresthattheydevelopmultidisciplinaryexpertiseinthenaturalandsocialsciencesthatwillallow
themtodevelopobjectiveresearchdesigns,methods,andcriteriafordiscriminatingbetweennaturalandculturalphenomena.Theyalsomustaddressthequestionsof

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whatconstitutesacceptableevidenceforthepresenceofhumansandwhatconstitutesacceptablestandardsforassessingevidence.

Sofar,neithertheClovisFirstnortheEarlyEntrymodelshavedealtallthatwellwithlowrangetheoreticalissues.Bothhavefocusedlargelyondatingquestions(i.e.,
onthedevelopmentofchronologiestoplacesitesintemporalperspectives).Asaresult,therehasbeenatendencytooverlookthedevelopmentofotherissuesthat
requireattention.Withtheseconsiderationsinmind,itisconstructivetoconsiderhowlowrangetheoryhasbeenusedtodevelopexplanationsforthepeoplingofthe
Americas.ThequestionofwhetherornotdatafromClovissitesarereliableisseldomconsidered.Forexample,researchersseldomquestionwhetherClovispoints,
bifaces,bonerods,blades,andotherimplementscommonlycitedastheClovistoolkitareofhumanoriginratherthannaturalorigin.Inmostcases,itisclearthatthey
areculturalinorigin.Likewise,thedatesofmostClovissitesappeartobereasonablysecure(withinthelimitationsofcurrentdatingtechniques).

ThedescriptionofClovisartifacts,however,hasbeenunevenandusuallyfocusesexclusivelyonartifactform.Otherpotentiallinesofinvestigationthatwouldenhance
interpretationofClovisassemblages,suchasmaterials,technology,andusewearanalyses,areseldomconducted.Aswillbeseeninthefollowingsections,thishas
resultedinaninadequatedatabasefortheconstructionofmiddleandhighrangetheories.

ThishasbeenparticularlytruefortheEarlyEntrymodel.Mostproposedpre11,500yearoldsiteshavefailedtogainacceptanceinthecommunityduetoquestions
relatingto:

whethertheproposedartifactsareofhumanornaturaloriginand

whethertheproposeddatesarereliable.

Insomecases,theobjectionsraisedagainstparticularearlysitesarepatentlyunfairandunscientific.Aclassicexampleisthepracticeofmakingattacksonthe
professionalcompetenceofasiteinvestigatorwhoisclearlywelltrainedandhighlyqualified.Suchattacksdonothingtoadvancescientificinquiry.

Atthesametime,however,EarlyEntryproponentsmustbearsomeresponsibilityforthetreatmenttheyhavereceivedinthecriticalliterature.Itisaninescapablefact
thatveryearlysitesandartifactsarelikelytobemore"ambiguous"thanClovisagedsitesandartifacts.Simpleflaketools,forexample,arenotasclearlyhumanin
originasfinelycraftedClovispoints.Asaresult,EarlyEntryinvestigatorsarefacedwiththeneedtotakeextrameasurestodemonstratethatartifactidentifications
anddatingassociationsarereliableandinorder.Whentheseeffortsarenotmade,theinvestigator'sconclusionsareseenasspeculative(i.e.,asmerepossibilities)and
thesiteisdiscountedasanotherinterestingbutinconclusiveincident.Thisneednotbetheresult.Dependingonthecircumstances,theremaybeanalyticaltechniques
thatcanbeusedtodispeloratleastreducedoubts.

Theproblemsofdealingwith"ambiguity"arenotuniquetoFirstAmericansstudies.Overthepast20years,taphonomistshavemadeconsiderableprogressin
developingmethodologiesforsortingout"ambiguityproblems"encounteredinthefossilandarchaeologicalrecords(BonnichsenandSorg1989).Tolabelasituation
"ambiguous"impliesonlythattwoormorepossibilitieshavethepotentialtoexplaintheobservedphenomena.Inmanycases,thesepossibilitiescanbesortedoutby
analyzingthepatternsthatsurvivedthroughtime.Toexplainpatterningobservedinthefossilandarchaeologicalrecord,researchersusethecharacteristicsofthe
patternsthemselvestomakeinferencesabouttheprocessesorcasualmechanismsthatproducedtheobservedpatterns.However,sincetheprocessesthatproduced
theobservedpatternsnolongercanbewitnessed,thequestionarisesastohowreliableinferencescanbemadeforlinkingpatternsandprocessesinthepast.

Taphonomists(BonnichsenandSorg1989,eds.Lyman1994)havemadeconsiderableprogressindevelopingarobustmethodologyforresolvingtheselowrange
inferencequestions.Theyhaverespondedtotheambiguityissuebydevelopingmodernanalogsthatserveasacomparativeframeworkforinterpretingthefossilor
archaeologicalrecord.Twoapproachescommonlyareusedtocreatemodernanalogs.Thesearetheactualisticandexperimentalapproaches.Forexample,ifweare
attemptingtodeterminewhetherflakedbonesfromthefossilrecordweremodifiedbyhumansorcarnivores,itispossibletodevelopmodernanalogstoassistwith
makingourassessment.An"actualistic"studymightseektolinkmoderndayprocessestoobservedpatternsbyobservinghowcarnivoresgnawbonesandtolink
gnawingbehaviortognawmarksobservedonthebone.Bycontrast,anexperimentalstudymightbeusedtosimulateconditionsthatnolongercanbeobserved.
Sincewenolongercanobservehowmammothboneswereflakedbylivingpeoples,modernelephantbonemightbesubstituted.Amoderndayboneknapper,using
elephantboneinplaceofmammothbone,might

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produceboneflakesandcoresinanefforttosimulatepatternsobservedonPleistoceneagespecimens.

Theresultsofactualisticandexperimentalstudiescanserveasacomparativeframeworkforaddressingambiguityissuesencounteredintheanalysisofremainsfrom
archaeologicalsites.Bycomparingthemorphologicalpatternsproducedbycarnivoresandmodernboneknappers,signaturecharacteristicscanbeidentifiedfor
discriminatingbetweencarnivoregnawingandhumanmodificationproducedbyboneknapping.Thesesignaturecharacteristicsinturncanbeusedascriteriafor
interpretingambiguouspatternsfoundinthearchaeologicalrecord.Throughtechniquesofthiskind,itispossibletodecodemanyambiguitiesfoundinthefossiland
archaeologicalrecord.Useofmodernanalogsfordefiningsignaturecharacteristicsalsocanbeappliedtotheanalysisoflithictools.Inthisway,itisoftenpossibleto
demonstratewithahighdegreeofreliabilitywhetheragivenobject(orassemblageofobjects)wascreatedbyhumanornaturalmeans.

Insummary,fundamentalepistemologicalproblemsexistinhowweknowwhatweknowaboutthepast.Weproposethattherearelogicalstandards,suchas
providedintheexamplesabove,thatcanbeusedtoassessthepossibilitiesandprobabilitiesemployedintheconstructionofmodelsthatseektoexplainthepeopling
oftheAmericas.Thisisparticularlyimportantforlowrangetheorywheretheinvestigatorprovidesalinkagebetweenanempiricalmorphologicalpatternandan
inferredprocess.However,theneedforlogicalstandardsforlinkingprocesstopatternisnotlimitedtolowrangetheory.Italsooccursinmiddleandhighrange
theoryconstruction,asweshallseeinthefollowingdiscussions.

MiddleRangeTheory:Isthemodelbasedonreliableculturalaffiliationorbiologicaldescentmodels?

Thesecondlevelofteniscalled"middlerange"theory.Middlerangetheoryseekstodefinetheoperationaldynamicsofcultural,biological,linguistic,andnatural
systemsandthelinkagesamongsubsystems.Italsoseekstoexplaintheriseanddemiseofpatternsobservedinthearchaeologicalrecordandtopositexplanationsof
howobservedchangeshaveoccurredthroughtime.

Modelerswhoseektodevelopmiddlerangetheoryarerequiredtointegratemultidisciplinaryinformationincludingculturalandenvironmentaldatarelatingto
individualsitesandspecifichumanpopulationsintolocalandregionalpatterns.Tobeaccepted,amiddlerangemodelmustbeabletowithstandthefollowingkindsof
questions:Howdidtheinvestigatormovefromlowrangetheorybasedonartifacts,features,andhumanbiologicalremainstomakingstatementsabouthumancultures
andbiologicalpopulations?Isthemodelbasedonareliablelowrangetheory?Doesthemodelaccommodateallchangesovertimethatareobservedinthe
archaeologicalrecord?Howreliableorprobableisthemodel?

Amongthemanydifferentareasofmiddlerangetheory,threeareparticularlygermanetoFirstAmericansstudies.Theseare:(1)biologicaltheoriesthatseekto
characterizehumanpopulationsonthebasisofbiologicaldata,i.e.,bloodgroups,bones,andDNA(2)culturalaffiliationtheoriesthatseektoidentifyandtrack
throughtimehumanculturesbytheuseoffeatures,projectilepoints,andotherartifactualremainsand(3)theoriesthatpositarelationshipbetweencultureand
environment,i.e.,environmentalforcing(Bonnichsenetal.1987Bonnichsen1991).Thefollowingdiscussionisrestrictedtoculturalandbiologicaltheories,asfew
effortshavebeenmadetorelateFirstAmericanssitestolocal,regional,andglobalscaleenvironmentalpatterns.

Inthefollowingdiscussion,weusetheterm"culturalaffiliation"todenotetheoreticalconstructsthatseektolinkempiricalarchaeologicaldatawithsociocultural
conceptsinanattempttodefine"ethnicorculturalgroups"andtodefinedescentmodels.TheconstructionofculturalaffiliationmodelsforPleistoceneandearly
Holocenepeoplesaretroubledbynumerouspotentialproblems.Thefactthatculturalremainsarefarandawaymorenumerousthanbiologicalevidencein
archaeologicalsitesdoesnotautomaticallytranslateintoeaseofmodelbuilding.Artifactsseldomsupplyunambiguousevidencetoplacespecificprehistoricpeoplesin
timeandtolinkthemtotheartifactstheyleftinthearchaeologicalrecord.

UnlikeEurope,Asia,andtheMiddleEast,prehistoryintheNewWorldisnotblessedwithearlywrittenrecords,anextensivepotterytradition,anddistinctive
permanentarchitecturalstructures.Asaresult,FirstAmericansresearchershavehadtorelyprimarilyuponstonetools(inmostcasesprojectilepoints)andfaunal
remainsinconstructingculturalaffiliationmodels.Thisiscomparabletotryingtoreconstructmodernculturesfromthesizesandshapesofthebulletsusedinhunting
riflesandthesteakbonesleftafterameal.Althoughmodelsbasedonartifactformsareusefulforcharacterizingartifactassemblages,theyseldomprovideareliable
methodforidentifying

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ethnicorculturalgroups,fordistinguishingonegroupfromanother,orfortracinggroupsacrossspaceandthroughtime.Itoftenisdifficulttodeterminewhether
similaritiesanddifferencesinartifactformsareduetoethnicandculturalfactorsorwhethertheyareattributabletootherfactorssuchasdifferencesinrawmaterials,
functionalconstraints,orsomethingelse.

Inaddition,culturalaffiliationmodelsthatarebasedonartifactformswithoutotherlinesofsupportingdataoftenareinadequateforexplainingculturalchange.
Obviously,prehistoricpeoplecouldanddidchangetheirtoolsasnewsituationsarose.Afocusexclusivelyonartifactformsdoesnotprovideanadequateframework
forexplainingwhytheartifactsfoundinoneassemblageofspecimensaredifferentfromthosefoundinanotherleveloratanothersite.Alternativecompeting
hypothesescanbeadvancedtoexplainobserveddifferences,e.g.,migration,diffusion,orinsitudevelopment.Itisdifficulttodiscriminatebetweenthesehypotheses,
andartifactformdataalonecannotsolvethedilemma.Theseproblemscanbeovercomeinpartbyusingaholisticapproachtoartifactanalysesthatentailsusing
multiple,independentlinesofevidence,i.e.,material,shape,technology,usewear,andbloodresidueanalyses.Todate,however,fewFirstAmericansresearchers,
whetheroftheClovisFirstortheEarlyEntrycamps,havepursuedsuchanapproachonalongtermconsistentbasis.Asaresult,theculturalaffiliationmodelsthat
havebeenproposedhavebeenunabletoconvincinglyestablishtheculturalorethniccompositionofthepopulationsthatcreatedtheearlyarchaeologicalrecord.

Inrecentyears,somescientistshavetriedtoaddressFirstAmericansdescentissuesthroughthestudyofhumanskeletalremains.Theseapproachesincludetheuseof
biometrics(Hall1997JantzandOwsley1997SteeleandPowell1992,1994)anddiscretecranialanddentaltraits(Ossenberg1994Turner1994).The
combinationofstandardizedmeasurementapproaches,computerdatabases,anduseofmultivariantstatisticshasledtothedevelopmentofrobustscientific
approachesforthestudyofancienthumanremains.Thesenewpaleobiologymethodsholdgreatpromisefordefiningracialandethnicgroupsandfortracking
colonizinggroupsacrossspaceandtime.However,moreworkontheseavenuesofresearchisneeded.

OthertypesofbiologicaldescentmodelshavebeenadvocatedusingmitochondrialDNAtolookatgeneticdistancesamongAmericanNativepopulations(Szathmary
1994a,1994bTorronietal.1993Wardetal.1993).Thesemodelsassumethatgeneticdistancesarestrictlyafunctionoftime.Inotherwords,populationswiththe
greatestdistancebetweenthem(i.e.,thegreatestDNAdifferences)areassumedtohaveseparatedearlierintimethandidpopulationswithsmallergeneticdistances.
Byassumingthathumangeneticchangeoccursatastandardrateamongallhumanpopulationsoveralltimeperiods,thesemodelersdevelopcalculationsofhowmany
yearshavepassedsincetwoormoregroupsseparatedfromoneanother.Althoughthesemodelshaveprovidedsomeusefulinsights,theysufferfromcircular
reasoning:ratesofchangearecalculatedfromestimatedtimesofdivergencetheseratesofchangethenareusedtocalculatedivergencetimesbetween,forexample,
AsianandNativeAmericanpopulations.

Anotherimportantlimitationonthepresentgenerationofbiologicaldescentmodelsiswhatcanbecalledthe"modernanalogissue."Therawdataforthesedescent
modelsaretakenfrommodernpopulations.Theseareassumedtoberepresentativeofearlierpopulations.Thatassumption,however,maynotbetrue.Itsreliability
canbedeterminedonlybyexaminingancienthumanDNA(Paabo1993).Sofar,weareawareofonlytwopublishedstudiesthathavebeendoneonhumantissue
fromPaleoamericanremains.Paaboetal.(1988)fromtheUniversityofGermany,Munich,hasreportedon7,000yearoldbraintissues(6860110[Beta17208])
fromtheLittleSaltSpringsiteinFlorida.RayMathaney(personalcommunication1994)andcolleaguesatBrighamYoungUniversityareworkingonmummified
tissuefromthe10,600yearoldAcha2sitefromArica,northernChile.Inbothcases,DNAextractedfromthesePaleoamericanremainsdoesnotmatchanyofthe
modernanaloguesproposedbytheClovisFirstthreewavecolonizationmodel.ItthusappearsthatanalysesofmodernDNAalonecannotprovidethefullstoryof
howtheAmericaswerepeopledancientDNAalsoisneededforconstructingreliablebiologicaldescentmodels.

SomeadvocatesoftheClovisfirstpositionandtheEarlyEntrypositionsalsohavelookedtolinguisticdatatosupporttheirmodels(seeGruhn1997forrecent
summary).Forexample,someClovisFirstproponentshavearguedthatlinguisticdatademonstratethatthepeoplesoftheAmericasdescendedfromthreelateIce
Ageimmigrantpopulations:Eskimos,NaDene(Athabascans),andAmerindian(allgroupssouthoftheWisconsinicesheet)(Greenbergetal.1986).However,even
ifoneacceptsthepropositionthattherewerethreelateIceAgemigrations,thisdoesnotrule

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outthepossibilitythathumanpopulationscouldhaveexistedatearliertimesintheAmericas.Humangroupsgenerallydonothaveclosedgeneticsystemsthey
maintaintheirviabilitythroughexogamousmarriage(marryingoutsideoftheirowngroup).Suchmarriagepracticescouldhaveledtotheeventualdisappearanceof
earlierNewWorldpopulations.Inaddition,itispossiblethatsome(ormany)earlierpopulationsmayhavebecomeextinctduetoenvironmentalstress,diseases,
conflict,orotherfactors.Atpresent,theavailabledataareinsufficienttodeterminewhich,ifany,ofthesealternativesistrue.

AlthoughClovisFirstandEarlyEntrymodelershaveproposedthatthegreatdiversityamongNativeAmericancultures,languages,andbiologicalpopulationsisa
functionoftimedepth,thereisnoagreementonhowtointerprettheobservedvariabilityintemporalterms.Weknowverylittleabouttheactualratesofchangein
linguisticandgeneticsystemsthroughtime.Somemodelersproposethatratesofchangeareconstantthroughtimeinallculturalandbiologicalsystems.Whileconstant
ratesofchangeargumentsmightbetrue,thishasnotbeendemonstrated.Accordingly,propositionsofthisnaturemustbeviewedasmerepossibilities.Atpresent,
thesepossibilitieshavenotbeenverifiedbyuseofindependentlinesofsupportingevidence.Withouttheindependentyardstickoftimeprovidedbythearchaeological
record,stratigraphy,or14Crecord,thereisnowaytocorrectlyinterpretdiversityandratesofchangepropositions.Otherpossibilitiesexist,e.g.,thatratesofchange
arenotconstantthroughtimeandthatratesofchangemayvaryfromgrouptogroup.Itispossiblethatfactorssuchasclimate,environment,culture,andpopulation
growthratesmayaffectratesofchange.Untilratesofchangehavebeenindependentlycalibrated,wesuggestthatdescentmodelsbasedonratesofchangeshouldbe
regardedasinterestingbutspeculative.

Insummary,theconstructionofmiddlerangetheoryhasbeenhamperedbylimiteddataandtheuseofassumptions.Furthermore,culturalandbiologicaldescent
modelshavebeenconstructedbydifferentgroupsofpractitioners,andthesetwotypesofmodelsremainpoorlyintegrated.Adesirabledevelopmentwouldbean
efforttointegrateculturalandbiologicaldescenttheoriesintounifiedlocalandregionalmodels.Aswillbediscussedlater,achievementofthismiddlerangetheory
goalispotentiallypossiblethroughthestudyofancienthairfoundinarchaeologicalcontexts.HighrangeTheory:Doesthemodelaccountforalloftheavailabledata
fromNorthAmerica,SouthAmerica,andEurasiathatisgermanetounderstandingthepeoplingoftheAmericas?

Thethirdlevelishighrangetheory.Thepatternsandproposedoperationaldynamicsofmiddlerangeresearchprovidethedatafordevelopingmultiregionaland
globalscalemodels.TheseseektoexplainlargescalequestionssuchasthepeoplingoftheAmericasbydefininglargescalepatternsandprocesses.Highrange
theoriesintegrateandlinksite,local,regional,andmultiregionalpatternsandtheirinterpretationsintoglobalscalemodels(Bryan1978,1986Martin1973).In
evaluatinghighrangemodelsthatseektoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericas,wemustaskwhetherthemodelaccommodates"allrelevantdata"fromNorth
America,SouthAmerica,andEurasia.Ultimately,highleveltheoreticalabstractionsaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericasrestonlowandmiddlerangetheories.In
otherwords,highrangetheoriesaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericasarenobetterthanthequalityofinformationonwhichtheyarebased.Withtheseconsiderationsin
mind,wewillnowconsiderhowhighrangetheoryhasbeenusedintheconstructionoftheClovisFirstandEarlyEntrymodels.

TheClovisFirstModel

PREDICTIVEIMPLICATIONSoftheClovisFirstmodelarethat:

(1)EvidenceoftheClovisfoundingpopulationsshouldbefoundinSiberia.Todate,however,noevidenceofflutedpointsorotherelementsofthe"Clovistool
kit"haseverbeenfoundinSiberia.KingandSlobodin(1996:634)reportapossible8500yrB.P.flutedpointfromtheUptarsiteintheMagadanBasin.Uponclose
examination,thesize,technology,andageofthisspecimenisapoormatchwithNorthAmericanflutedpoints.ThelateUpperPaleolithicrecordfromNortheastAsia
isdominatedbytheDyuktaitradition,whichistypifiedbytheuseofmicroblades,microcores,useofcompositetools,andbipointedbifaces(Goebel,thisvolume
Mochanov1978a,1978bMochanovandFedoseeva1996).TheDyuktaitraditionappearstobecloselyrelatedandancestraltothePaleoArctictraditionof
Alaska.IfthereisarelationshipbetweenClovisandthePaleoArctictradition,itremainselusive.Asaresult,oneisforcedtotheconclusionthatsofarthereisatotal
absenceofconvincingevidencethat

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canbeusedtosupportthepropositionthatClovisoriginatedinSiberiaorwithpopulationsnewlyarrivedfromSiberia.

(2)Theoverkillmodelhypothesisassumesthathumanpopulationgrowthislinkedtotheuseofanewandmoreefficientkillingtechnologythatrapidly
spreadthroughouttheAmericas.Ifthisistrue,theClovistoolkitshouldoccurasanarchaeologicalhorizonthroughoutNorthAmericaandSouthAmerica.In
addition,flutedpointsitesshouldbeolderinnorthernmostNorthAmericaandyoungerbyasmuchas800to1,000yearsinsouthernSouthAmerica.

ThepremisethatthereisadirectlinkagebetweentheintroductionoftheClovistoolkitandthedevelopmentofrapidpopulationgrowthandexpansionhasneverbeen
tested.Itisverydifficulttodemonstratehumanpopulationgrowthintheabsenceofhumanskeletalremainsbyusingonlyarchaeologicaldata.PresumablyClovis
hunterswouldhaveproducedavarietyofsitesthroughouttheyear.Ifthesesitesstillexist,mostwillbeburiedandarenolongeraccessibleforarchaeological
research.Untilwedevisedefinitivewaystolinknumbersofartifactsandsettlementpatternstospecifichumanpopulationgrowthpatterns,littlesupportfortherapid
populationgrowthpossibilitywillbefoundthroughtheanalysisofarchaeologicaldata.Furthermore,evenifanumberofClovissitescanbefoundinagivenregion,the
resolutionofradiocarbondatingisnotfineenoughtolinksitestospecificgenerations.

Likewise,thecurrentradiocarbonrecordfromNorthandSouthAmericanflutedpointsitesdonotsupportthepredictionsofthemodel.Sincetheformulationofthe
ClovisFirstmodelmorethan40yearsago,agreatdealofadditionalarchaeologicalresearchhasbeendoneonflutedpointsitesinNorthandSouthAmerica
(BonnichsenandTurnmire1991).TherearenowelldatedflutedpointsitesfromeasternBeringia(Clark1991)orfromtheIceFreeCorridor(Carlson1991).On
theotherhand,Politis(1991:Table1)documentsdatesofgreaterthan11,000yrB.P.forFell'sCaveandCuevadelMedio.Thissuggeststhattheemergenceof
fishtailpointsatthesoutherntipoftheSouthernHemisphereoverlapstheappearanceofflutedpointsinNorthAmerica.Moredatesareneededonflutedpoint
assemblagesfromtheSouthernHemisphere.Nonetheless,thepatternnowemergingsuggeststhatflutedpointsfromtheSouthernHemisphereareapproximatelythe
sameageasflutedpointsinNorthAmerica.

(3)TheClovisculturalcomplexrepresentsasinglehumanculturewithsharedvaluesystems.Ifthisisso,itwouldfollowthattoolassemblages,artifactforms,
andmanufacturingtechniquesshouldbehomogenousandexhibitlittlevariabilityfromsitetositeandfromregiontoregion.

ClovisFirstadvocatesarguethatthesuddenwidespreadappearanceofClovisrepresentsthespreadofasinglehumancultureacrossNorthandSouthAmerica.This
positionappearstorestinpartontheassumptionthathumancultureisnormative.Thenormativeapproachviewsculturesasanintegratedsysteminwhichallofthe
partsarefunctionallyintegrated.Thenormativeconceptionofhumancultureenvisionsthateachgenerationreplicatesthepreviousone.Thus,thenormativeapproach
hasdifficultyinaccountingforculturechange(YoungandBonnichsen1984).

Furthermore,whenweexaminethearchaeologicalcorrelateofthesingleculturetheory,itcallsforaconsistentsetofarchaeologicaltraitsthatshouldbefoundacross
NorthandSouthAmerica.Haynes(1987)hasproposedthemostsuccinctstatementoftheCloviscultureconceptwithitsarchaeologicalcorrelates(whichhebelieves
originatedinAmericaratherthanSiberia).HepositsalistoftooltypesthataresaidtoformatoolkitthatcanbeusedtocharacterizetheClovisculture.Diagnostic
artifactsincludeblades,endscrapers,burins,shaftwrenches,cylindricalbonepoints,knappedbone,unifacialflaketools,redocher,andcircumferentiallychopped
tusks(Haynes1980).Itshouldbenoted,however,thatnosinglesitehasproducedalltheartifacttypesincludedinthelist.Infact,mostClovisculturalaffiliation
modelsusuallyareconstructedbasedontheoccurrenceofonlyonetypeofartifacttheflutedpoint.

Asnotedabove,thenormativeapproachonwhichtheClovisFirstmodelisbaseddoesnoteasilyaccommodatechange.Somespecialists,nonetheless,feelthatthere
isa"basalClovispattern,"andfromthispatternevolvedregionalvariants(Willig1991).ArecentoverviewoftheCloviscomplexindicatesthereareanumberof
regionalflutedpointvariants(Bonnichsen1991:320).Theprincipalvariantsare:(1)anArcticstylerepresentedbythePutuvariant(2)thesmallPeaceRivervariant
fromtheIceFreeCorridorregion(3)theColbyvariant,knownonlyfromtheColbysite,Wyoming(4)theGainey,Parkhill,andCrowfieldvariantsfromtheGreat
LakeRegions(5)theDebertvariantfromNovaScotia(6)smallbasallythinnedpointsthataredistributedfromNewJersey

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toNewBrunswick(7)Cumberlandpoints(8)fishtailpointsfromPanamaandSouthAmericaand(9)theElIngaseriesofpointsfromhighlandEcuadorthat
includesstemmedflutedpoints.ThereisnoevidencetosupporttheviewthatallthesevariantsevolvedfromabasalClovispattern.Someworkersfavorthe
interpretationthatClovisactuallyrepresentsthediffusionofahighlysuccessfuladaptivestrategyacrossexistingpopulations.(SeeBonnichsenetal.1987,1991:23for
adiscussionoftheenvironmentalresponsemodel).

(4)ClovisisthefirstcultureintheAmericas.ThisisthekeypremiseoftheClovisFirstmodelandthecauseofallthecontroversythathascharacterizedFirst
Americansstudies.Itisthekindofpropositionthatcannotbeprovendirectlysinceitisbasedonanegative,i.e.,thattherearenocontemporaneousorolderNew
Worldcultures.Itcan,however,betestedbythearchaeologicalrecordtoseewhetheritcanbedisproved.Thiscanbedoneintwoways:(1)byfinding
archaeologicalevidenceofotherhumanculturesthatareasoldasClovisand(2)byidentifyingarchaeologicalsitesthatareolderthanClovis.

EvidenceisnowaccumulatingthatsuggeststhereareseveraldifferentbifaciallyflakedprojectilepointpatternsofClovisageorolder.Themostimportantofthese
includelanceolatepointsoftheNenanacomplex(11,300yrB.P.)incentralAlaska(Goebeletal.1991)theGoshencomplexoftheNorthwesternPlains(withdates
clusteringat11,300and10,800yrB.P.)(Frison1991)theWesternStemmedPointtradition(11,50010,000yrB.P.)oftheGreatBasin(Bryan1988,1990:53)
theElJobopointtradition(13,000yrB.P.)innorthernVenezuela(GruhnandBryan1984OchseniusandGruhn1979)andtheMagellaic"fishtail"pointtradition
(11,00010,000yrB.P.)insouthernSouthAmerica(Bird1938Bryan1973Politis1991Rouse1976).Thesynchronoustimingandsuddenappearanceofnew
lithictechnologiesandtoolcomplexesacrossanumberofdifferentregionscanbeseenassupportfortheinterpretationthatawidespreadreorganizationinthe
adaptivesystemsofpreexistingNewWorldpopulationsoccurredduringanunprecedentedperiodofrapidenvironmentalchangeattheendofthelastIceAge.Ifthis
istrue,thenClovisisnottheearliestNewWorldculture.Atbest,itismerelyoneofanumberofearlycultures,andmayinfactbeoneofthelatercultures.

SincetheClovisFirstmodelwasadvancedinthe1960s,manypotentialpre11,500yearoldsiteshavebeeninvestigated.Someofthemostimportantsitesinclude:
BlueFishCaves,YukonTerritory(24,000yrB.P.)(CinqMarsandMorlan,thisvolumeMorlanandCinqMars1989)MeadowcroftRockshelter,Pennsylvania
(14,00015,000yrB.P.)(Adovasioetal.1990Adovasioetal.,thisvolumeLepper,thisvolume)Burnhamsite,Oklahoma(25,000yrB.P.)(Wyckoff,this
volumeWyckoffandCarter1994)PendejoCave,NewMexico(<55,000yrB.P.)(MacNeish1992,1996)Tamiatamia,Venezuela(13,000yrB.P.)(Ochsenius
andGruhn1979)PedraFurada,Brazil(<45,000yrB.P.)(GuidonandArnaud1991GuidonandDelibras1986also,Pessis1993)andMonteVerde,Chile
(13,000and31,000yrB.P.)(Dillehay1989,1997Dillehayetal.1992DillehayandCollins1991).ThereareseveralotherSouthAmericansitessaidtopredate
thepre11,500yearoldwatershed.SeeLynch(1990),GruhnandBryan(1991),andDillehayandCollins(1991)fordiscussionsofthedebatesurroundingthese
sites.Asnotedearlier,thesesitesgenerallyhavefailedtogainwideacceptanceinthearchaeologicalcommunityduetoartifactand/ordatingquestions.Nowthat
Dillehay(1997)andhiscoworkershavedemonstratedtocriticsthatMonteVerdeisearlierthan11,500yearsold,perhapsanewandmorefriendlyclimatecanbe
establishedforreviewingearlyNewWorldsites(cf.BonnichsenandTurnmire,thisvolume).

Insummary,currentarchaeologicaldatadonotappeartosupportthekeypropositionsoftheClovisFirstmodel.Noreliableevidenceforthe"Clovisculture"has
beenfoundinNortheastAsia,itsputativehomelandaccordingtomanyproponentsofthemodel.Inaddition,theradiocarbonagesofCloviscomplexsitesdonot
supportthepropositionthattherewasanorthtosouthmovement.AlthoughradiocarbondatedsitesinSouthAmericaarenotnumerous,theavailabledatesdo
suggestthattheappearanceofflutedpointsinNorthandSouthAmericaissynchronousinbothhemispheres.Thetimingofdatesfromflutedpointsiteshasledsome
researcherstoconcludethattheClovisstylepointactuallydevelopedintheUnitedStates,possiblyintheSoutheast.Inaddition,supportforthenotionthattherewas
abasalCloviscultureisinconclusiveasthereisnoclearconsensusontheessentialelementsofsuchabasalculture.Ontheotherhand,thereisconsiderableevidence
fornumerousregionalstylesorvariantsofflutedpoints.However,thedatafortheseregionalvariantsaredifficulttointerpret,asmanyoftheregionalpatternsare
poorlydated.Itispossiblethattheyrepresentthediffusionofanewtechnologyacrossexistingpopulationsduring

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aperiodofrapidenvironmentalchange.Furthermore,thereisconsiderableevidencethatsuggeststhepresenceofmultipleNewWorldcotraditionsasoldasClovis.
Finally,notallofthe"pre11,500"sitesthathavebeeninvestigatedoverthepastseveraldecadescanbedismissedaseasilyastheirdetractorswouldsuggest.The
completionoftheMonteVerdesitereportthatfinallyhasbeenacceptedbycriticsisacaseinpoint.AlloftheseconsiderationsindicatethattheClovisFirstmodel
mustbeconsideredapossibility,butnotaprobability.Itwouldseemthatthereisroomforcompetingmodelsthattakeintoaccountavailabledatesfromflutedpoints
sitesandthatexplaintheriseanddemiseoftheCloviscomplexanditsmanyregionalvariants.

TheEarlyEntryModel

INCONTRASTTOtheClovisFirstposition,otherspecialistsproposethattheAmericaswereoccupiedwellbefore11,500yearsagobypeoplesfromAsia.The
importantpredictiveimplicationsofthisEarlyEntrymodelare:

(1)EarlyhumansitesshouldbefoundinNortheastAsiawithsimplecoreandflaketoolindustries.Manystudentsofprehistoryhaveproposedthatonly
modernhumans(Homosapienssapiens)couldhavepenetratedthefarnorth,andthiscouldnothavehappeneduntilabout40,000yearsago.Theyreasonthatfire,
shelter,andtailoredskinclothingwouldberequiredtosurvivewintersinthefarnorth(Fagan1987).Inthepast,theseconsiderationshavebeenseenasamajor
obstacletoacceptanceoftheEarlyEntrymodel.However,recentresearchinNortheastAsiaisbeginningtoindicatethatthearchaeologicalrecordisnotquiteas
clearcutasitwasassumedtobe(seeBonnichsenandTurnmire,thisvolume).

ArchaeologicalresearchisstillatanembryonicstageofdevelopmentinNortheastAsia.SimpleflakeandcoreindustriesareassociatedwithlatePleistocene
archaeologicaldeposits(seeGoebel,thisvolume)aswellasLowerandMiddlePaleolithicsitesreviewedhere.

AlongthenorthPacificRim,aseriesofmorethan40MiddlePaleolithicsiteshavebeenuncoveredintheBabadanarea,alongthenortheasterncoastofHonshu
Island,Japan.Thesesitesarereportedtorangeinagefrom150,000tomorethan200,000yearsandhaveyieldedsimplecoreandflaketools(Akazawa,this
volumeHiroshietal.1990MasahitoandHiroyuki1990YoshizakiandIwasaki1986).TheBabadanarchaeologicalrecord,aswellasnumerousUpperPaleolithic
sitesinJapan,suggestthepresenceofhumansalongthenorthPacificRimforatleastthelast200,000years.Thus,thesedatafitthepredictiveimplicationofthe
EarlyEntrymodelandleaveopenthepossibilitythathumanscouldhavecomefromAsiatotheAmericasbymiddlePleistocenetimes.

AlsoofinterestisresearchoccurringinnorthcentralSiberia.NikolayDrozdovandcolleagues(Chlachulaetal.1994)havelocatedaseriesofsitesinthe
KrasnoyarskSeaareainthevicinityofKurtak,southofKrasnoyarskontheYeniseiRiver.Thesesites,locatedat55degreesnorthlatitude,spanthelastfullglacial
cycle.Additionally,othersiteshavebeenreportedalongtheYeniseithataresaidtocontaincobbletoolsthatappeartobeofmiddlePleistoceneage.

Mochanov's(1993)workattheDiringYuriakhsite,locatedat61degreesnorthlatitudeontheLenaRiver,potentiallyisofgreatimportance(AckermanandCarlson
1991).Mochanov'smassiveexcavationofmorethan26,000squaremetershasexposed30clusters(oractivityareas)ofquartzandquartzitecobblecores,unifacial
flaketools,hammerstones,andanvilstonesoverthepastdecade.Untilrecently,theageofthispotentiallysignificantsitehasbeenproblematicandasourceofsome
contention(KuzminandKrivonogov1994).However,MichaelWaters(personalcommunication1994Watersetal.1997)andSteveForemanatOhioState
Universityrecentlyhaveusedthethermoluminescencemethodtodatelevel5,whichliesdirectlyabovetheculturalbearingstrata.Aseriesof10consistentdates
indicatethattheageoftheDiringYuriakhoccupationisgreaterthan250,000yrB.P.andlessthan320,000yearsold.Suchdateswouldsupporttheviewthatan
archaicformofHomosapiensorpossiblyHomoerectushadtheabilitytopenetratethesubarctic(61Nlatitude)muchearlierthanhasbeenanticipated.

TheabovediscoveriesimplythatbymiddlePleistocenetimes,earlyHomosp.hadacoldclimateadaptiverepertoire(i.e.,fire,clothing,shelter,andabilitytodeal
withfrozenfood)neededtoallowviablepopulationstosurviveundertheinhospitableconditionsofNortheastAsia.Theseconsiderationssuggestthatcoldadaptation
tosubarcticconditionsnolongershouldbeconsideredasafactorlimitinghumanmovementintotheNewWorldduringmiddleandlatePleistocenetime.

(2)Earlypopulationshadageneralizedeconomyandcouldeasilyadapttoavarietyoflocalcircumstances

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theywerenotspecializedbiggamehunters.EvidencehasyettobeadvancedbyEarlyEntrymodelerstosupportthisproposition.Unfortunately,thetenuous
natureofarchaeologicalevidencereportedfrompre11,500yearoldsitesshedslittlelightontheeconomiesandadaptivepatternsoftheirinhabitants.TheMonte
VerdesiteinsouthernChileisarareexception.Unusualpreservationcircumstanceshaveallowedhouse,plant,andanimalremainstoberecovered(Dillehay1989,
1997).Othersiteswillbeneededwithwellpreservedevidencebeforereliablegeneralizationscanbedevelopedaboutprehistoriceconomies.Andthosedatahave
yettobediscovered.

Anyattempttobuildsuchgeneralizationsshouldconsiderwhethertheuseofasimpleflakeandcoretoolkitisunambiguousevidencethatearlypopulationshada
generaleconomyandwerenotbiggamehunters.Incontrasttothehypothesisthatpre11,500yearoldpopulationshadageneralizedeconomy,analternative
possibilityisthatearlypopulationshadageneralizedtoolkit.Thistoolkitcouldhavebeenusedinthedevelopmentofnumerousspecializedadaptivepatternsin
differentenvironmentalcontexts,includingbiggamehunting.Itispossiblethattheseearlyflakedstonetoolassemblagesmayhavehadafunctionsimilartoa
carpenter'stoolkitandmayhavebeenusedforcutting,scraping,sawing,chopping,planing,andpolishingofnonlithicmaterialssuchaswood,bone,andantler.Such
materialsinturncouldhavebeenconvertedintocompositeartifactssuchastrapsandspearsfortakinglargegameanimals.

Atpresent,toolittleisknownaboutpre11,500yearoldsubsistenceandeconomicpatternsinmostPacificRimareastoformanyreliablegeneralizedconclusions
aboutthisproposedstageofculturaldevelopment.Detailedanalysisofartifactsfromearlysitesusinglithictechnologyusewear,bloodresidue,andmolecular
archaeologymethodscouldhelpdeterminehowartifactswereused.Inadditiontotheartifactualinformation,otherlinesofevidencesuchasfaunaandplantremains
wouldbehelpfulindevelopinganempiricallybasedknowledgeoftheeconomicandsubsistencepatternsofthepre11,500yearoldpopulationsthataresaidtohave
inhabitedtheAmericas.

(3)SomeoftheearliestevidenceofFirstAmericansshouldbefoundalongthecoastalfringesoftheAmericas.Thispostulateisbasedontheassumptionthat
earlycolonizerscomingtotheAmericasfromNortheastAsiausedboats.PossiblesupportforthispremiseisprovidedbyevidencefromJapanthatsuggestsboatuse
occurredintheNorthPacificbyatleast30,000yearsago.Thepresenceofboatshasbeeninferredfromtheoccurrenceofobsidianthathasbeenfoundinaseriesof
UpperPaleolithicsitesfromtheTokyoregion(Oda1990).Usingtraceelementanalysis,theoriginalsourcefortheobsidianhasbeentracedtoKozushimaIsland,
locatedabout170kmsouthofTokyo.TheislandwasalwaysseparatedbyopenseafromtheeasternshoreofHonshuIsland,evenduringthelastglacialmaximum
whensealevelwasasmuchas120meterslowerthantoday.Boatswouldhavebeennecessarytomoveobsidianfromtheislandtothemainland.Thesedatasuggest
thatUpperPaleolithicpopulationsinJapanhadthetechnologyandabilitytonavigateincoastalenvironments.Thesedatacanbeseenasindirectsupportforthe
hypothesisthattheAmericascouldhavebeencolonizedbyboatusingpeoples.

DefinitivearchaeologicaldatafromtheWestCoastofNorthAmericatosupportthecoastalentryhypothesishasyettobefound.This,however,isnotsurprising,as
muchoftheWestCoasthasbeensubmergedbyariseinsealevelthatoccurredattheendofthePleistocene.Potentialearlysiteshavebeenreportedfromraised
coastlinesinsouthernCalifornia(Berger1982Reevesetal.1986),althougharchaeologicalevidencefromtheselocalitieshasyettowinwidespreadacceptancefrom
thearchaeologicalcommunity(ErlandsonandMoss1996).Othersitesmaybefoundinraisedcoastalenvironmentsthatcouldprovidesupportfortheearlycoastal
entryhypothesis.

Tosummarize,someofthepredictiveimplicationsoftheEarlyEntrymodelarebeginningtofindsupportinthearchaeologicalrecord.Anincreasingamountof
archaeologicaldatafromNortheastAsiasupportsthepropositionthatthisregionoftheworldwasoccupiedbymiddlePleistocenetimesorearlier.Newevidence
fromJapanindicatesthatboatusewasknownintheNorthPacificbyabout30,000yearsagoandperhapsearlier.However,archaeologicaldatahaveyettobe
reportedfromtheWestCoastofNorthAmericathatcanbeusedtosupportthepropositionthatearlyNewWorldmigrantsusedwatercraftintheirmovementfrom
NortheastAsia.Likewise,thepropositionthatNewWorldpopulationspriorto11,500yearsagofollowedageneralizedhuntingandforagingstrategyhasnotyet
beendemonstratedconvincinglybyarchaeologicaldata.Mostspecialistsbelievetheseearlyhunterswerehighlymobile.Yet,thenewdatafromMonteVerdesuggest
seasonalifnotyearroundcommunalvillageoccupation.

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SimplecoreandflaketoolspossiblyrepresentingatoolkitofLowerPaleolithiccharacterhavebeenreportedfromanumberofpotentialpre11,500yearoldsitesin
NorthandSouthAmerica.Itisdifficulttomakesoundinferenceaboutsocialorganization,mobility,andeconomicanalysisonlybyworkingwithstonetooldata.The
mainobstacle,however,togeneralacceptanceoftheEarlyEntrymodelcontinuestobequestionsoverdatingandwhethertheartifactsreportedfrommanysitesare
humanornaturalinorigin.Thesequestionscannotbeovercomewithoutmorecarefuldescriptiveandanalyticalstudiesofpre11,500yearoldsitesandmaterials.

ANewApproachtoDataRecovery

ITSHOULDBEAPPARENTfromtheforegoingdiscussionthatthedebatebetweentheClovisFirstandEarlyEntryadvocatescannotbefullyresolvedonthebasisofcurrent
archaeologicalevidence.Newarchaeologicaldataareneeded.Thismeansnotonlynewsitestoinvestigate,butalsodevelopmentofnewtechniquesofdatarecovery.
Moredataofthesamenaturealreadyknownfrompastarchaeologicalprojectsisnotlikelytoaccomplishmuchexcepttocreatemoredisputes.Whatisneededare
newlinesofdatathatcanplacesitesinasecurelydatedcontext.

ThedatabaseforFirstAmericansstudieswillneverbeasabundantasthoseperiodsofprehistorythatweremoresettledanddenselypopulated.Wellpreservedearly
sitesarenotcommoninthearchaeologicalrecord.Inaddition,thosesitesthatarepreservedtendtorepresentshortterm,limiteduseoccupationsthatproducean
extremelyrestrictedrangeofartifactualmaterials.WelldevelopedresidentialsiteswithsignificantarchitecturalfeaturessuchasMonteVerdeareararityInmost
cases,thesurvivingartifactsthatawaittheexcavator'strowelarelimitedtoafewprojectilepoints(ifoneislucky),flaketools,flakes,andacoreremnantortwo.With
sitesthoughttobegreaterthan11,500yearsold,theartifactualrecordislikelytobeevenmorelimited.

Forthesereasons,itisimperativethatFirstAmericansresearchersdevelopnewtechniquesofdatarecoverythatfullyexploitwhatisavailable.Anexampleofone
suchtechniqueisprovidedbythedatarecoverysystemdevelopedbyresearchersattheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,OregonStateUniversity,
Corvallis.Theuseofafinescalescreenwashingrecoverysystem,originallydevelopedaspartofanexcavationprogramattheMammothMeadowsiteinthe
southwesterncornerofMontanaledtotherecoveryofanextensiverecordoforganicmaterials,includingfossilizedinsectparts,seeds,andplantdetritalremains
(Bonnichsenetal.1992BonnichsenandBolen1985a,1985bBonnichsenetal.1986BeattyandBonnichsen1994Bonnichsenetal.1996Hall1995aMorell
1994).Basedonthesuccessofthissystem,itsapplicablitytootherregionswastestedbycollectingandprocessingsamplesfromanumberoflocalities,e.g.,Nobles
Pond(Seemanetal.1994),the18,000yearoldLaSenaMammothsiteinNebraska(Hall1995bSteveHolen,personalcommunication1994),theCremersite
(undated)incentralMontana,SmithCreekCave(10,50011,500yrB.P.)(Bryan1979),HandPrintCave(10,500yrB.P.)(AlanL.Bryan,personalcommunication
1994),andothersites.Thesedataclearlyindicatedthathairandothersmallscaleremainsroutinelycanbefoundindrycaves,wetcaves,permafrostlocalities,and
openairsiteswithburiedanaerobicornonacidsedimentssuchasbogsandsedimentsderivedfromcalcareousloessorlimestoneandsandstonebedrock.

Ofgreatestimportanceisnaturallyshedhumanandanimalhair.Fortunately,itoccursatmanysites,containsancientDNA,andcanbe14Cdated.Ithasthepotential
toyieldmuchnewinformationregardinghumanandanimalpaleoanthropologyandpaleobiologyquestions.Hairoftenistheonlykindofbiologicalremainsthat
survivesandcanbeusedtoaddresshumanevolutionaryquestions.Aswillbediscussedbelow,therecoveryofhairfromancientsiteshasimportantimplicationsfor
modelingthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

ModernandAncientDNA

INRECENTYEARS,therehavebeennumerousattemptstounderstandthepeoplingoftheAmericasandtodevelopevolutionarymodelsbyusingoneormoregenetic
markers,e.g.,bloodgroupantigens,serumproteins,andredcellenzymes.SeeSzathmary(1993a,1993b)fordetailedoverviews.

MitochondrialDNA(mtDNA)hasbeenthefocusofmuchdiscussion.ModelershavebeenquicktotakeadvantageoftheuniqueproprietiesofmtDNAbecauseitis
inheritedonlyonthematernalline,andportionshavearapidrateofmutationthatallowreliableestimationofthetimesincevarietiesofmtDNAdiverged.The
combinationofthesetwofactorswould

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appearonthesurfacetomakemtDNAideallysuitedformodelingthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

NativeAmericanmtDNAcontainsfourorpossiblyfivemtDNAlineages(A,B,C,D,andX).Theselineagesoriginallywerethoughttorepresenttheresultsofancient
foundereffectsattributabletodifferentpopulationsfromAsiatoNorthandSouthAmerica.Modelersusinggeneticdatahaveproposedavarietyofcontradictory
DNAmodelstoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericasintermsoffourwaves,threewaves,twowaves,andonewave(Greenburgetal.1986Merriwetheretal.
1995PowledgeandRose1996Torrinietal.1992).

Szathamary(1993a)notesthatitisdangeroustoassumethatthehistoryofthissinglelocuscorrespondstotheevolutionaryhistoryofthepopulations,astherandom
effectsofmutationanddriftatonelocusdonotnecessarilyreflectthephylogenetichistoryofthepopulations.Sheconcludesthatfoundereffectsthatreflectancient
migrationshaveyettobedemonstrated.

Inadditiontothephylogeneticissuesmentionedabove,thereareotherimportantreasonswhyspecialistsfocusingonthepeoplingoftheAmericashavebeenslowto
developreliablegeneticmodelstoexplainthisprocess.Someoftheimportantissuesaffectingthevalidityofgeneticmodelsinclude:(1)howtimeofdivergenceis
calculated(2)howmodernanalogsareusedtointerpretthepastand(3)thequestionofgeneticadmixtureissue.

Meltzer(1995)hasnotedthatalthoughseveraloftheDNAmodelssupportthepre11,500earlyentrymodel,therearesignificantdifferencesinthesemodelsasto
thecalculatedtimingofwhentheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericasoccurred.Asnotedearlierinthischapter,DNAmodelerswhoseektodatethepeoplingofthe
Americasengageincircularreasoning:ratesofchangearecalculatedfromestimatedtimesofdivergence,thentheseratesofchangeareusedtocalculatedivergence
times.Thesedataare,inturn,thenusedtocalculatetheinitialentryoffoundingpopulationsintotheNewWorld.Untilsuchdateshavebeenverifiedbyindependent
linesofarchaeologicalevidence,theymustberegardedasspeculative.

Anotherpotentialproblemisthatpresentdaygeneticsystemsmaynotbedirectanalogstopastgeneticsystems,especiallygeneticsystemsmorethan10,000years
old.LineagesinferredfrommodernDNAmaynotrepresentalloftheinitialfoundinglineagesthatcametotheNewWorld.Szathmary(1993a)observesthatallwe
arejustifiedtoconcludeisthatmtDNAradiationappearstohavegreatantiquityandthattheancestralpopulationslikelybecamedistinctafterdivergenceofDNA.
ThisdoesnottelluswhoactuallyenteredtheAmericas.

Admixtureisanothersignificantproblem.Ifthepresentisanyindicationofthepast,humansfromdifferentgroups(ifgiventhemeansandopportunity)willattemptto
sharetheirDNA.Thus,weshouldexpectthattheDNAofmodernNativeAmericanpopulationsrepresentsanadmixtureofdifferentlineages,insteadofreflectinga
precisecopyoftheoriginalfoundingpopulations.Forexample,ifthefoundinggroupsthatenteredtheAmericashaddifferentmtDNAhaplotypes,weshouldexpect
haplotypesharingoradmixturesoflineagesA,B,C,D,andX.

Anadditionalconcerninusingonlymodern(orevenDNAofearlyHolocenespecimens)tomodelthepeoplingoftheAmericasisthatsuchstudiesdonotinformus
ofanylineagesthatmayhavegoneextinct.ThepossibilitymustbeconsideredthattheAmericascouldhavebeenpopulatedbymultiplegroupsoveralongperiodof
time.Ifthisistrue,anygroupsthatfailedtoreproducethemselvesintomoderntimeswouldnotberepresentedbylineagesinferredfrommodernDNAstudies.

MolecularArchaeologyandAncientHair

THEEMERGINGFIELDofmoleculararchaeology,whichcombinestheinterdisciplinaryfocusofenvironmentalarchaeologywiththemethodsofmolecularbiology,focuses
ontherecoveryandanalysisofancientDNA.TheadvantageofancientDNAascomparedtomodernDNAisthatbyusingarchaeologicalmethods,theageand
contextofancientDNAcanbedeterminedbyusinganarrayofindependentdatingtechniqueswithoutresortingtoquestionable''geneticclock"methods(basedon
inferredsetratesthathavenotbeencalibratedwithotherdatingmethods).Workofthisnatureisessentialforintegratinggeneticdatawithinareliablechronological
frameworksothatitcanbelinkedwithotherlinesofdatausedtomodelthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

Ifpreservationconditionsareappropriate,DNAcanbefoundinancientbones,teeth,tissue,andhair.Bones,teeth,andtissuearerarefindsinPaleoamericansites.
However,asdiscussedabove,naturallyshedhumanandanimalhairappearstopreservewellinmanydepositionalenvironments.

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Hairisofgreatinterest,asitrepresentswhathasbeenupuntilnowanuntappeddatasource.Itsvalueliesinitsusefulnessforidentifyingthepresenceofhumansat
earlysites,thusprovidinganindependentlineofevidencetoaugmenttheidentificationofambiguousartifactsandothermaterialsthoughttobeofhumanorigin.Recent
advancesinacceleratormassspectrometery(AMS)14Cdatingallowsaslittleas20gofhairtobedated(Taylor1995Tayloretal.1995).Bydirectlydatingthe
samehumanhairthathasbeenanalyzedforancientDNA,itwillbepossibletobypassmanyofthetraditionaldifficultiesoftenencounteredinassociatinghuman
presencewiththematerialbeingradiocarbondated.

Hairisrelativelyabundantinthearchaeologicalrecordascomparedtootherdatasets.Hairisthemostcommonproductthathumansandanimalsproduce.Although
absolutefiguresarenotpresentlyavailable,ithasbeenestimatedthateachpersonlosesapproximately100to200hairsandhairfragmentsperday,orupto73,000
hairsperyear.Overa60yearlifespan,anindividualwouldproducemorethan4,000,000hairs.Aspreviouslydiscussed,haircanberecoveredfromawidevariety
ofdepositionalenvironments,includingdryandwetcavesites,bogs,streamterraces,loessdeposits,andotheropenairsettings.Theanalysisofhaircanhelpinthe
reconstructionofpastenvironmentsbyprovidinginformationonthedistributionofextantandextinctspecies.Whenthemorphologicalpropertiesofhair(e.g.,color,
scalepattern,size,shapeofmedulla,etc.)areexaminedmicroscopicallyat200x400x,thesepropertiesmaybeusedtomaketaxonomicidentification(Appleyard
1978BrunnerandComan1974Hicks1977Mooreetal.1974Teerink1991).Also,chemicalelementcompositioncanprovideinsightsaboutprehistoricdiet
(Minagawa1992Valkovic1988).Hairalsocanprovideinformationabouthealth.Forexample,certainscalpdiseasesandtheoccurrenceofsomeparasitescanbe
inferredfromthesurfacemorphologycharacteristicsofhair(KoboriandMontagna1976).Inaddition,DNAanalysismaybeabletoprovideevidenceforagingand
certaingenericdiseases(Wallace1997)

Untilnow,researchusingancientDNAhasbeenseverelylimitedbytherelativescarcityofancientorganicremains.Thus,thediscoverythatreplicableDNAis
containedinancienthumanandanimalhairishighlysignificant.TheabilitytoextractancientDNAfromhumanhairsopensthepossibility,forthefirsttime.ofstudying
prehistoricpopulationsintermsoftheirowngeneticcharacteristics.

Suchinformationcanprovideimportantdatafortheformulationofmiddleandhighrangetheories.Amongotherthings,ancientDNAhasthepotentialto:

(1)Linkspecificpopulationstospecificartifactassemblagesandcomplexesfromparticularsites

(2)Testwhetherchangesinartifactassemblagesareduetotheentryofnewpopulationstoanarea

(3)Illuminatethebiologicalrelationshipsbetweenadjacentanddistantgroupsduringanytimeperiodoracrosstimeperiods

(4)Determinehowmanyepisodesofmigrationoccurredinanareaand

(5)Providedatesonratesofchangeforverificationand/orcalibrationofbiologicaldescentmodels.

HowwelltheseobjectivescanbemetwilldependinpartuponthequalityoftheDNAcontainedinancientsamplesandontheabilityofresearcherstoeliminateall
potentialsourcesofDNAcontamination(Paabo1993).

Conclusion

THETIMINGOFtheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericashasbeendebatedforthepastseveraldecades.Intheforegoingdiscussion,wehaveattemptedtoaddressissuesin
thisdebatethroughatwoprongedapproach.WefirstanalyzedtheClovisFirstandEarlyEntrymodelsfromamodelbuildingperspective.Ouranalysisoflow,
middle,andhighrangetheoreticalpropositionsofthesetwomodelsindicatestousthatfundamentalunresolvedproblemsexistinbothmodelsandthatmore
thoroughmodelbuildingproceduresareneeded.Second,wearguethatnewdatarecoveryandanalysistechniqueswillsignificantlyaugmentFirstAmericansstudies.

ItnowappearsthatthesinglegreatestimpedimenttowidespreadacceptanceoftheEarlyEntrymodelcanbeattributedtoinadequatelowrangetheoryandafailure
todistinguishcarefullybetweenmerepossibilitiesandprobabilitieswhenevaluatingwhetherpotentialartifacts,features,andcharcoalareofhumanornaturalorigin.
Weanticipatethatevenifadditionalpre11,500yearoldsitesarefound,theywillbecomeembroiledindebateunlessclearandreliablecriteriaaresetforth,probably
onacasebycasebasis,fordeterminingwhetherthepatterningfoundinthearchaeologicalrecordisofhumanornaturalorigin.Unlessthisbasicissuecanbe
overcome,itisunlikelythattheintellectualfocusofthisfieldwillmoveforward

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tootherinterestingandchallengingquestionsaboutearlyNewWorldpeoples(e.g.,howtheireconomicandsubsistencesystemsoperated,howtoconstructmore
realisticculturalaffiliationandbiologicaldescentmodelsbasedonremainsfoundinthearchaeologicalrecord,etc.).

TheClovisFirstmodelsufferssevereweaknessesatthelevelsofmiddleandhighrangetheory.Majorpredictiveimplicationsofthemodelarenotsupportedbythe
archaeologicalrecord.Nonetheless,thewidespreadoccurrenceofflutedpointsinNorthAmericaandSouthAmericabegsforanexplanation.Todate,datato
supportthenormativeviewofaunifiedClovisculturehavenotbeenpresented.Studiesbasedsolelyonprojectilepointformsarenotlikelytoadvanceour
understandingoftheculturaldynamicsthatledtothewidespreaddistributionofClovis.

ThedevelopmentofanadequateexplanationfortheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericascannottakeplaceintheabsenceofasystematicbodyofwellverifiedknowledge.
Ideally,thegoalofthisfieldistointegrateandinterpretsite,local,regional,andglobalscalepatternsbyuseoflow,middle,andhighrangetheory.Becauseofthe
overridingfocusgiventochronologyintheFirstAmericansdebate,modelershavenotgivensufficientattentiontoissuesofhowdataareusedtosupportmodel
propositions.Forexample,neithertheClovisFirstnortheEarlyEntrymodeldrawsonextensivecomparativestudiesofartifactsattheregional,continental,orglobal
scales.IndepthcomparativestudieshavenotbeenconductedamongClovis(andotherflutedpointassemblages)andpre11,500yrB.P.assemblagesfromNorth
America,SouthAmerica,andthosefoundinAsia.Rather,sitesoftenaregroupedtogethersimplyonthebasisofradiocarbondates,andasearchisthenmadefora
commondenominator.Asaresult,proposedsimilaritiesinartifactsusedtosupporteithermodeloftenareimpressionisticjudgmentsthatarenotsupportedbytheuse
ofscientificdataanalysisprocedures.NowthattheEast/West"coldwar"isover,thetimeisrightforcomparativestudiesbetweenthemostpromisingearlyNortheast
AsianandAmericanassemblages(Goebel,thisvolumeWest1996).Inaddition,thereisaneedtofullyassessthesimilaritiesanddifferencesofthealleged"coreand
flaketool"and"flutedpoint"assemblagestodetermineifthesedataactuallysupportthe"bigpicture"modelsthathavebeenproposed.

TheprimarybuildingblockindevelopingadequatemodelstoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericasareindividualsitereports.Problemscreatedbyinadequatedata
collectionandreportingmethodsgenerallycannotberectified.Carefuldescriptiveworkisessentialasitprovidesthebasisofsubsequentanalysis.FirstAmericans
sitesareararephenomenonandshouldbecarefullyscrutinizedandevaluatedusingthemostsophisticatedtechniquesthatmodernsciencehastooffer,including
moleculararchaeology.Siteinvestigators,regardlessoftheirtheoreticalpersuasion,shoulddevelopasmanyindependentlinesofevidenceaspossibletodetermine
whethertheremainsandpatternsdiscoveredatasiteareofhumanornaturalorigin.Thesameistruewhenexploringthenatureofculturalpatternsandprocesses
foundateachindividualsite.

SinceFirstAmericanssitesaresorare,itisimperativethatresearchersmakeeveryeffortto"squeeze"asmuchdataoutofeachsiteaspossible.Thiscanbedoneby
refiningexistingrecoverytechniquesandbydevelopingnewapproachestodatarecovery.OfparticularinteresttoFirstAmericansstudiesistheemergingfieldof
moleculararchaeology,whichiswellsuitedtoaddressingarchaeologicalquestionsthathaveageneticcomponent.Ifthetestsconductedtodateareanyindicationof
itsultimatepotential,humanhairmayprovetobeoneofthemostcommon"diagnostic"indicatorsthatcanberecoveredfromarchaeologicalsitesandoneofthemost
reliableindictorsofhumanpresenceatClovisagesitesandpotentialpre11,500yearoldsites.Itsmorphologicalandgeneticcharacteristicsprovideunambiguous
evidenceforthepresenceofhumans,andsmallsamplesofhumanhaircanbedirectlydatedbyuseofAMS14Cmethod.Inaddition,researchersmaybeabletouse
DNAanalysisofancienthairtolinkspecificpopulationswiththearchaeologicalrecord.Ifthiscanbedone,itwillprovideanewandpowerfulapproachforidentifying
specificpopulations,fortracingpopulationmovements,andforcharacterizingchangesinhumanpopulationsacrossspaceandthroughtime.Thisapproachcould
provideavitalmissinglinkinFirstAmericansstudiesandprovideacommonunifyingelementthatwouldlinklow,middle,andhighrangeinferences,thereby
allowingfortheconstructionofmorereliablemodelsforexplainingthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

Inmanyways,thedebateaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericasisnotmerelyadisputeaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericas.Itisadebateaboutscience,andadebate
abouthowwedevelopanobjectiveunderstandingofthepastandthechainofeventsthatleadtothepresent.Byfocusingonmodelbuildingstandardsanddata
recoverytechniques,FirstAmericansspecialistshave

 Page514

anopportunitynotonlytoenhanceourunderstandingofthepeoplingoftheAmericas,butalsotoimproveourunderstandingofthehumanspecies,itscapabilities
generally,andatolerancefordifferences.

Acknowledgments

WewouldliketothankMilaBonnichsenandKarenTurnmireforproofreadingthismanuscript.WealsowouldliketothankBradleyLepperforhisthoughtful
suggestions.

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 Page520

Index

Abies,486,488

Abraders,300,322

photographof,302

Abrasiontechniques,484,485

Acceleratormassspectrometry(AMS)radiocarbondating,157,201,512,513

Aciculifolictemperateforest,486,488

Aciculifolictemperatemeadow,488

AdairSteadmansite(Texas),302,343,345

Adamssite(Kentucky),375,383

Adaptations.SeeEconomicadaptationsHighaltitudeadaptationsMaritimeadaptationsMesolithicadaptationsTechnologicaladaptations

Adaptivebifurcation,378

Adobesite(Wyoming),302

Adzes,145,485

Agassiz,Lake,12,224,229

AgateBasin/Packardcomplex,14,31116

maptositelocationsof,311

ofNorthernPlainsarea,276

northwardhumanmovementand,22830

radiocarbondatingof,314,327

AgateBasinpoints,12,31415

Folsompointsvs.,276

HellGappointsvs.,276,316

photographsof,312,315

AgateBasinsite(Wyoming),276,283,311

bisonhuntingand,272

Folsomcomplexand,275,276,301,302

hearthsat,400

HellGapcomplexand,276

micromammalsympatryand,26768

preservationandprotectionofmeatat,273

radiocarbondatingof,296,297,314,316,327

Agave,486

Agricalture,inMexico,484

Ahueheutes,488,489

Akmakcomponent(OnionPortagesite),17778,17980,185

Alaska,8,157

AlaskaRangeregionof,17072

artifactsfromsitesin,161

coreandmicrobladeindustriesof,14344

flutedpointsitesin,18082

glaciationof,157

Nenanacomplexof,2,8,18,157,15964,18384

NenanaValleyregionof,157,15964

NorthernAlaskaregionof,17276

NorthwestAlaskaregionof,17780

radiocarbondatingofsitesin,174,18691

TananaValleyregionof,16470

WesternBeringiaand,148

Albertapoints,319

photographof,320

Alberta/ScottsbuffFletchersite(Alberta),231

Alcesa.americana(Americanmoose),83

Alces(moose),78,99,202

Alganseatincella,486

Alibatesdolomite,313,347,356

Alluvium,periglacialecologyand,87

Alnus,486

Alpineregions,asarchaeologicalsites,484

Amaranths,484,488

Ambrosia,488

Americancamels,235,267

Americancheetahs,267

Americanlions,267

Americanmoose,83

AmericanPaleoarcticDiuktaicomplex,203

Aminoacidracemization,426

Aminoacids(dietary):largemammalsand,83

periglacialecologyand,87

Ammoniumions(NH4):distributionof,57

inglacialmargins,6

highlatitudesourcesof,51,52

AmphithcaterMountaincomplex,171

Ananaiveem1site(WesternBeringia),109,129

Andesiticbasalt,138

Angussite(Nebraska),282

Annualproductivitypulse:graphicrepresentationof,82

largemammalsand,89

luxuryorgansand,81

Antarcticicesheets:fixednitrogenconcentrationsin,60

nitrateconcentrationsin,56,57,58

nitratefluxesin,53,5556

ratesofmotionby,59

thicknessof,60

Antelope,6,202,349

Antilocapraamericana(pronghorn),267

Antlers:artifactsfrom,145,161

evolutionof,79,8081,82

asluxuryorgans,80,81

projectilepointsfrom,275,276

spearheadsfrom,179

asweapons,81

Anzicksite(Montana),255,272,291,293,308,327

ApalacheeBayRegion(Florida),46970

Apatite,47

AquaPlanopoints,320

Aquaticlatifolicmeadow,486

Archaeolithicculturalhorizon,483

Archaicconcept,25051

Archaicnotchedpoints,456,458,463

Arcticfoxes,165

Arctichares,267

Arctodus,89,90

Arctodussp.(shortfacedbear),267

Argillite,124

Armadillos,giant,346

Arroyos:huntingbisonusing,272,301,312,317,321,345

huntingmammothusing,347

Art.SeeOrnamentalartifacts

Ritualandart

Artemisia(wormwood),106

"ArtifactBand,"217,218

Artifacts:atAlaskansites,161

culturalvs.naturaloriginof,21721

ofMexico,483,484,485

atWesternBeringiansites,145.

SeealsoAntlersBoneartifactsFaunalartifactsIvoryartifactsLithicartifactsOrnamentalartifactsParticularartifact

Asia,2,4,68,100,101,508

AthabascaGlacier(Alberta),218

photographofcobblesfrom,217

Atlatlhooks,322

Atmospherictemperature/pressurezones,stratificationschemeof,48

Aubreysite(Texas),289,291,292,293,327

Auroralfootprint,57

Auroraloval:fixednitrogentransferand,59

mapof,54

nitratefluxdistributionand,57,58

solarterrestrialinteractionsand,55

AuroraRunRocksheltersite(Ohio),379

Australopithecus,86

Avocados,484

Axisdeer,83

BabadanAsite(Japan),96

Backhoetesting,sitesurveysand,234

BakerBluffCavesite(Tennessee),420

Bandmovements:byClovisoccupations,347

byFolsomhunters,34546

Barasingha,83

BarentsSearegion,glaciationof,2829

Barnespoints,15,371,372

photographof,372

Basalt,118,124,138

Batonsdecommandement(shaftwrenches),214

Bats,486,488

BatzaTnasite(Alaska),161,178,181,184

Baucomsite(NorthCarolina),45253,471

Beads,485

Beans,484

Bears,78,99,120,183,202,267,346,486

BeaverLakepoints,439,450

Becknersite(Oklahoma),343,345

Berelekhsite(WesternBeringia),12022

artifactsillustratedfrom,119

dwellingsat,144

faunalartifactsat,184

latePaleolithicadaptationsat,144

premicrobladeindustriesat,139

radiocarbondatingof,109,138

stratigraphicprofilefrom,121

Beringia:glaciationof,4,28,33,3436,37,38

 Page521

importancetopeoplingoftheAmericas,200,208

productivityparadoxof,4.

SeealsoEasternBeringiaWesternBeringia

Beringianicesheet,32,3536,37

mapof,38

BeringLandBridge,28,37

BeringSearegion:glaciationof,33,3436,37,38

mapof,35.

SeealsoChukotkaPeninsulaandBeringSeaCoastregion

Betula,427

Bifaces:atAlaskansites,161

atBurnhamsite,355,356

Clovistype,289

Codytype,324

illustrationsof,111,115,119,123,127,132,136

atJapanesesites,142

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,428

tanged,139

intoolcaches,377

unshouldered,286

atWesternBeringiansites,145

Bifacialpoints:atAlaskansites,161

atWesternBeringiansites,145.

SeealsoParticularbifacialpoint

BigBoneLicksite(Kentucky),375

BigCrecksite(Illinois),368

Biggamehunting,14,17

settlement/subsistencepatternsand,376

BigPineTreesite(SouthCarolina),45960,461,462,471

Biologicaldescentmodels,5045

Biomass(mammal),periglacialecologyand,87

Birch,171

Birchinterval,202

Birds.SeeParticularbird

Bison:AgateBasinhuntingof,31213

atBerelekhsite,121,144

atBluefishCavessites,202

atBochanutsite,122

atBonfireSheltersite,349

atBrokenMammothsite,165

atBurnhamsite,34956

inCanada,228,235

Clovishuntingof,290,292,294,346

Codyhuntingof,32122

evolutionof,89

extinctfaunautilizationand,445

Folsomhuntingof,300301,345

Goshen/Plainviewhuntingof,309

inGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainarea,251,252

inGreatLakessubarea,378

HellGaphuntingof,276,31617

inJapan,99

atManisMastodonsite,10

inNorthwesternPlainsarea,267

atPendejoCavesite,13

preservationandprotectionofmeatfrom,273,274

seasonalhuntingof,273,274

inSouthernPlainsarea,357

atTrailCreekCavessites,179.

SeealsoSteppebison

Bisonalenni(bison),353,355

Bisonantiquus(bison):atBonfireSheltersite,349

atBurnhamsite,355

inCanada,235

atClovissites,346

extinctfaunautilizationand,445

Folsomhuntingof,345

atPendejoCavesite,13

inSouthernPlainsarea,357

Bison(bison),99,267,378

Bisonbisonantiquus(bison),228,235

Bisonbisonoccidentalis(bison),228,235

Bisoncf.priscus(bison),202

Bisoncheneyi(bison),355

Bisonlatrifrons(bison),89,355

Bisonpriscus(steppebison),6,131,133,161

Bitterootpoints,325

Blackbears,183,486

Blackcrownednocturnalherons,488

BlackMountainsite(Colorado),302

Blacktaileddeer,83

Blackwalnuts,378

BlackwaterDrawsite(NewMexico),283,286

AgateBasincomplexand,311,312,313

Cloviscomplexand,289,293,346,347

Codycomplexand,319,321

flutedpointchronologyand,370

Folsomcomplexand,300,301,305,343,345

Goshen/Plainviewcomplexand,308

radiocarbondatingof,291,293,296,297,327

Bladecores.SeeCores

Bladelets,illustrationsof,111,115,117,119,123

Blades:atAlaskansites,161

Clovistype,289

illustrationsof,111,115,117,119,127

atJapanesesites,142

fromMexico,483

retouched,115,117,119,127,145

atWesternBeringiansites,145

Bladesite(Alaska),183

Blastocerus,83

BluefishCavessites(YukonTerritory),2,9,200201

aerialphotographsof,202

boneflakingtechnologyat,2048

ClovisFirstmodeland,507

depositprofilephotographof,203

EarlyEntrymodeland,20

importanceinsouthwardmigrations,208

mappositionsof,201

preglacialoccupationsand,217,218,221

wedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladeindustriesat,144

Boazmastodon,374

Bochanutsite,122

Bolennotchedpoints,466,468

BllingAllerdinterstadial,36,37

Bolostones,468

Boneartifacts:atAlaskansites,161

atBluefishCavessites,2028

ofCloviscomplex,272

ofFolsomcomplex,302

atLovewellMammothsite,13

atWesternBeringiansites,145.

SeealsoParticularartifact

Bonecollagen,AMSradiocarbondatingof,201

Boneflakingtechnology,2048

photographofmammothboneflakeandcore,205

schematicofmammothbonecoreandflake,206

Boneprojectilepoints:atAgateBasinsite,275,276

photographof,295

Bonetools:ofCloviscomplex,289,347

ofFolsomcomplex,300,302,346

foreshafts,11,13

needles,165,256

photographof,302

pins,468

BonfireSheltersite(Texas):Folsomcomplexand,301,343,345,346

Goshen/Plainviewcomplexand,306,310

preClovisoccupationsof,349

radiocarbondatingof,296,297,309,327

BonnetBlumeBasin(YukonTerritory),218

Bootheriumbombifrons(muskox),17,267

Borealforests,16

Boron(B),plantgrowthand,45

Brains:evolutioninlargemammals,79,80

ofHomosapiens,86

Brandsite(Arkansas),458

Brazosfishtailpoints,309,310

Brewstersite,314,327

BrokenMammothsite(Alaska),8,165,184

faunalartifactsat,170,184

huntingand,170

lithicartifactsat,161,170,184

radiocarbondatingof,166,170,18788

stratigraphyof,166

Brownbears,183

Bubalus,99

Buhlsite(Idaho),256

Buiunda3site(WesternBeringia),108,111,113,145,146

BullBrooksite(NewHampshire),403,409,411

Burials.SeeHumanburials

Burinsandburinspalls:atAlaskansites,161

Clovistype,289

Folsomtype,300,301

illustrationsof,111,115,117,123,127

inMexico,484

photographsof,204,301

atWesternBeringiansites,145

Burnhamsite(Oklahoma),34956

ClovisFirstmodeland,507

maptocontour

 Page522

andexcavationof,350

radiocarbondatingof,285,287

Burning,climatechangeand,397

BurningTreesite(Ohio),382

BurrillOrchardsites(Ohio),378,379

BushSheltersite(Wyoming),277

Butchering/processingactivities:ofAgateBasincomplex,31213

atBluefishCaves,2034

ofCloviscomplex,290,292,347

ofCodycomplex,322

inFlorida,445

ofFolsomcomplex,345

inGreatLakessubarea,374

ofHellGapcomplex,317

BylerMoundsite(Ohio),379

Caballinehorses,6

Caches.SeeMeatpreservation,protectionandcachesTools,cachesof

CactusHillsite(Virginia),1617,428,43536,437

Calcium(Ca),plantgrowthand,45

Calciumcarbonate,42526

Calciumphosphate,47

CalicoHillssite(California),250

Camelopshesternus(camel),235,349

Camelopssp.(Americancamel),235,267

Camels,235,267,296,346,349

Camps.SeeEncampments

Campussite(Alaska),161,16970,189

Canada:earlysitevisibilityin,23435

easternculturesof,23132

historicalperspectivesof,21516

icefreecorridorof,22125

landscapeevolutionin,23334

northwardhumanmovementsin,22831

Paleoindianstudiesin,21315

preglacialsitesof,21621

southwardhumanmovementsin,22528

CanadianRiver,12

CanadianShield,219

Canids,165

Canisdirus(direwolf),267

Canisfamiliaris(domesticateddog),131,133

Canislatrans(coyote),486,488

Canislupus(graywolf),99,202,267

CapeOlyutorskypeninsula,35,36

Capreoluscapreolus(Europeanroedeer),83

Capreoluspygargus(Siberianroedeer),83

Capromeryxsp.(antelope),349

Capybaras,486,488

Carbon(C),plantgrowthand,45

Carbon14dating.SeeRadiocarbondating

Caribou:adaptivemigrationby,66,67

atAkmakcomponent,178

atBluefishCavessites,202,204

atCarloCreeksite,171

atChesrowcomplex,14

inglacialmargins,62,63

huntingof,inGreatLakessubarea,37475,378

inMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,15

atPrinceofWalesIslandsite,183

woodland,410

CaribouLakesite(Colorado),322,323,327

CarloCreeksite(Alaska),161,171,172,190

Carnivores,bonereductionby,207

CarsonConnShortsite(Tennessee),449

Carter/KerrMcGeesite(Wyoming):AgateBasincomplexand,276,311

bisonhuntingand,272

Codycomplexand,320,321

Folsomcomplexand,301

Goshencomplexand,274,308

HellGapcomplexand,276

radiocarbondatingof,296,297,327

Caryasp.(hickory),419

Cascadepoint,11

Casmorodiusalbus(commonegret),488

Caspersite(Wyoming),272,276,301,316,318,327

Cationratiotechnique,286

Cavebears,78
14
Cdating.SeeRadiocarbondating

CedarCreeksite(Oklahoma),343

Celtissp.(hackberry),419

Cenolithicculturalhorizon,48384

Ceratophyllum,486

Cervalces,89

Cervus,99

Cervuselaphus(wapiti),202

Chaatam'e1site(WesternBeringia),126,127

Chalcedony:atBurnhamsite,355

atEl'gakhchan1site,124

atFolsomsites,303

atHellgapsites,317

atKurupka1site,128

atMaltansite,112

atRanchoLaAmapolasite,491

atTytyl'1site,124

atZhokhovIslandsite,118

Charlessite(SouthCarolina),45859,460,471

CharlieLakeCavesite(BritishColumbia),10,181,226

CharlieLakepoints,10,226

photographof,226

Cheetahs,267

Chel'kunsites(WesternBeringia),109,126,127,144,145

Chemicalfluxes,inicesheets,51,52,53,55

Chenopods,488

CherokeeSewersite(Iowa),314,315,327,37778,379

Chert:atAkmakcomponent,179

atBluefishCavessites,203

atBurnhamsite,355,356

atChel'kunsite,126

atClovissites,347

densityofartifactsvs.availabilityof,43334

atEl'gakhchan1site,124

inFolsomMidlandpoints,346

atFolsomsites,345

atHellgapsites,317

atHestersite,464

highaltitudeadaptationsof,277

atIoni10site,125

atKukhtui3site,107

atKurupka1site,128

atKym'ynanonvyvaamsites,125

atLopatka4site,138

atMaiorychsite,113

atMaltansite,112

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,418

atMedicineHatsite,216,218

inMidcontinentRiverinesubarea,372,37576

atMuckafooneesite,463

atOnionPortagesite,177

atOrlovka2site,124

photographofburiedartifactsof,460

fromPiedmontquarries,456

processingatSmith'sLakeCreeksites,45860,462

atritualandartsites,377

atRucker'sBottomsite,454

inSuwanneeandSimpsonpoints,439

fromTheriaultsite,462

atUi1site,118

atUshki5site,138

atZhokhovIslandsite,118.

SeealsoDayCreekchertEdwardschertFt.PaynechertJasperchertNiobrarachertSmokeyHillschertTertiarychertUpperMercerchertWyomingchert

Chesrowcomplex(Wisconsin),2,14,18

China:changesinHoloceneclimateof,65

humanevolutionaryrecordin,78

ChinaLakesite(California),250

Chindadncomplex(Alaska),8,168,169,184

Chindadnpoints,139,161,164

Chirostomahumboldtianum,486

Chisels,485

Chitals,84

Chitho,163

Choukoutiensite(EastAsia),100

Chronometricdating:ofMidcontinentalNorthAmericansites,36670.

SeealsoRadiocarbondating

 Page523

Thermoluminescence(TL)dating

Chugwatersite(Alaska),161,169,189

Chukchiicesheet,33

ChukchiSearegion,33,34,35,36,37

ChukotkaPeninsulaandBeringSeaCoastregion,12529

Clactontechnique,483

Clark'sCavesite(Virginia),420

Clark'sFlatsite(California),258

Claypoolpoints,319

Claypoolsite(Colorado),319,322

Cliffjumps,bisonhuntingusing,301,345

Climate:adaptivemigrationsand,6667

burningand,397

changesinHoloceneChina,65

Cloviscomplexand,29294

Codycomplexand,325,326

Debertsiteand,407

erosionand,470

floodsand,470

Folsomcomplexand,305

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,41920

ofMexico,48586

ofMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,365,366

ofPleistoceneHolocenetransition,441,443

radiocarbondatingand,411

rapidchangesin,64

roleof,indepositionalchanges,446

sealevelsand,467

ofSoutheasternUnitedStatesarea,434

ofSouthernPlainsarea,345

atTlapacoyasite,488

variabilityin,6465

CloudsplitterRocksheltersite(Kentucky),15,369

Clovisculturalcomplex:artifactsof,28990,292

CarsonConnShortsiteand,449

flutedpointsand,256

Goshentechnologyvs.,275

highaltitudeadaptationsby,27677

huntingofwhitetaileddeerby,376

largemammalianextinctionand,366

mammothbasedsubsistenceeconomyof,37374

mammothhuntingmethodsof,27072

mapstositelocationsof,269,290

inNorthwestNorthAmericaarea,1011

paradoxesandcontradictionsof,4

inPlainsandSouthwesternUnitedStatesarea,28995

preClovis/ancestraloccupationsof,26869,28488

radiocarbondatingofsitesfrom,29192,293,327,370

inSoutheasternUnitedStatesarea,1617,43639

inSouthernPlainsarea,34647

Thunderbirdsiteand,435

toolandweaponrycachesof,27273

ClovisFirstmodel,497,498,499500

GreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainoccupationand,1112,254,259

IceFreeCorridorhypothesisand,9,10

lowrangetheoryand,502

middlerangetheoryand,504,505

paleoenvironmentsand,6

paradigmshiftfrom,1,2,3,1819,20,497

predictiveimplicationsof,5058

replacementof,258,49798

weaknessesof,513

Clovisknives,photographof,295

Clovispoints,1,254,27071,43637

Alaskanflutedpointsvs.,181,182

distributioninSoutheasternUnitedStatesarea,17,437,439

fromeastoftheContinentalDivide,259

Folsompointsvs.,300

Gaineypointsvs.,371

Goshenpointsvs.,308,309

inGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainarea,25359

atHestersite,464,471

highaltitudeadaptationsof,277

illustrationsof,182,271

atLewisvillesite,348

inMexico,17,490

atMinnewankasite,226

atOconeeRiversites,456

atPage/Ladsonsite,468

paradigmshiftand,1,2

photographsof,294,438

inPlainsandSouthwesternUnitedStatesarea,14,283

atRucker'sBottomsite,454,470

atSimpson'sFieldsite,455,471

atTheriaultsite,462,471

intoolandweaponrycaches,27273

ClydeGulleysite(SouthCarolina),455

CoastalAlaskaregion,18283

Coastalregions,asarchaeologicalsites,484

Coastalroutehypothesis:EarlyEntrymodeland,19,509

forpeoplingofNorthAmerica,9,22728

Cobbletools:atAlaskansites,161

illustrationsof,115

naturalvs.culturaloriginof,21721

photographsof,288

atWesternBeringiansites,145

Codycomplex,14,230,31926

maptositelocationsof,321

radiocarbondatingof,321,322,323,327

Codyknives,319

photographsof,320,324

Codypoints,325

photographof,319

Coelondontaantiquitatis(woolyrhinoceros),6

Colbymammothsite(Wyoming):arroyosand,272

Clovisprojectilepointsat,270,277

preservationandprotectionofmeatat,273

radiocarbondatingof,291,293,327

Colbypoints,506

Coldwaterpoints,439

Collagen,AMSradiocarbondatingof,201

Collaredlemmings,267

Collophane,47

Colonizationsites:characteristicsof,146

selectedinAlaskan,184

ColumbiaIcefields(Alberta):conchoidalfracturingat,218

photographofcobblesfrom,217

Columbianmammoths,1213,348

Commonegrets,488

Compositae,486

Concavebasedpoints,14,161,170,185

Conchoidalfracturing,218

ConnleyCave#5site(Oregon),11,254,258

Contamination,atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,419,420.

SeealsoParticulatecontaminationSolublecontamination

CooperHollowsite(Ohio),378,379

Cooper'sFerrysite(Idaho),258

Coopersite(Oklahoma),301

Coopertonsite(Oklahoma),285,286,348

Copper(Cu),plantgrowthand,45

Coreblades.SeePrismaticblades

Cores:atAlaskansites,161

bipolar,169

Clovisblade,photographof,294

conicalblade,illustrationsof,115,117,123

cylindricalpolyhedral,illustrationof,426

mammothbone,photographof,205

microblade,illustrationsof,115,127

prismaticblade,illustrationsof,111,119

wedgeshapedblade,illustrationsof,111,123

wedgeshapedmicroblade,photographof,204

atWesternBeringiansites,145

Coretablets,161

photographof,204

Corn,484

Corvuscorax(raven),488

Cottontails,267

Cougars,202

Coyotes,486,488

Crescents,252,258

CroMagnonman,6,86,91

CrossCreek(Pennsylvania),41720,42425

Crowfieldpoints,15,232,371,506

photographof,372

Crowfieldsite(Ontario),377

 Page524

Cryptocrystallineutilization,434,437

Culturalaffiliationmodels,5034

Cumberlandpoints,17,437,439

Barnespointsvs.,371

ClovisFirstmodeland,507

atDustCavesite,450

atDutchessQuarryCavessites,410

photographof,438

Cumminssite(Ontario),378,379

Cursors,representationof,84

CutlerFossilsite(Florida),445

Cyclonicwinds,loessand,66

Dallsheep,159,161,202

Daltonperiod,44041

Daltonpoints,17,44041

atBaucomsite,452

atBigPineTreesite,460

atCharle'ssite,459

atDustCavesite,450

atHawRiverProjectsites,452

atHestersite,463,464,471

atLittleTennesseeRiver,TellicoReservoirProjectsites,447

atOconeeRiversites,456

atPenPointsite,457

photographsof,440,459,461

atPuckettsite,448

atTaylorHillsite,458

atTheriaultsite,462,471

Daltonsite(Missouri),378

Dama(fallowdeer),81

DangerCavesite(Utah),11,253,25455,256

Davidsonsite(Ontario),379

DayCreekchert,355,356

Debertpoints,232,506

Debertsite(NovaScotia),403,4057,411

Deer,99,167,346,419,486,488

evolutionof,7881,8385

huntingof,376

karyotypesof,8384.

SeealsoParticulartypeofdeer

Deerfieldmastodon,14

Deglaciation:glacialmarginsand,64

ofMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,365

Denalicomplexsites(Alaska),17072,183

Dentsite(Colorado),282,291,293,327

Deoxyribonucleicacid(DNA):paleobiologicalapproachesforusing,51012,513.

SeealsoMitochondrialDNA(mtDNA)

Depositionalsystems,latePleistoceneearlyHolocene,44670

DesertArchaicconcept,252

Desmodusstockii(Stock'svampirebat),486

Desquamation,139

Diamict,219

Dibase,124

Dicrostonyxsp.,133

Dicrostonyxtorquatus(collaredlemming),267

Dietzpoints,255

Dietzsite(Oregon),253,258

Dikov,Nikolai,106

Directpercussiontechnique,483,484,491

Direwolves,267

DiringYuriakhsite(Siberia),7,19,508

Discoveryofearlysites,23435

Diseasesandparasites:ofhumans,87

oflargemammals,8586

Dispersalevolution,representationof,88

Dispersalphenotypes,8891

DNA.SeeDeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)

Dogs,domesticated,131,133

Dolomite,313,347,356

Domebosite(Oklahoma),291,293,308,327,346,347

DonnellyRidgesite,171,172

Doublecrestedcormorants,488

DrakeCloviscachesite(Colorado),273,289

Drills,161

photographofFolsomtype,301

DruchakVsite(WesternBeringia),122,123,143

Drumlinization,glacial,31

Drycaves,asarchaeologicalsites,484

DryCreeksite(Alaska),8,157,159

faunalartifactsat,184

lithicartifactsat,161

radiocarbondatingof,160,164,186

stratigraphyof,160

wedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladeindustriesat,144

DuckettSite(Alberta),226

DuckRiver/ColumbiaReservoirProjectsites,448,470

Ducks,133,165,488

DurstRocksheltersite(Wisconsin),369

DustCavesite(Alabama),450

DutchessQuarryCavesites(NewYork),403,410,411

Duttonsite(Colorado),285,286

DuvannyYarinterval,202

Dwellingstructures,130,133,135,144,146,162.

SeealsoSubterraneandwellingsSurfacedwellings

EarlyEntrymodel,497,498,500

lowrangetheoryand,502

middlerangetheoryand,504,505

paradigmshiftto,1,2,3,1921

predictiveimplicationsof,50810

weaknessesof,51213

EasternBeringia,158

EastRimsite(Nevada),250

EastSiberianicesheet,32,33

EastSiberianshelves,glaciationof,2933

EastSteubenvillesite(WestVirginia),379

EastWenatcheesite(Washington),11

Ecology,periglacial,43,84,86,87,89,26668

Economicadaptations:EarlyEntrymodeland,5089

inGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainarea,25054

inMexico,484

inWesternBeringia,14647

Ectopistesmigratorius(passengerpigeon),419

Edenpoints,319

Edwardschert,345,346,347,355

Egrets,common,488

Egrettathula(snowyegret),488

Elaphodus,83

ElCedral(Mexico):excavationmapof,491

maplocationof,490

photographofexcavationat,492

Eld'sdeer,83

Elephants,97101

El'gakhchansite(WesternBeringia),122,123,124,139,144

Elidasite(NewMexico),343,345

ElIngapoints,507

ElJobopoints,3,507

Elk:atBrokenMammothsite,165

Daltonsubsistencebaseand,378

inMidcontinentRiverinesubarea,376

atTrailCreekCavessites,179.

SeealsoIrishelk

ElkoEaredpoints,325

Encampments:byClovisoccupations,347

atFolsomsites,345

Endorreicbasins,asarchaeologicalsites,48384

Endscrapers:atAlaskansites,161

Clovistype,289

Folsomtype,300

illustrationsof,111,115,117,123,127,132,136

photographsof,295,300,320,324

atWesternBeringiansites,145

EnochForkRocksheltersite(Kentucky),368,370,379

Environments.SeePaleoenvironments

Eolianprocesses,87

Eoliths,218

Epilobium,486

EppleyRocksheltersite(Ohio),368,379

Equuscaballus(horse),133

Equusferus(caballinehorse),6

Equusfrancisci(horse),349

Equushemionus(hemionid),6

Equuslambei(horse),202

 Page525

Equussp.(horse),267,355

Erosion:alluvialdepositionmodeland,44748,470

fireand,398

byicesheets,47

duringPleistoceneHolocenetransition,446

Escapulesite(Arizona),292

Euopeanroedeer,83

Eurasia:FennoscandianIcesheetof,46

mapofPleistoceneicesheetsin,45

Northernregionof,2738

Pleistocenehumansin,101

Europeanmoose,83

Europeanreddeer,85

Europeanroedeer,83

Evolution:ofbrainsinlargePleistocenemammals,79,80

depictedindeer,79

ofhumans,78,8687,9091

ofhybridspecies,79

hypermorphic,7879

oflargemammals,7879,8086,88,89

ofpaedomorphiccontinentaldwarfs,79,80

periglacialenvironmentsand,6

ofsympatricecologialspecialists,79

Experimentation,newapproachesto:usinggeneticmaterials,51012,513

usingimproveddatarecoverysystems,510,513

usingrecenttechnologyadvances,512,513

Extinctions:oflatePleistocenemammals,366

ofmegafaunainSoutheasternUnitedStatesarea,443

Fallowdeer,81,83

Fatstorage:ofHomosapiens,86

bylargeanimals,83

Faunalartifacts:Alaskanrecordof,184

atBerelekhsite,120,121

atBluefishCavessites,202

atBochanutsite,122

atBonfireSheltersite,349

atBurnhamsite,355

atCloviscomplexsites,290,292,34647

atCodycomplexsites,32122

extinct,humanutilizationand,44445

atFolsomcomplexsites,296,301

atHellGapcomplexsites,313,317

atKimmswicksite,376

atLittleMountainarea,267

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,419

atpreClovissites,348

atRanchoLaAmapolasite,491

atSmithCrecksites,256,257

atTlapacoyasite,486,488

atUdorasite,375

atUshki1site,130,131,133,135

atWilsonButteCavesite,256

atZhokhovIslandsite,120.

SeealsoSpecificanimal

Faunalregions,443

Felcite,322

Feldspars,47

Felisatrox(Americanlion),267

Felisconcolor(cougar),202

FennCloviscachesite(Wyoming),258,272

Fennoscandianicesheet,46

Finleysite(Wyoming),322,323

Fires.SeeForestfires

FirstAmericansstudies,2,5,2021

Firstviewpoints,319

Fish:atBerelekhsite,121

atBrokenMammothsite,165

atTlapacoyasite,486

atUshki1site,133,144,146

Fishtailpoints,17,309,310,483,490,507

Flakeknives:photographsof,295,300

Flakes:atAlaskansites,161

Clovistype,289

mammothbone,photographof,205

retouched,illustrationof,136

utilized,photographof,320

atWesternBeringiansites,145

Flaketools:photographsof,295,313

Flattopchalcedony,303,317

Fletchersite(Alberta),234,320

Flint,313,345

Flintknapping,462

Floods:erosionand,470,472

roleindepositionalchanges,446

Floralartifacts.SeeParticularplant

FloridaSilverSpringssite(Florida),46566,472

Flutedpoints,4,255,259,289

inAlaska,89,161,18082,185

Archaicoccupationsand,465,466

BatzaTna,illustrationof,182

inCanada,22528,23132

Cloviscomplexand,1,2,256,28995

Folsomcomplexand,296305

Goshen/Plainviewcomplexand,30510

inGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainarea,11,25059

inGreatLakessubarea,370,37172

IceFreeCorridorand,10,225

illustrationof,373

inMexico,483,490

inMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,15,367,370,371,382

inMidcontinentRiverinesubarea,370,372,37576

inNortheasternNorthAmericaarea,15,16

photographsof,372,373,438

inSoutheasternUnitedStatesarea,17,43739

intoolcaches,377

transitiontounflutedlanceolatepoints,37778.

SeealsoParticularflutedpointtype

FlutedPointsite(Maine),402,403,404,411

Folsomcomplex:Goshentechnologyvs.,275

highaltitudeadaptationsby,27677

maptositelocationsof,299

inNorthernPlainsarea,27576

inPlainsandSouthwesternUnitedStatesarea,14,296305

radiocarbondatingof,296,29798,327

inSouthernPlainsarea,343,34546

Folsomknives:photographsof,300,301

Folsomoidpoints,282,283

Folsompoints,11,14,282,283

AgateBasincomplexand,312

Clovispointsvs.,300

Cumberlandpointsvs.,439

Goshen/Plainviewcomplexand,309,310

illustrationof,373

inMexico,490

photographof,299

productionstrategiesfor,346

Folsomsite(NewMexico),282

Folsomoccupationsand,301,343,345

radiocarbonagesof,296,297,327

Forestfires:climateand,397

radiocarbondatingand,39798,411

FortRockCavesite(Oregon),1112,256

41NV659site(Texas),289

FowlerParrishsite(Colorado),300

Foxes,165,267,349

Frascasite(Colorado),319,321,322,323,327

Fraxinus,486

Frazierpoints,319

Fraziersite(Colorado),301,311,313,314,327

Freeworthsite(Ohio),379

Ft.Paynechert,464

Gaineypoints,15,232,371,506

photographof,372

Gaineysite(Michigan),15,232,369,370

Galacticcosmicray(GCR)particles,49,55

GallagherFlintStationsite(Alaska),161,174,17576,191

Garypoints,491

Gastropodshells,atBurnhamsite,351,352,355

Gaultsite(Texas),289

Geese,165,167

Gelifluction,217

Geochelonecrassiscutata(tortoise),44445

Geomorphology,glacial:ofBarentsandKaraSearegions,2829

ofBeringSearegion,34,35

ofChukchiSearegion,34,35

ofLaptevSea,30

ofNewSiberianIslands,29,30,31

ofTiksiBayarea,30

ofYanaIndigirkaLowlandsarea,31,32

 Page526

GirlsHillsite(Alaska),181

Glacialflour,47

Glaciallycutcorners,34,35

Glacialmargins:adaptivemigrationsto,6667

climatechangesand,6465

fixednitrogenin,4748

instabilityof,6465

nutrientenvironmentof,6064,6566

paleoenvironmentsin,56

plantnutrientsand,4748,5860

plantproductivityand,6566

Glaciation:ofAlaska,157,18283

ofAlberta,22324

antiglacialisticconceptof,27

ofBarentsSearegion,2829

ofBeringia,4,28,33,3436,37,38

ofBeringSeashelf,33,3436,37,38

ofCanadianPlainsarea,22122

ofChukchiSeashelf,33,34,35,36,37

continuousconceptof,2728

ofEastSiberianshelves,2933

ofKaraSearegion,2829

mapoflastmaximal,266

ofMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,365

ofNorthernEurasiaarea,2736

ofNorthwesternPlainsarea,26668

restrictedconceptof,27

SoutheasternUnitedStatesareaand,16

Glaucomysvolans(southernflyingsquirrel),419

GlobeHillShellHeapsite(WestVirginia),379

Glossotherium(groundsloth),376

GolondrinaBarberpoints,310

Gophers,pocket,267

Goshencomplex,2

Cloviscomplexand,14,18

maptositelocationsof,306

intheNorthernPlainsarea,27475

inPlainsandSouthwesternUnitedStatesarea,14,30510

radiocarbondatingofsitesfrom,3078,309,327

Goshen/Plainviewpoints,14,275

ClovisFirstmodeland,507

Clovispointsvs.,305

Codypointsvs.,305

Folsompointsvs.,305

illustrationof,274

photographof,305

Yumapointsvs.,305

GrahamCavesite(Missouri),380

Gravers:atAlaskansites,161

Clovistype,289

Folsom,photographof,301

photographsof,301,320

intoolcaches,377

Graywolves,99,202,267

GreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainarea,1112,24950

culturalsequencein,25054

maptositesof,254

radiocarbondatingof,25459

WesternStemmedcomplexand,18

GreatBasinStemmedPointtradition,252

GreatLakessubarea,15,380

flutedpointsin,370,37172

latePaleoindiantransitionand,378

ritualandartin,377

settlement/subsistencepatternsin,37475

GreenlandIceSheetProject(GISP),52,5556

Greenlandicesheets:nitrateconcentrationsin,56,57,58

nitrogenfluxesof,52,5556

rapidclimatechangesand,64

ratesofmotionby,5960

recurringbreakupof,6465

transferoffixednitrogento,59

GreggShoalssite(Georgia),45354,470

Groundsloths,376

Groundsquirrels,165,171

Grus,168

Guestsite(Florida),444

Gulogulo(wolverine),267

Hackberry,419

Haftingtechniques,251,253

Hair:improvedrecoveryof,510,513

assourceofDNAforgeneticstudies,510,51112,513

Hamakitasite(Japan),95

Hammerstones,161

HandprintCavesite(Nevada),257

Hansonsite(Wyoming),276,277,296,297,327

Hardawaysidenotchedpoints,450,452,464

Hares,121,144,165,267

HarneyFlatssite(Florida),46667,472

Hawkensite,272

Hawkwoodsite(Alberta),229,234

HawRiverProjectsites(NorthCarolina),452,470,471,472

HealyLakesite(Alaska),8,161,166,16869,184,18889

Hearths:atAnanaiveem1site,129

atBrokenMammothsite,165

atBuiunda3site,113

atKongosite,113

atLewisvillesite,348

atMaltansite,112

atMesasite,172

naturalpitsvs.,400401,411

atPuturakPasssite,128

radiocarbondatingof,400401,41012

atRanchoLaAmapolasite,49293,495

atSiberdiksite,114

atTlapacoyaI,Alphasite,48889

atUshkisites,130,133,135,138

atWalkerRoadsite,162

Heathervoles,183

Heinrichevents,65

HellGapcomplex,276

maptositelocationsof,318

northwardhumanmovementand,228,229,231

inPlainsandSouthwesternUnitedStatesarea,14,31618

radiocarbondatingofsitesfrom,316,327

HellGappoints,11,12,316,327

photographof,317

HellGapsite(Alberta),322,327

HellGapsite(Scottsbluff),322,323,327

HellGapsite(Wyoming):AgateBasincomplexand,276,311,312,313

Codycomplexand,320,322

Folsomcomplexand,3045

Goshencomplexand,274,275,306,308

HellGapcomplexand,317,318

historicalPaleoindianstudiesand,283

Midlandcomplexand,276

radiocarbondatingof,296,297,307,309,316,327

HelmerickSheltersite(Missouri),379

Hematitenodules,photographof,302

Hemionids,6

Henwoodsite(California),11,254,258

HeronEdensite(Saskatchewan),229,230

Hestersite(Mississippi),441,46365,471

Hickory,419

Highaltitudeadaptations,27677

Highrangetheoryofmodelbuilding,498,505

Hilltopsite(Alaska),161,175,191

HistoricalAtlasofCanada(Harris),213

Hogdeer,83,84

Holcombepoints,371,405

Holcombesite(Michigan),378

Hominids,6,86

Homoerectus,86

distributionintoEastAsia,100,101

EarlyEntrymodeland,508

Homosapiens(China)vs.,78

Homosapiens:asanIceAgemammal,78,8687

boneflakingadaptationsby,208

EarlyEntrymodeland,508

evolutionaryrecordinChina,78

Homosapienssapiens(modernhumans):distributionintonorthernEurasia,1012

EarlyEntrymodeland,508

inPaleolithicNortheastAsia,7

Homosp.,7,508

HonshuIslandsites(Japan),7,19,95

HoraceRiversite(Texas),307,309,327

Hornersite(Wyoming),283,319,321,322,323,327

HornRockSheltersite(Texas),307,308,309,327

 Page527

Horns,79,80,81

HornSheltersite(Texas):Codycomplexand,319,322

Folsomcomplexand,343,345

Goshen/Plainviewcomplexand,308,309,310

radiocarbondatingof,324

Horses:atBerelekhsite,121,144

atBluefishCavessites,202

atBochanutsite,122

atBonfireSheltersite,349

atBurnhamsite,355

caballine,6

atClovissites,346

inNorthwesternPlainsarea,267

atTrailCreekCavessites,179

atUshki1site,133,144

HudsonMengsite(Nebraska),319,321,322,323,327

Humanburials:Codycomplexand,320

atCrowfieldsite,377

Goshen/Plainviewcomplexand,310

lanceolatepointsat,378

atWarmMineralSpringssite,445

inWesternBeringia,146

Humans:boneflakingadaptationsof,2078

EarlyEntrymodeland,508

EastAsiancomparisonof,97

evolutionof,78,8687,9091

importanceoficeagesto,91

inJapan,9596

inMexico,48385

innortheastAsia,68

innorthernEurasia,100,1012

periglacialenvironmentsand,6,62,63

phenotypefeaturesand,9091

phylogeneticrecordinChinaof,78

Rancholabreanfaunaand,90

reproductiveKstrategiesand,90

WesternBeringiancolonizationby,13839

Humanskeletalremains:atFolsomsites,345

inGreatBasinarea,12

atMikkabisite,95

atMinatogawasite,95,96

innortheastAsiaarea,7

paradoxesandcontradictionsof,4

atPrinceofWalesIslandsite,183

atTlapacoyaXVIIIsite,489

atUshki1site,130

Hunting:AgateBasincomplexand,31213

inAlaska,184,185

Berelekhsiteand,144

ofbison,272,273,275,290,292,294,300301,309,31617

BrokenMammothsiteand,170

ofcaribou,37475

Cloviscomplexand,290,29294,347

Codycomplexand,32122

ofelk,376

Folsomcomplexand,300301,345

inGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainarea,251,252,253

ofgroundsloth,376

HellGapcomplexand,31617

ofmammoth,27072,273

ofmastodon,374

inMidcontinentRiverinesubarea,376

Millercomplexand,418

seasonalityof,273,292,317,32122,345

SwanPointsiteand,170

ofturtle,376

Ushki1siteand,144

inWesternBeringia,146

ofwhitetaileddeer,376.

SeealsoBiggamehunting

Hybridspecies,evolutionof,79

Hydrationageanalysis,ofobsidian,178,181

Hydrochoerussp.(capybara),486,488

Hydrogen(H),plantgrowthand,45

Hydropotes(waterdeer),83

Hypermorphicspeciation,6,91

Hypermorphs.SeeMammals,large

Hypsithermal,227,233,234

Hypsithermaldeflation,222

Hypsithermallandscaperemodelling,222

IceAgeBeringiaconcept,28,37

IceFreeCorridor,910,214,215

historicalperspectiveof,21516

mapofflutedpointsitesin,225

mapshowingiceinmidretreatduring,223

mapshowingiceinretreatduring,224

mapshowingnearmaximumiceduring,222

Icelandicesheet,65

Icemargins,43

Icesheets:ofArcticEurasia,2738

ofBarentsSeashelf,2829

ofBeringSeashelf,33,3436,37,38

chemicalfluxesin,51,52,53,55

ofChukchiSeashelf,33,34,35,36,37

ofEastSiberianshelves,2933

erosionby,47

ofKaraSeashelf,2829

duringlastglacialmaximum,266

mapofPleistocene,45

inNortheastAsia,4

ofPleistoceneandHoloceneepochs,43

ratesofmotionby,5960

asreservoirsoffixednitrogen,58,59

assourcesofnutrients,43.

SeealsoParticularicesheet

Ikhinesite(Siberia),101,13839

Illuviation,42526

Inas'kvaamsite(WesternBeringia),129,143

IndianCreeksite(Montana),226,296,297,327

IndigirkaKolymaLowlandsregion(WesternBeringia),11822

Indirectpercussiontechnique,484

IntermontaneStemmedPointtradition,227

Invertedsoilhorizons,treethrowsand,398

Ioni10site(WesternBeringia),125,143

Irishelk,63,78,81,85

Iron(Fe),plantgrowthand,45

Ivoryartifacts:atAlaskansites,161

atClovissites,272,273,289

asevidenceoffaunautilization,444

illustrationof,272

photographofforeshaft,444

atWilsonButteCavesite,256

Iwajukusite(Japan),96

Jackpine,16

JamesPasssite(Alberta),226

Japan:CoastalRoutehypothesisand,9

colonizationof,8

EarlyEntrymodeland,19

Kantodistrictin,96

maptositelocationsof,98

migrationtoWesternBeringiafrom,148

MiyagiPrefecturein,96

Paleolithicagein,9697

Pleistocenehumansof,9596

Pleistocenemammalsof,9799

premicrobladeindustriesof,142

wedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladeindustriesof,144

Jasper,347,355

Jasperchert,125

JCrossingsite(Alberta),231,234

Jensensite(Nebraska),13

JimPittssite(SouthDakota),306,307,308

JinniuShan(Homoerectus)specimen,7

Johnsonsite(Colorado),302

Johnsonsite(Tennessee),259,437,448

Jomonageman,Minatogawamanand,95

JonesMillersite(Colorado),301,31617,318,327

Jonessite(NovaScotia),232

Juglanssp.(walnut),419,427

Jurgenssite(Colorado),319,322,323,327

KamchatkaPeninsularegion(WesternBeringia),12938,14042

Kantodistrict(Japan),96

Kantoloam,96

Karaicesheet,32

KaraSearegion,glaciationof,2829

Karyotype,inlargemammals,8384

Katabaticwinds:loessand,66

Nenanacomplexand,164

periglacialecologyand,87

plantgrowthand,46

Kelvin'sCavesite(Idaho),259

 Page528

Kendallsite(NewMexico),311

KennewickMan,11

KentuckyLake/TennesseeRiversites(Tennessee),449

Kentuckymammothsite(Kentucky),369

Kerseypoints,319

Khetasite(WesternBeringia),111,112,143,144

Kimmswickmastodonsite(Missouri),374,376,437,445

KincaidRocksheltersite(Texas),289,292,296,297,327

Kirkcornernotchedcluster,447

Kirkcornernotchedpoints,450,452,455

Kirkphase,447

Knappngtechniques,483,484

Knickpointtraps,arroyo,301,312,317

Knifeblades,96

KnifeRiverflint,313

Knives:backed,145

Clovis,photographof,295

Cody,photographsof,320,324

flake,photographsof,295,300

RedRiver,324

unifacial,photographof,300

Kobukcomplex(Alaska),177

Kongosite(WesternBeringia),108,11314,115,145,146

KotilainenShackeletondensitystudies,36,37

Koubasite(Wisconsin),377

Koyukukvalleysite(Alaska),181

Krajacicsite(Pennsylvania),418,425,426,428

KrasnoyarskReservoirsite(Siberia),7,19

Kstrategies,inreproduction,90

Kukhtui3site(WesternBeringia),107,108

Kurupka1site(WesternBeringia),126,127,128,143

Kus'iuveemsites(WesternBeringia),125,138

Kylemammoth,227

Kym'ynanonvyvaamsites(WesternBeringia),125,138

Kymyneikeisite(WesternBeringia),125,138

LakeIlosite(NorthDakota),298

LakeTheosite(Texas),296,297,327,343,345,346

Lamaces,Folsom:photographof,301

Lambsite(NewYork),377

LambSpringsite(Colorado):Codycomplexand,319,321,322,326

EarlyEntrymodeland,20

radiocarbondatingof,285,287,322,323,327

Lamproboliteandesite,489

Lance/Fergusonmammothsite(SouthDakota),267

Lanceolatepoints,2,14,15,31011

AgateBasincomplexand,31116

atAlaskansites,161,176,185

ClovisFirstmodeland,507

Codycomplexand,31926

HellGapcomplexand,31618

illustrationsof,136

nonfluted,2,4,161,176,185

photographsof,440,459,461

atTlapacoyaI,Alphasite,489

Landscapeevolution,archaeologicalsitesand,23334

LangeFergusonsite(SouthDakota),289,291,293,327

LaptevSea,glacialgeomorphologymapof,30

LaSenasite(Nebraska),1213

LA63880site(NewMexico),324

Lastglacialmaximum(LGM),27,28,29

LateArchaicsite(Ohio),379

LateEntrymodel,1,2,3,1819,497,498

Lateralthinningtechnique,439

illustrationof,441

Latifolicaquaticmeadow,488

Laurentideicesheet:glacialmarginsof,14,6061,62,63

duringlastglacialmaximum,266

mapsof,47,50,51,63

maximalextentof,224

inMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,365

Plainsareaand,12

rapidclimatechangesand,64

rateofmotionby,60

recurringbreakupof,65

thicknessof,60

totalvolumeof,60

Lawrencesite(Kentucky),379

Leafchinnedbats,486,488

Leafshapedpoints,139,145,146,483,484

Leavittsite(Michigan),369

Lehnersite(Arizona),291,292,293,327

Lemma,486

Lemmings,133,144,183,267

Lemmus(lemming),133

Lepusarcticus(arctichare),267

LeviSheltersite(Texas),306,307,309,327,346,34849

Lewisvillesite(Texas),292,346,347,348

LimeCreeksite(Nebraska),283,307,309,319,322,327

LimeRidgesite(Utah),286

LincolnHillssite(Illinois),375,376

Lindenmeiersite(Colorado),283,296,298,302,327

Lindoesite(Alberta),231

Lingersite(Colorado),283,296,298,300,327

Liomysirroratus,488

Liomyssp.,486

Lions,202,267

Lipogenesis,inlargemammals,83

Lipscombsite(Texas),283,301,343,345

Lithicartifacts:atAgateBasincomplexsites,31316

atAlaskansites,161,184,185

atBluefishCavessites,2035

atBurnhamsite,35556

atCloviscomplexsites,27273,28990

atCodycomplexsites,31920,322,32426

culturalvs.naturaloriginof,21721

atGoshencomplexsites,306,30810

atGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainsites,250,25459

atHellGapcomplexsites,31618

atMalpaiscomplexsites,286

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,417,418,422,428

atMexicansites,48385,489,491,493,495

atMidcontinentalNorthAmericansites,36768,37172,377

atpreClovissites,286,287,348,349

atSoutheasternUnitedStatessites,43536,449

atWesternBeringiansites,14548.

SeealsoParticularartifact

Lithicstage,ofhumansinMexico,48385

LittleBoxelderCavesite(Wyoming),267

LittleCanyonCreekCavesite(Wyoming),277

LittleGemarea(Alberta),320

LittleMountainarea(Wyoming),267

LittleSaltSpringsite(Florida),17,44445,472,504

LittleTennesseeRiver/TellicoReservoirProjectsites,44748,470

Liukiangman,95

Llamas,346

Llanocomplex,283

Loess:atAlaskansites,157,159,164,184

humancivilizationsand,91

periglacialecologyand,87

utilizationandsignificanceof,66

Lopatka4site(WesternBeringia),138

LosTapialessite(Guatemala),17

LovewellMammothsite(Kansas),13

''LowerPaleolithic,"useofterm,498

Lowrangetheoryofmodelbuilding,498,5013

 Page529

LubbockLakesite(Texas),283

Cloviscomplexand,289,290,346,347

Codycomplexand,319,321,322

Folsomcomplexand,300,343,345

Goshencomplexand,306

HellGapcomplexand,316

radiocarbondatingof,292,293,296,298,307,309,322,323,327

Lucysite(NewMexico),286

Lutracanadensis(otter),486,488

Luxuryorgans:ofHomosapiens,86

oflargemammals,8081

MacHaffiesite(Montana),296,298,327

MacHaffiesite(Scottsbluff),322,323,327

Magellaicfishtailpoints,507

Magnesium(Mg):periglacialecologyand,87

plantgrowthand,45

Maintenancephenotypes:humansand,90

largeanimalevolutionand,89

Maiorychsite(WesternBeringia),113

Malpaiscomplex,286,288

Maltansite(WesternBeringia),108,112,145,146

Mammals,large:diseasesandparasitesof,8586

ecologyof,79,84

evolutionof,7879,8086,88,89

fatstorageby,79,80,83

hypothesesforsizeof,89

inJapan,9799

karyotypesof,79,8384

luxuryorgansof,79,8081

ofNorthwesternPlainsarea,26768

inperiglacialenvironments,6

phenotypeplasticityof,85

Pleistoceneextinctionsof,366,443

ofPleistocenesteppelands,6

securitystrategiesof,85

weaponsof,79,81

Mammoths:atBerelekhsite,120,121,144

atBluefishCavessites,202

atBochanutsite,122

boneflakesof,13,2047

atBonfireSheltersite,349

butcheringof,290,292,445

atChesrowcomplex,14

atCloviscomplexsites,346,347

Clovishuntingof,27072,290,29294

Clovissubsistenceeconomyand,37374

atCoopertonsite,348

flutedpointsfoundwith,255

inglacialmargins,63

atGuestsite,444

huntingof,251,252,27072,273,290,29294

atJensensite,13

atLambSpringsite,287

atLaSenasite,1213

atLovewellMammothsite,13

inMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,15

inNorthwesternPlainsarea,267

atOldCrowBasinarea,2078

preservationandprotectionofmeatfrom,273

atShaffertsite,13

atWasdensite,11,296.

SeealsoColumbianmammothsSchaefermammothsWoolymammoths

MammothSteppebiomeconcept,6

Mammuthuscolumbi(Columbianmammoth),1213,348

Mammuthusprimigenius(woolymammoth),29

asIceAgemammal,78

inJapan,97,99,100

sitedistributionmapof,98

ofsteppelands,6

Mammuthussp.(mammoth):atBluefishCavessites,202

geographicexpansionmapof,101

Homosapienssapiensand,102

inNorthwesternPlainsarea,267

originsof,99

Manganese(Mn),plantgrowthand,45

ManisMastodonsite(Washington),10

ManixLakesite(California),250,286

Manningsite(Ohio),383

Manufacturingtechniques,tool:ofCloviscomplex,290,347

ofCodycomplex,318,322,324

ofFolsomcomplex,3034,346

ofHellGapcomplex,317,318

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,418

inMexico,48384,485,489

Manuports,495

Marich2site(WesternBeringia),128

Maritimeadaptations,ofAlaskancoastalpeoples,18283

MaritimeTropicalairmass,446

"Markerline,"169

Marmot,165,183

Martin'sCreeksite(Ohio),382

MasonQuimbyline,231

Mastodons:atBurningTreesite,382

atChesrowcomplex,14

inglacialmargins,63

huntingof,374

atKimmswicksite,376

atManisMastodonsite,10

atMartin'sCreeksite,382

inMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,15

atSaltvillesite,17

settlement/subsistencepatternsand,382.

SeealsoBoazmastodonDeerfieldmastodonRappuhnmastodon

Maximumglacialmodels,4

Mazamaamericana,83

Mazamaamericanatemama,83

Mazamagouazoubria,83

McLeansite(Texas),283,346,347

MeadowcroftMillerlanceolatepoints,15

MeadowcroftRocksheltersite(Pennsylvania),16,36667,36869,382,41618,42729

ClovisFirstmodeland,507

EarlyEntrymodeland,20

historicaldebateof,380,41920

Paleodriplinesignatureat,42526

paradigmshiftand,2

radiocarbondatingof,379,42022,424,427

solublecontaminationand,42425

topographyat,420,42425

Meadsite(Alaska),8,161,166,16768,184,188

Meatpreservation,protectionandcaches:atBurningTreesite,382

Cloviscomplexand,27374,292,347

inGreatLakessubarea,374

MedicineHatsite(Alberta),217,218,219

MedicineLodgeCreeksite(Wyoming),277,322,323,327

"Megaberingia"concept,28,106

Megafaunapopulations,90,443

Megaherbivorepopulations,90

Megalocerosgigantheus(Irishelk),78,81,85

Mesasite(Alaska),17273,185

artifactsfrom,161

nonflutedlanceolatepointsat,176

northwardhumanmovementand,22930

radiocarbondatingof,174,175,176,19091

stratigraphyof,174

Mesolithicadaptations,146

Mesolithicage,useofterm,146

Mexico,17,482

flutedprojectilepointsin,490

humanchronologyof,48385

mapof,484

RanchoLaAmapolasitein,2,17,49095

Tlapacoyaprojectin,17,48589

Miamisite(Texas),283,346,347

Michaudsite(Maine),403,408,411

Microbladecores:atAlaskansites,161

end,illustrationof,127

wedgeshaped,illustrationof,127

atWesternBeringiansites,145

Microblades:atAlaskansites,161

illustrationsof,117,119

atJapanesesites,96,142

innorthernEurasia,101,102

photographsof,204

atWesternBeringiansites,145

 Page530

Microdebitage,sourcesof,218

Microflakes,photographof,355

Microtusmexicanus,488

Microtussp.,486

Mictolite,219

MidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,15,363,365

archaeologicalsitesin,363,364

datingofsitesin,369,37980

earliestpeoplingof,36669

environmentof,36566,381

flutedpointoccupationof,370

latePaleoindiantransitionin,37778,383

ritualandartof,377

settlement/subsistencepatternsof,37376,38283

technologyof,37172

MidcontinentRiverinesubarea,15,370,372,37576,377,378

Middlerangetheoryofmodelbuilding,498,5035

MiddleTennesseeRiverValleysites(Alabama),44950

Midlandcomplex,275,276

Midlandpoints,3045,343

photographof,304

Mikkabisite(Japan),95

Miller,Albert,417

Millercomplex,418,428

Millerpoints,418,428

illustrationsof,426,427,428

MillIronsite(Montana):CharlieLakepointsand,226

Goshencomplexand,274,275,306,308

radiocarbondatingof,307,309,327

Milnesandsite(NewMexico),311

Minatogawasite(Okinawa),95

Mineralpans,periglacialecologyand,87

Minerals,largemammalsand,83

Minimumglacialmodels,4

Minnewankasite(Alberta),226

Miracinonyxtrumani(Americancheetah),267

MissouriRiver,12

MitochondrialDNA(mtDNA),4,51011

MiyagiPrefecture(Japan),96

MockingbirdGapsite(NewMexico),296

Modelbuilding.SeeScientificmodelbuilding

Modernanalogissue,biologicaldescentmodelsand,504

ModocRocksheltersite(Illinois),379,380

MojaveDesert,humanoccupationsof,250

Mojavepoints,316

Moleculararchaeology,499,51112,513

Molybdenum(Mo),plantgrowthand,45

MonaLisasite(Alberta),234

MonteVerdesite(Chile),2,3,435,497,507,509

Montgomerysite(Utah),298

Moose,78,99,122,130,144,202

antlerevolutiondepictedin,82

karyotypesof,83

MooseCreeksite(Alaska),8,16263,184

artifactsfrom,161

radiocarbondatingof,160,164,186

stratigraphyof,160

Mormoopsmegalophylla(leafchinnedbat),486,488

Mountainsheep,133,144,267

Mt.HayesIIIsite(Alaska),171

mtDNA.SeeMitochondrialDNA(mtDNA)

Muckafooneesite(Georgia),463,471,472

MudPortagesite(Ontario),377

Muellersite(Illinois),376

"Mung,"atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,424

MunsonSpringssite(Ohio),370

MunsungunLakecomplex(Maine),402,404

Muntiacusm.muntjak,83

Muntiacusm.vaginalis,83

Muntiacusreevesi,83

Muntjacs,83,84

MurraySpringssite(Arizona):Cloviscomplexand,289,290,292,293

Folsomcomplexand,301

radiocarbondatingof,292,293,327

MusashinoLoam,96

Muskoxen:adaptivemigrationby,66,67

atBluefishCaves,202

atBochanutsite,122

atChesrowcomplex,14

inNorthwesternPlainsarea,267

ofPleistocenesteppelands,6

atSaltvillesite,17

Myriophyllum,486

Nacosite(Arizona),292

Namadicus'elephant,98,99

NashvilleBasin/CumberlandRiversites(Tennessee),44849

NativeAmericansGraveProtectionandRepatriationActof1990(NAGPRA),11

Naumann'selephant,9799,100,101

Neanderthalman,6,7,86,91

NeboHillsite(Missouri),379

Negativefreeairgravityanomalies,31

Nelsonsite(Colorado),319,321,322,323

Nenanacomplexsites(Alaska),2,8,18,157,15964,18384

artifactsat,161,164

Cloviscomplexand,18,18182

paradigmshiftand,2

premicrobladeindustriesat,139

radiocarbondatingof,160

stratigraphyof,160

Nenanavalleyregion(Alaska),157,15964

Neotomamexicana,488

Neotomasp.,486

NewParisSinkholeNo.4site(Pennsylvania),420

NewSiberianIslands,29,30,31

NewWorlddeer:karyotypesof,83

plotofbodymassvs.latitude,83

NiahCaveman(Borneo),95

Nicholassite(Maine),403,4045,411

Niobrarachert,317

Niobrarajasper,355

Niskasite(Saskatchewan),226,230

Nitrates(NO3),43

atmosphericsourcesof,4849

distributionof,5658

glacialmarginsand,6,5860,61,62

globalsourcesof,55,56

highlatitudesourcesof,4953

inloess,66

fromsolarterrestrialinteractions,5356

transportof,viaprecipitation,49

Nitricacid(HNO3),44,52,53,55

Nitrogen,fixed,43

distributionof,5658

glacialmarginsand,4748,5860,62

globalatmosphericsourcesof,4849

highlatitudesourcesof,4953

fromsolarterrestrialinteractions,48,5356

terrestrialnitrogencycleand,4849

Nitrogen(N):inglacialmargins,5,6

plantgrowthand,45,46

Nitrousoxide(N2O),4344,48,57

NoblesPondsite(Ohio),370

Nombrefondamental(NF),ofchromosomes,83

Nonflutedlanceolatepoints,15,161,176,185,311,37778

Normativeapproach,ClovisFirstmodeland,5067

NortheasternNorthAmericaregion,1516,40112

NorthernAlaskaregion,161,17276

Northernboglemmings,267

NorthernPlanopoints,314

NorthwestAlaskaregion,161,174,17780

NorthwesternNorthAmericaregion,1011

NorthwesternPlainsarea,26465

AgateBasincomplexand,276

Cloviscomplexand,26873

 Page531

Folsomcomplexand,27576

Goshencomplexand,27475

HellGapcomplexand,276

highaltitudeadaptationsin,27677

latePleistocenepaleoecologyof,26668

mapof,265

meatpreservationandstoragein,27374

seasonalhuntingin,273

NotchedPointtradition,251

Nutrients,plant.SeePlantnutrients

Nuts,378,419,427

Nycticoraxnycticorax(blackcrownednocturnalheron),488

Oak,419,486,488

Obsidian:fromBatzaTnasource,178,181

atBrokenMammothsite,184

atEl'gakhchan1site,124

atInas'kvaamsite,129

atKobukcomplex,177

atPrinceofWalesIslandsite,183

atTlapacoyasites,489

atTytyl'1site,124

atUshki5site,138

atWasdensite,296

atWilsonButteCavesite,256

fromWrangellMountainssource,184

atZhokhovIslandsite,118

Obsidianhydrationtechnique,178,181,256,296,489,490

Ocher,162,218,272,286

Ochotonaprinceps(pika),267

OconeeRiver/WallaceReservoirsites(Georgia),45657,471

Odocoileus,84

Odocoileushalli(deer),486

Odocoileusvirginianus(whitetaileddeer),419,486,488

OldCordilleranpoints,11

OldCrowBasinarea(YukonTerritory),2078

mappositionsof,201

asapreglacialsite,9,216,21718,219,221

OldHumboldtsite(Nevada),255,258

OldWorlddeer,karyotypesof,83,84

OlsenChubbockpoints,319

OlsenChubbocksite(Colorado),319,321,322,323,327

OnionPortagesite(Alaska),161,174,17778,191

Opuntia,486,488

Orientedtundraforms,31

Orlovka2site(WesternBeringia),124,138

Ornamentalartifacts,146,484,485

illustrationsof,111,117

Otters,165,486,488

Outburstfloods,landscapeevolutionand,233

Overkillmodelhypothesis,ClovisFirstmodeland,506

Overlandroutehypothesis,9

Ovibos,78

Ovibosmoschatus(muskox),6,202

Oviscanadensis(mountainsheep),267

Oviscatclawensis(mountainsheep),267

Ovisdalli(Dallsheep),202

Ovisnivicola(mountainsheep),133

Ovissp.(mountiansheep),267

OwlCavesite(Idaho),255,298,327

OwlRidgesite(Alaska),8,16364,184

artifactsfrom,161

radiocarbondatingof,160,164,187

stratigraphyof,160

Oxygen(O2),plantgrowthand,45

Oystershelldeposits,asarchaelogicalsites,469

Ozetoceros,83

Ozone(O3),nitrousoxideand,44

Packardpoints,314

photographof,315

Packardsite(Oklahoma),314,315,327,440

Paedomorphiccontinentaldwarfs,evolutionof,80

Paedomorphicislanddwarfs,evolutionof,79

Page/Ladsonsite(Florida),46768,472

Palaeoloxodon,98,100

Palaeoloxodonnamadicus(Namadicus'elephant),98,99

Palaeoloxodonnaumanni(Naumann'selephant),9799,100,101

Paleoamerican,useofterm,1

Paleoarchaic,useofterm,251

PaleoCrossingsite(Ohio),259,382

Paleodriplinesignature,42526

Paleoecology:ofNorthwesternPlainsarea,26668.

SeealsoPeriglacialecology

Paleoenvironments,56

intheIceAgeArctic,27

ofMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,36566,381

periglacial,56,14,15,4344

ofSoutheasternUnitedStatesarea,44144.

SeealsoClimate

Paleoindian,useofterm,1

Paleoindianperiod:GreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainand,25052,253

SoutheasternUnitedStatesand,43940

Palmercornernotchedpoints,452,454

PanguingueCreeksite(Alaska),163,184

artifactsfrom,161

radiocarbondatingof,160,164,18687

stratigraphyof,160

Pantheraleoatrox(lion),202

Pappogeomyscastanops(tuza),486

Parabolicsanddunestraps:huntingofbisonusing,272,316

Parasites.SeeDiseasesandparasites

Parkhillcomplex,232,298,374

Parkhillpoints,232,506

Parkhillsite(Saskatchewan),229

Particulatecontamination,419,422

Passengerpigeons,419

Pathways,forpeoplingofNorthAmerica,910

PavoReal(49BX52)site(Texas),289

PeaceRiverpoints,506

PebbleTooltradition,227

Peccaries,346

Pedoturbation,treethrowsand,399

PedraFuradasite(Brazil),2,19,493,507

Pelecanuserythrorhynochos(whitepelican),488

Pendants,stone:illustrationof,111

PendejoCavesite(NewMexico),13

ClovisFirstmodeland,507

EarlyEntrymodeland,19,20

paradigmshiftand,2

preClovisculturesand,287

Pendulifolictemperateforest,486

PenPointsite(SouthCarolina),457,471

Periglacialecology,43,84,86,87,89

Periglacialenvironments,56,14,15,4344

Peromyscussp.,486

PerryRanchsite(Oklahoma),306,307,309,327

Phalacrocoraxauritus(doublecrestedcormorant),488

Phenotypeplasticity:ofhumans,8687

oflargemammals,85

representationof,85.

SeealsoDispersalphenotypesMaintenancephenotypes

Phippssite(Alaska),171

Phosphate:inglacialmargins,5,6,61,62

inloess,66

Phosphorous(P):derivedfromrocks,47

plantgrowthand,45,46

Physiographicregions,asarchaeologicalsites,48283

Picea(spruce),16,171,383,407,486

Picessquilles(bipolarcores),169

Pigeons,passenger,419

Pika,267

PilcherCreeksite(Oregon),11,255

Pine,16,419,486,488

 Page532

PinegroveCemeterysite(Michigan),379

Pinkchalcedony,128

PinkMountainsite(BritishColumbia),226

Pinusbanksiana(jackpine),16

Pinus(pine),419,486,488

Pit/moundtopography,398,399,404

PlainsandSouthwesternUnitedStatesarea,1214

AgateBasincomplexand,31116

Cloviscomplexand,28995

Codycomplexand,31926

Folsomcomplexand,296305

Goshencomplexand,30510

HellGapcomplex,31618

historicalstudiesand,28284

latePaleoindainphasesof,326

preClovisculturesof,28488

Plainviewpoints,14,274,275,309,310,346

Plainviewsite(Texas):Goshencomplexand,305,308,310

historicalstudiesand,283

radiocarbonagesof,307,309,327

Plainviewtradition,14

Planiaciulifolicalpineforest,486

Planocomplex,227,228,232,283

Planopoints,11,250,253,256

Plantnutrients:fixednitrogensourcesof,4856

fromglacialice,4748,6566

inglacialmargins,56,6054

nitratedistributionand,5658

fromrock,47

transferof,toglacialmargins,5860

Plants:fiberartifactsfrom,484

glacialmarginsandproductivityof,61,6566

requirementsforgrowthof,4546.

SeealsoParticularplantVegetation

Platicrasicaldesertbush,488

PlatteRiver,12

PleasantLakemastodonsite(Michigan),369,370

PleistoceneHoloceneboundary(PHB),422,434

Pocketgophers,267

Points.SeeParticularpointtype

Polarbears,120

Polarstratosphericclouds(PSCs),nitricacidtransportand,5253,55

Populus,171

Porcupines,165

Portalespoints,319

Potassium(K):derivedfromrocks,47

inglacialmargins,5,6,61,62

inloess,66

periglacialecologyand,87

plantgrowthand,45,46

PowderRiverBasinsite(Wyoming),268

"Pre11,500,"useofterm,498

PreClovis:defined,498

occupationsatMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,366,369

occupationsatShriversite,367

periodofSoutheasternUnitedStatesarea,43536

PreDaltonpoints,448,450

Preforms:bifaciallythinned,photographof,459

Codypoint,photographof,324

fluted,photographsof,459,461

Folsombiface,photographof,303

Premicrobladeindustries,WesternBeringian,139,142

Pressureflakingtechnique,484

Primaryreductiontechnology,WesternBeringian,145

PrinceofWalesIslandsite(Alaska),183

Prismaticblades:atBigPineTreesite,462

atCactusHillsite,435,436

illustrationsof,423,425

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,418

inMexico,484,489

Procyonlotor(raccoon),488

Procyon(raccoon),486

Productivityparadox,ofBeringia,4

Projectilepoints:paradigmshiftand,1,2,3.

SeealsoParticularpointtype

Pronghorns,267

Protoneolithicculturalhorizon,48485

PryorMountainsarea(Montana),267

Ptarmigan,121,144,165

Puckettsite(Tennessee),448

PutuBedwellsite(Alaska),161,173,174,175,191

Putupoints,181,506

PuturakPasssite(WesternBeringia),127,128,145,146

Quadpoints,17,437,439,450,464,471

photographof,440

Quadsite(Alabama),44950

Quarry/workshops,449,458,463

Quartz,16,17,489

Quartzite,14,16,138,317,435

Quercus(oak),419,486,488

Rabbits,267,486

Raccoons,486,488

Radiocarbondating,396

ofAgateBasin/Packardcomplexsites,314,327

ofAlaskansites,160,166,174,18691

ofBurnhamsite,285,287,354

ofCanadiansites,204,205,2078,226,227

carbon14plateausand,43435

ofCloviscomplexsites,289,29192,293,327,346,370

ofCodycomplexsites,321,322,323,327

ofFolsomcomplexsites,296,29798,327

forestfiresand,39798

ofGoshen/Plainviewcomplexsites,274,275,3078,309,327

ofGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainsites,25459

ofHellGapcomplexsites,316,327

ofIceFreeCorridor,22125

ofJapanesesites,95,9697

ofMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,379,42022,424,427

ofmegafaunaextinctions,443

ofMexicansites,48895

ofMidcontinentalNorthAmericansites,37980

ofNortheasternPaleoamericansites,40112

ofpreClovissites,28486,34849,435,436

ofSoutheasternUnitedStatessites,445,44855,462,46768,470

treethrowsand,398400

ofWesternBeringiansites,1089,143.

SeealsoAcceleratormassspectrometry(AMS)radiocarbondatingParticulararchaeologicalsite

Rae'sCreeksite(Georgia),455,472

RanchoLaAmapolasite(Mexico),2,17,49095

Rancholabreanfauna,90

Rangifer,85

Rangifertarandus(caribou),202

Rangifertarandus(reindeer),6

Rangifertarandus(woodlandcaribou),410

Rappuhnmastodon,374

RattlesnakePasssite(Wyoming),296,298,301,327

Ravens,488

RayHoleSpringsite,46970

RayLongsite(SouthDakota),283

Reddeer,83

Reddinsite(Colorado),300

Redocher,162,218,272

RedRiverknives,324

photographof,320

RedSmokesite(Nebraska),307,309,327

Redsquirrels,165

Redstonepoints,437,439

photographof,438

Reductionstrategies:ofCloviscomplex,290,347

ofCodycomplex,318,322,324

ofFolsomcomplex,3034,346

ofHellGapcomplex,317,318

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,418

inMexico,48384,485,489

 Page533

Reindeer:atAnanaiveem1site,129

atBerelekhsite,121,144

atBochanutsite,122

karyotypeof,83

atKurupka1site,128

luxuryorgansand,81

ofPleistocenesteppelands,6

atZhokhovIslandsite,120

Relativebodymassvslatitude:luxuryorgansand,81

variabilityinlargeanimals,81

Reniersite(Wisconsin),320

Reproduction,Kstrategiesin,90

RepublicanRiver,12

Retouchedblades:illustrationsof,115,117,119,127

atWesternBeringiansites,145

Retouchedflakes:atAlaskansites,161

illustrationof,136

RexRodgerssite(Texas),305,306,309

Rezchiki(scrapers),124,128

Rhinoceros,wooly,6,122

Rhyolite,118,459

Ribes,486

RicheyCloviscachesite(Washington),272

RicheyRobertssite(Washington),255,436

Ritualandart:ofMidcontinentalNorthAmerica,377.

SeealsoOrnamentalartifacts

Riverbottoms,asarchaeologicalsites,467

Riverchannelsandtributaries,asarchaeologicalsites,469

Rocks,plantnutrientsderivedfrom,47

Rodents,486,488

RodgersSheltersite(Missouri),378,379

Roedeer,84,85

RossCountypoints,437

photographof,438

R6site(NewMexico),319,322,324,326

Rucker'sBottomsite(Georgia),454,47072

RummelsMaskesite(Iowa),377

Rusacambojensis,84

Rusatimorensis,84

Rusaunicolormariannus,84

RushBayRoadsite(Ontario),36768

Ryansite(Texas),306,310

Saigatatarica(saigaantelope),6,202

Salix,486

Salmon,133

Saltvillesite(Virginia),17

Sambar,83

SandiaCavesite(NewMexico),286

Sandiapoints,286

photographof,287

SandySpringssite(Ohio),375

SanJonsite(NewMexico),283,319,321

SanLuisValleysite(Colorado),31314

SanPatricepoints,441,464

photographof,440

Sapellosites,322

Saskatoonsite(Saskatchewan),217,21819

SavannahRiversite(SouthCarolina),457

Saxifraga,486

Schaefermammoths,14

Scharbauersite(Texas),304,343,345

Scientificmodelbuilding,498,500501

highrangetheoryof,505

lowrangetheoryof,5013

middlerangetheoryof,5035

Scirpus,486,488

Scottsbluffpoints,319

Scottsbluffsite(Nebraska),283,319

Scrapers:atAlaskansites,161

circular,489,491

illustrationsof,132

atWesternBeringiansites,145.

SeealsoEndscrapersSidescrapers

Sealevels:archaelogicalsitesand,472

climateand,467

atPleistoceneend,444

Seals,183

SeaofOkhotskCoastregion,1067,11011

Seasonality,huntingand,273,292,317,32122,345

Secondaryreductiontechnology,WesternBeringian,145

Securitystrategies,oflargemammals,85

Selbysite(Colorado),285,286

SeminoleBeachsite(Wyoming),317

Semisubterraneandwellings,144

"Serialquarryscenario,"418

Settlement/subsistencepatterns,37376,38283.

SeealsoBandmovementsEncampments

Shaffertsite(Nebraska),13

Shaftstraightener,Clovis:photographof,295

Shaftwrenches,214

ShawneeMinisinksite,437

Sheamansite(Wyoming),272,308

Sheep,165,171,179.

SeealsoDallsheepMountainsheep

Sheeterosion,forestfiresand,398

Sheguiandahsite(Ontario),219,367,368,379

ShieldArchaictradition,228

ShiftingSandssite(Texas),300,302,343,345

Shilosite(WesternBeringia),116

ShimosueyoshiLoam,96

Shortfacedbears,267

Shoulderedpoints,251

Shriversite(Missouri),15,367,368

chronometricdatesof,367,369,370

flutedpointoccupationsand,370

photographsofartifactsfrom,368,369

SibbaldCreeksite(Alberta),10,181,226

Siberdiksite(WeaternBeringia),108,114,115,116,145,146

Siberia:ClovisFirstmodeland,1,2,5056

EarlyEntrymodeland,508

Pleistocenehumansin,101

premicrobladeindustriesof,142

WesternBeringianmigrationfrom,148

Siberianroedeer,83

Sidescrapers:atAlaskansites,161

illustrationsof,111,115

atWesternBeringiansites,145

SierraPinacatearea(Mexico),286

Sikadeer,83

SilverSpringssite(Alberta),10,20,21920

SimonCloviscachesite(Idaho),272

Simpsonpoints,17,437,439,466,468

photographsof,440,459

Simpson'sFieldsite(SouthCarolina),455,471,472

Sinkholes,asarchaeologicalsites,444,445,467

Sinomegaceros,98,99,100

Sinomegacerosyabei,97,99,100,101

Sister'sHillsite(Wyoming),316,317,327

Slate:atEl'gakhchan1site,124

atIoni10site,125

atKukhtui3site,107

atKurupka1site,128

atMaltan,112

atPuturakPasssite,128

atUl'khumsite,128

Sloths,376

Slumpsite(Alberta),220

SmithCreekCavesite(Nevada),12,25657,258,400

SmithMountainsites(Virginia),451

Smith'sLakeCreeksites(SouthCarolina),45860,462,471,472

SmokeyHillschert,317

SnakeRiverPlainarea.SeeGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainarea

Snowyegrets,488

Sodium,periglacialecologyand,87

Soilmixing,treethrowsand,399

Soilturnoverhalflife,treethrowsand,398

Solarprotonevents(SPEs),fixednitrogenand,54

Solarterrestrialinteractions,fixednitrogenand,5356

Solublecontamination:MeadowcroftRocksheltersiteand,419,422

mechanismsof,42425

 Page534

SoutheasternUnitedStatesarea,1617,43335

Clovisperiodof,43639

coastalplainssubareaof,45768

Daltonperiodof,44041

easternGulfofMexicositesof,46870

extinctfaunautilizationin,44445

maptositesof,436

middlePaleoindianperiodof,43940

PleistoceneHolocenedepositionalsystemsof,44647

PleistoceneHoloceneenvironmentsof,44144

preClovisperiodof,43536

southernAppalachianssubareaof,44757

Southernflyingsquirrels,419

SouthernHighPlainsproject,283

SouthernPlainsarea,34043

Burnhamsitein,34956

Clovisoccupationsof,34647

Folsomoccupationsof,343,34546

maptogeomorphologyof,342

maptositesof,344

preClovisoccupationsof,34849

SouthwesternUnitedStatesarea.SeePlainsandSouthwesternUnitedStatesarea

Spikecamps,inWesternBeringia,146

SpiritCavemalemummy,12

Spokeshaves,300,371

Folsom,photographof,301

inMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,371

Spruce,16,171,383,407,486

Squash,484

SquawRocksheltersite(Ohio),379

Squirrels,165,171,419

St.Albanssite(WestVirginia),380

St.Mary'sHallpoints,310

Stalkersite.SeeTaberChildsite(Alberta)

StateRoadRipplesite(Pennsylvania),15,369,370

Stemmedpoints:bifacial,illustrationsof,123,127,132

inGreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainarea,1112,25059

lanceolate,2,14,31011

inMexico,48384

StemmedPointtradition:GreatBasin/SnakeRiverPlainand,252,253

originof,25859

asatechnologicaltradition,25556

Steppebison,6,131,133,144,161

Stewart'sCattleGuardsite(Colorado),300,302,304

Stock'svampirebats,486

Stratigraphicprofiles:ofAlaskansites,160,166,174

ofBerelekhsite,121

ofBigPineTreesite,461

ofBurnhamsite,353,354

culturalsuccessionstudiesand,283

disturbanceof,bytreethrows,398400

ofKongosite,114

ofRanchoLaAmapolasite,494

ofSiberdiksite,116

ofTlapacoyasites,487

ofUshki1site,131

Subterraneandwellings,130,133,135

Subtropicallatifolicmeadow,486

Sulfur(S),plantgrowthand,45

Sumnagincomplex(WesternBeringia),14647,148

Sunlight:periglacialecologyand,87

plantgrowthand,45

Sunshinelocality(Nevada),254

Surfacedwellings,133,135,144

Suwanneepoints,17,437,439

atHarneyFlatssite,466

lateralthinningillustratedfor,441

atOconeeRiversites,456

atPage/Ladsonsite,468

photographof,440

atSilverSpringssite,465,466

atTampaBaysites,468,469

SwanPointsite(Alaska),8,165,166,167,184

artifactsat,161,170,184

huntingand,170

radiocarbondatingof,166,170,188

stratigraphyof,166

wedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladeindustriesat,144

Swans,165

Sylvilagussp.(cottontail),267

Sylvilagussp.(rabbit),486

Sympatricecologicalspecialists,79,81

Sympatry,268

Synaptomysborealis(northernboglemming),267

TaberChildsite(Alberta),216,218,219

TachikawaLoam,96

Taimataimasite(Venezuela),2,3,507

Taliainsite(WesternBeringia),127,129,143

Taltheileitraditon,228

TampaBaysites(Florida),46869,472

Tananavalleyregionsites(Alaska),161,16470,184

TangleLakessites(Alaska),161,17071,172,18990

Taxodium,486

Taxodiummucronatum(ahueheutes),488,489

TaylorHillsite(Georgia),458,471

Taylorsidenotchedpoints,460

Teardropshapedpoints,illustrationof,132

Technologicaladaptations,WesternBeringian,14647

Tecovasjasper,347

TeklanikaWestsite(Alaska),172,190

Temperature:inglacialmargins,61,62,64

graphoflast150ka,44

atMeadowcroftRocksheltersite,420

periglacialecologyand,87,233

plantgrowthand,45,46

Templeton(6LF21)site(Connecticut),403,409,411

Terrestrialentryroute,EarlyEntrymodeland,19

Tertiarychert,439

TexasAngosturapoints,310

TexasScottsbluffpoints,310,324

photographof,324

Thalarctos,78

ThedfordIIsite(Ontario),377,383

Theriaultsite(Georgia),462,471,472

Thermokarstfeatures,31,120

Thermoluminescence(TL)dating,139,367

Thomomyssp.(pocketgopher),267

Thunderbirdsite(Virginia),435,437,472

Tiksiarea(Siberia),2931

TiksiBay,30

Till:artifactsand,21821

diamictvs.,219

TimAdriansite(Kansas),317

Timordeer,83

Tlapacoyaproject(Mexico),17,48589

maptositesof,485

stratigraphicprofilesof,487

Tools:cachesof,377

Clovisstrategiesofproducing,290,347

Codystrategiesofproducing,318,322,324

denticulated,17,483,484

Folsomstrategiesofproducing,3034,346

HellGapstrategiesofproducing,317,318

madefromivory,27273,289,444

MeadowcroftRocksheltersitestrategiesofproducing,418

Mexicanstrategiesofproducing,48384,485,489

wedgeshaped,142,145,161.

SeealsoBonetoolsParticulartool

Tortoises,44445

Traceelementanalysis,EarlyEntrymodeland,509

TrailCreekCavessites(Alaska),161,17879,191

TransPecosarea(Texas),286

Treethrows,398400,404,405,411

Triangularpoints:atAlaskansites,161

photographof,226

TuleLakesite(Oregon/California),259

TuleSpringssite(Nevada),250

 Page535

TurkeySwampsite(NewJersey),403,40910,411

Turtles,346,376

Tusks,167

asluxuryorgans,81

madeintotools,27273,289,444

ofMammothprimigenius,29

Tuza,486

TwelveMileCreeksite(Kansas),292,293,301,327

TwinMountainBisonKillsite(Colorado),275

Tytyl'1site(WesternBeringia),123,124,145,146

Udorasite(Ontario),370,371,375,377

Ui1site(WesternBeringia),108,116,117,118,145,146

Ul'khum1site(WesternBeringia),127,12829,143

Unflutedpoints,2,4,17

lanceolate,15,161,176,311,37778

Unifacialtools:atAlaskansites,161

atWesternBeringiansites,145.

SeealsoParticulartool

UpperCaveman(NorthChina),95

UpperKolymaMountainregion(WesternBeringia),107,11218

UpperMercerchert,37576

UpperSavannahRiver/RichardB.RussellReservoirsites(GeorgiaandSouthCarolina),45355

UpperTwinMountainsite(Colorado),306,307,309,310,327

Uptar1site(WesternBeringia),107,108,110,111,139,145

Ursusamericanus(blackbear),486

Ursusarctos(bear),99,202

Ursusspelaeus(cavebear),78

UshkiLakesites(WesternBeringia),129,130

Ushki1site(WesternBeringia),13031,133,135

dwellingsat,144

faunalartifactsat,184

featuresof,133,134,137,14042

latePaleolithicadaptationsat,144

lithicartifactsfrom,drawingsof,132,136

premicrobladeindustriesat,139,142

radiocarbondatingof,109

stratigraphicprofileof,131

wedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladeindustriesat,8,143

Ushki2site(WesternBeringia),135

Ushki4site(WesternBeringia),135,138

Ushki5site(WesternBeringia),109,138,145,146

Vailsite(Maine),403,4078,411

VarsityEstatessite(Alberta),10,20,21920

Vegetation:ofAlaskacoastalregion,183

atBluefishCavessites,202

depositionalchangesandroleof,446,447

atGallagherFlintStationsite,175

duringlatePleistoceneandearlyHolocene,442

inMidcontinentalNorthAmericaarea,365,366

atOnionPortagesite,177

duringPleistoceneHolocenetransition,441,443

atTangleLakessites,171

atTlapacoyasites,486,488

atUshki1site,130,131,135

inWesternBeringia,106

atZhokhovIslandsite,118

VentanaCavesite(Arizona),308

VermilionLakessite(Alberta),226,229,230,233,234

Villages,135.

SeealsoDwellingstructures

Vitamins:inlargemammals,83

Voles,heather,183

Vulpes(fox),267

WacissaRiversite(Florida),17,445

Waistedflutedpoints,photographof,438

WalkerRoadsite(Alaska),8,162,184

artifactsfrom,161

radiocarbondatingof,160,164,186

stratigraphyof,160

Walnuts,378,419,427

WapanucketNo.8site(Massachussetts),403,411

Wapiti,84,85,159,202

WarmMineralSpringssite(Florida),444,445,472

Wasdensite(Idaho),11,255,296,298,327

Water:Folsomencampmentsand,345

inglacialmargins,62

plantgrowthand,45,46,50,51

Waterdeer,83

Waughsite(Oklahoma),301

Weapons:oflargemammals,81.

SeealsoParticulartypeofweapon

Welling/NellieHeightssite(Ohio),375,376

WesternBeringia,8,1056,185

Alaskarelationshipto,148

artifactsfoundin,145

ChukotkaPeninsulaandBeringSeaCoastregionof,12529

dwellingsin,144,146

humancolonizationof,13839,148

IndigirkaKolymaLowlandsregionof,11822

KamchatkaPeninsularegionof,12938,14042

latePaleolithicadaptationsof,144,146

maptositesin,105

Mesolithicadaptationsof,14647

premicrobladeindustriesof,139,142

radiocarbondatingofsitesin,1089,143

SeaofOkhotskCoastregionof,1067,11011

Sumnagincomplexrelationshipto,14647,148

UpperKolymaMountainregionof,11218

wedgeshapedcoreandmicrobladeindustriesof,143,144

WesternInteriorChukotkaregionof,12224

WesternClovispoints,254,255,437,465,466

WesternCorridoralternative,IceFreeCorridorand,223

WesternInteriorChukotkaregion(WesternBeringia),12224

WesternPluvialLakesTradition(WLPT),252

WesternStemmedPointtradition,18,252,507

Wetzelsite(Colorado),319,321,322,323,327

Whartonsite(Texas),296,298,327

Whipplesite(NewHampshire),403,408,411

Whitelippeddeer,83

Whitepelicans,488

Whitetaileddeer,83,376,419,486,488

WhitmoreRidgesite(Alaska),171

Willardmastodonsite(Ohio),369

Willow,dwarf,171

WilsonButteCavesite(Idaho),12,256,259

WilsonLeonardsite(Texas),308,309,310,327

Wilsonpoints,310

Windustpoints,11,316

WindyCitysite(Maine),403,404,405,406,410

Winklersite(Texas),304

Winterssite(Oklahoma),343,345

WizardBeachskull,12

Wizard'sBeachsite(Nevada),259

Wolverines,183,267

Wolves,99,202,267,346

Woodlandcaribou,410

Woolymammoths,29

atBochanutsite,122

asIceAgemammal,78

inJapan,97,99,100

inPleistocenesteppelands,6

sitedistributionmapof,98

Woolyrhinoceros,6,122

Wormwood,106

WrangellMountains,184

Wyomingchert,317

Yamashitasite(Okinawa),95

YanaIndigirkaLowlandarea(Siberia),31,32

Yedoma,31

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YellowHawksite(Texas),346,347

YellowhouseDrawsite(Texas).SeeLubbockLakesite(Texas)

YellowstoneRiver,12

YoungerDryasoscillations,36

Yumapoints,282,283

Zapatasite(Colorado),300

ZhokhovIslandsite(WesternBeringia),109,118,119,120,145

Zimasite(WesternBeringia),108,116,117,145,146

Zinc(Zn),plantgrowthand,45