Pagei

SouthernLiteraryStudies
FredHobson,Editor

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TheNarrativeFormsofSouthernCommunity
ScottRomine

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Copyright1999byLouisianaStateUniversityPress
Allrightsreserved
ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
Firstprinting
0807060504030201009954321

Designer:MicheleMyattQuinn
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LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Romine,Scott.
ThenarrativeformsofSoutherncommunity/ScottRomine.
p.cm.(Southernliterarystudies)
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN080712401X(cl:alk.paper)
ISBN080712527X(p:alk.paper)
1.AmericanfictionSouthernStatesHistoryandcriticism.
2.Longstreet,AugustusBaldwin,17901870.Georgiascenes.
3.Kennedy,JOhnPendleton,17951870.Swallowbarn.4.Page,
ThomasNelson,18531922.InoleVirginia.5.Percy,William
Alexander,18851942.Lanternsonthelevee.6.Faulkner,William,
18971962.LightinAugust.7.SouthernStatesInliterature.
8.Communityinliterature.9.Narration(Rhetoric)10.Literary
form.11.Autobiography.I.Title.II.Series.
PS261.R531999
813.009'975dc219914905
CIP

ThepaperinthisbookmeetstheguidelinesforpermanenceanddurabilityoftheCommitteeonProductionGuidelinesforBookLongevityoftheCouncilonLibrary
Resources.

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Formyparents,DonnaandJerryRomine

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Contents

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction 1

1 24
NegotiatingCommunityAugustusBaldwinLongstreet'sGeorgiaScenes

2 65
ThePlantationCommunityJohnPendletonKennedy'sSwallowBarnand
ThomasNelsonPage'sInOleVirginia

3 112
TheAestheticsofCommunityWilliamAlexanderPercy'sLanternsontheLevee

4 149
NarratingtheCommunityNarratingWilliamFaulkner'sLightinAugust

Epilogue:WhencetheCommunity?SomeThoughtsonContemporarySouthern 196
Fiction

Bibliography 213

Index 223

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Acknowledgments
FirstandwarmestthankstoProfessorsFredHobson,JuliusRowanRaper,LucindaH.MacKethan,WeldonThornton,RobertL.PhillipsJr.,JohnSheltonReed,and
KimballKingforreadingallorpartofthismanuscriptatvariousstages.Theirinsights,suggestions,andexpertisehavebeeninvaluable.ASummerExcellence
ResearchAwardfromtheUniversityofNorthCarolinaatGreensborowashelpfulinprovidingtimetocompletethisproject.Thanksalsotomycolleaguesatthe
UniversityofNorthCarolinaatGreensboro,especiallyMichaelParker,RussMcDonald,GailMcDonald,MaryEllisGibson,andStephenYarbrough,forvariouse
mailcorrespondence,conversationsinthehallway,andoffhandinsightsthathave,inonewayoranother,affectedmythinkingabouttheissuesraisedinthisbook.An
earlierversionofchapter1waspublishedas"NegotiatingCommunityinAugustusBaldwinLongstreet'sGeorgiaScenes"inStyle30,no.1(spring1996):127and
anearlierversionofchapter3waspublishedas"TheLeveeandtheGarden:WillPercy'sPastoralAestheticinLanternsontheLevee"inSouthernQuarterly35,
no.1(fall1996):2942.Thankstothesejournalsandtheireditors,JamesM.MellardandStephenFlinnYoung,forpermissiontoreprintthismaterial.Mywife,
KarenWeyler,hasbeenwillingtodiscussideas,readdraftsofchapters,andmarkthemwithcopiousamountsofredink.Lastly,Iwouldliketothankthelate
ProfessorRobertBain,withwhomIsharedmanyconversationsaboutsouthernliteraturethatIvaluemoreandmoreastheyearspass.

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Introduction
InhischapteronWilliamFaulknerinTheHistoryofSouthernLiterature,CleanthBrookswritesthata"truecommunity...isheldtogetherbymannersandmorals
derivingfromacommonlyheldviewofreality."1Itisvirtuallyaclichthatthis"truecommunity"iscentraltosouthernliteraturefromthebeginningofsouthernliterary
studiesasanacademicdiscipline,thecommunityhasservedasacriticaltouchstone,perhapsmostnotablyintheworkofBrookshimself.AndyetBrooksmakesa
mistakesoobviousthat,likePoe'spurloinedletter,itthreatenstogounnoticed:thecommonlyheldviewofrealitytowhichherefersisafantasyandalwayshasbeen.
Itaketheverypresenceofmannerswhichare,afterall,awayofdeferringconflictonaneverydaybasistoindicatethefantasticalnatureofasocialgroupthat
apprehendsreality"asone."Mannersmightbesaidtoproduceacommonlyheldviewofrealitytheydonotderivefromit.Writersintheconservativetraditionhave
tendedtoreplicateBrooks'spositivisttendencieswithoutreplicatinghiscriticalacumen,oftencreatinganartificialdivisionbetweenthecommunity'svicesandits
virtues,adivisionthatallowstherecuperationoftheoneandtherepressionoftheother,asif,say,racialdiscriminationwasanincidentalflawofthesouthern
communitycirca1930
1.CleanthBrooks,"WilliamFaulkner,"inTheHistoryofSouthernLiterature,ed.LouisRubinetal.(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1985),339.

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thatneednotimplicateanentiresystemofcohesive(andpresumablyotherwiselegitimate)socialrelationships.Oneperniciousconsequenceofthisviewhasbeenthe
widespreaddissolutionofthefirstlawofcommunity,whichItaketobethis:insofarasitiscohesive,acommunitywilltendtobecoercive.

Asecondperniciousconsequencehasbeentherepresentationofcommunityashavingprimarilypositivecontent,anideathatgenerallyappearscouchedinarhetoric
ofsharedvalues.Thedifficultywiththislogiccanbeindicatedbyaskingwhichvaluesproducedsegregation.Brooksnearlyavoidsthismistake,placingmoralsina
subordinatepositiontoasharedperceptionofreality,whichisanecessarilypriorassumption.Buttotheextentthatrealityisnotfullyshared,moralscannotbeeither,
exceptinanegativesensethatis,insofarastheydefineprohibitions.Communitiescoherenotbymeansofvalues,butnorms,whichcanbecomprehensiveinaway
thatvaluesnevercan.AstheFrenchsociologistEmileDurkheimsaysinelaboratinghisconceptofthecommonconsciousness(orcollectivemind)inTheDivisionof
LaborinSociety(1893),"weshouldnotsaythatanactoffendsthecommonconsciousnessbecauseitiscriminal,butthatitiscriminalbecauseitoffendsthat
consciousness.Wedonotcondemnitbecauseitisacrime,butitisacrimebecausewecondemnit."Writingofthe"sacredtaboo"ofmiscegenation,WillPercy
demonstratesthevalidityofDurkheim'sinsightintheMississippiDelta:"Itisacademictoarguethewisdomorjusticeofthistaboo.Wiseorunwise,justorunjust,itis
thecornerstoneoffriendlyrelations,orinterracialpeace.Inthepastithasbeennottheeleventhbutthefirstcommandment.Eventoquestionitmeanstheshatteringof
racerelationsintohideousandbloodyruin."2Unabletoidentifythetransgressivecontentofmiscegenation,muchlessthevaluesthatdefinethatcontent,Percycanonly
verifythenorm,and,moreover,theimportanceofasharedsenseofthatnormtothecontinuityofaninterracialcommunity.Valuesmightappearaspostfacto
justificationsofnorms,butthenormsarealways,alreadythere.

Durkheimestablishedapositivecorrelationbetweenthecommoncon
2.EmileDurkheim,TheDivisionofLaborinSociety,trans.W.D.Halls(NewYork:FreePress,1997),40WilliamAlexanderPercy,LanternsontheLevee:Recollectionsofa

Planter'sSon(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1941),307308.

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sciousnessandthepresenceofwhathecallsmechanicalsolidarity,anarchaicmodeofsocialorganizationmarkedbyanearabsenceofspecializeddivisionsoflabor,
socialclasses,andindividualautonomy.Suchsolidarityhaslimitedrelevanceinthecontextofthesoutherncommunityexceptinsofarasitpointstothesimulated
consensusaparadoxthatintimatelyinformstheworksunderconsiderationherebymeansofwhichtheSouthcouldestablishtheessentiallycohesivenatureofits
socialorder.Oneoftheseveralironiesofsouthernhistoryisthatsomethingapproachingmechanicalsolidarity,inwhich,asDurkheimsays,"theindividual
consciousnessisalmostindistinctfromthecollectiveconsciousness...[and]theindividualhasnosphereofactionthatispeculiarlyhisown,"3couldexistinsucha
stratifiedanddeeplydividedculture.

AllenTatestructuresTheFathersaroundaprovocativequestionthatassumesthefundamentallynegativecontentofsocialreality:"isnotcivilizationtheagreement,
slowlyarrivedat,tolettheabyssalone?"4InappropriatingTate'sideaofthesocialnegative,Imeantosuggestthatcommunityisenabledbypracticesofavoidance,
deferral,andevasioninacertainsense,asTateimplies,communityreliesnotonwhatistheresomuchaswhatis,bytacitagreement,notthere.Hence,anew
definitionofcommunity:asocialgroupthat,lackingacommonlyheldviewofreality,coheresbymeansofnorms,codes,andmannersthatproduceasimulated,orat
leastsymbolicallyconstituted,socialreality.ThisstudyexamineshowthatrealityisconstructedandmaintainedinfivemajornarrativesoftheAmericanSouth
AugustusBaldwinLongstreet'sGeorgiaScenes(1835),JohnPendletonKennedy'sSwallowBarn(1832),ThomasNelsonPage'sInOleVirginia(1887),William
AlexanderPercy'sLanternsontheLevee(1941),andWilliamFaulkner'sLightinAugust(1932).

Theworksunderdiscussionhereareallrepresentativeworks.Bythis,Idonotmeantoimplyonlythattheyrepresentsomeparticulargenre,althoughmanyofthem
do.GeorgiaScenesisgenerallyregardedasthefoundingtextofsouthwesternorbackwoodshumorSwallowBarnandInOleVirginiaarewidelyconsideredthe
twocentralnarrativesintheplantation
3.Durkheim,DivisionofLabor,140.

4.AllenTate,TheFathers(NewYork:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1938),18586.

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traditionLanternsontheLeveeisanimportantexampleofwhatmightbelabeledthesouthernculturalautobiography,agenreinwhichpersonalnarrativeandcultural
commentarycombineinacomplexmediationofselfandroleandLightinAugust,perhapstheleastrepresentativetextgenericallyspeaking,epitomizesmanyofthe
modernisttechniquesandthemesthatcharacterizetheRenascenceperiod.Nordotheseworksrepresentthewholeof''UncleSam'sotherprovince":theTidewater
SouthofKennedyandPagediffersradicallyfromtheLongstreet'sPiedmont,whilePercy'sDeltaandFaulkner'spostagestampofMississippisoilaredifferentworlds,
despitebeingseparatedgeographicallybyjustoverahundredmiles.Nor,finally,dotheseworksrepresentthewholeofsoutherncultureatanygivenpointandtime
theperspectivestheyofferareunequivocallywhite,male,andupperclass.ThespecificsenseinwhichIclaimthattheseworksarerepresentativeliesinthewaysthey
demonstratehowahegemonicsocialorderinagivenplaceandtimeattemptedtoresolveitsinternalconflictsandlegitimateitshegemony.Inmanyways,theseworks
canbethoughtofasvariationsonapaternalistictheme.

Inclaimingthatcommunityisenabledbypracticesofdeferral,Ishouldbecarefultoavoidtheimplicationthatcommunitylacksanycontentwhatsoever.Because
deferralitselfhasastructure,aheuristicmodelofcommunityisthereforeinorder.Inproviding,inaveryschematicway,suchamodel,Iwanttoindicatethree
conditionsortechniquesofdeferraldrawingboundaries,imaginingstructures,andcreatingimagesthatfindexpressionthroughouttheworksunderconsideration.

IthasbeensaidthatintheSouthamanfromthenextcountyisastranger,andonefromthenextstateisaforeigner.Whateveritstruth,thisaxiomindicatesthe
importantroledrawingaboundaryplaysindefiningacommunity'sinsideandoutside,and,moreimportantly,itsconditionsofinsiderhoodandoutsiderhood.Although
thisboundaryoftenhasageographicalanalog,itdoesnotcorrespondpreciselytoacitylimit:itresistsmappinginastrictsense.Faulkner'sJeffersonandPercy's
Greenvilleperhapscomeclosesttohavingageographicalboundary,althoughMottstowninFaulkner'snovelessentiallyreplicatesthecollectivemindofitsneighboring
city,whereasPercy'sboundaryisinaconstantstateofflux,sometimesbordering

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theSouth,sometimesMississippi,sometimestheDelta,sometimesGreenville,andintheend,Iargue,boundingonlyPercy'sself,therebyproducingsomethinglikea
communityofone.TheboundaryofPercy'slocalcommunityisthus,likethatofmanyofthecommunitiesIwillconsider,circumscribedbymoredistant,concentric
boundaries.KennedyandPage,forexample,haveboundariescircumscribingtheplantation,thelocalnetworkofplantations,Virginia,andtheSouth.Although
Longstreet'scommunityisthemostgeographicallyamorphousofthemall,hisdescriptionofoneparticulartownepitomizestherolethatboundariesplayforallofthese
writersindefiningcommunitiesassocialunits.EspousingthelocalismoftheStateRights'creed,LongstreetwritesthatSpringfieldfelt"thatundertheSocialCompact,
sheoughttoloveherownstatealittlemore"thanotherstates,and"admittedfrankly,thatlivingasshealwayshadlived,rightamidstgullies,vapours,fogs,creeks,and
lagoons,shewaswhollyincapableofcomprehendingthatexpansivekindofbenevolence,whichtaughthertolovepeoplewhomsheknewnothingabout,asmuchas
hernextdoorneighborsandfriends."5Inthusvalorizinglocalism,Longstreetprivilegesinabsolutetermsinsiderhoodoveroutsiderhoodtobeinsideisnotequivalent
tobeingmoreintrinsicallyworthyofregard,buttobelocatedwithinanetworkofsocialrelationshipsandobligationsthatdoesnotextendindefinitely.

Longstreetcallsattentiontoanotherimportantfacetofboundaries:theytendtobedrawninsuchawayastodivideorderfromchaos,internalsecurityfromexternal
threat.ForthecitizensofSpringfield,thethreatconsistsofhostilenaturalforcesthatdemandsocialcohesioninothercases,thethreatismoresocialorpoliticalin
origin.Althoughthethreatdoesnotalwayslieimmediatelyoutsidethecitylimitsoften,theboundariesofthestateoroftheSouthservethatfunctionthecommunal
boundarydoestendtomarkaspaceinsideofwhichsocialorderobtains.ThenarrativeworkofGeorgiaScenesistoestablishorderinphysicallocalespreviously
perceivedtolackorder,andthustotransformlocaleintocommunity.IncontrasttotheperipateticnarratorsofLongstreet'swork,thearistocratsofSwallowBarn
andLanternsontheLeveearemorerigorouslyboundtotheir
5.AugustusB.Longstreet,GeorgiaScenes:Characters,Incidents,&c.intheFirstHalfCenturyoftheRepublic(1835Savannah,Ga.:BeehivePress,1975),125.

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respectivecommunitiesandthustendtodeferorprojectchaosontotheoutsideworld.MarkLittleton,thenarratorofSwallowBarn,describesthemasterofthe
plantationas"quietlyobservingthetumultofaffairsfromapositiontoodistanttobereachedbysordidpassionsthatswaythemultitude,"whileLeRoyPercy,thehero
ofLanternsontheLevee,expresseshisdesire,afterhispoliticaldefeatatthehandsofthepoorwhites,tokeephiscommunity,"thissmallcorneroftheUnitedStates
inwhichIreside,comparativelycleananddecentinpoliticsandfitforamantolivein."6Ineachinstancethecommunalboundarymarksnotmerelyanalreadyordered
socialspace,butaspaceinsideofwhichordercanandmustbeactivelymaintained.Thecommunalboundary,then,tendstodefinethelimitsofsocialresponsibility
andsocialagency.

Theordercircumscribedbythecommunalboundaryinvariablyinvolvesanorganizationofsocialtypesalongclassandracelines.Herelocalismgiveswaytoamore
genericallysouthernsymbolicvocabulary.InLanternsontheLeveeWillPercyassertsunequivocallythat"thebasicfiber,theclothoftheDeltapopulationasofthe
wholeSouthisbuiltofthreedissimilarthreadsandonlythree"thelandedgentry,poorwhites,andNegroes.7AlthoughPercy'sownnarrativecomplicatesthis
tripartitedivision,abasicdivisionofthecommunityintohighwhite,lowwhite,andAfricanAmericanoccursineachoftheworksIconsider.Tobesure,eachwork
placesdifferentemphasesonthesecategories:GeorgiaScenes,forexample,doesnotparticularlyconcernitselfwithAfricanAmericancharacters,nordoesLightin
Augustplaceagreatdealofemphasisonclassdistinctionsamongitswhitecharacters.Moreover,severaloftheseworksmakeadditionaldelineationsamongthethree
basicgroupslistedabove:GeorgiaScenes,forexample,emphasizestheyeoman(thepositivecounterpartofthepoorwhite),whereasInOleVirginiadistinguishes
betweenslaveswhovalidatethesocialorder
6.J.P.Kennedy,SwallowBarnor,ASojournintheOldDominion,rev.ed.(NewYork:G.P.Putnam,1853),215Percy,LanternsontheLevee,152.

7.Percy,LanternsontheLevee,19.Throughoutthisstudy,Iusetheoutmodedterm"Negro"torefertothisgroupasitwassymbolicallyconceivedandrepresentedbythewhite

writerinquestion,allofwhomusethistermtorefertoAfricanAmericans.Similarly,thepejorativeterm"poorwhite"isusedtorefertothecategoryoflowerclasswhitesasmediated
bythewriterorcommunityinquestion.

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andthosewhothreatenit.Butwhateverthespecificconfigurationofsocialtypes,theyremainstructuralinastrictsense:theircategoricalintegrityiscontingentuponthe
presenceofanother.Theculturalandnarrativelogicbymeansofwhichtheseoppositionalcategoriesaremaintainedisacentralthemeofthisstudy.

Percy'sclothmetaphorhighlightsacentralissueconcerningsocialtypes:foracommunitytoremainacommunity,theseveraltypesmustorganicallycohereinsucha
mannerastoproducea"tightknit"order(toextendPercy'smetaphor).Thepresenceoftypespresupposeshierarchy,whichtheFrenchsociologistPierreBourdieu
usefullydefinesasthesimultaneouspresenceofunityanddivision.Division,basedondeviationfromthenormsuppliedbythewhiteupperclass,requiresthat
deprivilegedgroupsenterthecommunityaslimitedpartnerslimitedinthesenseofhavingcertainsocialrightsandprivilegesdeniedtothem,partnersinthesensethat
theyconsensuallyparticipateinthesocialorder.Toestablishitselfasanorganicorderthatis,anaturalratherthanaconstructedorinstrumentalonethecommunity
anditsrepresentativesmustthereforeestablishtwothings,thenaturalbasisofdivisionandthecollectivebasisofunity.Division,then,isdefinedfromthetopdown,
whileunityisassertedfromthebottomup.Becausedeprivilegedgroupsarerequiredtoparticipateconsensuallyinthesocialorder,theyacquireacertainpowerto
disruptcommunity,whichcanneverovertlyannounceitselfasaformofcoercion.InGramscianterms,communitycanbeconceivedasalocalizedformofhegemony
dependentupon"spontaneous"consent,andyet,asGramscishows,hegemonyisneverpurelyconsensual.Itispreciselythedynamicdeferralofcoercionintoconsent
thatnecessitates,asweshallsee,theinterventionofanarrativeapparatus.8

Thefirsttwoconditionsofcommunity,aboundaryandastructure,areessentiallystructural(ifnotperfectlystable)thatistosay,theymaintainwhatintegritytheyhave
throughoppositionanddifference.Thethird,animage,isnot.Inmanywaystheleasttangibleelementofcommunity,animagepermitsamimeticorientationinwhich
thepositiveattributesof
8.PierreBourdieu,OutlineofaTheoryofPractice,trans.RichardNice(Cambridge,U.K.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1977),165forGramscionthe"spontaneous"natureof

hegemonicconsent,seeSelectionsfromthePrisonNotebooksofAntonioGramsci,ed.andtrans.QuintinHoareandGeoffreyNowellSmith(NewYork:InternationalPublishers,
1971),516.

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community(cohesiveness,order,stability,interdependence,andsoon)arelentakindoficonicintegrityor,toputthematteranotherway,aredisplacedintothings.
Thecommunity'siconpermitsawayofthinkingaboutcommunitythateffacesitsstatusasthinking,sincethecommunityappearsinthisconfigurationasanobjectthere
tobeperceivedratherthanastheproductofcollectiveorquasicollectiveprojection.Ihardlyneedaddthatsuchiconsarehighlyselective,northatthisselectivity
historicallyhasenabledthewhiteSouth'sperennialclaimtobejudgedonthebasisofitsbesticonsandnotitsworst.

Havingprovidedamodelofcommunity,Ishouldreiteratethatcommunitiesdonotneatlyresolvethemselvesintomodels.Evenif,asIamsuggesting,communitiesare
innoway"objective,"peoplestill,forallintentsandpurposes,liveinthem.OneneedonlyscananywrittenmaterialontheSouth,fromacademiccriticismtoSouthern
Living,forthephrase"senseofplace"toperceivehowfullythesubjectiveexperienceofcommunityhistoricallyhasbeendisplacedontoobjects.AndwhileIshall
arguethat"senseofplace"correlatespositivelywiththelessadmirable"intheirplace,"itwouldbegrosslymisleadingtosuggestthatasenseofplaceisnothingmore
thanacynicalalibiforexploitation.AsJrgenHabermassaysofthelifeworld(Lebenswelt),thecommunity'ssocialrolesandnormscanneverbeperceivedasbeing
instrumentalorstrategic,ashavingapurposesuchasdistributingmaterialwealthorsocialprerogativesinacertainway.Toperceiveagencyinthismanner(asif
someonesodesignedthecommunity)wouldbetoobliterateinstantaneouslytheperceptionofcommunityassomethingalways,alreadythereaspartandparcelof
whatJamesMcBrideDabbscallsthe''massive,concreteSouth."9

Therhetoricoftheconcretehasalonghistoryinthetraditionofsouthernconservatism.Buthoweverheavyitsounds,thesouthernconcreteisonlyadistantrelationto
Dr.Johnson'srock.AsDabbsarguesinTheSouthernHeritage,forallitsemphasisontheconcretetheSouthwasfoundedon
9.JrgenHabermas,TheTheoryofCommunicativeAction,Vol.2:LifeworldandSystem:ACritiqueofFunctionalistReason,trans.ThomasMcCarthy(Boston:BeaconPress,

1987),11352JamesMcBrideDabbs,TheSouthernHeritage(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1958),168.

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anabstraction,andaparticularlyinstrumentalone."Byaprocessofviolentabstraction,"Dabbswrites,"weconvertedtheAfricanNegrointotheimageofourdesire,a
slave."Whentheplanterboughttheabstract,diagrammaticAfrican,Dabbscontinues,"heboughtessentiallyamachine,astrippeddownpowerhouse.Intothat
machinehetriedtobuildcertaingadgets.Theslavewastobedocile,submissive,unreflecting."10Intransformingthisabstractionintoaconcreteobjectforitis
unbearabletolivewithanabstractionthewhiteSouthdeferredreflectionforfearofwhatitmightreveal.Thestrategiesofdeferralregisterintricatelyinitsnarratives.

Inexamininghowthesenarrativesestablishtheconcretenessofthecommunitytheyrepresentor,alternatively,howtheyevadetheabstractionsimplicitinthat
communityIwillemphasizetheiressentiallycircularproductionofanobjectivesocialworld.AsBourdieuwritesinhisOutlineofaTheoryofPractice,collective
practices(amongwhichIwillincludenarrative)involve"thereconciliationofsubjectivedemandandobjective(i.e.collective)necessitywhichgroundsthebeliefofa
wholegroupinwhatthegroupbelieves,i.e.inthegroup:areflexivereturntotheprinciplesoftheoperationsofobjectification,practicesordiscourses,ispreventedby
theveryreinforcementwhichtheseproductionscontinuouslydrawfromaworldofobjectificationproducedinaccordancewiththesamesubjectiveprinciples."
Bourdieuisessentiallydescribingafeedbackloopthatworks.Byconstantlyproducingobjectsinaccordancewithsubjectivedemands,collectivepracticesremove
theiroperationsfromtherealmofreflexiveexamination,therebyallowingaculturetoproducethe"naturalizationofitsownarbitrariness"andestablishing"aquasi
perfectcorrespondencebetweentheobjectiveorderandthesubjectiveprinciplesoforganization."Bourdieulabelsthiskindofbeliefdoxa''soastodistinguishitfrom
anorthodoxorheterodoxbeliefimplyingawarenessandrecognitionofthepossibilityofdifferentorantagonisticbeliefs."ForBourdieutheunavailabilityofdoxato
reflexiveorconceptualscrutinyiscontingentupontwothings:theabsenceofconflictingworldviewsandtheabilitytocontinuouslyproduceanobjectiveworld.By
"objective,"Bourdieudesignatessomethingakintowhattheconservativetraditionlabels"concrete,"andinbothcasesthe"solidity"ofthe
10.Dabbs,SouthernHeritage,170,172.

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objectdependslargely,ifnotexclusively,uponthecollectivenatureofthesubjectinvolved.ToborrowDurkheim'sterminology,theconcretepresupposesacollective
mind.Nevertheless,theubiquitouspresenceintheSouthofconflicting(usuallynorthern)ideologies,combinedwiththeresistanceofferedbytheobjectsunder
consideration,hasworkedtocomplicatethemaintenanceofdoxa,althoughtheSouthhistoricallyhasbeenable,asW.J.Cashpointsoutinhisdiscussionofthe
savageideal,toextenditsdomaintoadegreeunusualinmodernWesterncivilization.11

Sincethecollectivemindmustcontinually"find"objectsthatfulfillsubjectiveimperatives,thedoxicmodeinvolvesaconstantstateofdeferral,andthusinvolvesakey
componentofwhatphilosopherMichaelPolanyicallstacitknowing.InTheTacitDimensionPolanyidescribestacitknowingasaprocessofattendingfrom
something(thetacitdimension)tosomethingelse(thefocaldimension).Inausefulillustrationhedescribesusingasticktofeelone'swayinthedark.Fortacitknowing
tooccur,ourawarenessofthestick'simpactonourhandmustbetransformedintoasenseofitspointtouchingtheobjectsweareexploring.Polanyi'sclaimthat"[a]ll
meaningtendstobedisplacedawayfromourselves"holdstrueforthenarrativesconsideredhere,allofwhichtendtoexternalizeandobjectifythesubjective,tacit
constructionofsocialrealitythatoccursatthelevelofnarrativesubjectivity.Polanyiobservesthatthetacitdimensioncanbedisruptedbymakingittheobjectoffocal
awarenessifwe''[s]crutinizecloselytheparticularsofacomprehensiveentity,"itsmeaningwillbe"effaced"and"ourconceptionoftheentityisdestroyed."In1926
DonaldDavidsonproposedaterm(andatheory)thatessentiallyreplicatesPolanyi'sinsightinasoutherncontext.By"autochthonousideal,"Davidsonindicateda
conditionunderwhichthesouthernwriterwasideallyunconsciousofhiscultureasapeculiarenvironmentnecessitatingeitherprotestorexplanationorientedtoward
someexternalaudience.FaultingGeraldJohnson(amongothers)forpointingthewaytotheliteratureofprotest,andDuBoseHeyward,who,"encounteringayokeof
oxen,isnotcontenttodescribethem,butisdeterminedtopointoutthathefindsinthem'theunconquerablespiritofthesehills'"forcom
11.Bourdieu,OutlineofaTheoryofPractice,164W.J.Cash,TheMindoftheSouth(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1941),9091.

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mittingtheheresyofthetravelogue,Davidsonadvocatedthatthesouthernwriterdwellin(tousePolanyi'sphrase)thetacitdimensionofhiscultureratherthan
focusingonitfromaperspectivefromwhichitmightappearquaint,backward,orideologicallydeviant.12HoweverreactionaryDavidson'sdevelopmentofthisideain
hislaterwritings,hisinsightthatfocalawarenessoftacitknowledgeinevitablydisruptsthatknowledgeisaperspicaciousone.

ThebasicstructureofDavidson'sadmonitionisprominentthroughoutthesouthernconservativetradition,perhapsmostnotablyinitsrecurringoppositionbetween
rhetoricanddialectic.ThebasicnatureoftheoppositionisstatedsuccinctlybyM.E.Bradford,whocharacterizestherhetoricalmodeas"reasoningfromaxiomaticor
'assumed'principles,"whereasthedialecticalmodeis"definedbyaninterestinfirstcausesandadispositiontoseekthetruththroughrefinementsofdefinitionor
debate."In"RemarksontheSouthernReligion,"hiscontributiontotheAgrariansymposium,AllenTatecontrastsJohnAdams'sdialecticalreasoningwithThomas
Jefferson'srhetoricalhabitsofmind.WhereAdams"needsa'processofmoralreasoning,'whichforcestheindividualtothinkoutfromabstractprincipleshisroleata
criticalmomentofaction,''Tatenotesthat"Jeffersoncallshisjudgment'taste'relianceoncustom,breeding,ingrainedmoraldecision."InabrilliantessayonJohn
RandolphofRoanokeandAmericanindividualism,RichardM.Weaverclaimsthatrhetoricisthemorecongenialmodeforthesoutherneringeneralandthearistocrat
inparticular.Thearistocraticmind,Weaverclaims,isintuitive,antiscientific,andantianalytical:"Itisconcernedmorewiththestatusofbeingthanwiththedemonstrable
relationshipofparts."Althougheachofthesewriterssubtlyinflectstheoppositionplacingdifferentemphasesonhistoricity,culturaltemperament,andideology,and
varyinginthedegreetowhichtheyprivilegerhetoriceachfinallylinksdialecticwithaprocessofabstractionantitheticaltotraditionalculture.Rhetoric,which
presumesbothastabletacitdimensionandanattenuationofindividualagency,issaidtostandinacausalrelationtoaconcreteworldthat,inturn,cannotbesubjected
tofocalscrutinywithouttradition
12.MichaelPolanyi,TheTacitDimension(GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday,1966),12,13,18DonaldDavidson,"TheArtistasSoutherner,"SaturdayReview,15May1926,782.

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beingirrevocablyandintolerablydisrupted.AsEugeneGenoveseremarksinTheSouthernTradition,a"worldselfconsciouslyexperienced"assaultsthe
"deepestfeelings"ofsouthernconservativesand''theirbeliefthatmenoughttotakethatworld,naturalandsocial,asagiven."13

Eventoframetheissuethisway,asseveralofthesewriterswereperfectlyaware,involvesalevelofabstractionantitheticaltothewayoflifebeingdefended.The
oppositionbetweenrhetoricanddialecticis,afterall,dialectical.Nevertheless,theAgrarianprojectwasstatedinpositivetermsasadefenseofamoreorganicand
cohesivewayoflifethanwaspossibleinaNorthdecimatedbyindustrialcapitalism.In"support[ing]aSouthernwayoflifeagainstwhatmaybecalledtheAmerican
orprevailingway,"theAgrariansproducedoneofAmerica'smostpowerfulcritiquesofindustrialism.Evenif,asmanycommentatorshavesuggested,I'llTakeMy
Standdefinesitsantagonistmuchmoreclearlythanitdoesthesocietyitwishestodefend,thecommunityitdoesrepresentconformsfairlycloselytoourmodel,
possessingasitdoesaboundary(roughlytheMasonDixonline),aniconorientedaroundsubsistencefarmersandCousinLuciuses,andasocialstructure.Forthe
Agrariansanaturalhierarchyalegitimateunityindivisioninnowayunderminesthe"rightrelationsofmantoman"uponwhicharefounded"thesocialexchanges
whichrevealanddevelopsensibilityinhumanaffairs."OneclearimplicationoftheAgrarians'logicisthathierarchyandcommunitystandinacausal,ratherthan
incidental,relationshipacohesivesocialunitdoesnotsimplycoincidewith,butdependsuponthepresenceofhierarchy.Tobesure,thereisnothingespeciallynewin
allthis.Adistrustofabstractegalitarianismandemphasisonthepositiveroleofsocialinequalityhavebeencornerstonesofsouthernconservatismdatingbackto
antebellumdefensesofslavery.GeorgeFitzhugh,totakebutone
13.M.E.Bradford,"WhereWeWereBornandRaised,"inTheReactionaryImperative:EssaysLiteraryandPolitical(Peru,Ill.:SherwoodSugden,1990),115AllenTate,

"RemarksontheSouthernReligion,"inI'llTakeMyStand:TheSouthandtheAgrarianTradition,byTwelveSoutherners(1930reprint,BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversity
Press,1977),170RichardM.Weaver,"TwoTypesofAmericanIndividualism,"inTheSouthernEssaysofRichardM.Weaver,ed.GeorgeM.Custis,IIIandJamesJ.Thompson,
Jr.(Indianapolis:LibertyPress,1987),91EugeneD.Genovese,TheSouthernTradition:TheAchievementandLimitationsofanAmericanConservatism(Cambridge:Harvard
UniversityPress,1994),20.

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example,"plants"hisdefenseofslaveryinCannibalsAll!(1857)onthefollowingpassagefromThomasCarlyle:
Torectifytherelationthatexistsbetweentwomen,istherenomethod,then,butthatofendingit?Theoldrelationhasbecomeunsuitable,obsolete,perhapsunjustandthe
remedyis,abolishitlettherehenceforthbenorelationatall....Cuteveryhumanrelationthathasanywheregrownuneasysheerasunderreducewhatsoeverwascompulsoryto
voluntary,whatsoeverwaspermanentamongustotheconditionofthenomadicinotherwords,LOOSENBYASSIDUOUSWEDGES,ineveryjoint,thewholefabricofsocial
existence.

FitzhughseamlesslyintegratesCarlyle'sscathingironyintohiscritiqueoftheabstract"IsmsoftheNorth"abolitionism,socialism,industrialismthatbeget
revolutions."When,intimeofrevolution,"Fitzhughwrites,"societyispartiallydisbanded,disintegrated,anddissolved,thedoctrineofHumanEqualitymayhavea
hearing,andmaybeusefulinstimulatingrebellionbutitispracticallyimpossible,anddirectlyconflictswithallgovernment,allseparateproperty,andallsocial
existence."ForFitzhughsocialcohesionisthenecessary,positiveconsequenceofhumaninequality.Writingoftheslaveorderinanessayon''Faulkner,Sanctuary,
andtheSouthernMyth,"AllenTaterestatesthisthesis,writingthat"[t]heoldorderhadagreatdealofgood,oneofthe'goods'beingtheresultoftheevilforslavery
itselfentailedacertainresponsibilitywhichthecapitalistemployerinfreesocietiesdidnotneedtoexerciseifitwasnothiswilltodoso."14

Theconnectionbetweenegalitarianism,industrialism,andtheabsenceofsocialcohesionisatworkintherhetoricoftheAgrarians,althoughitisclearthatthey
attackedegalitarianisminmoremutedtonesthantheydidindustrialism.AsWeaverhimselfpointsout,I'llTakeMyStandhad"somethingtosayaboutsocial
structure,eventhoughmostofthishadtobesaidindirectly,soasnottobetoorudetodemocraticequalitarianism.Itfreelyrecognizesdifferencesinpeopleandinsists
thatthesedifferencesoughtto
14."StatementofPrinciples,"inI'llTakeMyStand,xxxvii,xliiiGeorgeFitzhugh,CannibalsAll!or,SlaveswithoutMasters,ed.C.VannWoodward(Cambridge:BelknapPress,

1960),8ThomasCarlyleqtd.inFitzhugh,CannibalsAll!1011AllenTate,"Faulkner,Sanctuary,andtheSouthernMyth,"inMemoirsandOpinions,19261974(Chicago:
SwallowPress,1975),144.

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15
bebuiltuponorutilizedcreativelythisinplaceofthefutileplansforerasingthem.TheessaysoneducationandontheNegromeetthisissuesquarely." Infact,
RobertPennWarren'sessayontheNegro,"TheBriarPatch,"isaclassicallyevasivedefenseofsegregation,apositionhelaterrenouncedtothechagrinofWeaver
andDavidson.TheAgrarianslargelydeferredpotentiallytroublesomeissuesofraceandclass,atleastinthecontextoftheirowntimecertainlytheirvalidationof
hierarchy(intheabstract)doesanythingbutmeetsquarelytheglaringinjusticesthatseveralofthem,totheircredit,laterrecognized.Thekeypointtobemade,
however,isthatinsofarashierarchyisbasedonhereditarycategoriesofraceandclass,racialandclassdiscriminationnowappearnotasincidentalflaws
counterbalancedbycommunalcohesiveness,butasconstitutivecomponentsofacohesivesocialorder.

Historically,theconservativetraditionhasnotbeenespeciallytroubledbythislineofreasoning,sinceraceandclasslinesgenerallyhavebeenviewedasnatural
boundariesmarkinginferiorandsuperiorsocialgroups.Nevertheless,theabilitytostatethispropositioninpositivetermshasclearlydeclinedovertimewhatis
explicitinFitzhughisimplicitinI'llTakeMyStandandoneofthemostprovocativecontemporarystatementsofconservativeprinciples,EugeneGenovese'sThe
SouthernTradition(1994),attemptstoeliminateitaltogether.Genoveseattemptstorecuperatethetraditionalistviewofsocialhierarchybyeliminatingaltogetherthe
issueofrace.Advocatinga"societyofordersbasedonahierarchythatrecognizeshumaninequalitythatis,inequalityasindividuals,notasmembersofarace,"
Genoveseassertsthatthis"viewpointhasoftenaccompaniedracism,butithasnonecessaryconnectiontoit."RevisingaJeffersonianconceptofnaturalaristocracy
thathasprovenstubbornlyresistanttohistoricalarticulation,Genovesehimselfresiststhehistoricalfactthatdiscrimination,atermheiseagertorehabilitateviaBurke,
inevitablyrecurstoaggregategroups.ThisisnottoaccuseGenoveseofbadfaith,buttoindicatetheabstractionunderlyinghisargument,sincewhatevertheformof
theargument
15.RichardM.Weaver,"TheSouthernPhoenix,"inTheSouthernEssaysofRichardM.Weaver,24.

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forhierarchy,itscontentinthetraditionofsouthernconservatismhasinvariablygravitatedtowardraceandclass.Preciselyinsofarasthesecategoriesthreatento
revealtheirarbitraryorsymbolicconstitution,theyposeathreattotheautochthonousideal,whichispredicatedonthepresenceofaselfevidentworld.Yetfor
Davidsonandhisfellowconservatives,thecauseoftheSouth's"painfulselfconsciousness"isalwaystheexternalprogressiveleaderswhoexportabstractismsand
require"arepudiationnotonlyoftheSouthernpastbutoftheelementsoftheSoutherncharacterthataremostfirmlyingrained."16Therhetoricofcommunitythus
tendstodeferthethreattoapositionbeyondthecommunalboundary.Thenarrativeofcommunity,however,demonstratesthatthisdeferralisnotabsolute,thatthe
autochthonousidealwasdisruptedinternallyaswell.

"Outofthequarrelwithotherswemakerhetoricoutofthequarrelwithourselves,wemakepoetry."Yeats'saphorism(afavoriteofAllenTate)bearsdeeplyonthe
topicofthisstudy,forwhenweturnfromthecommunityproducedbyrhetorictotheoneproducedbynarrative,thestabilityofthesocialorderbecomesamore
problematicissue.Inonesenseitisdifficulttocomprehendwhythisisso.Unboundbyany"realworld,"thewriterofnarrativemightseemfreesimplytoemplothis
theories,tocreateafictionalworldsuchthatitofferslittleresistancetotheidealorderheenvisions.Itaketheaxiomthat"ifyouaskasoutherneranything,he'lltellyou
astory"toindicatethatsuchparablesareespeciallypossibleintheSouth.YetasFredricJamesonarguesinThePoliticalUnconscious,wishfulfillmentinnarrativeis
nosimplematterpreciselybecausehistorydoesintrude,ofteninsubtleandunexpectedways.IfwethinkofnarrativeinJamesoniantermsasmachineryforideological
investment,wemaywellfindthatWillieStark,whopointsoutinAlltheKing'sMenthatallmachinesloseenergy,provesouraxiomaticsouthernertobeanexception
totherule.OuraxiomaticsouthernertellsastorythatmakesitspointwithnolossofenergyheisoneofthosesouthernersAllenTatedescribeswhocontemplate
historyfor"the
16.Genovese,SouthernTradition,27DonaldDavidson,"TheSouthernPoetandHisTradition,"Poetry40(1932):102.

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17
sakeofcontemplatingitandseeinginitanimageofthemselves"andthustend"tolikestories,verysimplestorieswithamoral." Thenarrativesunderdiscussionhere
arenotofthistype.

Acertainlossofenergyoccursfirstintheshiftfromtypetocharacter.Historically,ithasneverbeenespeciallydifficultforthesouthernrhetoriciantospeakof"the
Negro,"butforthesouthernwritertoincorporateconvincinglyanAfricanAmericancharacterintohisnarrativehasproventobeadifferentmatteraltogether.Itis
probablyafairgeneralizationtosaythattensioninevitablyemergeswhenaliterarycharacterstandsinarepresentativerelationshiptohisorhersocialgroup,andfrom
GeorgiaScenestoLightinAugustvariationsonthisrelationshipobtain:charactersareneverjustthemselves.Tobesure,acontinuumexistsitisselfevidentthat
SaminPage's"MarseChan"ismoreobviouslyatypethanisJoeChristmasinLightinAugust.Andyet,asIshallargue,thereisapartofSamthatresistsbeing
"Negro,"justasChristmasnevercompletelyavoidsbeing"Negro."InStudiesinEuropeanRealismGeorgLukcsarticulatesthespecificsenseinwhichthese
characterscanbeconsideredtypes:
Thecentralcategoryandcriterionofrealistliteratureisthetype,apeculiarsynthesiswhichorganicallybindstogetherthegeneralandtheparticularbothincharactersand
situations.Whatmakesatypeatypeisnotitsaveragequality,notitsmereindividualbeing,howeverprofoundlyconceivedwhatmakesitatypeisthatinitallthehumanlyand
sociallyessentialdeterminantsarepresentontheirhighestlevelofdevelopment....Truegreatrealismthusdepictsmanandsocietyascompleteentities,insteadofshowing
merelyoneortheotheroftheiraspects.

ForLukcs,thetypeallowsthe"truegreatrealist"toavoidthedeadendsofnaturalism,whichreducescharacterstopoliticalpawns,andsymbolism,whichretreats
fromtheworldinasterilevalorizationofsubjectivity.18Itisdoubtfulwhetherallofthewritersconsideredherecanbeconsidered"truegreatrealists,"buttheir
representationofcharacterneverthelesstendstowardthemiddlegroundLukcsprivileges.
17.FredricJameson,ThePoliticalUnconscious:NarrativeasaSociallySymbolicAct(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1981),182Tate,"RemarksontheSouthern

Religion,"173.
18.GeorgLukcs,StudiesinEuropeanRealism(NewYork:GrossetandDunlap,1964),6,56.

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Therealismofthesenarrativesextendsbeyondtypestothemannersthatstructuresocialinteraction.ReturningtoBourdieu'snotionthathierarchypresupposesboth
differenceandunity,weshouldnotethattherepresentationoftypesgravitatestowardassertionsofdifference.Conversely,assertionsofunitytendtoorientthemselves
aroundrepresentationsofrelationshipsandofmannersconceivedinabroadsense.AsDabbssaysofracialetiquette,mannersbindpeopletogetherononeleveland
separatethemonanother.Indeed,eachofthesenarrativesfulfillsJamesW.Tuttleton'sdefinitionofthenovelofmannersasaworkinwhich"themanners,social
customs,folkways,conventions,traditions,andmoresofagivensocialgroupatagiventimeandplaceplayadominantroleinthelivesoffictionalcharacters,exert
controlovertheirthoughtandbehavior,andconstituteadeterminantupontheactionsinwhichtheyareengaged,andinwhichthesemannersandcustomsaredetailed
realisticallywith,infact,apremiumupontheexactnessoftheirrepresentation."19ExpandingonTuttleton'sdefinition,weshouldaddthatmannersconstitutenot
simplyadeterminantuponcharacters,butuponcollectivecharactersthatistosay,mannerspermitthestructuralconfigurationofsocialtypes.

Theconfluenceoftypesandmannersintheseworkstendstostabilizethecommunaliconandcreatewhatmightbeconceivedasapastoralinertia.Andyettypically
thisinertiacannotbesustainedinanyabsolutesense.Theinteractionbetweencollectivecharacterstends,aswell,toproducesomethinglikeacollectiveplotthat
resolvesoratleastengagesthosesocialtensionsandcontradictionsthatchallengetheintegrityofthepastoralicon.Thisconfrontationtendstoorientitselfineithera
progressiveorregressivedirection.GeorgiaScenesprovidesanexampleoftheformer,asitsnarrativeworkproducesapastoralorderInOleVirginiaisan
exampleofthelatter,asitchartsthedeclensionofthesame.SwallowBarnexilesnarrativealtogetherfromitspastoralcommunity,whereasforWillPercy,the
pastoral
19.JamesMcBrideDabbs,WhoSpeaksfortheSouth?(NewYork:FunkandWagnalls,1964),110JamesW.Tuttleton,TheNovelofMannersinAmerica(ChapelHill:Universityof

NorthCarolinaPress,1972),10.Forabrilliantexaminationofhowracialetiquetteinaspecificcommunityworkedtoconcealdissentandproducetheappearanceofcohesion,see
WilliamH.Chafe,CivilitiesandCivilRights:Greensboro,NorthCarolina,andtheBlackStruggleforFreedom(Oxford,U.K.:OxfordUniversityPress,1981),esp.69.

 Page18

modepermitstheaestheticrecuperationofanorderthreatenedbyanarrativeofdegenerationandalienation.ThecommunityofLightinAugust,certainlythemost
complexworkconsideredhere,tellsstoriesthatconstructandpreserveorder,onlytofindthatthesestoriesspiraloutofcontrol,threateningtheveryordertheyhad
originallymaintained.Yethoweverresistanttocategorizationthisconfrontationbetweennarrativeandpastoralmodes,theveryfactofitsexistenceindicatesthe
tenuousnatureofthesocialorderbeingrepresented.Ifwedefinenarrativeasasquaringofcirclesinthedimensionoftime,itwouldbesuperfluousinaperfectly
pastoralworld.

Inverydifferentways,then,eachoftheseworksinvolvesacommunitywhoseostensiblyselfevidentorganizationintoclassorracialtypesthreatenstobeexposedas
amatterofcoercionratherthanconsent.LetmeclarifythatIamnotattemptingtoexposethecontradictionsandmistakesinherentinthesewriters'attemptsto
legitimizetheexistingorder.Thesemistakesareusuallytooobvioustoneedbelaboring.Rather,Iamdealingwiththemorespecificissueofhowthesenarratives
registerresistancetotheirownsymbolicoperations.AsPolanyinotes,meaningtendstobedisplacedoutward,yetastheserepresentativenarratorsattendtothe
outsideworld,theyoftenencounterdisorderanddiscordwheretheyexpectedstabilityandconsent.Theyare,insomecases,betterrealiststhantheymayhave
intendedtobe.

InthefirstsketchofGeorgiaScenes,Longstreet'supperclassnarrator,LymanHall,invokeshismoralobligationandclassprivilegeinchastisingalowerclassfarm
boy,who,inturn,colorfullyrejectshiscensure.Itisasignificantmoment,forwiththisbreakdownofmanners,thetacitgroundassumedbyLongstreet'snarratoris
momentarilybuteffectivelyobliterated.WemightsaythatthefarmboytextualizesHall'stacitnormsthatistosay,heindicatesinnouncertaintermsthatwhatwas
axiomaticandapodicticissubjecttoaradicallydifferentinterpretation.WhereasHallseesmoralobligation,thefarmboyseesillegitimatecoercion.Whetheritbe
KennedyandPageconfrontingaresistantslave,PercyconfrontingaNegroservantclassthatrejectsaristocraticbenevolence,orthecommunityofJefferson
confrontingitsarbitraryconstructionofaNegrorapist,eachofthenarrativesunderdiscussioncontainsasimilarmomentinwhichthefeedbackloopmaintainingthe
coherenceofcommunitythatis,theproductionof

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socialobjectsinaccordancewithsubjectiveprinciplesoforganizationisdisrupted.Iwillcallthisthereflexivemoment,sincewhatthismomentthreatenstorevealis
thearbitrary,symbolicnatureofthetacitnormsbywhichsocialrolesareassignedandtheobjectiveworldofthetextisproduced.ByobjectiveImeansomething
similartoBourdieu'snotionofthecollectivelyperceivedandtothetraditionalistconceptionoftheconcrete.Infact,thecollective,concretenatureofthesesocial
positionsorrolesispreciselywhatiscalledintoquestionatthismoment,whenhegemonyfails,thefamiliarbecomesstrange,andcohesionbeginstolooksuspiciously
liketheproductofcoercion.

Thereflexivemomentrepresentsaswellaformalcrisisthatistosay,therelationshipbetweennarrativeformandideologyisfrequentlymadeproblematicatthis
crucialjuncture.InProblemsinGeneralLinguisticsEmileBenvenistecontrastsnarrativewithdiscourseintermsoftherelativeobjectivityofeach.Whereas
discourse,accordingtoBenveniste,implicitlyorexplicitlyproducesasubjectthat"maintainsthediscourse,""theobjectivityofnarrativeisdefinedbytheabsenceofall
referencetothenarrator."Asthenarratordisappears,"[t]heeventsarechronologicallyrecordedastheyappearonthehorizonofthestory.Noonespeaks.The
eventsseemtotellthemselves."Tobesure,BenvenisteisdefiningnarrativeinastrictsensethatIdonotwishtoretain,buthisdefinitionofnarrativedescribesa
situationinwhichthenarratorsocompletelyattendstotheworldthatalltracesofthetacitdimensionareeffaced.AsBourdieuputsit,whenthereis"objective
consensusonthesenseoftheworld,whatisessentialgoeswithoutsayingbecauseitcomeswithoutsaying."20When''eventsseemtotellthemselves,"rhetoric
vanishes.Itisonlywhenthetacitdimensionbecomesreflexivelyavailablethat"tellingastory"acquirestheconnotationofillegitimacyunderlyinganentire
postmodernistdiscourseofmeretextuality(whichplacesandemphasizesthe"just"in"justatext")andanentirewesterndiscourseofmererhetoric(whichestablishes
thenegativeconnotationassociatedwithsophistry).

Itisherethatwefindthesouthernconservativetraditionkickingagainst
20.EmileBenveniste,ProblemsinGeneralLinguistics,trans.MaryElizabeth(CoralGables,Fla.:UniversityofMiamiPress,1971),208Bourdieu,OutlineofaTheoryofPractice,

167.

 Page20

thepricksofwesternfoundationalismdatingbacktoPlato,whoseoppositionbetweenrhetoricandphilosophycloselyprefigurestheAgrarianandneoAgrarian
oppositionbetweenrhetoricanddialectic.WherethePlatonictraditionhasheldthatrealityisavailableexclusivetophilosophy,theconservativetraditionhastendedto
maintainthatsocialreality,atanyrate,remainstheprovinceofrhetoric.Inanessaytitled"TheCulturalRoleofRhetoric,"RichardWeaverfindsSocrates,the
consummatedialectician,guiltyoftheverychargesforwhichhewasconvictedandexecuted.AccordingtoWeaver,Socrates'"exposureofthecontradiction"is,by
thestandardsofpurelogic,"undeniablyconvincing."Yetthe"veryrationalityofit,"Weavercontinues,''suggestssomelackoforganicfeeling."Weaverconcludesthat
asocietycannotlivewithoutrhetoric.Therearesomethingsinwhichthegroupneedstobelievewhichcannotbedemonstratedtoeveryonerationally.Theiracceptanceis
presseduponusbyakindofmoralimperativearisingfromthegroupasawhole.Toputthemtothetestofdialecticaloneistodestroythebasisofbeliefinthemandtoweaken
thecohesivenessofsociety.Suchbeliefsalwayscomecouchedtousinrhetoricalterms,whichtelluswhatattitudestotake.[emphasisadded]21

Weaver'squestionablepremisethatrhetoricalmoralimperativesarecollectivelyderivedindicates,Ithink,theconditionunderwhichdialecticcontradiction
insinuatesitselfwithinthecollectivemind,makingcontradictionperceptibleassuchandtherebyintroducingthenotionofthearbitrary.Itispreciselywhenasociety's
givensappear,asitwere,tohavebeentakenfromsomeofitsmembersthatproblemsarise.Acollectivecontradictiontroublesnoone,butacontradictionthatcalls
intoquestiontheverygroundofcollectivityestablishes,asakindofirresistibleforce,theillegitimacyofrhetoricconceivednowasmeresophistry.Inthissensemorality
andcollectivityare,asDurkheim'smodelsuggests,consubstantial.Toputthematteranotherway,thethreatofdialecticisnotthatitrationallyunderminesmoral
imperatives,butthatitunderminestheircollectivebasis.

Insomewaysthisappearstobeaproblemmoreintrinsictonarrative
21.RichardWeaver,"TheCulturalRoleofRhetoric,"inLanguageIsSermonic:RichardM.WeaverontheNatureofRhetoric,ed.RichardL.Johannesenetal.(BatonRouge:

LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1970),169,17475.

 Page21

thantorhetoricproper.Southernershavealwaysexcelledatquarrelswithothers,butquarrelsamongourselveshavetendedtobemorefitful:wehave,forexample,
noantebellumnovelthatdefendsslaveryaseffectivelyasanynumberofproslaverytheorists.Thenarrativesunderconsiderationinthisstudyregisteralevelof
dissonancethatcontemporaneousrhetorictendstoexclude,andasaconsequencemustachieve,howevertenuously,whatrhetoricassumesasagiven:ineffect,we
mightsaythatnarrativeendswhererhetoricbegins.Thedominantnarrativeworkofthesetexts,then,canbedescribedinbroadtermsasanattempttodefer
reflexivity,torecuperatetheautochthonousideal,andtoreclaimthetacitgroundthatenablestheproductionofanobjectivesocialworld.

However,thisisonlythedominantworkofthesenarratives.Thereisalsoalessprominentmovementintheoppositedirectioninwhichsocialgroupsorcollective
charactersthatrejectthecommunalconsensusaredeclaredenemiesandexiledbeyondthecommunalboundary.Thisexclusivemovementexplains,forexample,
Longstreet'sdivisionofthelowerclasswhiteintothe"poorwhite"and"yeoman,"thelatterofwhichisintegratedwithinthecommunitywhiletheformerisdeclared
beyondthepale.ThecuriouspositionofAfricanAmericansundersegregationcanalsobedescribedintermsofthisdualmovement.Ontheonehandclaimedasa
devotedretainerandvirtualmemberofthefamily(hencethemastercode,''wealoneknowtheNegro")andontheotherasanalienraceandathreattosouthern
purity(hencetheirequationwithcontamination),AfricanAmericansexistedonthemarginsofcommunity.Toputthematteranotherway,theNegrowasrhetorically
integratedintothecommunityevenastheAfricanAmericanwasphysicallyandsymbolicallyseparatedfromit.

AfewwordsaboutwhatTheNarrativeFormsofSouthernCommunityisnot.Itisneitherahistoryofsoutherncommunitynoranexhaustivestudyofsouthern
communitiesinnarrative.Ihaveselectedaparticularkindofcommunity,whichmightbelabeledthepaternalisticorhegemoniccommunity,andprovidedclose
readingsofwhatItaketobefivemajorinstancesofitsrepresentationinnarrative.AlthoughIwouldcontentthatthisisperhapsthedominantformofcommunityin
southernhistoryandsouthernliterature,itisclearlynottheonlyform.ThisstudyhaslittlerelevanceforAp

 Page22

palachiancommunities,forexample,nordoesitaccountforthemultitudeofalternativecommunitiesopposedto,excludedfrom,orotherwiseoutsidethehegemonic
order.ThateachoftheworksIconsiderdemonstratesadeepneedtoestablishthecollectivebasisofunitymayansweronepotentialobjectiontomytitle:namely,that
Iuse"southerncommunity"where"whitecommunity"or''whiteupperclasscommunity"wouldbemoreaccurate.Thisobjectionisperfectlyvalidexceptinsofarasthe
narrativesthemselvesattempttoestablishtheinclusivenessofthecommunitiestheyrepresent.Infact,Iwouldcontendthatmostofthenarrativesubjectivitiesunder
considerationaremoreconcernedtoestablishthecollectivebasisofunitythanthenaturalbasisofdifference.Moreover,torefertothe"whiteupperclasscommunity"
istoignore,onsomelevel,thatrealitywasnotcontrolledequally.ToparaphraseW.J.Cash,ifitcanbesaidthatforanygivenplacetherearemanycommunities,the
factremainsthatthereisalsoonecommunity.

Myconcernwiththehegemoniccommunityexplainstheexclusionofworkswrittenbyfemaleandblacksoutherners,neitherofwhomhad,forobviousreasons,as
greatastakeindefendingtheculturalstatusquo.AllofthenarrativesIhavechosen,LightinAugustnotexcepted,alignthemselveswiththecommunityratherthan
representingitsatiricallyorotherwisemaintainingdistancefromit.Ihavethereforeexcludedfromconsiderationworksinwhichcommunityfiguresprominentlybysuch
diversefiguresasGeorgeWashingtonCable,MarkTwain,T.S.Stribling,CarsonMcCullers,andEudoraWelty.SeveraloftheworksIdiscusshavecounterparttexts
thatprovideakindofphotographicnegativeofthepositiveimagesproducedbytheseconservativenarratives.FrederickDouglass's1845NarrativeoftheLife
systematicallyinvertsthetropesofSwallowBarnCharlesW.Chesnutt'sTheConjureWomanisadirectsignificationonthedialecttalesofPageandRichard
Wright'sBlackBoyobliteratesthepatricianlogicofLanternsontheLevee.AlthoughIdonotdirectlydiscussanyofthesetexts,Ihopethattheirlatentpresenceis
evident.

Ishouldalso,atthebeginningofaworkconcernedwithissuesofraceand,toalesserextent,class,explainthelackofdiscussionconcerningthethirdterminthat
postmodernsequence,raceclassgender.TheexclusionofgenderissuesfromthisstudyparallelsageneralsubordinationofgenderissuesintheworksItreat,withthe
significantexceptionofLightinAugust.

 Page23

Tobesure,femalecharactersappearintheotherworks,butinnoneofthemisthecategoryof"woman"or"lady"inanywaycontested.Indeed,therearerelatively
fewworksinthetraditionofsouthernliteraturethatundertaketodemonstratetheorganicnatureofgenderrolesintheSouth,whereasthosethatattemptto
demonstratetheorganicnatureofclassandracerolesaretoonumeroustocount.Therelativeabsenceofsuchworksespeciallygiventheplenitudeofworks
representingtheconstraining,perniciousnatureofgenderrolesposesaninterestingproblem,andonethatiscertainlybeyondthescopeofthisstudy.Nevertheless,
letmeofferafewspeculationsonthematter.First,whiletheSouthhashaddistinctivegenderroles,itstreatmentofwomenhasnotdifferedassubstantiallyfrom
mainstreamAmericancultureasitstreatmentofthewhitelowerclassandofblacks,thelatterofwhom,especially,wereformorethanacenturylargelydefinedas"a
southernproblem''withdisastrousconsequences.Asaresult,itmaybethattheSouthtendedtofeellessofarhetoricalimperativetoexplainanddefenditselfonthe
issueofgenderthanontheissuesofclassandespeciallyrace.Second,theregulationofgenderroleshashistoricallytendedtobedefinedasaprivate,familiarmatter,
whereasraceandclasshavebeenregulatedatamorepublic,communallevel.Totheextentthathegemonicnarrativerepresentsapublicformandthatisalarge
extent,especiallyupuntiltheRenascenceperiodissuesofgendertendtomanifestthemselveslessovertly.

Afewwordsaboutmethodology.Mygeneralpracticeistofocusonthreekeyaspectsofeachnarrative:(1)howsocialrolesorcharacterslotsareperceivedas
givensinthenarrativecommunity,(2)howthecharactersinhabitingtheserolesofferresistancetothehegemonicorder,and(3)howthenarrativerecuperatesthe
hegemonicorder,ifindeeditdoes.Individualchaptersrespondtoaplenitudeofformalstructuresframingtechniques,narrativestylistics,mastercodes,modesof
representingindividualandcollectiveconsciousness,collectiveplots,embeddedstorytelling,andsoonthroughwhichthismastersequenceisenabled.Asthisbook
concernsitselfwiththerelationshipbetweenformalstructuresandideology,Ishouldliketoreiteratetheaxiomthataseparationofformandcontentisnearlyalways
anartificialone.

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1
NegotiatingCommunity:
AugustusBaldwinLongstreet'sGeorgiaScenes
In1835theprintingofficeoftheStateRights'SentinelinAugusta,Georgia,issuedthefirsteditionofGeorgiaScenes:Characters,Incidents&c.intheFirstHalf
CenturyoftheRepublic,authoredbya"nativeGeorgian."ConsistingofnineteensketchesthathadbeenappearingforthepasttwoyearsintheSentinelandbefore
thatintheMilledgevilleRecorder,thebookwasaresoundingsuccess.ReviewingtheworkafewmonthslaterintheSouthernLiteraryMessenger,ayoungEdgar
AllanPoeaffirmedthattheanonymousauthorwasendowed"withanexquisitelydiscriminativeandpenetratingunderstandingofcharacteringeneral,andofSouthern
characterinparticular,"beforegoingontopraisetheworkas"asureomenofbetterdaysfortheliteratureoftheSouth."Fiveyearslater,HarperandBrothers
publishedasecondeditionoftheworkthatwouldsellover8,000copiesbeforebeingreprintedseventimesbeforetheCivilWar.Althoughitsauthor,Augustus
BaldwinLongstreet,couldnot,ofcourse,haveenvisionedsuchadevelopment,GeorgiaSceneswouldalsoinaugurateanimportantgenreofsouthernliterature
knownretrospectivelyas"southwesternhumor."AlthoughoftengivenitsdueasthebeginningofatraditionthatleadstolaterwriterssuchasMarkTwain,William
Faulkner,ErskineCaldwell,andFlanneryO'Connor,southwesternhumorhaslongbeenexiledtothemarginsofantebellumsouthernliterature.Inhis1993Yeoman
versusCavalier,RichieDevonWatsonbanishesthegenretoasubliterary"genericcordonsanitaire''isolated

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fromthemorecentralplantationtradition.Besidesbeingmisleadingonitsownterms,Watson'sassertionthatintheirowntime"southwesthumoristsweresimplynot
consideredlegitimatewriters"hastended,asageneralcriticalview,tolegitimatethedismissalofLongstreetandhisfellowhumoristsasliterarydabblerswhose
ideologicalworkiscrudelysimplisticandeasilyunderstood.1

MuchofthisneglectcanbetracedtothereductivecriticallensthroughwhichGeorgiaScenes(andindeedthegenreasawhole)hasbeenviewed:KennethLynn's
paradigmofthecordonsanitaire,whichpitsgentlemannarratorsagainstbumblingandsometimessinisteryokelsinarelentlesslyrepetitiveandmonological
justificationofclassprivilege.ButareconsiderationofLongstreet'ssymbolicorganizationofcollectiveexperience,payingparticularattentiontoanetworkoftropesof
economy,nature,representation,andlanguagegames,implicatesLongstreetinacomplexnegotiationofclassroles.IntracingtheevolutionofwhatIwillcallthe
socionarrativestyle(bywhichImeanasocialstylereflectedinnarrativestylistics)ofLongstreet'sprimarynarrator,LymanHall,IshowthatLongstreet'sideal
communitycanbeachievedonlyafterthegentlemannarratorrespondstothedialogicimperativeofthelowerclass.

TospeakofLongstreet'scommunityis,however,somewhatmisleadinginthatGeorgiaScenesrepresentsacomplexnetworkofcommunitiesrangingfromquasi
aristocraticsmartssetsof"TheBall"and"TheFoxHunt"tothebackwoodslocalesof"TheDance"and"TheShootingMatch.''Itisinthecontextofthelatterthatthe
culturalworkofGeorgiaScenesismostcomplexand,forthemodernreader,mostcompelling.AttheheartofLongstreet'snarrativelies,essentially,adiscourseof
colonizationthroughwhichthosepreviouslyexternal,alien,andchaoticbackwoodscommunitiesaresubsumedwithinthehegemonicorder.Thisextensionof
hegemonyhasimportanthistoricalparallels.TheantebellumSouthwasanythingbuta
1.[EdgarAllanPoe],"GeorgiaScenes,"SouthernLiteraryMessenger2(1836):287,292RichieDevonWatson,YeomanversusCavalier:TheOldSouthwest'sFictionalRoadto

Rebellion(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1993),5758,57.ForadiscussionthatshowshowhighlyLongstreetwasregardedbybothcriticsandthereading
public,seeJohnDonaldWade,AugustusBaldwinLongstreet:AStudyintheDevelopmentofCultureintheSouth(NewYork:Macmillan,1924),15160.

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monolithicculture,andoneimportantsourceofinterclassconflictwastheclashbetweenthemarketeconomicsandhierarchicalorderofaslavesocietyandthe
subsistenceeconomicsandruggedindividualismprevalentinbackwoodscommunities.AsthehistorianStephenHahnhasshown,thesebackwoodscommunitieswere
deeplyskepticalofthecommoditymarket,whichtendedtoerodethelocalizedautonomytheyvaluedhighlyandpreservedthroughwhatHahncalls"habitsof
mutuality."AccordingtoHahn,whiletheantebellumsocialstructure"didnotarraysouthernwhites,asdistinctsocialclasses,indirectlyexploitativerelations,"neither
diditeliminateclassantagonisms,whichcontinuedtoeruptinpoliticalandeconomicarenas.2WritingjustastheSouthwasbeginningtoacquireanacuteregionalself
consciousness,Longstreetattemptstomediatetheseantagonismsthroughadiscoursethatpreservesbothculturalunityandclassdifference.

Thisisnottosay,however,thatLongstreetaffirmsthepopularizedandmostlymisleadingdivisionoftheantebellumwhiteSouthintoaristocratsandpoorwhites.
GeorgiaScenesis,onitsownterms,ascomplexarepresentationofwhitesocialclassesasDanielR.Hundley'sSocialRelationsinOurSouthernStates(1860),a
worklongregardedasamasterpieceofsocialtaxonomy.YettheacuteculturalselfconsciousnessofHundley'swork,largelyoccasionedbythenationaldebateover
slavery,isnowheretobefoundinLongstreet'snarrative.RepeatedlydisabusingnorthernersoftheiregregiousmisperceptionsoftheSouth,Hundleyorientshisrhetoric
externallyLongstreet,incontrast,elideshistext'srhetoricaldimension.WhereHundley'sdescriptionofthe"SouthernYankee"islargelyanexcuseforattacking
authenticYankeesfortheirabolitionisttendencies,Longstreet'streatmentofsocialclasslacksanovertpoliticalcontext.Giventhedatesofthetwoworksone
publishedontheeveoftheCivilWar,theotherjustafewyearsafterWilliamLloydGarrisonwasdraggedthroughthestreetsofBostonforpreachingabolitionthese
differencesperhapsshouldnotsurpriseus.Nevertheless,thecentralityofslaverytosouthernclassrelations,alongwithLongstreet'ssubsequentdefenseofthe
institutionlaterinhiscareer,includ
2.StevenHahn,"TheYeomanryoftheNonplantationSouth:UpperPiedmontGeorgia,18501860,"inClass,Conflict,andConsensus:AntebellumSouthernCommunityStudies,

ed.OrvilleVernonBurtonandRobertC.McGrathJr.(Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress,1982),4546.

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ingthebitterantiabolitionistpamphletLettersfromtheSouth(1849),raisestheissueofwhetherslaveryactsasanabsentcauseforLongstreet'snegotiationofclass
roles.Isitspecificallythepreservationofslaverythatnecessitatesinterclassconsensus?OneoftheinterestingfeaturesofGeorgiaScenesishowourabilitytoanswer
thisquestionisstrictlycircumscribed.AlthoughslaveryispresentinGeorgiaScenesaspartofLongstreet'sidealcommunity,itisclearlyrelegatedtothebackground.
YettheambiguousroleofslaveryinGeorgiaScenesitsabsenceasacause,ifindeeditisonerepresentsbutoneinstanceofaparadoxpresentthroughout
Longstreet'swork:asthesocialorderisstabilized,thereisacorrespondingdeemphasisontherationaleofthatorder,onjustifyingwhythisparticularorderis
necessaryordesirable.Asthecommunitybecomesmoreconcrete,itsjustificationbecomeslesstangible.Inexamininghowtheattenuationofovertrhetoricparallelsa
gainintacitnorms,IhopetoillustrateanessentialpreconditionforcommunitythatthelatertextsIconsiderfrequentlycannotsustain:namely,thattheculturallogic
throughwhichacommunitycoherescannotbesubjectedtoconsciousscrutiny.

Sincehisstatedexplanationofhisnarrativeprojectfocusedexclusivelyonissuesofpreservationandrealism,Longstreethimselfwouldhavebeenskepticalofsucha
project.HewroteofGeorgiaScenesthat"theaimoftheauthorwastosupplyachasminhistorywhichhasalwaysbeenoverlookedthemanners,customs,
amusements,wit,dialect,astheyappearinallgradesofsocietytoanearandeyewitnessofthem."InhisprefacetoGeorgiaScenesheclaimedtohaveused"some
littleart"onlyto"recommend[thesketches]tothereadersofmyowntimes"inthehopethattheirinitialpopularitywouldincrease"thechanceoftheirsurvivingthe
author"untiladay''whentimewouldgivethemaninterest."3CriticssuchasKimballKinghavejustlypraisedLongstreetforhisworkasasocialhistorian,andJames
3.Longstreetqtd.inO.P.Fitzgerald,JudgeLongstreet:ALifeSketch(Nashville:PublishingHouseoftheMethodistEpiscopalChurch,1891),164Longstreet,GeorgiaScenes,1.

Thisworkwillhereinafterbecitedparentheticallybypagenumberinthetext.IhaveusedtheBeehivePresseditionbecauseitistheonlymoderneditionbasedonthe1835first
edition,whichitcorrectsinnumerousways.The1840HarpereditionusedasthecopytextformostothermoderneditionsemployedtheHarper'shousestyle,whicheliminated
muchofLongstreet'sidiosyncraticgrammar,spelling,andpunctuation.

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E.KiblerhasarguedforGeorgiaScenesasaseminalworkinthedevelopmentofAmericanrealism.RankingGeorgiaScenesalongsideAdventuresofHuckleberry
Finnasoneofthetwoworksthat"arethebeginningofmodernSouthernliterature,"AllenTatepraisedLongstreetforhispreciseobservationof"complete,serious
humanbeings"thatevadecategorizationasstereotypes.Nevertheless,fewcriticshavequestionedRobertL.PhillipsJr.'spositionthatLongstreet's"realism"isatleast
complicatedbythesometimesobtrusivepresenceofahighlysubjectivenarrator.Theviewofrealisticnarrativebeingsomehowobjectiveorvalueneutralhas,of
course,beenlargelydismissedatleastsinceWayneBooth'sRhetoricofFiction,andevenhaditnot,suchaconcepthaslittlerelevanceforGeorgiaScenes,awork
inwhichnarrativeprejudicesareinevidenceonalmosteverypage.Onaformallevel,however,GeorgiaScenesfulfillsRomanJakobson'scriterionthatmetonymy
providethesymbolicsubstructureofrealistnarrative.Longstreet'sdescriptionofhissketchesas''fancifulcombinationsofrealincidentsandcharacters"pointstoa
deepstructureinwhichcontiguityisprivilegedoversimilarityasthedominantorganizingprincipleofhisnarrative,whichoften,followingJakobson'sformulation,
"metonymicallydigressesfromtheplottotheatmosphereandfromthecharacterstothesettinginspaceandtime."Moresignificantly,thisformalmetonymicstructure
isreplicatedonthelevelofsocialinteraction.AsJakobsonremindsus,a"competition"betweenmetaphorandmetonymy"ismanifestinanysymbolicprocess,beit
intrapersonalorsocial."4InGeorgiaScenesthiscompetitionmanifestsitselfmostconspicuouslyinthewayHallperceivesthelowerclassasthenarrativeprogresses,
hismetaphoricalequationofpoorwhiteandanimalgiveswaytoametonymicknowledgethroughwhichhenegotiatesandestablishesaconsensualrelationshipwith
thewhitelowerclass.ItisinthiscontextofsymboliccompetitionthatthearchivalnatureofGeorgiaScenesitsstatusasa
4.KimballKing,AugustusBaldwinLongstreet(Boston:Twayne,1984),13740JamesE.KiblerJr.,introductiontoGeorgiaScenes(1835reprint,Nashville:J.S.Sanders,1992),

viiixiiiTate,"Faulkner,Sanctuary,andtheSouthernMyth,"147RobertL.PhillipsJr.,"TheNovelandtheRomanceinMiddleGeorgiaHumorandLocalColor"(Ph.D.diss.,
UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill,1971),2353,13750RomanJakobson,"TwoAspectsofLanguageandTwoTypesofAphasicDisturbances,"inSelectedWritings
(TheHague:Mouton,1971),2:255,2:258.

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repositoryofahistoricallylocateddiscursiveparadigmcanbemostfullyappreciated.

Inhis1959MarkTwainandSouthwesternHumor,KennethLynnprovidesanalternative,butfundamentallyflawed,paradigm.Lynn'scontributionwashis
historicizationofaframednarrativesaidtorepresentthereactionoftheWhiggentlemantotheuncouthbackwoodsmanassociatedwithJacksoniandemocracy.
AccordingtoLynn,"Longstreetandhissuccessorsfoundthattheframewasaconvenientwayofkeepingtheirfirstpersonnarratorsoutsideandabovethecomic
action,therebydrawingacordonsanitaire,sotospeak,betweenthemorallyirreproachableGentlemanandthetaintedlifehedescribes."Thiscordonsanitaire,
Lynnclaims,existsonbothamoralandalinguisticplane,sincethevernacularformallymarksthemoralinferiorityofthe"tainted"poorwhite"Clown."Conversely,the
"SelfControlledGentleman''employsaliteratestylethatprovidesanormativegroundenablingthedidacticevaluationandultimatelycontrolofthelowerclass.Thus,
thenarrator'slanguageandthevernaculararerigidlyseparated,andneverthetwainshallmeetthatis,untilMarkTwain.Althoughhemodifieshisargumentslightlyin
laterclaimingthat"[i]nhisbestwork,however,Longstreetburieshismeaningsdeepwithintheconcreteactionofthecomedy,"thisconcreteactionmerelyreplicates
theantagonisticrelationshipbetweentheClownandSelfControlledGentleman:thelattersimplyperceivestheClown'sdepravityratherthanhavingtocommentupon
it.5Inshort,Lynnarguesthatwhetherprimarilymimeticordiegeticinorientation,thenarrativeframeprovidesanabsoluteperspectivefromwhichtheClownis
measured,evaluated,andfounddeviant.Thecordonsanitairethuspresumesasocialmodelinwhichclassrelationshipsareunequivocallyantagonistic.AlthoughLynn
isclearlycorrectinrecognizingaclassdistinc
5.KennethLynn,MarkTwainandSouthwesternHumor(1959reprint,Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress,1972),64,6465,6869,66.ForexamplesofLynn'sinfluenceonthe

criticalreceptionofGeorgiaScenes,seeKing,Longstreet,esp.5859KeithNewlin,"GeorgiaScenes:TheSatiricArtistryofAugustusBaldwinLongstreet,"Mississippi
Quarterly41(198788):2137WilliamB.Lenz,"AugustusBaldwinLongstreet,"inFiftySouthernWritersbefore1900,ed.RobertBainandJosephM.Flora(Westport,Conn.:
GreenwoodPress,1987),esp.315C.HughHolman,TheRootsofSouthernWriting(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1972),7172.

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tion,hisschemerepresentsaradicalreductionofthecomplexitiesinherentintheencounterbetweengentlemannarratorsandlowerclasswhites.Aswebeginto
examineGeorgiaScenes,wefindthat,farfromassertinghismoralsuperioritytothese"tainted"characters,Longstreet'snarratorismorelikelytoelidethesocial
distancebetweenhimselfandhissubjectinanefforttoengenderconsensualparticipationinacommonsocialfield.

"GeorgiaTheatrics,"whichLynntakesasanepitomeofthecordonsanitaire,willserveasausefulpointofentryintoourexaminationofLongstreet'snarrative
dynamics.InthisshortopeningsketchLymanHallrecountsan1809visithemadetoLincolnCounty,Georgia.Walkinginthecountryside"[r]aptwiththeenchantment
oftheseason"(4),Halloverhearswhatisapparentlyaviciousfightbetweentworuffians.Horrorstruckuponhearingthatoneofthecombatantshaslostaneye,he
runstothespot,whereheencountersthe"victor'':
Helookedexcessivelyembarrassed,andwasmovingoff,whenIcalledtohim,inatoneemboldenedbythesacrednessofmyoffice,andtheiniquityofhiscrime,"Comeback,you
brute!andassistmeinrelievingyourfellowmortal,whomyouhaveruinedforever!"

Myrudenesssubduedhisembarrassmentinaninstantandwithatauntingcurlofthenose,hereplied,"Youneedn'tkickbeforeyou'respurr'd.Therea'ntnobodythere,norha'nt
beennother.Iwasjistseein'howIcould'a'fout."(6)

Indeed,asHallinformshis"gentlereader,""hisreportwastrue,"andtheyoungfarmerreturnstohisplowhavingperformed"nothingmorenorlessthanaLincoln
rehearsal"(6).LynnpresentsthesketchasaparadigmaticinstanceoftheSelfControlledGentlemanconfrontingthe"youthfulClown"fromthemoraldistance
providedbythecordonsanitaire.Locatingthenarrativediscourseatastrictlynormativelevel,Lynnclaimsthattheboy'suseofthevernacularandhis"iniquitous
crime"readhereaspsychologicalneurosismarkhimaswhollydeviant(6669).ThisrigidhierarchyhardlyholdsupunderscrutinyasKeithNewlinnotes,Hall
showshimselftobe"morallyrighteous,easilyduped,andpronetoactoninsufficientinformationinshort,Hallishimselfarubeinthebackwoods,astrangertowhat
heobserves."6
6.Newlin,"SatiricArtistry,"27.

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Havingkicked,astheboymemorablyputsit,beforeheisspurred,Hallrevealsatendencytoalignmoralityandsocialclass.Thistendencyisevidentfromtheopening
linesofthesketch,wherehegivesthelocaleas"TheDarkCorner"ofLincoln,explaining,"Ibelieveittookitsnamefromthemoraldarkness,whichreignedoverthat
portionofthecounty,atthetimeofwhichIamspeaking.Ifinthispointofview,itwasbutashadedarkerthantherestofthecounty,itwasinconceivablydark"(3).
Claimingthatinthemeantime(thesketchisostensiblywrittenintheearly1830s)theareahad''becomealivingproofthat'lightshinethindarkness'"(3),Hallbecomes
absorbedinhispastoralreveriesuntilstartledbythe"loud,profane,andboisterousvoices":"InMercy'sname!thoughtI,whatbandofruffianshasselectedthisholy
season,andthisheavenlyretreat,forsuchPandmonianriots!"(45).Asheapproaches,henotesthatthe"accomplicesinthehellishdeed"hadfled(5).Hall'sdiction
("[m]oraldarkness,""profane"voices,"Pandmonianriots,""hellishdeed")indicatesarigidmoralbinarismthatsanctionshissocialauthorityasrighteousstrollerinhis
"heavenlyretreat,"heappropriatesthemoralrighttointerveneinthefracas.Becausehisnarrativestyleprojectsmoralvaluesontothenarrativelandscape,itpredicts
hissocialstyle,whichlikewise"finds"moralvalues(ortheirsinisterinversion)inthesituationheencounters.Whenhedoesintervene,heinvokeshishierarchical
privilegebycallingtheboya"brute"who(illogically)is"morally"boundtoreturnandaidhis"fellowmortal."Thus,inrelationtoHall,theboyischaracterizedas
"bestial,"anidentificationreinforcedwhenHallsaysthatthegroundlooked"asiftwoStagshadbeenengageduponit"(6),whileinrelationtohisimaginaryantagonist,
hebecomes"human,"andthussubjecttoHall'smoralcode.If"fellowmortal"isthetermofunity,"brute"isthetermofdifference.

Hall'sunresolvedcontradictioniscontingentupontwounmediatedversionsofthe"natural."AtropewithimportantimplicationsthroughoutGeorgiaScenes,the
"natural"invokes,ontheonehand,thebucolicnatureofpastoralreverie(equatedherewithheavenandthegentleman),andontheother,thebrutishnatureof
animalisticviolence(equatedwithhellandthepoorwhite).Whiletheformernatureisregulatedbyimplicitmoralrulesnaturallaw,sotospeakthelatterismarked,
fromHall'sperspective,byasinisterinversionofnormativemoralitytheboy'sanimalisticexcessesthus

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invertthebucolicsplendorofthe"sportivestreams,""vocalbirds,"and"blushingflowers''Hallobservesduringhisheavenlyretreat.Indeed,Hallbeginshisdescription
ofthecountrysidewiththeclaimthat"[w]hatevermaybesaidofthemoralconditionoftheDarkCorner,atthetimejustmentioned,itsnaturalconditionwasanything
butdark"(4).Moreover,theboy'smetaphoricstatusas"animal"symbolicallycontaminatesthecontextsinwhichheappearsasametonymicstandinforplace(the
"DarkCorner")andasynecdochicrepresentativeofclass(poorwhites),theboy,Hallimplies,cannotbeexpectedtoactmorally,despitebeing"obligated"todoso.
OnemightsaythatfromHall'sperspective,theboyisactingaccordingtohis"nature"insteadofHall's.Insymbolicallyorganizingthesituation,then,Hall
simultaneouslycreatesandlegitimateshissocialauthority.Yetthisactofauthorityfailsintwoways.First,Hall's"opponent"isrevealedtobeexclusivelytheresultof
symbolicactionsoccurringatthelevelofhissubjectiveconsciousness.Whatpurportstobe"found"isshowntobe"constructed,"andinthissense,hisopponentis
quiteasimaginaryastheboy's.AsJamesM.Coxsays,Longstreet"revealstherefinednarrator'simpulsetodisapproveoftheviolence....Herealizesatoncethat
therefinedmoralistandviolentyouthareintricatelyrelatedtoeachother."7Second,theboyutterlyrejectsthesocialauthorityHallappropriates,anactofsubversion
thatnotablyinvolvesanotheranimalmetaphor(aspurredhorse).

ThefailureofHall'ssocionarrativestylein"GeorgiaTheatrics"resultsfromtheabsenceofdialogicclassnegotiationbothHallandthefarmboyfailtorecognizetheir
commoninvolvementinthesamesocialdomainorcommunity.Toputthematterthisway,however,raisestwoquestionableissues.First,onecouldarguethatthe
narrativeitselfdoesnotrecognizethiscommoninvolvement,thatitsegregatesgentlemannarratorandpoorwhiteforthereader'samusementattheexpenseofthe
latterorasajustificationoftheculturalstatusquo(this,aswehaveseen,isLynn'sargument).Second,onecouldarguethatsuchcommoninvolvementismerelyan
illusionengenderedbyanarrativedesignedtoservetheinterestsofanupperclass.
7.JamesM.Cox,"HumoroftheOldSouthwest,"inTheComicImaginationinAmericanLiterature,ed.LouisD.RubinJr.(Washington,D.C.:VoiceofAmericaForumSeries,

1974),109.

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Suchanargumentpresumesthatcommunityisanepiphenomenonofclassstructurethatfunctionstoconcealauthenticclassantagonisms.Thefirstcriticismismuch
easiertoanswerthanthesecond,sinceallthatmustbeshownisastylethatdialogicallyincorporatesthevoiceoftheClownratherthanmonologicallyconsigningthat
voicetocommunalexile.Thesecondismuchhardertoanswerinsomerespects,itcannotbeanswered.Longstreet'snegotiationofcommunityisdemonstrably
dialogicinnaturetouseBakhtin'slanguage,Longstreet's"worldisfullofotherpeople'swords[thathe]introduce[s]...intotheplaneofhisowndiscourse,butin
suchawaythatthisplaneisnotdestroyed."Yetatthesametime,itisimpossibletocounterthekindofobjectionraisedbyLennardJ.Davis,whoclaimsthat,while
actualconversationisdialogicinBakhtin'ssenseoftheword,"dialogueinnovelslacksthiscrucialanddemocraticstrandeverythingthatcomesfromtheauthoris
autocraticallydetermined."8InmanyinstancesLongstreet'sdialogismisautocraticinpreciselythewayDavisusesthetermtheissuethenbecomeswhetherLongstreet
legitimatelyintegratestheClown'svoiceintotheplaneofhisowndiscourse.

Leavingasidetheethicalquestionofwhetherthisparticularclasshierarchycanbeconsideredlegitimate,therearetwowaystoconsiderthelegitimacyofLongstreet's
textualnegotiation.Myprimaryaim,afterbracketingLongstreet'srhetoricandconsideringitinthesocialfieldproducedbythetext,istoconcentrateonhisnarrative
legitimationratherthanitslegitimacyperse.Secondlyandmoreprovisionally,IwanttosuggestthatLongstreet'stextualnegotiationhasimportantparallelsinthe
contextofantebellumclassrelations.Inattemptingtorelatetextualandhistoricalfields,Iwillrelygenerallyonthenegotiationbasedmodelofsocialrelationsproposed
byTheodoreB.Leinwand,whoconceivesofsocialpowerasacontinualdiscourseof"[c]ompromise,negotiation,exchange,[and]giveandtake."Leinwandrejects
conflictasaninherent"operator"inthefieldof''sociopoliticalandculturalpractices,"arguinginsteadthatthewinlose/subversioncontainmentterminologyof
Foucauldiandiscoursefailstoaccountforthe
8.MikhailBakhtin,ProblemsofDostoevsky'sPoetics,ed.andtrans.CarylEmerson(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1984),201LennardJ.Davis,ResistingNovels:

IdeologyandFiction(NewYork:Methuen,1987),17778.

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9
complexityofsocialrelationsastheyactuallyexistandaremodifiedovertime. Leinwand'smodelisespeciallyrelevanttoGeorgiaScenes,aworkinwhichexchange
constitutesanimportanttrope.Throughouttheworkwefindhorses,money,promises,oaths,curses,blows,insults,andsoonbeingexchanged,oftenafteraperiodof
literalnegotiation.Anexaminationofindividualsketcheswillshowthatsuchexchangesprovidetheopportunityforthenegotiationofcommunalnorms,andfurther,that
thefinalhorizonofthisnegotiationistherelationshipbetweenthegentlemannarratorandthelowerclasswhitesheencounters.

Briefly,Iwilldefinenegotiationasintratextuallylegitimatewhenitperformativelyestablishesconsensusregardingsocialroles.Thisdefinition,ofcourse,relieson
consensusasitisrepresentedbythegentlemannarratorandthuscanbecalledintoquestionasanideologicallymotivatedresolutioninthesamesensethatcommunity
itselfcanbeconsideredanepiphenomenon.Atthestrictlytextuallevel,however,weshouldbrieflynotethatLongstreet'srhetoricofrealismcanbeconstruedasan
attempttoanswersuchobjections,ascanhisattempt,whichIdiscusslater,tolegitimatehisauthorityto"represent"thelowerclasswhitesinboththepoliticaland
narrativesensesoftheword.Onasociohistoricallevel,however,IwanttosuggestthatthetextualdynamicsofGeorgiaScenesparallelinimportantwaysthe
dynamicsofantebellumsouthernculture.AlthoughitisbeyondthescopeofthisprojecttohistoricizeinanydepththeparallelsbetweenLongstreet'srhetoricof
consensusandinterclassrelationshipsintheantebellumSouth,muchlesstoclaimLongstreetasapreciserepresentativeofpatricianattitudes,Ineverthelesscontend
thatGeorgiaScenesdoesindicatethebroadcontoursandessentialpreconditionsfortheestablishmentofsuchpoliticalandculturalcohesionasdiddevelopacross
classlines,aphenomenon,itshouldbeadded,forwhichLynn'smodelcannotaccount.Longstreetnegotiatedthemiddlegroundbetweenoligarchyandpopulismthat
definedpubliclifeintheantebellumSouth.

TurningtothesymbolicpreconditionsorgivensimplicitinLongstreet'sworld,weshouldreiteratethatthenarrativenegotiationofGeorgiaScenes
9.TheodoreB.Leinwand,"NegotiationandtheNewHistoricism,"PMLA105(1990):479,478.

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restslargelyuponarhetoricofnature,whichfindsexaggeratedforminbothitspastoralandbestialincarnations.Asin"GeorgiaTheatrics,"Hall'seffete,highlystylized
characterizationofnatureopposesthebestial"nature"ofthebackwoodspoorwhite.Asthenarrativeprogresses,Hallincreasinglycomestofindastyleofnarration
thatwillnegotiatethesetwoextremesandappearnormal(natural)incontrasttotheirexcesses,whichfindverbalformintherawvernacularofthebackwoodsmanand
theeffetemoralrhetoricofthedandy.Thus,"natural"acquiresapositiveconnotationoverthecourseoftheworksuchthatitsinversion,''unnatural,"assumesthe
rhetoricalweightofboth"artificial"(inrelationtothedandy)and"animalistic"(inrelationtothepoorwhite).Contrapuntaltotheoppositionbetweennaturaland
unnaturalisasecondoppositionbetweenculturedanduncultured,categoriesorientedalongclasslines.SchematizedinaGreimasrectangle,thestructuringoppositions
ofGeorgiaSceneslooklikethis:

TheorganizingstructureofGeorgiaScenesthusproducesfourcharactertypes:theyeomanwhite,thepoorwhite,thegentleman,andthedandy.Whereasthe
gentlemanrepresentstheidealsynthesisbetweennatureandculture,thedandyrepresentsaparodyofthegentlemanamanwhoiscultured,butunnaturaland
artificial.ThischaracterslotisultimatelyfilledbyAbramBaldwin,Hall'snarrativecounterpart.Similarly,theyeoman,whosepresenceispervasive,hasanegative
counterpartinthepoorwhite,whoselackofcultureisnotcounterbalancedbynaturalvirtue.Tobrieflyschematizethetwoaxes,wemightnotethatthenatural
unnaturalaxisorientsitselfaccordingtoissuesofnormsandnormalcy,ofmorality,andofbehaviorthisaxisisessentiallyegalitarian,applyingequallytoallmembersof
thecommunity,definingwhatare"right"and"wrong"actions.Conversely,the

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culturedunculturedaxisorientsitselfaccordingtoissuesofpropriety,status,andmannersthisaxisisprimarilyhierarchical,definingwhatare"proper"and"improper"
actions.AsthenarrativelogicofGeorgiaScenesunfolds,wefindtheinitiallydominantterm(cultured)apparentlybeingsupersededbythetermthatallowswider
communalparticipation(natural),thelatterhavingmoretodowithsocialbehaviorthanbirthright.Atthesametime,Longstreet'sattempttopreservehierarchythrough
themechanismofrepresentationisfarfromdisinterested,andtheutopianvisionofcommunityportrayedin''TheShootingMatch,"thefinalepisodeofthebook,
shouldbeinterpretedasanideologicallymotivatedresolutiontopressingsocialtensions.

BeforeturningtoHall'sroleinthisideologicalclosure,however,IwantfirsttoconsidertheroleofHall'sfellownarrator,AbramBaldwin.Asthenarratorofonlysix
sketches(outofnineteen),Baldwinhasfrequentlybeengivenshortshriftbycritics,whohavetendedtoviewhimeitherasanothermouthpieceforLongstreetor,as
JamesB.Meriwethersays,as"afoiltotheultimatelymuchmoremasculineandsuccessfulLymanHall."ExpandingonMeriwether'sargument,JamesE.Kiblerwrites
thatBaldwinlooksforwardtoacommontraitoftwentiethcenturysouthernprotagonists,the"disembodiedintellectualism"ofaQuentinCompsonoranIsaac
McCaslin.10WhilethereisnoquestionthatBaldwinoccasionallyreflectsLongstreet'sviews,hisnarrativetrajectoryfirmlyestablisheshisexilefromtheGeorgia
community,asituationparticularlycurioussincehe,unlikeHall,proclaimsfromthebeginninghisdevotiontothepastoralidealembodiedintheyeomanfarmer.Yetas
achronicoffenderofDavidson'sautochthonousideal,Baldwin'sparticipationinthecommunityispreventedbythepastoralframeofreferencethroughwhichhe
apprehendsit.

InBaldwin'sfirstsketch,"TheDance,"wefindaworldwearygentleman"calledbybusinesstooneofthefrontiercounties,thenbutrecentlysettled"(7).Inducedto
stayforadance,Baldwinimmediatelyandvehementlyinsiststohisreaderthatthesimplewaysofthecountryfolkarefarsuperior
10.JamesB.Meriwether,"AugustusBaldwinLongstreet:RealistandArtist,"MississippiQuarterly35(1982):359Kibler,Introduction,xix.

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tothoseofthecitysophisticate.Vigorouslydefendingtheearlyhourofthedance,Baldwinlaudsthesimplicityofcountryways,asserting,"Therefinementsofthe
presentdayinfemaledresshasnotevenreachedourrepublicancitiesatthistimeandofcourse,thecountrygirlswerewhollyignorantofthem"(9).Hegoeson,
"Theyhadnoboardslacedtotheirbreasts,noranycorsetslacedtotheirsidesconsequently,theylooked,foralltheworld,likehumanbeings,andcouldbedistinctly
recognizedassuch,atthedistanceoftwohundredpaces.Theirmovementswereasfreeandactiveasnaturewouldpermitthemtobe"(9).Althoughhisreaderwould
surelyexpectthewomentogreetwithakiss"Oh,nobutwithsomethingmuchlessequivocal:aheartyshakeofthehandandsmilingcountenances,whichhadsome
meaning"(10).TheFrancophobeBaldwinconcludesbyaddingparenthetically,forhisreader'sedification,thefollowing:''Note.Thecustomofkissing,aspractised
inthesedaysbytheamiables,isborrowedfromtheFrenchandbythemfromJudas"(10).

Baldwin'spastoralismbetraysitsownartifice,andtheresultingperspectiveonthe"goodcountrypeople"canonlybedescribedasdistantandpatronizing.Baldwinis
himselfhighlyconsciousofhisstatusasanoutsiderandanexile.Uponencounteringhisselfdescribed"oldsweetheart,"PollyGibson,Baldwinthinksbackonhis
youthandsubsequentlife:
Then,Iwaslighthearted,gay,contentedandhappy.Iaspiredtonothingbutagoodname,agoodwife,andaneasycompetency.ThefirstandlastwereminealreadyandPolly
hadgivenmetoomanylittletokensofherfavortoleaveadoubtnow[then],thatthesecondwasatmycommand.ButIwasfoolishlytold,thatmytalentswereoftoohighan
ordertobeemployedinthedrudgeriesofafarm,andImorefoolishlybelievedit.IforsookthepleasureswhichIhadtriedandproved,andwentinpursuitofthoseimaginaryjoys,
whichseemedtoencircletheseatofFame.Fromthatmomenttothepresent,mylifehadbeenlittleelsethanoneunbrokensceneofdisaster,disappointment,vexationandtoil.
Andnow,whenIwastoooldtoenjoythepleasureswhichIhaddiscarded,Ifoundthatmyaimwasabsolutelyhopelessandthatmypursuitshadonlyservedtounfitmeforthe
humblerwalksoflife,andtoexcludemefromthehigher.(14)

Possiblythefirstcharacterinsouthernliteraturewhocan'tgohomeagain,Baldwinisamoreprofoundexilethanherealizes,fordespitehisattempts

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tousethefrontierfolkasadidacticsticktobeatsnobswith,theydoggedlyresisthiseffortstoemplotthemandrevealtheessentialsnobberyofhisattitudes.Baldwin's
attemptedauthorialcontrolthusacquiressocialcontentaswefindhimattemptingtoorchestratethesceneandfailingmiserably.

HismainfailureintheregardcentersaroundhisinabilitytogetPollyGibsontodancewithhim,orindeedeventorecognizehim.Hefirstlearnsthatshewillbeatthe
dancefromPolly'shusband,who,afterjokinglyexactingfromBaldwinapromisenottostealheraway,offerstointroducehimimmediately.Baldwindemurs,
preferringinsteadtoplaythescenetothehilt:"I'llpromisenottorunawaywithher,butyoumustnotletherknowwhoIam.Iwishtomakemyselfknowntoherand
forfearoftheworst,youshallwitnesstheintroduction.Butdon'tgetjealous,Squire,ifsheseemsalittletoogladtoseemeforIassureyou,wehadastrongnotionof
eachother,whenwewereyoung"(11).Whenthemomentcomes,PollyrefusestodancewithhimbeforeBaldwindramaticallyreiterateshisoffer:
"Well,"continuedI,(raisingmyvoicetoaprettyhighpitch,onpurposetobeheard,whilemycountenancekindledwithexultationattheastonishmentanddelightwhichIwas
abouttoproduce,)"yousurelywilldancewithanoldfriendandsweetheart,whousedtodancewithyouwhenagirl."

Atthisdisclosure,herfeaturesassumedavastvarietyofexpressionsbutnoneofthemrespondedpreciselytomyexpectation:indeed,someofthemwereofsuchanequivocal
andalarmingcharacter,thatIdeemeditadvisablenottoprolonghersuspense.(1516)

Baldwinishereverymuchtheplotmaker,havinginitiatedarisingactionandeagerlylookingforwardtothecomicdenouement.Unfortunately,evenafterhegiveshis
name,Pollydoesnotrememberhim,goingsofarastoclaimthatshedoesn't"thinkIeverheardthenamebefore,"despiterememberingverywelltheothernameshe
providestojoghermemory(16).Beforehecanmakehimselfknown,heiswhiskedawaytothedancefloor,whereheplanstorecallhimselftoherbyhistrademark
dancestep:"'She'llrememberAbramBaldwin,'thoughtI,'assoonassheseesthedoublecrosshop'"(16).Alas,thistooprovesaflatfailure,asPollyiscalledaway,
whileBaldwinlearns,tohischagrin,thatheisnolongerthedancerthathewas.Exhausted,heleavesthedancefloor,his"moralenergies[brought]toaperfectlevel
with[his]physical"(18).

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Baldwin'sfailuretointegratehimselfwithintheagrariancommunityisreplicatedatastylisticlevel.Fromtheopeningpagesofthestorywearemadeawarethat
Baldwinputsthingsdifferentlythanhishosts.Earlyon,forexample,heistoldthathewill"beexpectedatthefrolick"aphrasehecarefullysetsoffinquotation
marksandheconsents,"beingdesirousofseeingallthatpassedupontheoccasion"(17).Baldwin'sstudieddiction,whichdominatesbothhisnarrationandhis
speech,setshimapartfromhisfellowcharacters,butinamannerdiametricallyopposedtoLynn'scordonsanitaire.Evenashevaluesagrarianpastoralismovercity
sophistication,hereaffirmsinahighlyartificialmannerthestylisticboundariesbetweenhimselfandthecountryfolkinatypicalinstance,hedescribeshimself,ashe
retiresfromthedancefloor,as"tospeakinmynativedialect...'mortaltired'"(18).Thisstylisticdissociationhasbroaderculturalimplicationsratherthanmediating
themultiplicityofstyleswithinthecommunity,Baldwinexaggeratesthem.Howevermuchhemaypraisethesimplewaysofthefrontierfolk,hecanneverengagethem
directlyhisaccessismediatedthroughtheofficiallanguageofthepastoralmode.Althoughhestopsshortofdistributingoatenpipesandshepherd'scrooks,itisclear
thatBaldwinapprovesoftheagrarianiconbecauseitisthesortofthinghehasreadaboutinbooks,perhapsthosewrittenbyRobertBurns,apoetheapprovingly
mentionsinalatersketch.Ultimately,Baldwin'sradicalabstractionofandalienationfromthefrontierfolkmakesitimpossibleforhimtonegotiatecommunity.

AlthoughBaldwinistheauthoroffivelatersketches,thesemerelyelucidatethenarrativealienationof"TheDance."ThingsarenobetterforBaldwinwhenhereturns
totown,fortherehispastoralorientationmakesanytraceofsophisticationliterallyunbearable.In"TheSong"Baldwinrecoilssovehementlyfromacontinentalsong
hehearsatasocialgatheringthathereturnshome"inconvulsions,"takessixtydropsoflaudanum,fallsasleep,andhasanightmareinwhichHecate(withthefaceof
thesinger,MissAugustaCrump)attackshimamidstanarmyofFrenchbirdsandItalianbeasts.AlthoughBaldwinadmiresthemusicofIrelandandScotland,which
maystill"besafelyadmittedintoalandoflibertyandsense"(71),thecontinentalfareofMissCrumpproveshisundoing.Hedescribesherpianoplayingasapitched
battlebetweenherhandsandthekeys,whilehervoiceseemsatonepoint''compoundedofadrycough,agrunt,ahiccupandawhisper,"andatanotherresembles
"thesquallofapinchedcat"(77,78).But

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howeverbadthemusic,Baldwinhasmissedanimportantelementintheepisode:MissCrumpis,ashermotherclaimsinanaside,frightenedtodeath,andsheplays
onlyoutoffilialdutyandthedesirenottodisappointhereageraudience.When,afterherfirstsong,abystanderpleadsforasecond,she"lookedpitifullyathermama
andhermamalooked'sing'atMissAugusta:accordinglyshesquaredherselfforasong"(77).BaldwinhimselfapplaudsMrs.Crump,whowas"kindenough...to
interpose,andtorelievethecompanyfromfurtheranxiety"bycommandingherdaughtertoplay(75).BaldwinisthuscaughtinthedoublebindofapplaudingMiss
Crump'sactofplayingasocialimperativewhiledenouncingtheplayingitself.Thathiscriticaltemperovercomeshissenseofsocialproprietymakesitimpossible
forBaldwintofunctionsociallyalthoughheexcelsasasatirist,hissatiricalperspectiveexileshimfromthegenteelgatheringof"TheSong"nolesseffectivelythanhis
pastoralperspectiveexileshimfromthefrontiercommunityof''TheDance."

Baldwinisunwillingtosubmithimselftowhathermeneuticaltheoristscallobjectivation,theprocesswherebyasubjectexternalizeshimselfthroughlabororlanguage
andthusbecomesanobjectwhoseenvironmentmaysubsequentlyreactbackonhim.11Becauseheclaimssoleinterpretiveauthority,Baldwinmustrejecttheessential
reciprocityofsociallife.Hethusgraduallyassumestheroleofadistantspectator,aroleinwhichheneednotforfeithisprerogativesofculturalauthority.Whenhe
externalizeshimself,aswhenhetakestothefloorin"TheDance,"hefindsthatselfdramatizationisatbestanunwieldyprocesssubjecttothechaosalwayslurkingin
theexternalworldofGeorgiaScenes.Baldwin'sthirdandbyfarhislongestsketch,"The'CharmingCreature'asWife,"isthefirstinwhichhedoesnotappearasa
character.Thiswithdrawalintopurevoice,repeatedinhistwolatersketches,suggestshisinabilitytoimposecoherenceontheworldwhilelivingitatthesametime.

Essentially,"The'CharmingCreature'asWife,"isanobjectlessononthedangersofthe"charmingcreature,"thespoiled,overlysophisticatedfemaletypeantithetical
todomesticstability.Thesketchcentersaroundthe
11.JosephBleicher,ContemporaryHermeneutics:HermeneuticsasMethod,Philosophy,andCritique(London:Routledge,1980),270.

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marriagebetweenBaldwin'snephew,GeorgeBaldwin,andMissEvelinaCarolineSmith,thecharmingcreaturewhoseabilitytodramatizevirtuesshedoesnotpossess
leadstoadisastrousmarriage.Shortlyafterthetwoarewed,GeorgeandEvelinareturntohischildhoodhome,wherehertruecharacterbeginstoshowthrough.She
refusestoallowGeorgetotalkwitholdfriends,andisparticularlyillateasearoundthelowerclasses,despitethe"lessons"heprovidesforher:
Georgehadendeavoredtoprepareherfortheplain,blunt,buthonestfamiliarities,ofhisearlyfriends.Hehadassuredherthathoweverrudetheymightseem,theywereperfectly
innocentnay,thattheyweretokensofguilelessfriendshipforthenaturaldispositionofplain,unletteredfarmers,wastokeepalooffrom"thequality,"astheycalledthepeople
ofthetown,andthatbyasmuchastheyovercamethisdisposition,bysomuchdidtheymeantobeunderstoodasevincingfavor.(111)

ThroughoutGeorgiaScenes,conversationsareawayofnegotiatingandaffirmingsocialrelationshipsandofbridgingclassdivisions.Butwhenthesevisitorsappear,
Evelinaishostiletowardtheirblunt,familiarcomments:"Havingnotactforturningoffthesethingsplayfully,andaslittledispositiontodoso,sherepelledthemwitha
towndignity,whichsoonrelievedheroftheseintrusionsandinlessthanaweek,stoptthevisitsofGeorge'sfirstandwarmestfriends,tohisfather'shouse"(114).By
invokingclassstatus,Evelinaseversthelinesofcommunicationbetweenherhusbandandthelowerclasses,therebyexilinghimfromhisnativecommunity.Although
Baldwin'sviewsonwomeninmanywaysreflectLongstreet'sown,itisequallyclearthatBaldwinandEvelinasharecertainkeytraits.Asweknowfrom"TheDance,"
Baldwinishimselfpronetoactinsuchawayastoelicitpublicesteem,theverycharacteristicforwhichhedenouncesEvelina.Andlikeher,hecannotactnaturallyhe
performswithaclearsenseofhowhisactionswillbereceivedorrather,howhewouldlikeforthemtobereceived.EvenashedamnsEvelinaformaintainingsocial
distance,Baldwinbecomes,notanintegratedmemberofthecommunity,butanexilefromit,untilhefadesfromthescene,asMeriwethersays,"onanoteoffutility
andpassivity."12
12.Meriwether,"RealistandArtist,"359.

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Baldwinbeginshislastsketch,"ASageConversation,"byproclaiminghisloveforthe"agedmatronsofourland"(216).Afteraneffusive,overblownrecitaloftheir
manyvirtues,Baldwinconcludesbyremarking,"Icannot,therefore,ridiculethemmyself,norbeartohearthemridiculedinmypresence.Andyet,Iamoftenamused
attheirconversationsandhaveamusedthemwitharehearsaloftheirownconversations,takendownbymewhentheylittledreamedthatIwaslisteningto
them"(216).Asin''TheDance,"Baldwin'sprofessedadmirationforthesimplecountryfolkgoeshandinhandwithanassumedsuperioritythatprecludesany
meaningfulcontactwiththem.Theplotof"ASageConversation"centersaroundanightBaldwinspendswiththreeelderlywomenwhohaveputhimandhis
companion,theeverproteanNedBrace,upforthenight.WhenNedinnocentlymentionstwomenwhoweremarriedandraised"alovelyparcelofchildren,"the
womenareincredulous.WhenNedandBaldwinretire,thelatter"couldnotresistthetemptationofcastinganeyethroughthecracksofthepartitiontoseetheeffects
ofNed'swonderfulstoryuponthekindladies"(219).Whatensuesisaconversationthatmovesfromshockedamazementtopossibleexplanations(oneofthewomen
suggeststhatoneofthe"men"musthaveactuallybeenawoman)toarehearsalofstoriesdealingwithlove,marriage,death,medicalcures,livestock,andfamily
histories.AlthoughBaldwin'sintentionismerelytoamusehisreaderbyshowingthewomen'sgullibility,theirconversationservesasaritualisticforumforsharing
communalknowledgeandaffirmingcommunalrelationships.ThefigureofBaldwinpeeringthroughthecracksandcovertlyrecordingtheconversationisasuggestive
one,asishispresentationofthedialogue,whichfollowsdramaticconventioninassigningeachspeechto"Mrs.S.,""Mrs.R.,"orMrs.B."Bothfeaturessuggest
Baldwin'sdistancefromthewomen'sdialogueheprovidesnonarrativemediuminwhichtheirspeechsounds.Asheleavesthewomen'shousethenextmorning,he
simultaneouslymakeshisexistfromGeorgiaSceneshavingutterlyfailedtointegratehimselfwithinthecommunity.

IncontrasttoBaldwin,Hallbecomes,asGeorgiaScenesprogresses,moredeeplyintegratedwithinhiscommunity,hisnarrativestylefinallycompris

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ingakindofdiscursivemediuminwhichclasstensionsareresolved,evenifsucharesolutionisfarfromthenaturalprocessimpliedinhisnarrativeclosure.Indeed,
Hall'snarrativestyletendstoeffacetheveryideaofclass,ofwhichherarelydemonstratesaconceptualawareness.InthisrespectheisquiteunlikeBaldwin,whose
overdeterminationoftypesmakesitimpossibleforhimtofunctionsocially.Hall'seffacementofclass,however,mustbeheavilyqualifiedsinceHallfinallyeffacesthe
contentofclassratherthanthesocialformsassociatedwithittousePolanyi'sterminology,classremainsanintegralpartofhistacitknowledgeeventhoughitrarely
servesasapointoffocalawareness.Thisdistinction,inturn,isalessonhelearnsinduecoursehismistakein"GeorgiaTheatrics"ispreciselyamatterofform(taken
asthestructureofasocialhierarchy)andcontent(themoralcharacteristicsdistributedwithinthatstructure).Hallassumesthatthepoorwhitelivinginthe"Dark
Corner"ofLincolnwillactouthisdepravedmoralnature,andtherebypreventsanyinterclassrelationshipfromdeveloping.YetifHallstumblesin"GeorgiaTheatrics,"
heneverthelessavoidsthekindofwithdrawalthatdefinesthesocionarrativestyleofhisfellownarrator,Baldwin.InHall'sdefense,moreover,itcanbesaidthatat
leasthevocalizeshisclassprejudicesandtherebyallowsthepossibilityofcorrectionandmodification.

ConsciousnessthathetooprovidesafiguretobeinterpretedbyothersbecomesforHallanimportantpointofdepartureinhisevolutiontowardamoreegalitarian
socionarrativestyle.Hissecondsketch,"TheHorseSwap,"beginswithaman"cavorting"onhorsebackinfrontofanimpassivecrowd.AsHallapproaches,he
relatesthattheman"eyedmeclosely"before"hefetchedawhoop,andsworethat'hecouldoutswapanyliveman,womanorchild,thateverwalkedthesehills,or
thateverstraddledhorsefleshsincethedaysofolddaddyAdam.''Stranger,'saidhetome,'didyoueverseetheYallowBlossomfromJasper?'"(2021).Afterbeing
assuredbythemanthatheis,infact,thecelebratedpersonageinquestion,Hallrelates,"Ibegantofeelmysituationalittleawkward''untilanoldergentlemannamed
PeterKetch"relieves"himbydrawingtheattentionoftheYallowBlossomandengaginghiminahorseswap.Afteraritualisticseriesofoffers,counteroffers,rhetorical
feints,andinsults,KetchandtheBlossomfinallyagreeto

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swaphorses.WhenBullet,thehorseKetchhasobtained,isdiscoveredtohaveahugesoreonhisback,itappearsthatKetchhasbeenfooleduntilhisyoungson
revealsthatBlossom'snewbeast,Kit,isbothblindanddeaf.

Inanimportantessayontheroleofgamesinsouthwesternhumor,MichaelOriardnotesthatwhatKetchactuallygainsintheexchangeis"statureintheeyesofthe
townspeople.""Anaudience,"Oriardsays,"whethersimplyreaderslikeourselvesorbystandersatthescene,isessentialtosuchcontests...becauseitprovidesthe
contextinwhichthestakeofthegameismeaningful."13Ketch'srhetoricalstrategymakesparticularlyshrewduseofthecrowd,relyingasitdoesontheaudience's
abilitytounpackhislayeredandsometimessubtleironies.UnlikeBlossom,whosehyperbolicselfproclamationsaredesignedtoseparatehimselffromthosearound
him,Ketchhasarhetoricalstylethatimplicatesandinvolveshisaudience.When,forexample,Blossomcommentsonthe"curiouslook''inKit'seyes,Ketchresponds,
"Ohyes,sir,...justasblindasabat.Blindhorsesalwayshavecleareyes.Makeamotionathiseyes,ifyouplease,sir."WhenKitjerksback,Ketchcontinues,
"Stoneblind,yousee,gentlemen...buthe'sjustasgoodtotravelofadarknightasifhehadeyes"(26).Finally,whenBlossomgrumbles,"Blamemybuttons...ifI
likethemeyes,"Ketchrespondsgracefully,"No...norIneither.I'dratherhave'emmadeofdiamondsbutthey'lldo,iftheydon'tshowasmuchwhiteasBullet's."
Ineachinstance,KetchemployswhatWayneBoothcallsstableironythatis,ironythatreliesonsharedassumptionsandcontextstocommunicateitsmessage.14
KetchdoesnotbargainwithBlossomsomuchashebargainswiththespectators,winningthemtohissidethroughashrewdseriesofrhetoricalmoves.Thus,when
Blossomthreatenstoendthenegotiation,Ketchreferstothefigureheattemptstoprojecttothetownsfolk:"Ididn'tcareabouttradingbutyoucutsuchhighshines,
thatIthoughtI'dliketobackyououtandI'vedoneit.Gentlemen,youseeI'vebroughthimtoahack"(27).Andlater,whennegotiationsstallforasecondtime,Hall
reportsthat"itwasprettyunanimouslydecidedthattheoldmanhadbackedBlossomout"(28)until
13.MichaelOriard,"ShiftyinaNewCountry:GamesinSouthwesternHumor,"SouthernLiteraryJournal12,no.1(1980):14.

14.WayneC.Booth,ARhetoricofIrony(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1974),56.

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theyoungtraderbacksdownandagreestoKetch'sterms.InbothinstancesKetch'sstrategypaysconcretedividends.Becauseheisabletocreateconsensusby
manipulatingaudiencereactions,hecanbringcommunalsentimenttobearuponBlossom,whoseimageas"aleetleofthebestman,atahorseswap,thatevertrod
shoeleather"(21)requiresthatthecommunityrecognizehisprowesswitheachtrade.

Intheend,however,thejokeisonBlossom,whohasutterlyfailedtoreadthesituationcorrectly.Thisepisodemirrorscountlessincidentsinsouthwesternhumor
indeed,theverynatureofthehorseswapanditsequivalents(gamesofchance,confidencegames,swindles)throughoutthegenrerevolvesaroundtheabilitybothto
interpretcompetentlyandtoobjectifyoneselfsoastodenythisabilitytoothers.Whileinmanycasesthisprocessworkstounderminecommunalstabilityonethinks
ofSimonSuggsandSutLovingoodLongstreettends,inGeorgiaScenesatleast,topositsomecongruitybetweencommunalhealthandthekindofuncertainty
createdwhenacharacterlikeKetchmisrepresentshimselfandhisimmediatesituation.IfLongstreet'sidealcommunityassumesstructuredsocialroles,italsoassumes
thatameasureofuncertaintyandinstabilityinshort,ameasureofplayisnolessnecessaryforthemaintenanceofcommunalnorms.Indeed,whenwenotethe
numerouscasesoffalseimpersonationormisrepresentationinthepagesofGeorgiaScenesalistthatwouldinclude,besidesPeterKetch,thecharacterofNed
Braceinboth"TheCharacterofaNativeGeorgian"and"ASageConversation,"theyounggentlemenof"TheWaxWorks,"thedebatersin"TheDebatingSociety,"
andHallhimselfin"TheShootingMatch''wecometorealizethatthemotifisanimportantoneinLongstreet's(andparticularlyHall's)narrativeworld.Acomposite
pictureofLongstreet'squasitricksterfigurewouldrevealagentlemanwhohasmasteredthelanguagegamesofhisnativecommunitysuchthathecanpredicthow
otherswillinterprethim.PeterKetch,forexample,ismarkedbyhisdialectasbeingofahighersocialclassthanBlossomalthoughclearlynotanaristocrat,hisspeech
andgeneralmannerestablishhimfirmlyasamiddleclassyeomanand,fromBlossom'sperspective,adupe.Aswehaveseen,hisrhetoricalappealtothecommunity
placeshiminanadvantageouspositionvisvistheexchangehenegotiates,anexchangethatacquiressocialsignificancesincehisincreasedstatureworkstoreaffirm

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existinghierarchies.Asthetown'srepresentative,ineffect,Ketchprovidesthebackwoodsyouthwithsomethingofaneducation.In"TheCharacterofaNative
Georgian"Halldescribesasimilarkindofmisrepresentationdirectedtowardthedandy.IntroducingNedBraceasamanwho"seemedtoliveonlytoamusehimself
withhisfellowbeings,"Hallcommentsthat"[t]hebeauinthepresenceofhismistress,thefop,thepedant,thepurseproud,theoverfastidiousandsensitive,were
Ned'sfavoritegame.Theseneverpassedhimuninjuredandagainstsuch,hedirectedhisseverestshafts....Hewasadmirablyfittedtohisvocation.Hecould
assumeanycharacterwhichhishumorrequiredhimtopersonate,andhecouldsustainittoperfection"(31).15

Theabilitytogaugeone'saudienceandrhetoricallymisleaditworksperformativelytoestablishsocialhierarchyindeed,severalofLongstreet'ssketchesestablisha
roughcorrelationbetweentheabilitytoleadandthefacilitytomislead.Becausesuchverbalfacilityrepresentsaspecialkindofsocialpower,itmustbeused
responsibly.AsJrgenHabermasremarks,
Thankstothecreativityofnaturallanguagethenativespeakergainsauniquepoweroverthepracticalconsciousnessofthemembersofacommunity.Thecareerofsophistry
remindsusthatitcanbeusedformindfoggingagitationaswellasforenlighteningpeople.

Thereis,however,anothersidetothispower:thespecificlackofpowerofthespeakingsubjectvisvishabitualizedlanguagegamestheycannotbemodifiedunlessone
participatesinthem.Thisinturncanbesuccessfulonlytotheextentthattheruleswhichdeterminealanguagegamehavebeeninternalized.Toenterintoalinguistictradition
necessitates,atleastlatently,theeffortsofaprocessofsocialization:the"grammar"oflanguagegameshastobecomepartofthepersonalitystructure.16

15.AlthoughHallassertsthissocialvalue,thesketchitselfconsistsofsometimesmeanspiritedpracticaljokesattheexpenseofthegullible.InhisfinalprankBraceconstitutesa

socialthreatasheinterruptsalineofwaterbucketsbeingcarriedtoafiresothathecangetadrink.Forapersuasiveexplanationoftheschizophrenicnatureofthesketch,see
Wade,Longstreet,17172.
16.JrgenHabermas,CommunicationandtheEvolutionofSociety,trans.ThomasMcCarthy(Boston:BeaconPress,1979),184.

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Habermas'sequationoflanguagegamesandsocializationprocessesprovidesausefulwayofapproachingtheprocessbywhichHall'sdialogicencountersduringthe
courseofthebooknecessitateaninternalizationoflanguagegame"grammar"beforehecanactivelyperformandnegotiatehissocialauthority,apositionfromwhich,
inturn,consensuscanbeestablished.Inearlysketcheslike"TheHorseSwap"Hallplaysamoreorlesspassiverole,allowingsomeonelikeKetch,whofunctions
almostasasurrogate,toenterintothelanguagegamewithallthesocialimplicationsthatattendit.Ashismonologicalnarrativeperspectivebeginstoabsorbthe
dialogicaccentsofthelowerclass,Halldemonstratesawillingnesstonarrate,understand,andfinallyengageintheexchangesandlanguagegamesthatdefineand
maintainsocialorder.

Asheengageshiscommunitythroughitslanguagegames,Hallretainsasarhetoricalsubtextthetropeofnaturewehavealreadynoted.MostofHall'ssketches,
including"TheHorseSwap,""TheFight,""TheTurnOut,""TheGanderPulling,""TheTurf,''"TheFoxHunt,"and"TheShootingMatch,"focusupongatheringsin
whichcharactersestablishsocialhierarchiesthroughagameorcontestofsomesort.Astheyarerepresenteddiachronically,thesecontestsmediatethenatureculture
oppositionthatpermeatesGeorgiaScenesand,indoingso,worktonaturalizetheculturalpositionstheyproduce.In"TheFight"hierarchyemergesthroughphysical
combatalthoughthetwocombatantsaredescribedas"admirablespecimensofhumannatureinitsfinestform"(56),Hallisquicktodenouncethefightasa"scen[e]
ofbarbarismandcruelty...nowofrareoccurrence"(70).Socialhierarchyperformativelyestablishedthroughphysicalcombattherebypartakesoftherhetoricof
bestialnaturewenotedin"GeorgiaTheatrics,"a"nature"hereconsignedtothepastbyculturalinstitutionssuchas"theChristianreligion,""schools,colleges,and
benevolentassociations"(35).Hallmakesasimilartemporalcontrastin"GeorgiaTheatrics,"forbetweentheerstwhile"moraldarkness"ofLincolnanditspresent
respectability,heclaims,"Icouldadducefromthiscountyinstancesofthemostnumerousandwonderfultransitions,fromviceandfolly,tovirtueandholiness,which
haveeverperhapsbeenwitnessedsincethedaysoftheapostolicministry"(3).

Nevertheless,thispreferenceforthepresentoverthepastisoffsetbysev

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eralpassagesinwhichHallmakestheoppositecomparison.In"TheTurnOut,"forexample,Hallinterruptshistaletodescribethelushcountrysideheandhishost,
CaptainGriffin,seeastheywalktotheschoolhouse.Apologizingtohisreaderforthe"minutenessoftheforegoingdescription,"Halljustifieshimselfbyrelatingthe
Captain'sremarkthatthesurroundinglands"willneverwearout''(83).Hallthenrecountshow,fortytwoyearslater,hevisitedthesamesite,whichinthemeantime
hadbecome"barren,drearyandcheerless"(84).Thispassagesubtlyemphasizesthelossofthe"natural"thatHalllamentsonseveraloccasions:hebeginsthetale,for
example,bydescribingthe"GeorgiaWelcomeof1790"thathefears"Georgiawillknow...nomore,"aclearcomparisonbetweenpresentdecadenceand
sophisticationandthenaturalhospitalityofwhathecalls,withoutatraceofselfconsciousness,the"goodolddays"(80).Asimilarpassageoccurslaterinthetale,
when"theruffleshirtedlittledarlingsofthepresentday"compareunfavorablywiththe"hardysonsoftheforest"heencountersashevisitsCaptainGriffin(90).
UnlikehisfellownarratorBaldwin,forwhomthepresentisalwaysasorrysubstitutefortheirredeemablepast,Halldemonstratesadividedtemporalpreference:On
theonehand,hecharacterizesthepastassimpleandnaturalandthepresentaspreciousanddecadentontheother,hecharacterizesthepastasbestialanduncouth
andthepresentascivilized.

Implicitinthiscontradictionarethetwobasicnarrativesofhumancultureintheone,culturerepresentsanevolutionfromabestialstate,whileintheother,itrepresents
adevolutionfromsomeidealnaturalstate.WhileLongstreet'smediationofthiscontradictionmayappeartobesimplyinconsistent,17Iwouldcontendinsteadthatit
helpsdelineatetheabstractcategoriesnecessitatingnarrativeresolution.Referringbacktothecategoriesdefinedearlier,wefindthatwithintheopposingpairsofterms
culturedunculturedandnaturalunnatural,thehistoricalprogressionunfoldingwithinHall'snarrativeispositiveintheformercaseandnegativeinthelatterasthe
communityofGeorgiaScenesevolves,itbecomesatonceless"bestial"andless"pastoral."Acloserexaminationofthesepassages,moreover,reveals
17.AsitdoestoRichardGrayseeWritingthesouth:IdeasofanAmericanRegion(Cambridge,U.K.:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986),7071.

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aclasscontextatworkgenerallyspeaking,Hallprefersthelessbestiallowerclassofthepresent,butthemorenaturalupperclassofthepast.Thus,asthecommunity
ofGeorgiaScenesdevelopsovertime,thefrontierexcessesofthepoorwhitetendtodisappearaspartofthesameculturalshiftthatproducesamoredecadentand
sophisticatedupperclass.Asthepoorwhiteis,broadlyspeaking,transformedintotheyeoman,andthusbecomesbettersuitedtoarespectablepositioninthe
community,thegentlemanthreatenstobetransformedintothedandy,whounlikehispredecessorcanstakenolegitimateclaimtoapositionofleadership.The
narrativeworkofGeorgiaScenes,then,istoproduceagentleman(Hall)ablebothtoreaffirmclasshierarchyandtonegotiateinterclassconsensusbyinternalizingthe
grammarofthecommunalcontestsandlanguagegamesthroughwhichhierarchyisestablished.

AmongthemorecomplexofHall'slatertalesinthisregardis"TheGanderPulling,"whichshowshissocionarrativestyleevolvingfromtherigidmoralismof"Georgia
Theatrics."Thestoryrevolvesaroundagameinwhichaheavilygreasedganderishungupsidedownfromalooseropeunderwhichcompetitorspassmountedon
horsebackthehorsemanwhopullsthegreasedfowl'sheadfromhisbodyisdeclaredthewinner.Ashedescribesthegreasingofthegander,Hallshiftsfroman
objectivepointofviewtoamorallyinterestedone:
Abhorrentasitmaybe,toallwhorespectthetendererrelationsoflife,Mrs.Pratorhadactuallypreparedagourdofgoosegreaseforthisverypurpose.Formyself,whenIsaw
Neddiphishandsintothegrease,andcommencestrokingdownthefeathers,frombreasttohead,mythoughtstookamelancholyturnTheydweltinsadnessuponthemany
conjugalfelicitieswhichhadprobablybeensharedbetweenthegreasessandthegreasee....Andnowalas!anextractfromthesmokingsacrificeofhisbosomfriend,was
desecratedtotheunholypurposeofmakinghisneck"afitobject"forCrueltytoreach"herquick,unerringfingersat."Yefriendsofthesacredtie!judgewhatweremyfeelings,
wheninthemidstofthesereflections,thevoiceofJamesPratorthunderedonmineear,"DurnhisolddodgingsoulbrotherNed!greasehisnecktillaflycan'tlightonit!"(128
29)

Inraisingtheissueofcrueltytoanimals,Hallexaggeratesthelinguisticbarriersthatseparatehimfromthelowerclass,yetinamannermarkedlydifferentfromthe
previoussketchesinwhichthisissueisraised.In"The

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HorseSwap,"crueltytoanimalsallowsHalltoassertthemoraldistancebetweenhimselfandthepoorwhiteafterthesoreonBullet'sbackisexposed,Hall"feltthat
thebrutewhohadbeenridinghiminthatsituation,deservedthehalter"(28).In"TheGanderPulling,"however,Hallpresentsthesameconflationofhumanandanimal
attributesironicallywehavelittledifficultyinperceivingthatHall'soverblownrhetoricofmoralconcernisjustasexaggeratedasPrator'sbluntoutburst.Theironic
opacityofHall'srhetoricindicatesalanguagethatisnolongeratransparentvehicleofabsolutesocialauthority.Likewise,hisexaggeratedsentimentalityservesto
subverthischaracterizationofboththebirdsandtheirtormentors,thelatterofwhom,unlikeBlossomandthefarmboyof"GeorgiaTheatrics,"escapebeingconsigned
tothecategoryofbrutebeast.AsCarolynS.Brownobserves,''TheGanderPulling"revealsthat"therewardsofcontactwiththefrontiercomenotfrompiously
condemningbutfromacceptingandappreciatingthefrontierandfrontiertalesontheirownterms."18Lessconcernedwithjudgingthebehaviorofthelowerclass,Hall
becomesmoreengagedinthenegotiationofsocialrelationshipsimplicitinthegame.

YetwhileHallislesseagertocondemnthemoralsofthelowerclass,heisequallyunwillingtodispenseentirelywithclassdistinctions.Earlyinthesketch,henotesthat
the"fewfemales"inattendance"werefromthelowestwalksoflife"(128),andlater,astheganderpullingcommenceswiththecry"Nowblazeaway!"he
parentheticallyglossesthecommandastheoneused"foranonsetofeverykind,withpeopleofthisorder"(131).Moresignificantly,theissueofclassqualifiesHall's
attitudetowardthefightinganddrinkingthatfollowtheganderpulling,neitherofwhichelicits,aswemightexpect,hismoralcondemnation.Instead,wefindHall
sympatheticallyportrayingthemanwhobringsaboutthesepotentialtransgressions,oneFatJohnFulger,thewinneroftheganderpullingcolorfullydescribedbyone
spectatoras"thatgourdo'hog'slard"(133).Althoughheisamongthelessskilledcontestants,FulgercapshisvictorywithaspeechHallinitiallycharacterizesasbeing
"littlecalculatedtoreconcile[thelosersandthosewhohadstakedbetsonthem]totheirdisappointment"(133)."Boys,"Fulgerbe
18.CarolynS.Brown,TheTallTaleinAmericanFolkloreandLiterature(Knoxville:UniversityofTennesseePress,1987),47.

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gins,"don'tpullwithmenanymore.I'vejistgotmyhandinIwishIhadapondfullo'gandersherenow,jisttoshowhowIcouldmaketheirheadsflyBetallI've
won,youmayhangthreeuponthatrope,andI'llsetSlouchatfullspeed,andtakeofftheheadsofallthree,withthefirstgrabtwowithmyhands,andonewithmy
teeth"(134).Thismockselfaggrandizement,Hallexplains,"wasallfun,forJohnknew,andallwereconvincedthatheknew,thathissuccess,wasentirelytheresultof
accident.Johnwasreallya'goodnaturedfellow,'andhiscavortinghadaneffectdirectlyoppositetothatwhichthereaderwouldsupposeithaditreconciledallto
theirdisappointment,saveone"(134).Fulgerknowswhatpeoplethinkofhim,andthusisabletoresolvethetensionsaccompanyinghisvictoryinasense,hisskillat
languagegamesmakesupforhisineptitudeatganderpulling.Inemployingstableirony,asHallcarefullyexplains,Fulgerreestablishesharmonyinanaudienceseething
withpotentialviolence,theresultofanaccidentdisruptingasocialritualinwhichconsensus(here,concerningtheprobablewinners)hadalreadybeenachieved.From
Hall'spointofview,Fulger'sabilitytoreestablishtheconsensushehaddisruptedqualifiesthemorallydubiousactionsthatfollowwhenhespendshiswinningstreating
thecompanytodrinks,"andtherebyproducedfourGeorgiarotations[fights]afterwhichallpartedgoodfriends"(134).

Conspicuouslyabsentisanynarrativemoralizing,especiallynotablegivenLongstreet'sowncommitmenttothetemperancemovementandHall'sfrequent
condemnationoffightinganddrinkingonotheroccasions.Indeed,alatersketchtitled"AnInterestingInterview"isdevotedentirelytoportrayingtheilleffectsof"the
alldestroyingvice"ofdrunkenness.Atthebeginningofthistale,whichrelatesadrunkenconversationoftwo"industrious,honest,sensiblefarmers,when
sober"(185),Halllooksforwardtothedaytenyearshencewhenhehopesto"see[drunkenness]drivenentirely,fromthehigherwalksoflifeatleast,ifnotfromall
gradesofsociety"(184).Thisdividedsenseofclassexpectationsimilarlyinformstheendingof''TheGanderPulling,"whereinsteadofjudgingthemfortheirdrunken,
brawlingways,Hallpresentsthelowerclassfolksympathetically.Drinkingandfightingarenotthreatstocommunalrelationships,butameansofestablishingthem
amongpeopleofacertainsort.If,asoneofhisdrunkardsclaims,"circumstancesaltercases"(186),Hall'sstyleprovesflexibleenough

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torecognizeandevensanctionthepositiveconsequencesofdrinkingandfightingwithinthelowerclassritualoftheganderpulling.Iftheparticipantsinthegander
pullingdonotliveuptohisgentlemanlyideals,theyneverthelessaffirmtheirmutualbondsinawaythatHallisreluctanttocondemnoutright.Atthesametime,Hall's
provisionalethicswithrespecttodrinkingandfightinglegitimatehistacitsenseofsocialhierarchy.Innotholdingtheyeomantoastrictorabsolutemorality,Hall
neitherrequiresnorexpectshimtobehaveaccordingtothemoralcodethatlegitimatesclassdistinctionsbetweengentlemanandyeoman.Thissenseofinclusion,then,
whilebroadeningtheparametersofcommunalparticipation,neverthelessfailstoeliminateclassdistinctions.

Themaintenanceofcommunityrequiresasocionarrativestyleflexibleenoughtosustainengagementwiththelowerclasswhilesimultaneouslyperpetuatingthesocial
gradationsthatinformGeorgiaScenesfromthebeginning.AsIhavesaid,thistensionbetweencommongroundandclassdistinctionconstitutesthedominantproblem
toberesolvedthroughHall'snarrativenegotiation.GivenLongstreet'slifelongdevotiontotheidealsofJeffersoniandemocracy,theproblemofsocialclassorientsitself
aroundtheperennialproblemofhow,inasocietywhereallmenarecreatedequal,somearemoreequalthanothers.Inan1834editorialintheStateRights'
Sentinel,theAugustanewspaperheownedandedited,LongstreetconfrontedtheissueofclassinthecontextofAmericanviolence.Longstreetwonderedhow
AmericanscouldbeasviolentasEuropeans,orperhapsevenmoreso,giventhatAmericanshad"noextremesofgrandeurorpoverty,ofaristocracyandpeasantry
nofeudalbarbariandistinctionsofvassal,asinEuropeandthatthegreatmassandbulkofthepopulationare,itmaybesaid,ofthemiddlingclass,andplacedupon
anequalityofconditioncertainlyasrespectstheirpoliticalrights,andintheaggregatetheyaresoalsoinrespecttotheirmorals,theireducation,andtheirrankin
society."19AlthoughLongstreet'slanguagesubtlysubvertshishomagetoa(nearly)classlesssocietyequalityofrankinsociety"intheaggregate"clearlycollapsesinto
nonsenseitisinterestingtonotehow,followingLongstreet'slogic,social
19.[AugustusBaldwinLongstreet],"ThecausesofthefrequencyofMurders,Suicides,andInsanityintheUnitedStates,"StateRights'Sentinel,17April1834,1.

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hierarchymight(asinEurope)legitimatelyfuelviolence.Longstreetresolvesthisissuebypresentingpoliticalrightssuffrageasthemechanismthroughwhichall
Americansare"placeduponanequalityofcondition."Thisequalityofconditiondoesnot,however,precludeahierarchicaldistinctionbetweenrepresentativeand
represented.

InapostGeorgiaScenessketchtitled"Darby,ThePolitician,"Longstreetdescribesthesocialchaosthatresultswhenanunfityeomaniselectedtopoliticaloffice.
Thetitlecharacterisdesignatedinthefirstsentenceofthetaleas"thefirstmanwho,withoutanyqualificationsfortheplace,waselectedtotheLegislatureofGeorgia."
Wellsuitedtohisroleassmallmerchant,Darby'sentryintopoliticsispresentedinsinistertermsherepeatedlydemonstrates"shrewdness,"''lowcunning,"and
knowledgeof"theprejudicesandweaknessesofthecommonpeopleofthecountry,[ofwhichhe]hadnolittletactinturning...tohisownadvantage."Aftercagily
arrangingforhisfriendstourgehimtoentertherace,Darbyeventuallydebateshisgentlemanrivals,SmithandJones.Playingtothehilttheroleofthepopulist
demagogue,Darbyleadshisrivalsintoarhetoricaltrapbyforcingthemtoagreethatthepoorarejustasfreeastherich,andthenforcingthemtodefendfreehold
suffrage,whichdictatedthatonlylandownerscouldvote.AlthoughSmithandJoneseloquently(thoughfeebly)attempttoarguetheirwayout,Darbyhasclearlyand
effectivelyinthemindsofthegatheredfarmers,atanyrateappropriatedtheidealofequalityforhisownselfishends.Republicanideology,then,servesasakind
ofmastercodethroughwhichsocialdiscoursemustbechanneled,andtherhetoricaleffortexpendedbyDarbyandhisrivalsservestogainprimaryaccesstoit.
BecauseDarby'srhetoricforceshisopponentsintoadoublebind,theessentialcontradictionofrepublicanideologythatequalityandhierarchycancoexistcannot
beresolvedconceptually,butonly,accordingtoFredricJameson'sformulation,throughinterventionofanarrativeapparatusinthiscase,thestoryofDarby'ssordid
politicalcareer,whichdemonstratestheyeoman'sillegitimacyasapoliticalrepresentative.20

TheissueofrepresentationpermeatesGeorgiaScenesaswell.In"TheFight,"forexample,wefindsurprisinglylittlescorndirectedatthecombat
20.AugustusBaldwinLongstreet,"Darby,ThePolitician,"inStorieswithaMoral,ed.FitzR.Longstreet(Philadelphia:JohnC.Winston,1912),50,53Jameson,Political

Unconscious,8283.

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antsthemselvesinstead,Hallcensuresthecombatants'wives(whoinitiatethefightwiththeirownquarrel)andtheconnivingRansySniffle,adiminutivepoorwhite
whofeeds"copiouslyuponredclayandblackberries,"eggsthecombatantsonbyrelayinginflammatoryinformation,andfinallyservesasanobjectlesson"forthe
purposeofshowingwhatagreatmatteralittlefiresometimeskindleth"(57,58).Inhismoralisticcodatothetale,Hallexplicitlycondemnsthepeaceofficerswho
''countenance"such"disgrace[s]tothecommunity,"assertingthatthey"deserveaplaceinthePenitentiary"(70).Hallthusreserveshisharshestcommentsforwhatwe
mightcallinvertedrepresentatives(themorallyinferiorwivesandRansySnifflestandinginforthepartiesconcerned)anddelinquentrepresentatives(thepeaceofficers
whofailtorepresentcommunityinterests).Iftheviolenceof"TheFight"takesplaceinacontextofegalitarianismrunamokthatis,intheabsenceofproperly
hierarchicalrepresentationHall'snextsketch,"TheTurnOut,"showsahealthierformoftransgressionsanctionedbyahigherlevelofculturalauthorityhere,Hall's
hostCaptainGriffin.Immediatelyaftergreetinghisguest,CaptainGriffinexplainsthatthelocalboysareplanningtorevoltagainsttheschoolmaster:
Theboys...aregoingtoturnouttheschoolmastertomorrow,andyoucanperceivetheythinkofnothingelse.Wemustgoovertotheschoolhouse,andwitnessthecontest,
inordertopreventinjurytopreceptororpupilsforthoughthemasterisalwaysuponsuchoccasions,gladtobeturnedout,andonlystruggleslongenoughtopresenthis
patronsafairapologyforgivingthechildrenaholiday,whichhedesiresasmuchastheydo,theboysalwaysconceiveaholidaygainedbya"turnout,"asasoleachievementof
theirvalor,andintheirzealtodistinguishthemselves,uponsuchmemorableoccasions,theysometimesbecometoorough,provokethemastertowrath,andaveryserious
conflictensues.Topreventtheseconsequences,tobearwitnessthatthemasterwasforcedtoyield,beforehewouldwithholdadayofhispromisedlaborfromhisemployers,and
toactasamediatorbetweenhimandtheboys,insettlingthearticlesofpeace,Ialwaysattendandyoumustaccompanymetomorrow.(82)

TheCaptain'saccountofwhatwilltranspireisnotableinthathe,unliketheparticipantsintheaffair,isfullyawareoftheintersectionbetweentheboys'heroicintentions
andtheschoolmaster'scontractualobligations.Asbotha

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proxyforthetownsfolkandanauthorityfigurefortheboys,theCaptaincountenancestheformofthecontestwhileatthesametimeensuringthatitsviolentcontentis
keptundercontrolensuring,inshort,thatitremainsagame.Thislevelofauthorityispreciselywhatisabsentin"TheFight,"wheresocialhierarchyisdeterminedby
physicalcombatratherthan,aswithCaptainGriffin,precedingandcontainingit.Indeed,CaptainGriffin'srepresentativeauthoritycontains,onanalmostauthorial
level,theactionhenarratesbeforethefactwhateverchaosensues,heassuresHall,willbelimitedbyhisauthoritytopreserveorder.

Although"TheFight"demonstratestheneedforthekindoflegitimaterepresentationwefindin"TheTurnOut,"itisnotuntil"TheShootingMatch,"theconcluding
sketchofGeorgiaScenes,thatLongstreetengagestheissueofrepresentationinthecontextofsocialclass.Here,Hall'smoralfitnesstorepresenttheyeomanwhites
resolvesclasstensionbyproducingconsensual,tacitagreementaboutclassroles.Butwhilesucharesolutionwillnecessarilybeideologicallyinterested,itis
nonethelessachievedthroughdialogicnegotiationratherthanunilateralimposition.Fromtheopeninglinesof"TheShootingMatch"wefindHallactivelyrespondingto
thedialogicimperativeofthelowerclassusinglanguage,asLongstreetsaysinhispreface,''accommodatedtothecapacityofthepersontowhomherepresents
himselfasspeaking"(2).21Travelinginafrontiercounty,Hallcomesupona"swarthy,brighteyedsmerkylittlefellow,"whomheasksifheis"goingdriving"(229):
"Notexactly,"repliedhe,surveyingmyhorsewithaquizzicalsmile,"Ihaven'tbeendrivingbymyselfforayearortwo,andmynosehasgotsobadlatelyIcan'tcarryacoldtrail
withouthoundstohelpme."

21.Longstreetfeltcompelledtojustifyhimselftothosewho"havetakenexceptionstothecoarse,inelegant,andsometimesungrammaticallanguage,whichthewriterrepresents

himselfasoccasionallyusing"byremindinghisreaderthat"itislanguageaccommodatedtothecapacityofthepersontowhomherepresentshimselfasspeaking"(2).
Althoughcriticshaveusuallyinterpretedthisstatementasajustification,onrealisticgrounds,forthecoarsedialectfoundthroughoutthebook,Longstreetisspeakingonlyof
thecoarsenessof"thewriter's"languageasspeechthatis,thelanguageofeitherBaldwinorHallasthey"accommodate"theirlanguagetothe"capacity"oftheirintratextual
audience(notthereaderofGeorgiaScenes).

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Alone,andwithouthounds,ashewas,thequestionwasratherasillyonebutitansweredthepurposeforwhichitwasput,whichwasonlytodrawhimintoconversation,andI
proceededtomakeasdecentaretreatasIcould.

"Ididn'tknow,"saidI,"butthatyouweregoingtomeetthehuntsmen,orgoingtoyourstand."

"Ah,sureenough,"rejoinedhe,"thatmoutbeabee,astheoldwomansaidwhenshekilledawasp.ItseemstomeIoughttoknowyou."

Well,ifyouought,whydon'tyou?

Whatmoutyournamebe?

"Itmightbeanything,"saidI,withborrowedwitforIknewmyman,andknewwhatkindofconversationwouldpleasehimmost.

Well,whatisitthen?

"Itis,Hall,"saidI"butyouknowitmightaswellhavebeenanythingelse."

"Prettydigging!"saidhe."Ifindyou'renotthefoolItookyoutobesohere'stoabetteracquaintancewithyou."(22930)

AlthoughthelanguagegameplayedbyHallandBillyCurlewendsinmutualrespect,itsunstatedrulessuggestaninitialunwillingnessofeachtoengagetheotherasan
equalforBilly,thisunwillingnessisclearlyrepresentedasclassresentment.Accordingtotheunstatedrulesofthegame,hierarchyisestablishedbyattributingliteral
significancetoawordorphrasewherenoneisintendedbythusimproperlyattributingliteralitytotheother'slanguage,BillyandHallareable,inturn,tomakethe
otherlookthefool.Hallresolvesthisantagonismwhenhedemonstratestheheunderstandsthegame,afterwhichBillyrenewsthebanterasawayofaffirmingmutual
respect.WhenHallasksBillyto"givemeyourname,"thelatterreplies,"TobesureIwill,myoldcoontakeittakeit,andwelcome.Anythingelseaboutmeyou'd
liketohave?"(230).Intheend,thedialogicinstabilityoflanguageworksnottoaffirmdifference,buttodefinemutualparticipationwithinacommunity.

Throughout"TheShootingMatch,"Hall'sasidestothereaderindicatehisconsciousnessofhowherelatestotheyeomenheencounters:Henotesthathisinitial"silly"
question"answeredthepurposeforwhichitwasput,whichwasonlytodrawhimintoconversation"hecommentsthat"Iknew

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myman,andknewwhatkindofconversationwouldpleasehimmost"andshortlythereafter,uponmeetingSquireSims,heexplains,"Iamalwaysfreeandeasywith
thosewhoaresowithme,andinthiscourseIrarelyfailtoplease"(233).Havingthusinternalizedthe"grammar"ofthelanguagegamesgoverningcommunal
interaction,Hallorientshislanguagetowardhisspecificaudiencesoastomakenegotiatedexchangepossible,whichinturnispredicatedonacknowledgingthatheis
likewiseavailabletotheirevaluation.AsBakhtinexplains,thespeaker's"orientationtowardthelistenerisanorientationtowardaspecificconceptualhorizon,toward
thespecificworldofthelisteneritintroducestotallynewelementsintohisdiscourseitisinthisway,afterall,thatvariousdifferentpointsofview,conceptualhorizons,
systemsforprovidingexpressiveaccents,varioussocial'languages'cometointeractwithoneanother....Thespeakerbreaksthroughthealienconceptualhorizonof
thelistener,constructshisownutteranceonalienterritory,againsthis,thelistener's,apperceptivebackground."22ThatBillyrepresentsanalienconceptualhorizonis
madeclearatseveralpointsinthestoryforexample,evenafterheandHallestablishmutualrespect,Billyguessesthat"youhardlyeverwasatashootingmatch,
stranger,fromthecutofyourcoat''(230).Thusmarkedasanalien,HallisneverthelessabletoengageBilly's"apperceptivebackground"thatis,thetacit
assumptionsthatpermithimtojudgeHallonthebasisofhisclothing.Hall'scoatactshereasametonymicindicatorofclassBilly'sprejudiceisthatHall'scoatis,soto
speak,empty.WhenHallrelatesthathehasnotonlybeentoshootingmatches,butalso"wonbeef"atoneasachild,BillyisincredulousuntilherealizesthatHallisthe
verymanofwhomhisfather,whohadoncewonabetonHall'sshooting,hasspoken"manyatime"(23132).Knowingthathecancountontheotherfellowsto
make,ashehasdone,ametonymicassociationbetweenclothingandcharacter,Billyhopesto"tearthelintofftheboys"bybettingonHallattheshootingmatch.As
hetellsHall,"They'llnever'spectsuchalookingmanasyouareofknowinganythingaboutarifle"(232),aclassprejudicehereaffirms
22.M.M.Bakhtin,TheDialogicImagination:FourEssays,ed.andtrans.MichaelHolquistandCarylEmerson(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1981),282.

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shortlythereafterwhenheintroducesHalltoSquireSims,tellinghim,"forallyouseehiminthesefineclothes,he'saswingecatadarnedsightclevererfellowthan
helookstobe"(233).

Hall'semphasisonreciprocalvaluationindicateshowsubstantiallytheframingdynamicsofhisearliertaleshavebecomeelaboratedwithintheintratextualsphereof
action.Wehaveseenin"GeorgiaTheatrics"howHall'sinitialmoralisticsocionarrativestyle,whenenforcedasa"sacredoffice,"leadstoasubversionofsocial
authority.If''TheGanderPulling"showsHall'snarrativeperspectivebecomingflexibleenoughtorecognizethesocialvalueofthelowerclass's"uncouth"ways,hestill
remainsaspectator.Itisnotuntil"TheShootingMatch"thatHallputsintopracticeasacitizenwhathehaslearnedasanarrator.Nolongeraspectator,heactively
participatesinthecommunalritual,gladlyaccompanyingBillytotheshootingmatchwheninvitedtodoso.Thisphysicalactissignificant,forhereweseeanegotiation
ofclassboundariesbeingeffected,literally,oncommonground.

NotthatanyconsensusappearsimminentuponHall'sarrivalattheshootingmatchindeed,theveryoppositeistrue,ashefindshimself,afterBillyentershiminthe
competitionandbragsofhisshootingprowess,tobetheobjectofintenseandgenerallyskepticalscrutiny.AsHallrelates,"Everyinchofmewasexaminedwiththe
nicestscrutinyandsomeplainlyexpressedbytheirlooks,thattheyneverwouldhavetakenmeforsuchabite"(235).UnwillingtowoundBilly'sfeelingsbyeither
shootingbyproxy(Hallexplainsthat"byallrulesofbreedingIwasboundtoshootinperson")orrefusingtoshootatall,Hallreluctantlyentersthecontestandholds
outforthelastshot.Duringtheinterveningroundsofshooters,hedescribesinminutedetailtherulesoftheshootingmatch,itshistoryinthestateofGeorgia,thetypes
ofweaponsused,andespeciallytheverbalgamesmanshipofthevariousparticipants.Asinseveralearliersketches,insultsandwordplayreplacetheactualcontestas
theprimarysiteofcompetition:MealyWhitecotton'sfrailphysique,HiramBaugh'sweakboasts,andSimonStow'sineffectualdeliberatenessallreceivesarcastic
commentaryfromthecrowd.WhenHall'sturncomes,hetoobecomesthebuttofhisfellowshooters'comments,fordespiteBilly'sassurancesthatheisashooterof
greatrenown,Hallfindsthathecanhardlyraisetheyeoman'sheavyrifle.

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Haplesslyattemptingtoraisethepieceamidthemen'scleversarcasmonemanexplainsthatHall"usedtoshootwell...butcan'tnownornevercould,"while
anotherwarnsthosestandingnearthetargettobecareful,"forI'llbedoddurnedifBroadclothdon'tgivesomeofyouthedrygripesifyoustandtooclose
thare"(24445)Hallfiresblindlyandimmediatelybeginssavingfacethroughselfdeprecation.HavinglearnedalessonfromFatJohnFulger,Hallexplainsthat"I
havealwaysfoundthatthemostcrediblewayofrelievingmyselfofderision,wastoheightenitmyselfasmuchaspossible.Itisagoodplaninallcircles,butbyfarthe
bestwhichcanbeadoptedamongtheplainroughfarmersofthecountry"(245).Fullycognizantofhisaudience'slanguagegamesandthepotentialresentmentthey
harbor,Hallfacetiouslyswearsnevertoshootforbeefagainifthecrossisnotknockedout,thenprovidesaludicrousexplanationofthesingleanddoublewabble
shootingtechniques,heexplains,wellknowntoallthebestmarksmen.Asthementendingthetargetapproach,theironyofHall'sdiscoursehasbecomeapparentto
hisfellowshooters,whoarenolongerinterestedintheaccuracyofhisshot,sinceHall's''airsandharangue"have"putthethoughttoflight"(246).Astonishingly,
however,thementendingthetargetarrivewiththenewsthatHall'sshotis,asoneputsit,"onlysecondbestafterallthefuss"(246),towhichHallexclaims"with
uncontrollabletransports,""Secondbest!"Fromtheirdistantperspective,Hallrelates,thecombinationofBilly'sboasting,thecourtesyextendedtohim,andhis
struggleswiththerifle("takenastheflourishesofanexpertwhowishedto'astonishthenatives'")haveconspiredtocreateinthemtheexpectationofaskilledshot.
AlthoughthesemenaredisappointedwithHall'smarksmanship,thosewhohavewitnessedfirsthandhisshootingandhisfacetiousrhetoricareincredulous,andtheir
astonishment,Hallexplains,"blinded[them]totherealfeelingswithwhichtheexclamation["Secondbest!"]wasuttered,andallowedmesufficienttimetoprepare
myselfformakingthebestuseofwhatIhadsaidbefore,withaverydifferentobject"(247).

Becauseitsmeaningisopentodualinterpretations,Hall'sexclamationallowshimtheopportunitytolament"withanairofdespondency"thatheis"gettingtoooldand
dimsightedtoshootarifle"(247).Althoughhelaterassertsthat,infact,theshothadbeentheresultofpureluck,Hallagain

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demonstrateshisfacilityatlanguagegamesmarkedasdifferentbyhisclothingandfancyspeech,headaptshisspeechtodemonstratethatheis"oneofthem."James
KiblerthusactsasLongstreet'sidealreaderinclaimingthatdespite"superficial"differences,Hallandtheshooters"findcommonground.''AsKiblercontinues,"There
isabsolutelynoclass'struggle'orresentmentbecausethese'simple'menhavethedignityofpossessingvaluesincommonwiththe'highandmightyofland,'thesame
valuesthatmattermorethanthetrappingsofwealth,power,andfame.Itisthusfinallythesesharedvaluesthatbondthemandbindthecommunityintoanorganic
whole.Fromthiscommonground,theone'class'canregardtheotherwithgenuinerespectacrosstheirsuperficial'barriers.'"23Insubordinatingclassdivisiontothe
organicunity,KibleraffirmstheutopianresolutionprovidedthroughHall'snarrativenegotiation,asdoesBillyCurlew,whoinvitesHallhometo"swaplies,"anoffer,he
asserts,that"won'tcost[Hall]acent"(248).

Thisutopianresolutionneverthelessrestrictstheyeomantoapositionalentranceintothecommunity.Asheispreparingtoleave,Hallisstoppedbyamemberofthe
crowdandaskedwhatheis"offeringfor."WhenHallassureshimthatheisnotacandidateforoffice,themanreplies,"Oh...ifyou'reupforanythingyouneed'ntbe
mealymouthedaboutit,'foreusboysforwe'llallgoinforyouhereuptothehandle,"asentimentendorsedbyBilly,whoaffirmsthatifHallevershould,the"boysof
UpperHogthief"will"goforyou,tothehilt,againstcreation,titornotit,that'sthetatur"(249).Coupledwithaseverejuxtapositionofhighandlowdialects,this
referencetopoliticalpatronagesuggeststheintegralrolepoliticalrepresentationplaysinbridgingsocialboundariesessentially,Hallhasachievedasocialstylecapable
ofcreatingconsensus,astylethatencompassestheyeomanfarmersofUpperHogthiefascitizensratherthanfrontiercuriositiesbutrecentlyevolvedfromthehalf
horse,halfalligator.Butwhile"TheShootingMatch"performstheessentialculturalworkofreclaimingthepoorwhiteoftheDarkCornerastheyeomanwhiteof
UpperHogthief,itdoessowiththeunderstandingthatthepoliticalroleofthelatterisdefined
23.Kibler,Introduction,xviii.

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inrelationtothatofthegentleman.ThistacitagreementisakeyexampleofwhatJamesoncallstheideologeme,thatrhetoricalconstruct"susceptibletobotha
conceptualdescriptionandanarrativemanifestationallatonce."Displayedhereinitsnarrativemanifestation,whichJamesondescribesas"akindofultimateclass
fantasyaboutthe'collectivecharacters'whicharetheclassesinopposition,"24theideologemeofrepresentationtacitlydelimitsculturalrolesthereisnoquestionof
eitherHall'sfitnesstorepresentortheyeoman'slackthereof.Noristhisresolutionpresentedconceptually,sincewehavenoexplanationjustifyingthemen'srespective
roles.WemustthereforeviewHall'snarrativeresolutionasmoreamatterofformthanofcontentsinceunityisestablishedandmutuallyaffirmedwithout,andalmostat
theexpenseof,anexplanationregardingthecontentoftheform.Putanotherway,assoonasconsentisgrantedandtheformofunityestablished,thecontentof
divisionthosecharacteristicsthatmaketheyeomanunfittoleaddisappears.Immediatelyfollowingtheyeomen'scommitmentto"goinforyouuptothehandle,"
Hallpreciselyinvertsthemetonymicrelationshipbetweenmoralityandplacehehadestablishedasthemoralisticnarratorof''GeorgiaTheatrics."Wherehehad
assumedthatthe"DarkCornerofLincoln,"accuratelydepictedthemoralityofitsinhabitants,hesaysof"UpperHogthief,""Thereaderwillnotsupposethatthe
districttookitsnamefromthecharacterofitsinhabitants.InalmosteverycountyintheState,thereissomespot,ordistrict,whichbearsacontemptuousappellation,
usuallyderivedfromlocalrivalships,orfromasingleaccidentalcircumstance"(249).SoendsGeorgiaScenesonanoteofclassreconciliation.

Thetacitresolutionprovidedby"TheShootingMatch"legitimatesHall'sabilitytorepresent,bothpoliticallyandnarratively,theyeomenofUpperHogthiefhis
knowledgeofthem"astheyare"validates,astheyrecognize,hisabilitytorepresenttheminapoliticalcontext.AsKennethBurkeremindedusmanyyearsago,itis
"nomereaccidentoflanguagethatweusethesamewordforsensory,artistic,andpoliticalrepresentation"sinceeachrealmconstitutesamodeofsymbolicaction.25
Yet,asinmostJeffer
24.Jameson,PoliticalUnconscious,87.

25.KennethBurke,ThePhilosophyofLiteraryForm:StudiesinSymbolicAction(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1973),26.

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sonianrhetoric,therepresentativerelationshiphereisnotstrictlysynecdochicinthesensethatthe"whole"Hallrepresentsismonolithic,althoughtheyeomen's
perceptionthatHallisoneofthemtendstoelideclassdistinctions,asdoesHall'snarrativestyleitself.Nevertheless,therelativedisappearanceofHallasamoralistic
narratordoesnotoccasionatotalcollapseofthenarrativeframe.Hall'snarrativestyle,havingbeendialogicallymodifiedoverthecourseofthebook,hasbecomea
socialstyleandthuscanbeputintoplayasspeechthathassocialvalueasaunitofexchange.TheverbalgiveandtakebetweenHallandhisfellowshooters
neverthelesstakesplacewithinanarrativemediuminwhichHallonseveraloccasionsmetonymicallydigressestoprovideinformationorinterpretationnotexplicitly
germanetotheactionbeingdescribed.AsHallbecomesmoreofanarratorandlessofacharacterthatas,ashereestablishestheframehetacitlyassertshissocial
authority.Inmanyinstances,suchdigressionsshowHall,inhisroleasasocialhistorian,providinghistoricalcontextsunavailabletohisreaderorpresumablytothefolk
ofUpperHogthief.Hallalsoinvokeshiswiderframeofreferencewhen,onthreeoccasions,heintroducesaparticularcharacterandthendescribestheclassortype
themanrepresents.HeintroducesSquireSims,forexample,ashavingbeen"aJusticeofthePeaceinhisday(andwhereisthemanofhisageinGeorgiawhohas
not?)"(232),aformulationthatquicklyfixestheSquireinthereader'smindasaminorofficialandagoodfellow.HedescribesMosesFirmby,oneofthebetter
shooters,as"atall,slimmanofrathersallowcomplexionanditisasingularfact,that...themountaineershavenotgenerallyrobustframesorfinecomplexions:they
are,however,almostinexhaustiblebytoil''(240).ThisshiftfromindividualtotypeoccursagainwithMealyWhitecotton,introducedas"anotherRansySniffle"(233).
Inthesphereofwhatwemightcallsocialsynecdoche,Hallmoveswithconfidencethereisnoquestion,asin"GeorgiaTheatrics,"ofhiscategoricalexpectations,his
socialtaxonomy,beingsubverted.

Hall'sabilitytocategorizetheseminorcharactersquicklyandefficientlyrepresentsakindofsocialauthorityresultingfromthefactthattheyare,inadeepsense,
familiartohim.Asheattainsastylethatsocializespreviouslyalienanddisruptivemembersofthecommunity,Halltacitlylegitimateshis

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authoritytoorganizehisculturesymbolically.Hisinterpretiveauthorityencodesakindofsocialpower:beinganauthorityonthiscultureisequivalenttohavingpower
withinit.Forexample,Hall'sthreewordcategorizationofMealyWhitecottonisalsoawayofcontrollinghimunlikeourpreviousRansySniffle,whoseabilitytofuel
violenceasan"inverted"representativeconstitutesarealthreattocommunitystability,Mealyisdealtwitheasily:despitehisstatusasthe"selfconstitutedcommander
inchief"oftheshootingmatch(233),helosesauthoritytoHall.Onamorecomplexlevel,Hall'ssocialauthorityiselaboratedinhisrelationshipwithBillyCurlew,who
fullyrepresentsJameson'scollectivecharacter.Hall'snarrativerelationshipwithBillyis,ontwooccasions,literallythatofaninterpreteronewhodecodesthedialect
messageoftheyeoman.InthefirstinstanceHallglossesindetailBilly'sinvitationtotheshootingmatch,a''shortsentence...repletewithinformationforme,"thereby
demonstratinghisintimateknowledgeoftheoffer'ssocialmeaning.Inthesecond,whichoccursjustaftertheshootingmatch,HallrelateshowBilly"beggedmetogo
homewithhimforthenight,orasheexpressedit,'togohomewithhimandswapliesthatnight,anditshould'ntcostmeacent,'thetruereadingofwhich,is,thatifI
wouldgohomewithhim,andgivehimthepleasureofanevening'schataboutoldtimes,hishouseshouldbeasfreetomeasmyown"(248).Thisdialogicencounter
demonstrateshowcompletelyHall'sgentlemanlystylehasabsorbedtheyeoman'srawvernacular.IninterpretingBilly'scoarseeconomicmetaphors,Hallrestoresthe
socialmeaningoftheprofferedexchange.

Althoughsomewhatredundant,Hall'stranslationofeconomiclanguageintothelanguageofcommunityepitomizesthenarrativeworkofGeorgiaScenes.Unlike
Baldwin,whosebusinesstriptothefrontieronlyexacerbatesthedistancebetweenhimselfandhishosts,Hallisabletonegotiateandestablishasocialbondwiththe
yeoman.Thetenuousnatureofthatbond,combiningasitdoesbothsocialunityandclassdifference,canperhapsbestbegaugedbyitseventualdemiseinthe
postbellumera,whenBourbonsandPopulistsproducedapoliticalculturemorebifurcatedalongclassline.Yetthereisamoreimportantsenseinwhichthecommunity
producedbyGeorgiaScenessurviveswellintothetwentiethcenturyandwhichindeedmaybe

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intrinsictotheexperienceofcommunitygenerally.Inconceptuallyrepressinghowhelegitimatesthesocialorder,Hallengendersaconsensusthatrestslargelyontacit
andunspokenagreement,suggestingthat,inthefinalanalysis,wemustdeferthesymbolicproceduresthroughwhichweresolvesocialcontradictionandexperience
community.

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2
ThePlantationCommunity:
JohnPendletonKennedy'sSwallowBarnandThomasNelsonPage'sInOleVirginia
IncontrasttotheclasstensionsthatareresolvedthroughnegotiationattheconclusionofGeorgiaScenes,theissueofraceprovedmoreintractableduringthe
antebellumera.Theprimaryreasonisnotdifficulttolocate:dialoguewithone'spropertyposedcertainproblems.AsintellectualhistorianssuchasLewisP.Simpson
andEugeneGenovesehaveshown,theantebellumSouthhadevolvedinlargemeasureintoacommunitybasedonchattelslavery,anidealsocialorder"builtsecurely,
permanently,unqualifiedlyontherightofmentoholdpropertyinothermen."Conceivedbysouthernsocialtheoristsasanagrarianbulwarkagainstthoseinsidious
"IsmsoftheNorth"industrialism,abolitionism,socialism,equalitarianismagainstwhichGeorgeFitzhughandotherapologistsvociferated,theslavecommunitywas
representedasautopianicontobeemulatedbythewesternworldasthemeansofpreservingamaximumdistributionofpropertyandindividualliberty.Atonce
reactionaryandrevolutionary,mensuchasFitzhugh,AlbertTaylorBledsoe,ThomasRoderickDew,BeverleyTucker,JamesHenleyThornwell,andJames
HammondtheorizednothinglessthanaDixieversionoftheCityontheHill.AndforallitsCavaliertrappings,theslavecommunitywasnotdissimilarfromitsPuritan
counterpartinonefundamentalway:bothwerepredicatedonarigidsocialhierarchyperceivedtobebothnecessaryandbeneficial.Indeed,JohnWinthrop'sassertion
that"inalltimessomemustberichsomepoore,somehigheandeminentinpower

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anddignitieothersmeaneandinsubjection"sothat"everymanmighthaveneedofothers,andfromhencetheymightbeallknittmorenearlytogetherintheBondof
brotherlyaffeccion"thisfromthesamesermoninwhichhefirstusedhisfamousmetaphormightverywellhavecome,minusthearchaicorthography,fromthepen
ofanynumberofproslaverytheorists.1

AnothersimilaritybetweenthePuritanandCavalierversionsoftheCityontheHillisthattheybothfailedtomaterialize,andforsimilarreasons,especiallytheir
respectivefailurestorecognizetheideologicalpowerofbourgeoisindividualism.ThestoryoftheSouth'srevolutionaryenginethatcouldn'tiswellknown.Yet,as
Genovesesays,theantebellumSouthwasuniqueamongmodernslavesocietiesinthatitsawitselfasthe"lastgenuinehei[r]ofChristiancivilizationandaproperly
stratifiedandhumanesocialorder"andproducedfromthisvisionabroadcritiqueofcapitalismandacallforthereinstitutionofslaveryinindustrializedcountries.
Moreover,southernsocialtheoristspresentedthisvisioninatoughminded,sophisticated,coherent,andintellectuallyrigorousmanner.Andyetcontraryto
Genovese'sassertion,andwiththeoddexceptionofaworklikeHenryTimrod's"Ethnogenesis,"thesouthernliterarymindcouldnotsustainthisvision.2Putsimply,
thereisnonarrativeequivalentofCannibalsAll!orBledsoe'sEssayonHumanLiberty.Forallitsrevolutionaryrhetoric,theSouthdemonstratedacuriousinability
togeneratestoriesthatwerenotessentiallydefensiveitis,infact,afairgeneralizationtosaythesouthernliterarymindcouldnotoratanyrate,didnotproduce
thenarrativeequivalentofthepositivegoodschoolofproslaveryrhetoric.

Antebellumnarrativeoffersausefularenainwhichtoexaminehowtheachievementsofnarrativecoincidewiththegivensofrhetoric.Itismycontentionthatthe
antebellumliteraryminddevoteditsprincipleenergytowardpreservingapastoralvisionofchattelslaverythatresistedinsertionin
1.LewisP.Simpson,TheBrazenFaceofHistory:StudiesintheLiteraryConsciousnessofAmerica(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1980),71JohnWinthrop,"A

ModellofChristianCharity,"inTheEnglishLiteraturesofAmerica,15001800,ed.MyraJehlenandMichaelWarner(London:Routledge,1997),152.
2.EugeneD.Genovese,"TheSouthintheHistoryoftheTransatlanticWorld,"inWhatMadetheSouthDifferent?ed.KeesGispen(Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1990),

12,10.

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ahistoricalsequenceorplot.Morespecifically,theplantationitselfdidnottranslateeffortlesslyintonarrativetheliteraryplantationwasineverywayalessstable
institutionthanitsrhetoricalcounterpart.Curiously,thetwonarrativesmostsuccessfulinconstructingtheplantationmythbothfailtoproduceastableicon.Sincethe
publicationofWilliamTaylor'sCavalierandYankeein1957,criticshavenotneglectedhowJohnPendletonKennedysubtlysubvertstheplantationmythinSwallow
Barnor,ASojournintheOldDominion(1832,1851).Likewise,acritiqueofslaverylurksinthepagesofThomasNelsonPage'sInOleVirginiaor,Marse
ChanandOtherStories(1887),usuallycitedasthecentraltextoftheelegiacschoolofmoonlightandmagnolias.ThemainproblembothKennedyandPage
confront,inverydifferenthistoricalcontextsandforverydifferentreasons,ishowtorepresenttheorganicbondbetweenmasterandslave,thatrelationshipupon
whichreststheorganicsocialorderoftheplantationcommunity.Inrepresenting"thetiesthatbind"aphrasewhoseliteralmeaningsuggeststheessenceofthe
problembothKennedyandPageconfrontafigureofresistancevirtuallyabsentfromproslaveryrhetoric:theslavehimself,whoexertedatenaciouspressureagainst
thenarrativesthatpresumedtocontainhim.

Theproblematicstatusoftheliteraryslaveisevidentthroughouttheantebellumperiod.BeginningwithGeorgeTucker'sTheValleyofShenandoah(1824),the
abstractinstitutionofslaveryandtheactualslavearepresentedinfundamentallydifferentterms.WhileEdwardGrayson,Tucker'smouthpiece,canprovidean
eloquentrhetoricaldefenseofslaveryasanecessaryevil,goingsofarastoassertthatthe"erroronthissubjectproceedsfromawhiteman'ssupposinghimselfinthe
situationofaslave"(63),theslaveauctionpresentedlaterinthenovelevokespreciselythiskindofinterracialidentification.EvenWilliamGilmoreSimms,whobyany
accountmustbereckonedtheantebellumorder'smosteloquentliterarydefender,haddifficultyincreatingaliterarycounterparttotheslavehedescribedinan1837
essaypublishedintheSouthernLiteraryMessenger."Thereisnopropriety,"Simmswrites,"intheapplicationofthenameoftheslavetotheservileofthesouth.He
isundernodespoticpower.Therearelawswhichprotecthim,inhisplace,asinflexibleasthosewhichhisproprietorisrequiredtoobey,inhisplace.Providence
hasplacedhiminourhand,forhisgood,andhaspaidusfromhislaborforourguardianship."IncontrasttothehierarchySimmshere

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attributestoProvidence,hierarchyinWoodcraft,whichSimpsonranksalongsideSwallowBarnas"probablythemostsignificantfictionwrittenintheantebellum
South,"isauthorizedbytheslavehimself.ComingattheendofSimms'sRevolutionaryWarcycle,WoodcrafttracesthestruggleofPorgyandhisbandofveteransto
reestablishtheplantationofGlenEberley.AttheconclusionofthenovelPorgyofferstoliberatehisfaithfulslave,Tom.Theslaverefuses,tellinghismasterthat"You
b'longstomeTom,jes'asmuchasmeTomb'longtoyouandyounebberguinegityoufreepaperfrommelongasyoulib"(509).Thesheerlypragmaticnatureof
Tom'scommitmenttoPorgy,whoseprimaryvirtueforhisslaveliesinhisabilitytoprocuredinner,hasevidenceditselfearlierwhenTomrefusesPorgy'srequestthat
hekillhimselfshouldhecometoliveunderanothermaster.ThatTom'sinstinctforpreservation,whichdisruptshismaster'sabsurdsenseofthepaternalisticbond,later
becomesthebasisforthatbondsuggeststheextenttowhichWoodcraftcomicallyobliteratesanyloftynotionsofdivinelyordainedsocialhierarchy.Moreover,as
SimpsonarguesinTheDispossessedGarden,thatthepastoralcoherenceoftheplantationcommunityisvalidatedbytheconsentoftheslavepointstoa"deep
vexationintheSouthernwriter'sattempttoauthenticatetheSouth'shistoricalexistenceasaslavesociety."3

Theslave'sconsent,virtuallyabsentfromproslaveryrhetoric,thusacquiresapotentiallydisruptivefunctioninSimms'snoveland,moregenerally,inantebellum
narrativetakenasawhole.Inonesensethedifferencebetweenthenarrativeslaveandthecomparativelypowerlessrhetoricalslaveissimplyamatterofrelative
abstractionwhereasthelatterexistsalmostexclusivelyasaconcept,asocialposition,theformercomesperilouslyclosetopossessing,onanimaginativelevelatany
rate,fleshandblood.Thataslaveshouldhaveastoryofhisown,asopposedtobeingamereappendagetothesoutherngrandnarrative,thusrepresentedakindof
crisis,and,asWilliamL.
3.GeorgeTucker,TheValleyofShenandoahor,MemoirsoftheGraysons(1824reprint,ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1970),63[WilliamGilmoreSimms],"Miss

MartineauonSlavery,"byASouthCarolinian,SouthernLiteraryMessenger3(November1837):657LewisP.Simpson,TheDispossessedGarden:PastoralandHistoryin
SouthernLiterature(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1975),5556,61WilliamGilmoreSimms,Woodcraftor,HawksabouttheDovecote(1854reprint,NewYork:Norton,
1961),509.

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Andrewshasshown,thehistoricalintroductionoftheslaveintonarrativespacewasitselfoccasionedbyanovertruptureinthesouthernimageofslaverybroughton
bytheNatTurnerRebellion.Becausetheresolutionofconflictisafundamentalcharacteristicofnarrative,thegeneralexclusionoftheslavefromnarrativespaceacted
asakindofformalequivalenttodenyingthetensionsandconflictsinherentintheinstitution.Asaresult,insteadofsituatingslaveryinhistory,thesouthernliterarymind
tendedtowardapastoralratificationofslaveryasastatic,extrahistoricalandhence,extranarrativeinstitution,atendencyperhapsmostclearlyexemplifiedin
WilliamGrayson's"TheHirelingandtheSlave"(1854),aworkinwhichthenarrativeimpulseissubordinatedtoaniconicpresentationoftheslave'scontentedand
carefreelot.

Hereweshouldpausetodistinguishbetweentwodistinctformsofnarrative:first,asaliterarymodethatmediatesaninternallycontesteddiscursivespaceand
producesastablesocialorder(essentiallytheroleBakhtinassociateswiththemonologicalnovel),andsecond,asaliterarymodethatpresumesastablesocialorder
andproducesacultureherotocontendagainstexternalenemiesonaworldhistoricalstage.4Theabsenceofthesecond,epicalmodeinantebellumlettersis,Ithink,
selfevident,butthecausesfortheSouth'sfailuretoproduceanepicarerelativelycomplex,especiallygiventhatthismustbeconsideredthegenremosttheoretically
congenialtothekindofsocietytheSouthimagineditselfasbeing.AlthoughadeeppremiseofSimpson'sstudyessentially,thatonlymodernartispossiblemight
explainthelackofasouthernepic,orevenaseriousattemptatone,anequallylikelyexplanationmightbethatthemonologicalstabilityofthesocialorder,the
massivenessofculturalgivens,wasneversecuredtothedegreerequiredtosupportanepicplotindefenseofslavery.WhatIamsuggesting,inshort,isthatantebellum
narrativeregistersalevelofsocialdisso
4.WilliamL.Andrews,"Inter(racial)textualityinNineteenthCenturySouthernNarrative,"inInfluenceandIntertextualityinLiteraryHistory,ed.JayClaytonandEricRothstein

(Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1991),305306forBakhtinonthemonologicalnovel,seeProblemsofDostoevsky'sPoetics,203204.GraysonfollowsKennedyfairly
closelyinlocatingslaverywithinanarrative.DenouncingtheslavetradeascruelandpredictingtherepatriationofslavestoAfrica,henevertheless,likeKennedy,emphasizesthe
pastoralconditionoftheinstitutionasitpresentlyexists.Seediscussionbelow.

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nanceregardingtheinstitutionthatcouldlargelybeelidedwithin,ontheonehand,revolutionaryrhetoric,andonthe(literary)other,thepastoralmodeanditsdeferral
orevasionoftheconflictsassociatedwithnarrativity.IftheSouthcouldsustainapictureofslavery,itfailedtosustainastoryofslavery.

Thisisnottoclaimthatnarrativityisabsentfromliteraryrepresentationsofslaveryinanyabsolutesense.Indeed,whatmakesSwallowBarnsuchacompellingwork,
Ithink,isthatitdemonstratesinasingletextthedeeptensionbetweenthepastoralandthenarrativemodesinsofarastheyareimplicatedinadefenseofchattel
slavery.Wheretheoneiscommittedtoaniconicrepresentationofastatic,idealizedlifeworld,theotheroffersthepossibilityof,ontheonehand,adynamicmediation
ofinternaldissent,andontheother,aconnectionwithhistory,roleswehavegenericallyassociatedwiththemonologicalnovelandtheepic,respectively.(Insofaras
theformerisconcerned,Simpson'scontentionthattheSouth'salienationfrommodernityexileditfromthecommunityofletterscanberecastinBakhtiniantermsasan
exilefromthenovelform.)AsSwallowBarnreducesacomplexsystemofsocialrelationstoapastoralimage,theresultingiconacquiresakindoffragility.Nothing
canhappentoiteventsconceivedasbeingpartofanarrativethatis,astoryhavingabeginning,middle,andendandpointingto,asJamesonsays,autopian
resolutiontothecontradictionsconfrontedthereinthreatentheveryconceptionofaneventasanendlesslyrepeatableinstanceofastableorder.Inafundamental
sensetheiconicimagethatdominatesthepagesofKennedy'snovelcannotbesubjectedtotheconceptofsequence.Itismycontentionthat,althoughSwallowBarn
incorporateselementsofwhatIamlooselydesignatingasthenarrativemode,itultimatelysubordinatesthetwomostimportantsuchelementsnamely,thedialogic
accentsprovidedbyMarkLittletonandtheculturalplotenvisionedbytheplantationmasterFrankMeriwethertoapastoraldefenseofslavery.Intheend,the
pastoralstabilityalreadysecuredbyhistory(inthathistoryhashappenedinordertoproducethisparticularpastoralworld)createsabulwarkagainstwhichthe
demandsofhistoryandtheexternalworldarerenderedimpotent.Inafundamentalsense,theisolationoftheplantationactsasapreconditionforitsexistence.

<><><><><><><><><><><><>

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InKennedy'snovelitisthemarginalsocialfiguretheslave,thepoorwhitewhomosttangiblylinksthepastoralstabilityoftheplantationtohistory.AsSimpson
notes,itisanoldfreedmanwhointroducesthethemeofdevolutionthatlaterfindsmoreverbose,iflesseloquent,expressioninthemouthofFrankMeriwether.When
MarkLittleton,thenorthernnarratorofSwallowBarnwhoisvisitinghissouthernrelationsforthefirsttime,arrivesintheenvironsoftheplantation,heismetbyOld
Scipio,who,accordingtoLittleton,"had,fromsomearistocraticconceitofelegance,induedhimselfformyserviceinaraggedregimentalcoat."5Exhibiting"allthe
unctionofanoldgentleman,"thevenerablefreedmandrivesLittletontoSwallowBarn,duringwhichtimehe"expatiatedwithawonderfulrelishuponthesplendorsof
theoldfashionedstyleinthatpartofthecountryandtoldmeverypathetically,howtheestateswerecutup,andwhatoldpeoplehaddiedoff,andhowmuchhefelt
himselfaloneinthepresenttimes,whichparticularsheinterlardedwithsundrysageremarks,impartinganaffectionateattachmenttotheoldschool,ofwhichhe
consideredhimselfnounworthysurvivor"(22).ScipioisthefirstinaseriesofblackcharactersnotedbyLittletonfortheirimitativeness.Repeatinga"reflection...
whichdoubtlesshehadpickedupfromsomepopularorator,"ScipioprefiguresJupiter,the''KingoftheQuarter"describedbyMeriwetherasa"preposterous
coxcomb"whosevanityissatedbyoneofMeriwether'soldchapeauxdebras,"arelicofmymilitaryera,"thegentlemanexplains(452).Inbothcasestheslave's
imitationsignifieshiscommitmenttotheplantationorderandenableshissenseofpersonalselfimportance.

AsSimpsonsuggests,bothcharactersintroduceparodicovertonesintoKennedy'srepresentationoftheplantation,yetinneithercaseistheslaveconsciousofthe
parody.WithrespecttoCarey,Meriwether'spersonalretainer,thesituationisfundamentallydifferentbecausehisimitationisnot,asitwere,overtlyslavish.Carey
arguablyintendstoparodyhismaster.InanamusingvignettethatillustratestoLittletontheessentialimitativenessoftheplantationcommunity,Careytransforms
Meriwether'sponderouspredictionthat"thesovereigntyofthisUnionwillbeastherodofAaronit
5.Kennedy,SwallowBarn,21.Thisworkwillhereinafterbecitedparentheticallybypagenumberinthetext.

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willturnintoaserpent,andswallowupallthatstrugglewithit"intothesomewhatlessgrandiose,"Lookout,MasterNed!Aaron'srodablacksnakeinOld
Virginny!"(7475).Ifimitationisthesincerestformofflattery,thenMeriwethershouldbeimmenselyflattered,yetinreducingMeriwether'sponderousbiblical
metaphortoa"blacksnakeinOldVirginny,''suchimitativenesscarrieswithitdecidedlyparodicovertones.Nevertheless,Meriwetherremainsflattered."Hedoesnot
dislikethistraitinthesocietyaroundhim,"Littletonnotes,afterwhichherelatesanincidentinwhichMeriwetheroverhearsacarpenter"expounding...someoracular
opinionofFrank'stouchingthepoliticalaspectofthecountry"(75).Suchimitationevinces,Meriwetherinformshisnorthernguest,"thewholesometoneoffeelingin
thatpartofthecountry"(75).Suchevocationsofconsensuseven(andperhapsespecially)thosearrivedatinalessthantoughmindedmannerembodyastable
modeofdistributingsocialauthority,anaristocratictrickledowneffect,ifyouwill.YetinthesingularcaseofCarey,thisdistributionofauthorityproducesaterminal
imitatorwithopaquemotives,forCareyclearlyperformshisscenewithanulteriormotive."Suspect[ing]usofsomejoke,"Carey"asks'ifthereis'ntacopperforan
oldnegro,'whichifhesucceedsingetting,herunsoff,tellingus'heistoo'cutetomakeafoolofhimself'"(75).

Crucially,LittletonnumbershimselfamongthemenwhoputCareyuptohisparodicperformance.Butwhomisthejokeon?LittletonclearlyaffirmsCarey'sgullibility
intheentirematterwhenthemenroarwithlaughter,herelates,"Careystareswithastonishmentatourirreverence"(75).AccordingtoLittleton,itisonlyafter"having
beensettoactingthissceneforusonceortwice"doesCareybegintosuspectajoke.ButsurelyitispossibletoreadbeneathLittleton'signorantslavetoonewho
cagilyactsthefoolperfectlyawareoftheperformativedemandsbeingmadeofhim.Readthisway,Careyappearsasamasteractorwith(besidesacomicgift)a
shrewdsenseofwhathisaudiencewants(aparodyofMeriwether'ssententiousness)andwhatitiswillingtopay.IfweaskofthislatentCareythequestionStanley
Elkinsasksof"Sambo""Whatorderofexistence,whatrankoflegitimacy,shouldbeaccordedhim?"weareforcedtomediatebetweenLittleton'signorant,
reverentslaveandonewhoconsciouslyandcagilyaccommodateshimselftohisaudience'sexpectations.AsElkinsre

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marks,"thelinebetween'accommodation'(asconscioushypocrisy)andbehaviorinextricablefrombasicpersonality,thoughthelinecertainlyexists,isanythingbuta
clearmatterofchoice.Thereisreasontothinkthattheonegradesintotheother,andviceversa,withconsiderablesubtlety."IfweinterpretCareyinlightoflater
examinationsofslaveryandAfricanAmericandiscourse,workssuchasGenovese'sRoll,Jordan,RollandHenryLouisGates'sexaminationofthesignifyingtradition,
apotentialtricksterfigureemergesalmostirresistibly.6Is,then,Carey'sperformanceintentionallyparodic?Isthereatangiblecharacterbehindtheveil?

AlthoughitismycontentionthatSwallowBarnsystematicallyelidesthesepossibilities,themeansbywhichKennedy'snarrativeultimatelyproducesthemindlessslave
arequitecomplex.KennedyhadampleopportunitytoobserveslavesatTheBower,thePendletonplantationthatprovidedthemodelforSwallowBarn,andifwe
casthiminasheerlymimeticroleastherecorderofactualslavebehavior,hisportrayalofthisimaginaryslavemightwellregisteralevelofresistanceofwhichhemay
notandprobablycouldnothavebeenaware.(InthiscontextwecanthinkofJoelChandlerHarris'sUncleRemustalesasparadigmaticexamples.)7Yetassoonas
theslaveentersKennedy'snarrative,hebecomessubjecttoanelisionofresistanceproducedbyLittleton'sframingsubjectivity.Inthisway,theslave'sactionsand
wordsthatis,thephenomenabymeansofwhichheisobjectifiedaremadetostandforhischaracternotsomuchthroughametonymicequationofoutsideand
inside,butthroughanoutrightobliterationofinteriority.Thisshifttowardtheconstructionofasimulacrum,althoughimplicitinanysubjectiveornarrativeact,is
essentialtotheplantationnovelforobviousreasons:itallowstheslavetobefiguredinperfectharmonywithhispastoralsetting.YetIwanttosuggestthatthisshiftis
rarelyabsolute,
6.StanleyElkins,Slavery:AProbleminAmericanInstitutionalandIntellectualLife(1959reprint,NewYork:GrossetandDunlap,1963),82,86EugeneD.Genovese,Roll,

Jordan,Roll:TheWorldtheSlavesMade(NewYork:PantheonBooks,1972)HenryLouisGates,TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfricanAmericanLiteraryCriticism(New
York:OxfordUniversityPress,1988).
7.ForaninsightfuldiscussionoftheconflictingmessagessentbyHarris'stales,seeLucindaH.MacKethan,TheDreamofArcady:PlaceandTimeinSouthernLiterature(Baton

Rouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1980),6185.

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thatthemovementfromactualslavetonarrativeslaveregistersatsomelevelacertaindissatisfactionwithitsownsymbolicoperations,leavingwhatmightbecalleda
blackholeofintentionalitythatresistsbeingfilled,orrather,likeitsastronomicalcounterpart,keepsbeingfilledasitexertssomethinglikeagravitationfieldcontinually
attractingnarrativemass.

ThetricksterfigureimpliedinthecharacterofCarey,potentiallyanachronisticorextratextualinnature,canbetextuallygroundedintwootherepisodesthat
demonstratetheslave'sresistancetotheroleLittletonandespeciallyMeriwetherhavedesignatedforhim."ACountryGentleman,"thechapterthatintroduces
Meriwether,concludeswiththereader'sintroductiontoCarey,who,likehismaster,isadevoteeofthe"mysteryofhorsecraft"(36).LittletondescribesCareyas"a
pragmaticaloldnegro,...who,inhisreverencefortheoccupation,istheperfectshadowofhismaster"(36).Thepriorityassignedbytheshadowmetaphoris,
however,immediatelyoverturned,asLittletoncommentsthattheconsultationsbetweenmasterandslave"wouldpuzzleaspectatortotellwhichwastheleading
memberofthecouncil"(36).Theirfrequentintercourse,Littletoncontinues,''hasbegotafamiliarityintheoldnegrowhichisalmostfataltoMeriwether'ssupremacy.
Theoldmanfeelshimselfauthorizedtomaintainhispositionsaccordingtothefreestparliamentaryform,andsometimeswithaviolenceofasseverationthatcompels
hismastertoabandonhisground,purelyoutoffaintheartedness.MeriwethergetsalittlenettledbyCarey'sdoggedness,butgenerallyturnsitoffinalaugh"(37).
Clearly,CareyenjoysnettlingMeriwether.SimpsonsurelyhassceneslikethisinmindinclaimingthatKennedy"plainlywantstosuggestthatslaveryresists
embodimentinthehierarchicalpatternofsocietythatisinthemindsofthemasters,"andthatmoreover,Kennedy"insinuatesthesuggestion,whetherdeliberatelyor
not,thattheslavesdominatethelifeoftheplantation."8Horsecraftprovidesadomainalbeitatrivialone,atleastonthesurfaceofthingsinwhichCareyusurpshis
master'sauthority,anddespiteMeriwether'sassertionthat"itdoesnoharmtohumor"his"faithfuloldcur"(37),theslave'sstubbornnessrefusesMeriwether'sattempt
atnarrativeclosure.

Justasthisepisodeimpliesadegreeofresistancethatcannotentirelybe
8.Simpson,DispossessedGarden,45.

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laughedoff,alaterepisodeshowsCareydemonstratingaperspicuityquitedifferentfromthemindlessnessheevincesinsingingout"Aaron'srodablacksnakeinOld
Virginny!"Inthisepisode,Careywearsthemaskofa"minstrelofsomerepute,...[who],liketheancientjongeleurs,...singstheinspirationsofhisownmuse,
weavingintosongthepastandpresentannalsofthefamily"(101).AswithOldScipio,thisbardicroleconfersstatusupontheslave:Careyis"consideredaseer
amongstthenegroesontheestate,andisalwaysheardwithreverence.Theimportancethisgiveshim,renderstheoldmannotalittleproudofhisminstrelsy"(101).
YetunlikeOldScipio'suncriticalnostalgia,Carey'sminstrelsyhasanedgetoit.AlthoughCarey''signifiedhisobediencetoourorders[thatheplay],"theslave
demonstratesakindofauthoritythatdiscomfitsatleastonememberofhisaudience.Rehearsing"inadoggerelballad"theexpectedarrivalofSingletonSwansdown,
NedHazard'srivalforthehandofthebeautifulBelTracy,Careypredicts"theprobableeventsofhisvisit,which,heinsinuated,wouldbetroublesometoNedHazard,
andwould,asthesongwent,'Makehimthinksohardhecouldn'tsleep'"(102).WhenNedobjectstothisroughtreatment,Careyrecountsinsongadreamheonce
hadinwhichabeautifulladyappearedand"toldhimthathemustinstructhisyoungmaster"inthewaysofcourtship,thecentralinsightofwhichis"thatwomenwere
naturallyverycontrary,andmustbeinterpretedbyopposites"(103).Proclaimeda"trueseer"byHarveyRiggs,wholatergivesNedidenticaladvice,theoldslave
retireswitha"smileofutmostbenignity,"havingbeenrewardedwithamintjulep.InmanywaysprefiguringCharlesChesnutt'sUncleJulius,Careyisadeptat
manipulatingtheplantationeconomy,earningitssmallrewardsinreturnforobligationsinvokedandservicesrendered.LikeUncleJulius,Careyisabletodosoby
recognizingtheapperceptivebackgroundagainstwhichhespeaksineachofthesceneswehaveconsidered,Careydemonstratesanuncannysenseofaudience:he
knowshowmuchhecangetawaywith.

Toreturntothemostimportantoftheseepisodes,Carey'sappropriationofMeriwether'soratory,wefindthattheslaveessentiallycarrieshisownaccentsto
Meriwether'sdiscourse,therebycreatingadialogicfieldwhereMeriwetherhadintendedamonological,authoritarianone.Meriwether'spredilectionformonologueis
indeedoneofhisdefiningcharactertraits.To

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bemoreprecise,heintonesagainstaquasidialogicbackground,frequentlyanticipatingtheresistancehispseudoaudiencemightoffer.Inthefollowingpassage,
Littletoncallsattentiontothistendencytodisguisemonologueasdialogue:
[Meriwether]latelybeganaconversation,orratheraspeech,thatforamomentquitedisconcertedme."Afterall,"saidhe,asifhehadbeentalkingtomebefore,althoughthese
werethefirstwordsheutteredthenmakingaparenthesis,soastoqualifywhathewasabouttosay"Idon'tdenythatthesteamboatisdestinedtoproducebutafterall,I
muchquestion(andherehebithisupperlip,andpausedaninstant)ifwearenotbetterwithoutit.Ideclare,Ithinkitstrikesdeeperatthesupremacyofthestatesthanmost
personsarewillingtoallow.Thisannihilationofspace,sir,isnottobedesired."(72)

ConcludinghisspeechandLittleton'scorrectionisasignificantonebyquoting"SplatterthwaiteDubbsofDinwiddie"totheeffectthat"thehomematerialof
Virginiawasneversogoodaswhenherroadswereattheirworst,"Meriwetherismetwithsilencehisaudiencefears"dispute"and"seemstounderstandthe
advantageofsilencewhenMeriwetherisinclinedtobeexpatiatory"(73).Thecontextandcontentofthespeechthusconverge,forMeriwethervalorizesthe
boundariesdefiningthelocaldiscursivehierarchy.Thesubordinateclasses,Littletonnotes,''haveanaturalbiastothisventingofupperopinion,byreasonofcertain
dependenciesinthewayoftradeandfavor"(73).Withinthecommunity,then,whatwehavecalledthearistocratictrickledowneffectworkswithoutaseriouslossof
energy,andMeriwether'spronouncementsremainlargelyuncontested.AsLittletonrelatesusinganinterestingorganicmetaphor,"Thereisnothingmoreconclusive
thanarichman'slogicanywhere,butinthecountry,amongsthisdependents,itflowswiththesmoothandunresistedcourseofafullstreamirrigatingameadow,and
depositingitsmudinfertilizingluxuriance"(35).Careyisthepotentialflyintheointment.IfhisperformativerenderingofMeriwether'swordswereintendedtobe
parodic,hewoulddisruptthecommunity'shierarchicaldisseminationofrhetoric.

ThatLittletonrefusesthisinterpretiveoptionissignificant,forinsupplyingamotivenamely,thatCareyconsidersMeriwether's"sentimentasimportingsomethingof
anawfulnature"(75)andinrefusingtoadmit

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thatCareymighthereaselsewherebemanipulatinghisaudienceratherthanviceversa,Littletonassimilatestheslave'svoicewithinthediscursivehierarchyofthe
plantationcommunity.Inthusproducingamindlessslave,Littleton'sinterpretiveactproducesadiscursivefieldinwhichCareydoesnotexistasanagentunlike
"horsecraft"and"love,"fieldsinwhichLittletonrecognizesCarey'ssatiricauthority,"politics"isdeclaredofflimits.ThisisespeciallysalientgiventhatCareyimitates
staterightsrhetoricdirectlyrelevanttohisstatusaschattelproperty.Bythusmindlesslyparticipatingintheconsensusoftheplantationcommunity,Careydemonstrates
hisfitnessasaslave.

LittletondeniesCareyaccesstopreciselythatwhichheclaimsashisprerogative:asatiric,dialogicgroundagainstwhichthespeechoftheplantationcommunity
resonates.AsMeriwetherdelivershismonologue,Littletonprovidessufficientcuestoexposetheplanterasawindbag:howseriously,afterall,canoneregarda
speechthatfollowsadramaticallybittenupperlip?Littleton'ssatire,however,failstoextendtothebondbetweenmasterandslave.SwallowBarninsistsuponslaves
whoholdMeriwether"inmostaffectionatereverence,and,therefore,arenotonlycontented,buthappyunderhisdominion"(34).YetwhileLittletonisfullycomplicit
inassimilatingtheslavewithinthepastoralicon,healsosystematicallyexposesMeriwether'sdominionassomethingofafarce.AsWilliamTaylorobservesin
CavalierandYankee,heis"anemotionalIndiangiver,givingaflatteringimageof'feudal'Virginiaandthenwithdrawingitsilently."9YetinconsideringLittleton's
satiricstancetowardthesubplotsthatdominatethemiddleportionofSwallowBarnespeciallythecourtshipplotbetweenNedandBelTracyandthelegalbattle
overtheswampitbecomesevidentthatnarrative(conceivedasanintegratedsequenceofevents)issystematicallydivestedofideologicalcontent,andthusengages
onlyasimulatedconflictthatrecuperatesratherthanteststhestabilityofthepastoralicon.
9.WilliamR.Taylor,CavalierandYankee:TheOldSouthandAmericanNationalCharacter(1961reprint,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1993),185.Mostcriticshave

agreedwithTaylorthatKennedy'ssatireoftheplantationcommunity,whichhesoftenedin1853fromthe1832firstedition,is"gentle,smilingsatire"(183).Theexceptiontothis
viewisJanBakkerseenote12below.

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InapeculiarsenseSwallowBarnisanovelhostiletonarrative.Inhis1832prefacetothenovel,Littletonannounceshisoriginalintention"toportraytheimpressions
whichthesceneryandthepeopleofthatregionmadeupon[theauthor],indetachedpicturesbroughttogetherwithnootherconnexionthanthatoftimeandplace."
Due,however,tohisbecoming"engagedinthevariousadventuresofdomestichistory,"SwallowBarn,heexplains,"hasendedinaveinaltogetherdifferentfromthat
inwhichitsetout.Thereisarivuletofstorywanderingthroughabroadmeadowofepisode"(vii).IhavesuggestedthatKennedy'splantationcommunityisunsuitedto
narrativeinawaythatitisnotunsuitedtothepastoral,amodemoretheoreticallycongenialtothestablesocialrelationshipspresumedtoexistwithinitsboundaries.To
putthematteranotherway,theplantationresistsrepresentationasasocialtotalityevolvingintime,sinceanynarrativemomentumpresumesaconflictorsetof
contradictionsnecessitatingresolutioninthefirstplace.Toconstituteanorganicsocialorder,SwallowBarnmustremainmotionless.

Thestaticqualityoftheplantationencompassesbothitsnaturalsettinganditssocialrituals.Notingtheslowpaceoflifeontheplantation,acontemporaryreviewerin
theNewEnglandMagazinedenounced"insipid"gentlemensuchasNedHazard"whoareignorantofeveryusefulwayofpassingthetime,"concludingthat"[t]he
wholebookisapictureofthestillestofstilllife."NotingasimilarqualityinLittleton'sidyllicdescriptionofariverscene,JanBakkerfinds"somethingwrong"in
SwallowBarn's"stultifying''and"lifeless"imageryofnature.Iwouldcontend,however,thatKennedy'sstilllifeaestheticproducesakindofpastoralinertia,aligning
natureandsocialritualagainsttheideologicalpressuresoftheoutsideworld.AsBakhtinsays,"Inthepresenceofthemonologicalprinciple,ideologyasadeduction,
asasemanticsummationofrepresentationinevitablytransformstherepresentedworldintoavoicelessobjectofthatdeduction,"anditispreciselythe
voicelessnessoftheplantationorrather,itsexclusionofcontendingvoicesthatenablesitsimagisticintegrityaspastoralicon.10Toput
10.AnonymousreviewquotedinWilliamS.Osborne,IntroductiontoSwallowBarn(1851reprint,NewYork:HafnerPublishing,1962),xxviJanBakker,PastoralinAntebellum

SouthernRomance(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1989),47Bakhtin,Dostoevsky'sPoetics,83.

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thematteranotherway,itisonlyasavoicelessobjectofmonologicaldeductionthattheplantationcommunitycanappearasaseriesof"detachedpicturesbrought
togetherwithnootherconnexionthanthatoftimeandplace,"aformulationthatconfigurestimeandplaceas"concrete"(nonideological,noncontested)entitieswithno
sequenceorstoryassociatedwiththem.Nowhereisthedrowsy,languidtextureofplantationlifesoapparentasinachaptertitled''ACountryGathering,"which
describesadaylongdinnerpartythrownatSwallowBarn.Althoughthisritualwouldnotmeetthereviewer'scriteriaof"ausefulwayofpassingthetime,"Littleton
contrastsitfavorablywithits"premeditated,anxious"counterpart"intown"(314).Takenasagroup,thesesocialritualsreceivelittleofhissatiricwit.

ThesamecannotbesaidofthetwosubplotsthatdominatethemiddleportionofSwallowBarn.BoththecourtshipplotbetweenNedHazardandBelTracyandthe
legalbattleovertheswampshowtheplantationcommunityatitsmostfrivolousandindeed,mostridiculous.Nevertheless,thesedualdrivestowardresolutionand
closure,whilebeingsituatedwithinamarkedlysatiricnarrativeground,donotunderminetheorganicstabilityoftheplantationsomuchasdemonstrateitsintransigence
toconflict.Inindicatingtheextenttowhichtheplantationresistsnarrative,thesesubplotsindirectlyworktoaffirmapastoralmassagainstwhichthereturntonarrative
andthefigureoftheslaveafigurelargelyabsentfrombothsubplotsmustcontendintheconcludingsectionofSwallowBarn.

Asseveralcriticshaveshown,Littleton'sprimarysatirictechniquecentersontheplantation'sabsurdappropriationofmedievalmannersandinstitutions.11Nowhereis
thissatiremoreevidentthanintherelationshipthatdevelopsbetweenBelTracyandNedHazard,bothofwhomsuffergrievouslyfromwhatMarkTwainwouldlabel
halfacenturylaterthe"SirWalterdisease."Priortotheeventsrecountedinthenovel,theaptlynamedHazardhadbeen"seizedwitharomanticfervorwhich
manifesteditselfchieflyinaconceittovisitSouthAmerica,andplayknighterrantinthequarrelofthePatriots,"acrusadefromwhich"hecamehomethemost
disquixottedcavalierthateverhunguphisshieldattheendofascurvycru
11.SeeJ.V.Ridgely,JohnPendletonKennedy(NewYork:Twayne,1966),6064Simpson,DispossessedGarden,4445LucindaH.MacKethan,IntroductiontotoSwallowBarn

(1853reprint,BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1986),xxiii.

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sade"(52,53).UnlikehisSpanishprecursor,whoultimatelyrenouncesknighterrantry,Hazardpersistsinperceivingorlackingthat,creatingaparallelbetween
medievalromanceandhislifeatSwallowBarn.InthisrespecthewouldseemtohavefoundanidealmatchinBelTracy,who,accordingtoLittleton,"isalittlegiven
tocertainromanticfantasies,suchascountryladieswhowantexcitementandreadnovelsareapttoengender"(228).Smittenbytheageofchivalry,Belgoessofaras
todressapettythiefinmedievalcostumeandattempttopasshimoffasaminstrel.InitiallysuspiciousofHazard'sfrivolity,Beliseventuallywonoverwhenhersuitor
rescuesherhawkFairbourne,anaffectationofhersattributedto"thepicturesqueassociationsoffalconrywiththestoriesofanagethatWalterScotthasrenderedso
bewitchingtothefancyofmeditativemaidens"(228).

TheludicrousnatureofallthisisnotlostonLittleton,whosatirizesthelovers'pseudomedievalismtogreatcomiceffect.Inachaptertitled"KnightErrantry,"ashe
andHazardaresearchingforthemissinghawk,Littletonfacetiouslyswears"byourlady!ImeanourladyBel...forhenceforthIwillswearbynonebuther"thathe
willrefusesleepuntiltheungratefulbirdiscaptured(354).WhenshortlythereafterHazardthrashesaruffianwhoinsultsIsaacTracy,Littletoncomparesthesituation
withajoust,andthetworeturn"coveredwithdustandgloryourenemiessubduedandourlady'spledgeredeemed"(368).HarveyRiggs,whoactsassomethingof
Littleton'salterego,likewisefacetiouslyaverstoBelthatNed'sexploits"areintheverybeststrainofacavalierdevotedtohisladylove''(394).Intheend,the
marriagecomestopass,"Belhaving,atlast,surrenderedatdiscretion"(504),asLittletonrelatesinapostscript.Kennedy'sdepictionofthemarriageplotinvolvesa
kindofcomedyinreverse:insteadoftheparadigmaticplotinwhichtheherowinshisbelovedbyforgingacloserrelationshipwithestablishedsociety,Hazarddoes
exactlytheopposite,winningBelbyparticipatinginhermedievalfantasies.Tobesure,hisstudiedgravityneartheendofthecourtshiphassomethingtodowith
overcomingBel'sobjections,butitisclearthatdespiteassumingtheadultroleofhusbandHazardremainsachildatheart.InaletterwrittentoLittletonafterhisreturn
toNewYork,HarveyRiggsdescribesHazard'sreversiontotypefollowingthemarriage:

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Nedrelapsedintoallhisextravagancies.Intruth,IbelieveBelgrewheartilytiredofthatincompatibleformalityofmannerwhichheassumedatourinstigation.Itsatuponhimlike
anillfittedgarment,andrenderedhimthedullestofmortals.Beltookthematterintoconsideration,andatlastbeggedhimtobehimselfagain.Neverdidaschoolboyenjoya
holidaymorethanhethisfreedomtheconsequencewas,thatthewightranimmediatelyintotheoppositeextreme,andhascarriedtheprize,notwithstandinghehadtrespassed
againstalldecorum,andhadbeenvotedincorrigible.(504)

Hazard'srefusaltoconformtothesocialobligationsnormallyimplicitinthemarriagecontractsuggeststheextenttowhichthecourtshipplotinvolvesnosocial
principle.Insum,thereisnothingatstakeinthefarcicalromancebetweenBelandChildeNed.

ThesamecanbesaidoftheboundarydisputebetweenSwallowBarnandtheBrakes,theneighboringplantationownedbyBel'sfather,IsaacTracy.Thelandin
questionhadbeenpurchasedfromIsaac'sfatherforamillpondconstructedbyNedHazard'sgrandfather.Illfatedfromthebeginning,themilldamwaseventually
destroyedbyaflood,leavingsomequestionastowhetherthelandpurchasedforthemillpondrevertedtotheBrakesfollowingthepond'sdestruction.Although
originallyinvolvingseriouspoliticalovertonestheHazardshadbeenpatriots,theTracysToriesduringtherevolutionaryperiodtheboundarydisputehas,inthe
meantime,becomeajoketoeveryoneexceptIsaacTracy,forwhomitremainsanidefixe.Inanefforttohavedonewiththematter,Meriwetherconspireswithhis
attorneytohavethecasewonbyTracy.Again,Littletonironicallysituatesthestorywithinafeudalcontext,writingoftheoriginaldisputantsthat"[n]everwerethere,in
ancientdaysofbullheadedchivalry,whencontentiousmonk,bishoporknightappealedtofieryordeal,cursedmorsel,orwagerofbattle,twoantagonistsbetterfitted
forcontestthantheworthiesofmypresentstory"(149).

Justastheconflictbetweenthetwoplantationsis,fromMeriwether'sperspectiveatleast,aquasiconflict,sotheclosurebroughtaboutviaMeriwether'smachinations
isamarkedlytrivialone.Andyethereaswiththeromanceplot,thebasicformofthenarrativemightwellencompassmore

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seriousissues.Itisnotdifficulttoimagineascenarioinwhichconflictbetweenneighboringplantationsmightentailideologicaldifferences,nortoimagineamarriage
plotinwhichthesedivisionsmightberesolved.(Pagewouldemploythisveryformulain"MarseChan.")HarveyRiggsexplicitlysuggestssuchaplotinrelatingthe
wordsof"MammyDiana,"a"truesybil,"totheeffectthat''thelandmarksshallneverbestableuntilSwallowBarnshallwedTheBrakes"(91).yetbecausethisconflict
isbutasimulationofconflict,bothsubplotsremainonthesametrivialleveltheyareideologicalinthattheyrefuseideology.Itisinthissensethatnarrativeisexiled
fromtheplantation,itsabsencecorrespondingtoaninsularpastoralitypredicatedontheabsenceofconflictindeed,itispreciselythisabsencethatleadsNedand
IsaacTracyvirtuallytoinventconflictsorinNed'scase,toborrowthemfromearliernarrativesasawayofpassingthetime.OnlyMeriwetheristrulyathomein
thisenvironment.AvisittoWashingtononlyreinforceshisprovincialism,ashereturnstelling"curiousanecdotesofcertainsecretintrigueswhichhadbeendiscovered
intheaffairsofthecapital"(32).Rejectingsuchvileplotsand"[r]elaps[ing]intoanindolentgentlemanoftheopposition"(32),Meriwetherspeaks,Littletonlater
relatesinadescriptionthatuncannilyprefiguresWillPercy,"likeanancientstoic,removedfromallambitiontofigureonthetheatreoflife,andquietlyobservingthe
tumultofaffairsfromapositiontoodistanttobereachedbythesordidpassionsthatswaythemultitudeor,inotherwords,hediscourseslikeaneasyandcultivated
countrygentleman"(215).Meriwether'srefusaltoplayanexternalrole,tofigureinhistory,isnotnecessarilyaseriousshortcoming.Becauseofthestablesocialorder
overwhichhepresides,Meriwetherneednotacttheroleofthehero,whichisreserved(significantly)fortheimpetuousHazard,whosetemperamentisclearly
regardedasbeingillsuitedforthemasterofaplantation.EveninNed'scase,heroismisimpossiblewithintheplantationcommunityhencehisquixoticadventuresin
SouthAmerica.Insum,theborderoftheplantationmarkstheboundaryoutsideofwhichnarrativeoccurs.

Initsnovelisticincarnation,narrativeresolvessocialphenomenaperceivedasinternallycontradictory.InsofarasthewhitecommunityofSwallowBarnisconcerned,
nosuchcontradictoryphenomenaareencounteredthatisto

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say,itexcludescontradictioninanefforttopreservesomethingapproachingamonologicalspace.Inarevealingact,Meriwether,"likeamanwhowasnottobe
disturbedbydoubts,"subscribestoonlyonepartisannewspaper,"asitwasmorallyimpossibletobelieveallthatwaswrittenonbothsides"(32).Withinthisspace,
dialogicdiscourseisimpossible,andtheepicplotsinhabitedbyNedandBel,whilenottheoreticallyincompatiblewiththemonologicalnatureoftheplantation,are
renderedlaughablebyLittleton,whosedialogicaccentsexposeromanceassheerfarce.YetLittleton'smultipleironiesdonotsomuchsubverthispastoral
representationofSwallowBarnasindicatehowtheplantationcommunitymaintainsitsboundariesinordertopreserveitspastoralintegrity.Thatthequotidianaspects
ofplantationlifedonotresolvethemselvesintoanarrativepatterndoesnotrendertheresultingiconrepulsiveorundesirable.Onthecontrary,Littletonisdrawntoit:
Thiscourseoflifehasawinningqualitythatalreadybeginstoexerciseitsinfluenceuponmyhabits.Thereisafascinationinthequiet,irresponsible,andrecklessnatureofthese
countrypursuits,thatisapttoseizeupontheimaginationofamanwhohasfelttheperplexitiesofbusiness.EversinceIhavebeenatSwallowBarn,Ihaveentertainedavery
philosophicallongingforthecalmanddignifiedretirementofthewoods.Ibegintogrowmoderateinmydesiresthatis,Ionlywantathousandacresofgoodland,anoldmanor
house,onapleasantsite,ahundrednegroes,alargelibrary,ahostoffriends,andareserveofafewthousandayearinthestocks,incaseofbadcrops,and,finally,ahouse
fullofpretty,intelligent,anddocilechildren,withsomefewetceterasnotworthmentioning.(31011)

Tobesure,Littleton'sfacetiousnesspreventstakinghimseriously,butbythesametokenhistonehardlysuggestsanoutrighthostilitytowardtheplantationcommunity,
asonecritichasmaintained.12

Significantly,Littletonincludes"ahundrednegroes"amonghislist,therebyreducingtheslavesofSwallowBarntothestatusofscenery.Indeed,duringthemiddle
sectionofthenovel,slavesappearasbutanotherpartof
12.AspartofhisargumentthatSwallowBarnisa"subtlyviciouscriticismoftheplantationwayoflifeintheSouth,"BakkerarguesthatLittletonhereis"eagertogetawayfrom

theidle,petty,illfatedplaceanditssoporific,selfabsorbedlandscape.Heactuallyhastolaughathismisdirectedpastoralurge"(PastoralinAntebellumSouthernRomance,42).

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thepastorallandscapethatistosay,asanothervoicelessobjectofmonologicaldeduction.ThischangesdramaticallyneartheendofSwallowBarn,when
MeriwetherescortsLittletonto"theQuarter"shortlybeforehisdeparture.Beforetheirmorningvisit,however,MeriwetherfirsttakesLittletontoseethehorsesheand
Careyhavepainstakinglybred.Asinthefirstchapter,Carey,whoseprofessionalpreeminencerequiresthathegainsayMeriwetherinmattersofhorsecraft,refusesto
submittohismaster'sauthority.Carey'sobstinacywouldbetrivializedsavethegreatimportanceMeriwetherattachestothehorse,asubjectwhichhehad,onlythe
nightbefore,oratedmosteloquently,goingsofarastoassertthat"[t]heimprovementofthestockofhorses"is"oneofthegravestconcernstowhichalanded
proprietorcandevotehisattention"(437).Moreover,Meriwether'sasseverationofsurrender"Thisoldmagnificowillallownomantohaveanopinionbuthimself.
Ratherthandisturbthepeace,Imustsubmittohisauthority''(448)iscouchedinlanguagethatcouldbeappliedtoMeriwetherhimself,whoseaudience,wehave
seen,typically"fearsdispute"and"seemstounderstandtheadvantageofsilencewhenMeriwetherisinclinedtobeexpatiatory"(73).Onceagain,Carey'simitationof
Meriwetherhasanedgetoit:astheperfectshadowofhismaster,Careycomesperilouslyclosetoovershadowinghim.Thelatentdissonancepresentinthissceneacts
asanoverturetothemoreseriousthreattoauthorityposedbyAbe,theonlyovertlytransgressiveslaveintheentirework.

InclaimingthatCareypotentiallydisruptstheplantationhierarchy,IshouldbecarefultoreiteratethathistransgressiondoesnotregisterassuchwitheitherMeriwether
or(moreimportantly)Littleton,bothofwhomlaughofftheslave'struculence.Despitehisstatusasanoutsider,Littletonfullyassumestheracialrhetoricofthe
plantationcommunityindeed,thisisvirtuallytheonlysubjectonwhichhefailstoprovideadialogiccounterpointtotheauthorizedspeechofSwallowBarn.Ashe
visitstheQuarter,Littletoncompareshisexpectationsofslaverywithhisfirsthandexperienceofit:
Theairofcontentmentandgoodhumorandkindfamilyattachment,whichwasapparentthroughoutthislittlecommunity,andthefamiliarrelationsexistingbetweenthemandthe
proprietorstruckmeverypleasantly.Icamehereastranger,in

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greatdegree,tothenegrocharacter,knowingbutlittleofthedomestichistoryofthesepeople,theirduties,habitsortemper,andsomewhatdisposed,indeed,from
prepossessions,tolookuponthemasseverelydealtwith,andexpectingtohavemysympathiesexcitedtowardsthemasobjectsofcommiseration.Ihavehad,therefore,rathera
specialinterestinobservingthem.ThecontrastbetweenmypreconceptionsoftheirconditionandtherealitywhichIhavewitnessed,hasbroughtmeamostagreeablesurprise.I
willnotsaythat,inahighstateofcultivationandofsuchselfdependenceastheymightpossiblyattaininaseparatenationalexistence,theymightnotbecomeamorerespectable
peoplebutIamquitesurethattheynevercouldbecomeahappierpeoplethanIfindthemhere.(45253)

Littletoncontinuesinthisvein,describingtheNegroasintellectuallyfeeble,"essentiallyparasiticalinhisnature,""inhismoralconstitution,adependantuponthewhite
race,"and"withoutforesight,withoutfacultyofcontrivance,withoutthriftofanykind''(453)allofwhichconspiretocreatea"helplessness"thatis"an
insurmountableimpedimenttothatmostcruelofallprojectsthedirect,broademancipationofthesepeople"(45354).Assumingthevoiceofthesouthernapologist,
LittletonapparentlyforgetsthatCarey,theslavewithwhomhehashadthemostpersonalcontact,exhibitsfewofthesetraitsexceptinthefieldofactionwehave
designated"political,"wherehismindlessimitationofMeriwether'srhetoricallowsLittletontofigurethetropeofthehelplessslave.ButevengivenCarey'slimitation,
Littletoncanassumetheapologist'svoiceonlybytacitlydismissingCareyasatype,arepresentativeslave.Littletonthusgainsasarhetoricianwhathelosesasadirect
observer,sincehisargumentisenabledbytheabstracted,pictorialslavegenerictoproslaveryrhetoric.ButwhilehisracialtypologyoftheNegroandhispositive
comparisonofslaveswithotherlowerclassesarestandardapologistfare,LittletondisruptshisstablepictureofslaverybylocatingtheNegrowithinanarrativeof
racialprogress.

AgainstalogicthatwouldrepresenttheNegroasperfectlycontentwithhisstation,Littletonwritesthat"Interest,necessityandinstinct,allworktogiveprogressionto
therelationsofmankind,andfinallytoelevateeachtribeorracetoitsmaximumofrefinementandpower,"alawtowhich,hecontinues,"Wehavenoreasonto
supposethattheNegrowillbeanexception"(454).Althoughitisunclearwhencethisinstinctforascentoriginatesina

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peoplewithout"foresight"or"facultyofcontrivance,"itisneverthelessapparentthattheNegroassertsacertainnarrativepressureagainstthepastoralstabilityofthe
plantation.ThesecontrarylogicslikewisemanifestthemselvesinMeriwether'sdiscourse,althoughinaslightlydifferentway.Undertakingapastoraldefenseofslavery,
Meriwetherassertsthatslavesworklessthanvoluntarylaborersthattheyaremorecomfortablethanruralpopulationsofothercountriesthattheyarepunished
"prettymuchasdisorderlypersonsarepunishedinallsocieties"andthatpublicopinionprevents''crueltyinmasters"(457).Nonetheless,Meriwetheradmitsthat
"slavery,asanoriginalquestion,iswhollywithoutjustificationordefence"(455).Viewedsynchronically,then,slaveryis"theoreticallyandmorallywrong"(455).Yet
astheconsequenceofanexternalandtacitlynorthernplot,a"premeditatedpolicywhichputthem[slaves]uponourcommonwealth"(45556),slaverybecomes
bearable,evendefensible.13Mediatingbetweenthetwomasterdiscoursesofapologistrhetoricslaveryas"anecessaryevil"versus"apositivegood"Kennedy
refusestheteleologyofthelatter,whichwouldinvolveaculturalnarrativeproducingthepastoraliconoftheplantationcommunity.Here,thenarrativeteleologycarries
sinisterovertones,buttheensuingstatereceivespastoralabsolution.

ItsbeginningblamedontheNorthanditsmiddlejustifiedasabenignstateofthings,themasterplotofslaveryneverthelessrequiresautopianresolution."Whenthe
timecomes,"Meriwethersays,"asIapprehenditwillcome,andallthesooner,ifitnotbedelayedbytheseeffortstoarousesomethinglikeavindictivefeeling
betweenthedisputantsonbothsidesinwhichtherootsofslaverywillbegintolosetheirholdinoursoilandwhenweshallhavethemeansforprovidingthese
peopleaproperasylum,IshallbegladtoseetheStatedevoteherthoughtstothatenterprise,andifIamalive,willcheerfullyandgratefullyassistinit"(456).
AccordingtoMeriwether,itistheabolitionistswhopreventhisutopianplot,since"thequestionofemancipationisexclusivelyourown,andeveryintermeddling
13.Thebasicoutlinesofthisargumentpermeateproslaveryrhetoric.Inoneofitsmoreextremeincarnations,AugustusBaldwinLongstreetclaimsthattheSouth"delivered

[slaves]fromthemostcruelbondagethatmanevergroanedunder,"beforegoingontoaskMassachusetts(hisimaginaryinterlocutor),"DoesitbecometheMotherofSlaveryto
reviletheHeirofSlavery?"(AVoicefromtheSouth[Baltimore:SamuelE.Smith,1848],10,18).

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withitfromabroadwillbutmaritschanceofsuccess"(45758).Theinjusticesofslaverymustandwillberemovedbythesouthernersince"allothersaremisledby
thefeelingwhichthenaturalsentimentagainstslavery,intheabstract,excites"(458).Theoperativewordshereare"intheabstract,"whichremoveslaveryfromthe
demandsofhistoryandplaceitfirmlyonpastoralground.

Theutopianplotofslavery,then,canonlybesetinmotionifitspastoralstabilityisfirstsecured.WhatMeriwetherasserts,insum,isthattheauthorialcontrolofthe
emancipationplotmustremainasouthernprerogative.Thus,hecounselsthe"realfriendsofhumanity...toendeavortoencouragethenaturalcontentmentofthe
slavehimself,byargumentstoreconcilehimtoapresentdestiny,whichis,infact,morefreefromsorrowandwantthanofalmostanyotherclassofmenoccupyingthe
samefieldoflabor"(45859).ForMeriwether,theslave'sassentisthus,paradoxically,apreconditionforhisascent.Althoughitisinterestingtonotethatthe(literal)
"fieldoflabor"isconspicuouslyabsentinthenovel,themoreinterestingfeatureofMeriwether'sadviceishisoxymoronicreferencetotheslave's"presentdestiny,"a
phrasethatpreciselycapturesthenuancedinterplayofthenarrativeandpastoralmodes.Insofarasconcreteactionisconcerned,Meriwetherproposesthatslave
marriagesberecognized,whichwouldrendertheplantationcommunitymoreimperviousto"intermeddling"andhence(byapeculiarlogic,sincethisplanwould
appeartostabilizethesocialorder)betterabletoinitiatetheutopianplot.MeriwetheralsodescribestoLittletona''scheme"ofhistoestablisholderslavesas
landholdingtenants,butashisguestpointsout,thetwolikelycandidates,CareyandJupiter,eachwouldrefusesuchaplan,believingtheirstation"nottobeenhanced
byanyenlargementofprivilege"(460).Again,thesymbolicactionofKennedy'stextissuchthattheconcreteslaveproducedbythepastoralorderresistsinsertioninto
theemancipationplot,whichmustthenremainatthelevelofabstraction.Itshouldbenoted,moreover,thattheemancipatedslaveMeriwetherdesirestoproducehas
alreadybeenencounteredintheformofOldScipio,perhapsthemostconservativecharacterinthebookinthathelongsforthe"goodolddays"mostvehemently.

Wecanroughlydescribethiscircularlogicastheabsorptionofnarrativebythepastoral,whoseinertiaprecludesanyforwardmomentumtowardthe

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utopianstateMeriwetherenvisions.Inmoreconcretetermstheplantationabsorbstheabstractslavewithhisinstinctivewilltopowerandtransformshimintoa
concretebulwarkofconservatismandpositivecommitmenttothestatusquo.Thisabsorption,however,isnotcomplete,asevidencedbythefigureofAbe,who
exertsmorefullythananyothercharacterwhatmightbeconceivedasnarrativepressureagainstthepastoralstabilityoftheplantation.Thesonoftwofaithfulslaves,
Abeassociateswith"theprofligatemenials"ofSwallowBarnanditsenvironsandeventuallyhardensintothe"mostirreclaimableofculprits"(467).Afterjoining"a
bandofoutlyingnegroes"hereaselsewhere,actionismarginalizedtotheboundariesofthepastoralorderandannoying"thevicinitybynocturnalincursionsofthe
mostlawlesscharacter,"AbeisbanishedfromSwallowBarnandsenttoworkonasailingshipintheChesapeakeBay.Here,heliterallydothsufferaseachange,
eventuallybecominganintrepidpilot.DuringastormAbeattemptstorescueastrandedbrigwhenallwhitesailorsrefuse.SailingintothestormwithacrewofNegro
sailors,Abeislostatsea.''Still,itwasagallantthing,"Littletonwrites,"andworthyofabetterchroniclerthanI,toseethisleaderandhislittlebandthechildrenofa
despisedstockswayedbyanobleemulationtorelievethedistressedand(whatthefashionoftheworldwilldeemahigherglory)impelledbythatloveofdaring
whichtheromancerscallchivalry....Isay,itwasagallantsighttoseesuchheroismshiningoutinahumbleslaveoftheOldDominion!"(48283).Severalcritics
havequestionedthesignificanceof,asLucindaMacKethanputsit,"Abe'snobleenactmentofacodeKennedylampoonsthroughoutthenovel."14LewisSimpson
suggeststhatwhileAbe'sstorypotentiallyinvolves"aslavepossessedoftheconvictionthatslaveryisanapostasytofreedom,"itendsbyproducinga"slavewhoisin
aperfectrelationshipwithhismasters.Hegiveshislifeintheirservice."Inanessayon"inter(racial)textuality"
14.OnlyoneotherfigureinKennedy'snovellegitimatelyenactsthechivalriccode.AshepreparestodepartfromSwallowBarn,LittletonperusesthestoryofJohnSmith,"the

founderofVirginia"and"TrueKnightoftheOldDominion"(500).Despitetheirrespectivevalidationsofchivalry,littlewouldseemtolinkSmithandAbe.ButasIsuggestbelow,
theconnectionisreal:whereasSmith'schivalryproducesthepastoralicon,Abe'srecuperatesit.Thecodeofchivalrythusappearssolelyinacausalrelationshipwiththe
plantation,which,onceproduced,rendersthecodesuperfluous.

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inantebellumsouthernnarrative,WilliamL.AndrewsarguesthatAbe'sapostasyis"domesticated"whenhisactions"becomeexplainableaccordingtoprevailingwhite
southernnorms."ThestoryofAbe,Andrewssuggests,thuswritesinreversetheNatTurnerphenomenon,takingthe"transformed,"apostaticslaveand(literally)re
forminghimsothathereinscribesdominantracialideologies.15

InarguingthatthestoryofAbebearsclosesimilaritiestowhatFredricJamesonhascalledthe"wishfulfillingdaydreamorfantasytext,"Iwanttosuggestthatthe
presenceofapastoralcommunityrepresentswhatJamesoncalls"thoseconceptualpreconditionsofpossibilityornarrativepresuppositionswhichonemustbelieve,
thoseempiricalpreconditionswhichmusthavebeensecured,inorderforthesubjectsuccessfullytotellitselfthisparticulardaydream"thespecificdaydreamin
questionbeingAbe'sheroicsacrifice.AlthoughAndrewsrejectsSimpson'stentativebutstilloverstatedargumentthatAbeisarevolutionary"whoyearns,possibly
withoutarticulateconsciousness,totransformthegardenofthechattelintoadomainofpastoralfreedom,anEdenoffreedslaves,"heneverthelessretainstheideathat
''Kennedy's'positive'variantofthenarrativeofthetransformedNegro"presupposesapoliticalconsciousnessonthepartoftheslave.NotingthatAbe'santisocial
behaviorcannotbeascribedtoeithermistreatmentoradesireforemancipationbothofwhichthenarrativeexplicitlyrejectsAndrewssuggeststhatKennedy
"makespossibletheconclusionthatanable,spirited,andintelligentblackmanneedsnoparticularmotiveforresistinghisbondage."16Theensuingnarrative,however,
appearstodisplacebondageasthatspecificthingthatAberesists.AlthoughLittletonemploysarhetoricofchange,thisrhetoricdependsatleastasmuchonthe
changeofsceneasonanychangeofcharacter.Inhislifeasasailor,Littletonrelates,Abefinds"aventforinclinationswhich,whenconstrainedbyhisformer
monotonousavocations,hadsooftenbrokenoutintomischievousadventures"(475).Thenarrativelogichereproducesaplantationthat,whenviewedinthe
retrospectivelensofAbe'sstory,isnotsomuchoppressiveasboring.What
15.MacKethan,Introduction,xxviSimpson,DispossessedGarden,51Andrews,"Inter(racial)textuality,"307,310,309.

16.Jameson,PoliticalUnconscious,181,182Simpson,DispossessedGarden,50Andrews,"Inter(racial)textuality,"309.

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Abeappearstoreject,then,isnotwhiteauthorityperse,butwhiteauthoritythatcircumscribesandlimitstheexpressionofhisexceptionalnature,whichremains
largelyconstant.Whatthreatenstobeexposedasintrinsicresentfulnessagainstthepastoralorderbecomestransformedintoamorereadilyexplainableneedforthe
romanticadventureunavailableontheplantation,aneedallthemorefundamentallyconservativeasitresonatesinthewhitecommunityatleastinthefiguresofBel
andNedaswell.

Itseems,then,thatAndrews'sdescriptionofAbe's"militantantisocialactivism"presumesapoliticalconsciousnessthatLittleton'snarrativesystematicallyerases.As
thelogicofLittleton'sstorydisplacesauthenticresentmentwithasimulationofresentment,Abe'struculencebeginstoappearnothingmorethanathirstforadventure
suchasdroveNedHazardonhisquixoticquesttoSouthAmerica.Chivalry,then,isnotsimplyacodethatallowsAbe'sactionstobedomesticatedafterthefactitis
acodethathehaslivedby,afterhisfashion,allalong.ThisisthesenseinwhichthepastoralcommunityisapreconditionforLittleton'sfantasytextweretheplantation
orderperceivedbyAbetobeantitheticaltohisfreedomthatis,ifhewerereactingagainstwhiteauthorityitwouldbeimpossibleforhimtorefuseemancipation
and,moreimportantly,togotohisdeathaffirmingthathe"alwaysobeysorders!"(479).InHegeliantermsAbe'snarrativereplacesformalfreedomfreedomfrom
coerciveauthoritywithsubstantialfreedom,whichassumestheindividual'sidentificationwithhegemonicstructures.Intheend,theentryoftheslaveintonarrative
spacesimplyrecuperatestheorganicbondbetweenservantandmaster,thatbonduponwhichKennedy'spastoralratificationofslaveryrests.

JustasKennedy'semancipatoryplotiscontingentuponthepastoralcommunityofmastersandslaves,sothestoryofAbevalidatestheessentialcohesivenessofthat
community,eveniftheplantationcannotsupplytheexceptionalslavewiththepropercontextinwhichtodemonstratehisfidelityandobediencetoconsent,inother
words,tobeingaslave.Inconsideringthefantasytextsofculturesthatdonotshareourfundamentalideologicalpremises,thereisagreatdangerthattheywillappear
asmerefantasysimplywishfulfillmentsunhinderedbyanynotionofarealityprinciple.YetifthestoryofAbethreatenstorevealKennedyasadreamer,

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itisworthremarkingthewordsofacontemporarywhoargued,intermsthatcloselyechoMeriwether'semancipationplot,thatslaveryis"oneofthoseevilswhich
divineProvidencedoesnotleavetoberemediedbyhumancontrivances,butwhich,initsowngoodtime,bysomemeansimpossibletobeanticipated,butofthe
simplestandeasiestoperation,whenallitsusesshallhavebeenfulfilled,itcausestovanishlikeadream."TheauthorisNathanielHawthorne,andhisevasiverhetoric
herereplicates,asSacvanBercovitchhaspersuasivelyargued,theevasiveutopianismatworkinhismostfamousnovel.Wishfulfillmentisnot,asJamesonnotes,"a
simpleoperation,availableatanytimeorplaceforthetakingofathought,"apointweshouldbecarefultokeepinmindasweturntoThomasNelsonPage,awriter
whosefantasytextstrainsmoderncredulity.17

Thebasicoutlinesofthisfantasytextarewellknown.LikeLongstreet,Pageemploysaliterateframenarratorwhoconfrontsandcontainsdialectspeakingcharacters
(formerslaves,inPage'scase)likeKennedy,heemploysastrangertotheslaveholdingregionwhoisshowntheorganiccohesivenessoftheslaveorder.Inthefirst
threetalesofInOleVirginiatheformerslavenarratestheepicadventuresofthearistocraticgentlemanduringthehalcyondaysofmoonlightandmagnolias,thereby
assertinghisconsensualparticipationintheantebellumsocialorderandlamentingitspassageintotheirretrievablepast.Yetinproducingthestrongestandinmany
waysthemostdurableiconicvisionoftheplantationaspastoralcommunity,Pageprovidedanimplicitcritiqueofthatvisionaswell.Considerthefollowingsituations
foundinInOleVirginia:aformerslavewhochidesadog"think'cuzyou'swhiteandI'sblack,Igottowaitonyo'alldetime"aslavewhosemasterordershim
intoaburningbarntorescuehishorses,andwhonearlydiesasaresultamasterwhosellshisslavesandattemptstopreventaneighboringslaveownerfrom
purchasingtheminordertokeepaslavemarriageintactaslaveownerwhodividesafamilyandrenegesonhispromisetore
17.Jameson,PoliticalUnconscious,182passagefromHawthorne'scampaignbiographyofFranklinPiercequotedinSacvanBercovitch,TheOfficeoftheScarletLetter

(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1991),87.BercovitchfindsthisevasivetendencyatworkintheconclusionofTheScarletLetter,whereanauthorialskepticismtoward
radicalism(includingabolition)isimpliedbyHester'srenunciationofradicalgenderpolitics.Forfurtherdiscussion,seeBercovitch,Office,12454.

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unitethem,leavingtheslavefatheralone,helpless,anddeliriousaslaveownerwhodecapitatesaslaveandawhitecommunitythatlivesinconstantfearofaslave
uprising.Howdoweaccountforthepresenceofthesefeaturesintheworkofanauthorwho"morethananyother...createdtheelegiacimageofthe'OldSouth,'a
gardenworldofnoblecavaliersandfaithfulretainersthathaslefthismarkonthepopularimaginationtothisday"?18

ThedarkersideofPage'splantationmythhasnotgoneunnoticed.InTheMindoftheSouth,W.J.Cashsuggeststhat"thereareevenpassagesinThomasNelson
Page,theveryforefrontofpropaganda,inwhichtheadvocateisallbutsubmergedintheartist."Writingof"MarseChan,"KimballKingnotesthat"consciouslyor
unconsciouslytheauthorincludeddisturbingdetailsthatmakehisstorydeeper,andmoreinteresting,thanheprobablyintended....Samdoesnotunderstand,norisit
likelythathiscreatorrealized,theextenttowhichtheslavehasbeenvictimizedbytheoldorder."LouisRubinhascalledattentiontothebrutalsideofslaverydepicted
in"NoHaidPawn,''astorythat,asweshallsee,posesthegreatestthreattoPage'spastoralicon.AfteranextensiveinventoryoftheproblematicnatureofPage's
talesforthemodernreader,LucindaMacKethanconcludesthat"[t]hesituationoftheblackmaninPage'spastoralkingdomisambiguousatbest,thoughitwasclearly
theauthor'sintentiontodepictplantationlifeastheidealmodeofexistenceforbothmasterandslave....ThatPageneverconsciouslyexploredtheflawsoftheOld
South,thathefailedtoseetheambiguitiesofhisownrecreationsoftheplantationasanidealworld,isonlytooclearafact."Collectively,thesecriticstendtoaccount
forthepresenceoftheseambiguitiesasunconscious"slips"onPage'spartthathe"failedtosee"(touseMacKethan'sinterestingmetaphor).Indiscussingthestories
thatcompriseInOleVirginia,Iwanttointerrogatefurtherthisnotionofauthorialblindnessarguablyasmuchanachievementasagiveninorder
18.ThomasNelsonPage,InOleVirginiaor,MarseChanandOtherStories(1887reprint,ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1969),3.Thisworkwillhereinafterbe

citedparentheticallybypagenumberinthetext.TherepresentativeclaimregardingPage'splaceinsouthernliteratureappearsonbackcoveroftheJ.S.SandersreprintofInOle
Virginia(Nashville,1991).

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19
toaccountmoresystematicallyforPage'slatentcritiqueofthepastoralcommunityofmastersandslaves.

Beforeturningtothestoriesthemselves,weshouldfirstclarifythatPagewasnotdefendingslaveryperse.Likemostsouthernersofhisgeneration,Pageregarded
slaveryashavingbeen"wellended,"butasMacKethanargues,Page'spastoraldefenseoftheOldSouthinvolveda"positive,assertivedirection"inthecontextof
racerelationsinthepostbellumSouth.Page'sdefenseofslaverythusinvolvesafundamentaldisplacement,sincehisapologistrhetoricisnotindefenseoftheinstitution
itself,butofthepaternalbondbetweenmasterandslaveinsofarassomethinglikeitmightbereestablishedinhisowntime.Thedeferralsandevasionsinvolvedin
Page'sdefenseofslaveryareclearinhisessaysaswell.Ashewritesin"TheOldTimeNegro,""Oneneednotbeanadvocateofslaverybecausehe...setsforth
factsthatcanbesubstantiatedbytheexperienceofthousandswhoknewthematfirsthand,"theprimarysuch"fact''beingthe"relationofwarmfriendshipandtender
sympathy"betweenmasterandservant.Thedestructionofthisrelationship,Pagegoesontosuggest,explains"nottheleastpartofthe[current]bitternessoftheSouth
overtheNegroquestion."Insofarasslaveryinvolvedanorganicandhierarchicalinterracialbond,Pagedefendsit.Yet,evenwithinhisdefense,irruptionsofblack
resentmentthreatentoexposethefundamentallycoercivenatureoftheinstitution.Thus,aswefindPageextollingthevirtuesoftheslaveorder,assertingthatthe
"relationofmastersandservantswasoneofclosepersonalacquaintanceandfriendliness"andthatownershipwasunequivocallyreciprocal,certainmemoriesprove
troublesomefortheapologisttosynthesize:a"curiousrecollection"ofhis"mammy"arguingagainstslavery,andtheadmissionthat,followingemancipation,house
servants,whopresumablyweremoredeeplyintegratedwithintheplantation"family,"weremorelikelythanfieldhandsto"hearthesongofthesiren"anddeserttheir
masters.BothpassagesruncountertothepointPageismakingatthetime:inthefirstinstance,thatthe
19.Cash,MindoftheSouth,143KimballKing,IntroductiontoInOleVirginia(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1969),xxLouisD.RubinJr.,"TheOtherSideof

Slavery:ThomasNelsonPage's'NoHaidPawn,'"StudiesintheLiteraryImagination7(1974),9599MacKethan,DreamofArcady,5859.

 Page94

mammywasnotmerelyaservant,but"amemberofthefamilyinhighstandingandofunquestionedinfluence,"andinthesecond,thatduringthewar,"slavesnotonly
remainedfaithfultotheirmasters...thestressofthetime...appearedtoweldthebondbetweenthem,"thusunderscoringthatthevastmajorityofslaves"identified
themselveswiththeirmasters,andthisunionwasnotoneoflipservice,butofsentiment,ofheartandsoul."20

AsIhavesuggested,asimilartensionbetweenPage'snarrativerhetoricandcertaindisruptivedetailsmanifestsitselfinInOleVirginiaaswell,aworkinwhich"lip
service"andauthenticsentimentarecontestedinthevoiceoftheformerslave.InexamininghowPage'snarrativeabsorbsthesedisruptions,Iwanttocallattentiontoa
recurrentsequencePageemploysinwhichafirstterm,whichIwillcallthecriticalterm,demandsthenarrativeresolutionprovidedbythesecond,whichIwilllabelthe
recuperativeterm."MarseChan,"thefirsttaleinInOleVirginiaandusuallyconsideredPage'sfinestelegyforthelostageofheroicgentlemanandcontentedslaves,
offersaparadigmaticexampleofthissequence.EarlyinthetaleMarseChan'sfathersendsaslave,HamFisher,intoaburningbarntorescuehishorses.WhenHam
failstoreturnfromtheburningstructure,the"oldmarster"riskshislifetosavehim.Rescuinghisslave,Mr.Channingisdreadfullyburnedandpermanentlyblinded,
althoughtheslaveescapesvirtuallyunscathed.AsMacKethannotes,"Pagemusthavemeantfortheincidenttoshowamaster'swillingnesstoriskhisownlifeforhis
slaves.Forthemodernreader,however,thismotivehardlydisguisesthefactthatitwasthe'blind'masterwhounthinkinglyexposedhisslavetothedangerinthefirst
place.''21For
20.MacKethan,DreamofArcady,4041Page,"TheOldTimeNegro,"inTheOldSouth:EssaysSocialandPolitical(NewYork:Scribner's,1906),304,304,307,312,316,324,315,

32324.RegardingPage'sattitudestowardslavery,LouisD.RubinJr.pointsoutthat"[a]fterthesurrenderin1865,whatisstrikingisthealacritywithwhichalmostallSoutherners
notonlyacceptedthedemiseofslaverybutbothpubliclyandprivatelyexpressedtheirreliefatitspassing,"acircumstanceRubinascribestotheabsenceofatrue"MasterClass"
duringtheantebellumera(TheEdgeoftheSwamp:AStudyintheLiteratureandSocietyoftheOldSouth[BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1989],38).Page's
recollectionthathouseservantsfledbeforefieldhandshassomehistoricalvalidation:JoelWilliamsonnotesthatthiswastrueinSouthCarolinaaswellseeAfterSlavery:The
NegroinSouthCarolinaduringReconstruction,18611877(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1965),34.
21.MacKethan,DreamofArcady,55.

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MacKethan'smodernreader,thefirst(critical)termofthesequence(masterunthinkinglycommandsslave)lingersandthereforenegatesthesecond(masterrescues
slave).Yetweshouldnotethatthesecondterminnowayrequiresthefirstinordertofunction:PagecouldhavehadHamFishervolunteertosavethehorses(orany
ofanumberofalternativescenariosinwhichacommandwasnotinvolved),inwhichcaseMr.Channing'sheroismwouldhavebeen"purer."WhatIamsuggestingis
thatPageisnotblindtothecritiqueofslaveryimplicitinthefirstterm,butthatheincludesthattermasasurmountableobstacleortestthatthesecondterminthe
sequenceovercomesorabolishes.Moreover,inthisspecificinstancethesecond(recuperative)termelucidatestheobligationsinherentinthefirst:tohaveMr.
Channing'spowertocommandentailsadeepsenseofpersonalresponsibilitysuchthathisheroism"rescues"thepotentialillegitimacyofhisauthorityjustashe
physicallyrescueshisslave.

Page'srecuperativestrategyextendstomorefundamentalfeaturesofhisnarrative,especiallytothevoiceoftheformerslave.ItisasifPagecontinuallyposes
objectionstothefantasytextinwhichtheformerslavefinallyauthenticatestheutopiandimensionoftheOldSouth:"Demwuzgoodoletimes,marsterdebes'Sam
eversee!Deywuz,infac'!Niggersdidn'hednothin''talltodojes'hedto'ten'todefeedin'an'cleanin'dehosses,an'doin'whatdemarstertell'emtodoan'when
deywuzsick,deyhadthingsson'emoutdehouse,an'desamedoctorcometosee'emwhar'ten'todewhitefolkswhendeywuzpo'ly.Dyarwarn'notroublenor
nothin'"(10).Sam'svalidationofthe"goodoletimes"epitomizesthenarrativeworkofInOleVirginia,yethisvoice,likethoseofPage'sotherformerslaves,doesnot
serveasaperfectlytransparentvehicleforsouthernideologiesofrace.EvenacriticasconservativeasClydeN.Wilsonqualifiestheauthenticityoftheformerslave's
voiceinclaimingthat"[t]hevoicesthatPagecreatesinhiswork,blackandwhite,areauthenticSouthernvoices.Publicvoices,perhaps,thatdonotsayeverything
theyknowandfeel,thattactfullytreatsometroublesomesubjects,andthatconsciouslydramatizethemselvesallofwhicharethingsthatSoutherners,blackand
white,arewonttodoinreallife.Buttheyarerealvoices,intheirownterms."Byqualifyingtheirauthenticityasadramatic,performativeauthenticityacrucial
qualificationindeedWilsonregistersacertainuneasinesswiththeformerslave'svoice.

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FromtheperspectiveaffordedbyW.E.B.DuBois'stheoryofdoubleconsciousnessandCharlesW.Chesnutt'sconjuretales(nottomentionmorerecentworkby
criticssuchasGatesandHoustonBaker),itisdifficulttoconjointhenotionofauthenticitywiththeperformativedemandsplacedonAfricanAmericansduringthe
postbellumera.Butevenso,itisinterestingtospeculateastohowtheblackdialectPageemploysmight,asRobertL.PhillipsJr.hassuggested,evadetherhetorical
andpoliticalintentionsofthewhiteauthor.22ButinsofarastheperformativedemandsplaceduponSamareconcerned,speculationisunnecessary,forin"MarseChan"
Pagepositivelyindicatesthem.AstheanonymousframenarratorcomesuponSam,thefreedmaniswalkingMarseChan'sdog,whoiswaitingforanobstacletobe
removedfromhispath."Entirelyoblivious"tothewhitenarrator'sproximity,Samchidesthedog:"Jes'likewhitefolksthink'cuzyou'swhiteandI'sblack,Igotto
waitonyo'alldetime.Ne'mmine,Iain'gwi'doit!"(3).Whenhenoticesthewhitenarrator,however,hequicklychangeshistune:
"Sarvent,marster,"hesaid,takinghishatoff.Then,asifapologeticallyforhavingpermittedastrangertowitnesswhatwasmerelyafamilyaffair,headded:"HeknowIdon'mean
nothin'bywhatIsez.He'sMarseChan'sdawg,an'he'ssoolehekyahngitlongnopearter.HeknowI'sejes'prodjickin'widim."(3)

Sam'sstarkassertionofracialresentmentactsasthecriticalterminasequencerequiringbothhisovertrenunciation("HeknowIdon'meannothin'bywhatIsez")and
thenarrator'smetaphoricrepresentationofthequarrelas"merelyafamilyaffair."Thenarrator'srecoursetofamilyasarecuperativemetaphordisplacestheracial
contentofconflict,andinsodoingepitomizesthecentralityofinterracial"family"toPage'snarrative.Butinsofarasitlingers,Sam'sracialresentmentqualifieshistale
asaperformance,asthestrategicconstructionofaveilbehindwhichlurksamandiscontentwithhisplaceinthesocialorder.Pagethusexplicitly(sincethereisno
other
22.ClydeN.Wilson,IntroductiontoInOleVirginia(1887reprint,Nashville:J.S.Sanders,1991),xvi.PhillipssuggeststhatPage'smimeticrepresentationofblackdialectwhich

he,likeMarkTwain,claimedtohaverenderedauthenticallypermitstheblacknarratorto"sometimes...escap[e]fromtheobviousintentionoftheEuropeanrhetorical
master"("MulticulturalismandtheScholarlyJournal"[PaperdeliveredatSAMLAAnnualConvention,Knoxville,Tenn.,November1992]).

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reasontoincludethecomment)raisesthepossibilitythatpublicracialidentityisperformativethatistosay,motivatedbythedialogicpressureexertedbythewhite
interlocutorratherthanoriginatingfromsomecorecommitmenttohegemonicstructures.LikePage'smammy(another"familymember")arguingagainstslavery,Sam
potentiallydisruptstheorderofthings.ThenarrativeworkofInOleVirginia,then,istorecuperatetheformerslave'sauthentic,ratherthanperformative,commitment
tothesocialorder.

Althoughinnomannerofspeakinga"shortstorynovel,"eveninthelimitedsenseofaworksuchasGeorgiaScenes,InOleVirginiaisnotwithoutstructure.The
firstthreetalesinthecollection"MarseChan:ATaleofOldVirginia,""UncEdinburg'sDrowndin':APlantationEcho,"and"MehLady:AStoryoftheWar"
constitutewhatIcalltheconstructivesequenceofInOleVirginia,astheyprogressivelyrecuperateavisionofthepastoralcommunitythatistestedandeven
subvertedbythetalesthatfollow,especially"Ole'Stracted''and"NoHaidPawn,"whichdefinethevirtuesoftheOldSouthasessentiallynegativevirtues.Bynegative
virtue,Imeanvirtuepredominatelyperceptibleasanabsence,aswhen,intheselaterstories,thepositivequalitiesoftheplantationcommunityandthesocial
relationshipsfoundthereinbecomeapparentlargelywhentheyarenolongerpresent.

Slaveryisnotdepictedasaflawlessinstitutionintheearlytales,especiallyinsofarastheconflictsdrivingthesetalesareconcerned.Usuallyinterlinkedwithacourtship
plot,conflictislimitedtowhitecharacters,althoughitsconsequencesextendtotheirblackretainers,who,inthefirsttwostories,areinvolvedinakindofreflected
courtshipplot.Theconflictin"MarseChan"centersaroundthepoliticaltensionbetweentheWhiggishfamilyofthetitlecharacterandthefamilyofhisbeloved,Anne
Chamberlain,whosefatherisarabidDemocratandfirebreathingsecessionist.Col.Chamberlain'sradicalpoliticsareassociatedwithanirresponsiblenotionof
slavery,forafterlosingaCongressionalelectiontothe"olemarster,"Col.Chamberlainsuffersfinancialhardshipsandputshisslavesupforsale,goingsofarasto
preventhisrivalfrompurchasingthewifeofoneofhisownslavesinordertokeepaslavemarriageintact.Withthewarloomingonthehorizon,Col.Chamberlain
debatesthemoremoderateMarseChanoverthequestionofsecession,andinsultsMarseChan'sfatheras"awuss

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ab'litionis'danhisson"(17).Livinguptothesoutherncodeofhonor,MarseChanchallengeshimtoaduel,duringwhichhegallantlyfiresintotheairandproclaimsto
theolderman,"Imekyouapresenttoyo'fam'ly,seh!"(21).Dishonored,Col.ChamberlainforbidshisdaughtertoseeMarseChan.Whenthewarbreaksout,
MarseChanrefusesacaptaincy,enlistingasaprivateonlyafterVirginiasecedes.AccompaniedbySam,herepeatedlyproveshisvaloronthebattlefield.Eventually,
SamarrangesareconciliationbetweenMarseChanandAnne,butshortlyafterthesoldierreceivesherletteracceptinghisofferofmarriage,heiskilledinbattle.

AsMacKethannotes,Page'splantationisa"breedinggroundforheroes."23InthisrespecthediffersfromKennedy,whoseplantationconspicuouslyfailstoproduce
heroes,withtheimportantexceptionofAbe.Here,however,wefindacertainconfluencebetweenthetwoworks,forinbothcasesitistheslavewhovalidatesthe
codeofchivalrichonor:Abebylivingthecode,Sambybearingwitnesstotheheroismofhismaster.TotheextentthatMarseChanactsashiscommunity'sepic
representative,thecommunityisdivestedofitsideologicalbaggage:hotheadedness,destructivepride,radicalpolitics,andanautocraticdisregardforslaves,allof
whicharedisplacedtothecharacterofCol.Chamberlain.InthisrespectCol.Chamberlainrepresentssomethinglikeacriticalterm,therecuperativetermofwhichis
MarseChanhimself.Curiously,however,theactionthatpermitsthetwofamiliestobereconciledistheyoungerman'sdefenseofCol.Chamberlainwhenapoor
whitea"halfstrainer,"asSamcallshimhasthetemeritytoassertthattheChamberlains"wuzallon'emaparecelofstuckup'risticrats,and[Col.Chamberlain]
wan'nogent'mananyway...''(30).Thisisalegitimatecritiqueinsofarasviciousslanderandcontemptforthewelfareofone'sslavesareantitheticaltothecodeof
noblesseoblige.Page'slogicthusworksindifferentdirections.Ontheonehand,"MarseChan"suggeststhatthelegitimacyofthesocialordercanonlybeactualized
bythetruegentleman.ThispointissubtlyemphasizedwhenMarseChanofferstofreeSamshouldhedieintheduel,theimplicationbeingthatthebenignityofslavery
asaninstitutioncannotbetrustedintheabsenceofthemorallyupstandingslaveowner.Ontheother,Page'snarrativeimpliesthatthesocialhierarchy,
23.MacKethan,DreamofArcady,48.

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amongwhitesatanyrate,mustbemaintainedinanabsolutesense:undernocircumstancescanthe"halfstrainer"bepermittedtoquestiontheauthorityofthe
gentleman.Herethecomplexityoftheformerslave'svoiceenterstheequation.SamparticipatesinthearistocraticfeudbetweentheChanningsandChamberlainsasa
memberofthefamilya"Channing"byassociation.Whentheissueofclassstatusarises,however,Samimmediatelysuspendswhateversocialcritiqueisinvolvedin
histreatmentofCol.ChamberlainandassertsthemoregenericallyaristocraticprivilegeconferreduponhimbyhisfamilialrelationshiptoMarseChan.Althoughthe
subtleshiftofSam'salignmentfromfamilytoclassrecuperatesthelegitimacyofabroadlyconceivedaristocratichegemony,thecontingentnatureofthisalignmentfails
toeliminate,andevenimplies,thepossibilitythatSam'sdevotionismoreamatterofstatusthanan''authentic"andheretheproblematicnatureofauthenticityasserts
itselfcommitmenttotheplantationorder.

Theissuesofclassstatusandfamilystandingdominatethenexttaleaswell.IneveryrespectalessfitfuldefenseoftheOldSouththan"MarseChan,""Unc'Edinburg's
Drowndin':APlantationEcho"beginswithaninterestingvignettethatindicatestheformerslave'sabilitynotonlytopossessstatus,buttoconferitaswell.WhenUnc'
Edinburgmeetsthenarratortodrivehimtotheplantation,heissuspiciousbecauseofthe"unfortunatefact"thatthenarrator'sluggageconsistssolelyofahandsatchel.
Unc'Edinburghadbeeninformed,hetellsthevisitorwithanairofdisdain,"ashowyoumightbringatrunk"(40).Unc'Edinburgisindeedaformidablefigure,
informingthenarrator"decisively"thatashortvisitisoutofthequestionandintimidatinghimtotheextentthathekeepstohimselfhislowopinionofcoonmeat.When
Unc'EdinburgbeginshistaleoftheOldSouth,theissueofstatusremainsintheforeground.Like"MarseChan,""Unc'Edinburg'sDrowndin'"involvesaloveaffair
disruptedbyafamilyrivalry,althoughinthiscasethecourtshipcomestofruition.WhenMarseGeorge(Unc'Edinburg'smaster)andMissCarolinefirstmeet,Unc'
EdinburgisforcedtodefendthefamilyhonortoMissCaroline'smaid,Judy,whenthelatterquestionsthestandingofMarseGeorge'sfamily:
Well,datoutdaciousnesssoaggrivateme,Iliteintodatniggerrightdyah.Itellhersheain'beennowhar'tallefshedon'knowwealldatwewuzdebes'ofquality,

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deve'ytopdepotan'denItellher'bouthowgretwewuzhowdeker'idgeswuzal'ayshitchedupnightan'day,an'niggersjesthickasweedsan'howUnc'Tormhewaredhe
swallertailev'ydaywhenhewaitondetableandMarseGeorgehewon'wyahacoatmo'nonceortwiceanyways,tosaveyoulife.Oh!Isutney'stonishdatnigger,'causeIwuz
teckinupfordefambly.(47)

Theoperativewordinthispassageis"we,"whichfirmlyinstallsUnc'Edinburgasamemberofthefamily,andextendssofarastoimplicatehimlooselyinthe
ownershipofslaves,ashelaterrefersto"weall'sTubal"(48).

Comparedwith"MarseChan,"theblockingactionin"Unc'Edinburg'sDrowndin'"islessimplicatedinpotentiallyproblematicsocialissues,forMissCaroline's
stepfather'sviceislimitedtohavingbadpoliticsinthiscase,thoseoftheLocofocos,aradicalwingoftheDemocraticparty.ThetruevillainofthetaleisJudge
Darker'sson,aplagiarist,coward,andbullywhobeatsUnc'EdinburgwhenhefindstheslavevisitingJudyonhisplantation.Inresponse,MarseGeorgecowhides
Mr.Darkerandthen,toindicatehisscornforhisantagonist,refusestoduelhim,informinghimthathewould''cowhidehimaginefheeverheahanymo'fromhim,an'
he'ain't"(63).UnlikeCol.Chamberlain,Mr.Darkerloseshissocialstatus,aseveryonecomestosharetheopinionthat"hesolowdownan'wuthlessdeekyarn
nobodystandhim"(70).Thus,thedivisionpreventingtheloveaffairbetweentheheroandheroineassumesalesspolitical,moresentimentaltextureindeed,itispride
morethananythingelsethatkeepstheloversseparated.Intheend,theloverscometogetherwhenMissCarolinevisitsMarseGeorgeasheliesneardeath,theresult
ofhisheroicrescueofUnc'Edinburgfromafloodedriver.(Thisrescueisitselfareworkingofthefireepisodein"MarseChan,"withthesignificantdifferencethatthe
slavewillinglyputshislifeindangerin"Unc'Edinburg'sDrowndin'.")

Forallitsideologicalsmoothness,"Unc'Edinburg'sDrowndin'"containsasingleincidentthatthreatenstodisrupttheutopianorderPageisconcernedtoestablish.
WhenUnc'EdinburggoesonhisillfatedvisittoseeJudy,whohaslightskinandhair"mos'straightaswhitefolks"(46),shecallshima"blacknigger."Heresponds,
"'Whoyoucallin'nigger,youimpident,kercumberfacedthingyou?'Denweshakehands,an'ItellherMarseGeorgedonesetmefreedatIdonebuymyselfdat's
delieIdonelayoff

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totellher"(60).AlthoughJudyisnotimpressedwiththislineofpersuasionshetauntshimlaterinthetaleas"datfreenigger"(69)itisinterestingtonotehowUnc'
Edinburgprivilegesstatusasa"freenigger''overthestatushehasclaimedearlierasamemberofMarseGeorge'sfamily.Status,asUnc'Edinburgconceivesit,is
alwaysassociatedwithwhiteness:tobefree(likewhites)istotrumphavingwhitephysicalcharacteristicssuchaslightskinandstraighthair.Thisdesiretoassociate
withwhitenesspotentiallydisruptsUnc'Edinburg'scontentmentwithhisstationasaslave,justashisassertionoffreedompotentiallyqualifieshisfamilyloyaltyasa
merematterofstatus.Inanyevent,heiswillingandeveneagertoclaimindependencefromMarseGeorgewhenheperceiveshisstatustobethreatened.

TeasingoutthelogicalproblemswithPage'stalesignores,however,thesuspensionoflogicengenderedbytheauthorialandnarrativeappealstosentiment,which,if
thetearsshedover"MarseChan"byerstwhileabolitionistssuchasThomasWentworthHigginsonandHenryWardBeecherareanyindication,werequitepowerful
toacontemporaryaudience.Inanimportantsense,sentimentalappealactsasadominantrecuperativeterminInOleVirginia,aworkwhosemanipulationof
sentimentalpower,rhetoricalfacility,andgeniusforcreatingpowerfulracialiconscuriouslyrecallstheworkofBeecher'ssister,theauthorofUncleTom'sCabin.Yet
indwellingonthenarrativeproblemsIhavelabeledcriticalterms,IshouldreiteratethatastheconstructivesequenceofInOleVirginiaprogresses,thesecritical
termsbecomelessprevalentandlessproblematic.HoweverdisruptiveUnc'Edinburg'sdesireforfreedommightbe,itisclearfromthenarrativeframethathis
devotiontothefamilyhassurvivedemancipation.Virtuallytheonlycriticaltermin"MehLady:AStoryoftheWar,"thethirdtaleinInOleVirginia,concernsthe
treacheryanddesertionofcertainslavesneartheendofthewar.ButeventheaptlynamedAnaniasa"weevlyblack""po'whitefolksnigger"(109),accordingtothe
formerslavewhonarratesthetalerefusestoshowhisfaceinpublic,andhis"twoorth'eefellowdeserters"feelcompelledtoassertthattheYankees"cyar[ied]'em
off"(110).Moreover,thedesertersareshamedintothisconfessionbytheirfellowslaves,whothusexerttheonlyovertcoercionintheentirework.Thisincidentcan
hardlybelabeledacriticalterm,socompletelydoesthetalerecuperatetheslave'sloyaltytothesocialorder.Indeed,thissequencemightwellbeconsidereda
recuperative

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terminrelationtostatusasitfiguresintheearliertales,forratherthangainingstatusasaresultofclaimingtheirfreedom,theseslavesloseitinstead.

Otherthanitscompleteseveranceofstatusandfreedom,"MehLady"isaformulaicallegoryofsectionalreconciliation.MehLadyisayoungplantationmistresswhose
brother,Phil,diesheroicallyinbattle.AstheUnionarmiesadvance,adashingUnionofficersavestheplantationfrommaraudingUnionsoldiersandlater,afterbeing
woundedinbattle,spendsaperiodofconvalescenceatMehLady'sestate,wherethetwofallinlove.Unwillingtomarrytheenemy,MehLadyspurnshisromantic
advancesandrefuseshisfinancialaid,preferringtolaborinpovertyafterthewarends.Eventually,however,throughtheintermediationoftheslavenarrator,OldBilly,
andhiswife,theloversmarry.IntheceremonyBillyassertshisprerogativetogiveawaythebride,thusclaimingif,asKingnotes,somewhattentativelyhisstatus
asamemberofthefamily.24Thisstatusisemphasizedintheclosinglinesof"MehLady"whenwelearnthattheheroine'ssecondchildisnamedforhim,thefirsthaving
beennamedafterherdeadbrother.Aftertheceremony,Billyrelatesthathe"sorto'gottostudyin''':"hit'pearlikedeplantation'liveoncemo',an'deain'nomo'
scuffin',anddeoletimesdonecomebackag'in"(138).Soendstheutopiandrivetowardsectionalreconciliationandtherecuperationoftheplantationmythofthe
interracialfamily.

Iftheconclusionof"MehLady"representstheculminationofPage'sfantasytext,theobliterationofthecritiqueofslaverylingeringinthepagesthatprecedeit,we
shouldbecarefultonotethatitisautopianmomentPagedoesnotsustain,asthetwostoriesthatfollow"Ole'Stracted"and"NoHaidPawn"presentthe
interracialcommunityinalessfavorablelightthananythathavecomebefore.Interestingly,theincreasedpressureexertedbyslaverycoincideswiththelossofthe
blacknarrator,forunliketheprevioustales,both"Ole'Stracted"and"NoHaidPawn"arenarratedbyawhitevoice.Butbeforeturningourattentiontothesestories,
letusfirstreconsideranissueraisedearlier:thequestionofwhyawritersoconcernedtolegitimatethesocialorderoftheOldSouthshouldincludewhatwehave
calledcriticaltermsinthefirstplace.OneisstruckbyhoweasilyPagecouldhave
24.King,Introduction,xxxxxxi.

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eliminatedthem,fromSam'sassertionofresentmenttoAnanias'sdesertiontotheYankees,withoutstructurallydamaginghisstoriesindeed,Page'scriticalterms
seem,inmostcases,tobealmostsuperfluous.ButPage,likeanywriterdealingwithahistoricalsubject,wasforcedtotakehismaterialfromhistory,andifhewasan
evasivewriter,hewasnotasevasiveasmanycriticsandreadershaveimagined.Heconfrontedapastinwhichslaveswantedtheirfreedom,desertedtheirplantations
enmasseattheconclusionofthewar,andactivelyvoicedtheirdiscontentapastinwhichslaveswereharshlypunishedandforciblyseparatedfromtheirfamiliesa
pastinwhichtheslaveexertedtangiblepressureagainstthepastoralicon.Byincludingcriticalterms,Pageincorporatedandcounteredthispressure,andinsodoing
assimilatedacritiqueofslaverywithinhismythproducingnarrative.Writingforanationalaudiencemovingtowardwhitesupremacyasaculturalnorm,thisassimilative
techniquewasrhetoricallyshrewd,especiallyforawriterwhoonceremarkedthathesoldmorebooksinBostonthanintheentirestateofVirginia.Butwhatever
pressuretheymayexert,Page'scriticaltermsdonotdisruptwhatwemightcallhismetalogic,whichdictatesthatwhateveritsflaws,theslaveorderproduceda
cohesivenesswhosevirtuescouldonlybeappreciatedfullyinitsabsence.Inthismastersequenceslaveryactsassomethinglikethecriticalterm,anditsabsenceasthe
recuperativeterm.

In"Ole'Stracted,"thenegativevirtuesofslaveryareclearlyinevidence.Thetitlecharacteris,likeSamandUnc'Edinburg,apersonalretainerofamasterwho,unlike
MarseChanandMarseGeorge,hadfallenuponhardtimesandbeenforcedtosellhisslaves.Dividedfromhiswifeandchildandsolddowntheriver,Ole'Stracted
makeshiswaybacktohisoldplantationafterthewareverhopefulthathismasterwillreturnandfulfillhispromisetoreunitetheslavefamily.Ole'Stracted'sdreamis
ahopelessone,sincecommunalrumorhasitthathismasterhaddied"ofabrokedhearttorectlyafterdeetechheniggersan'sell'em"(145).Aparallelplotinvolvesa
freedman,Ephraim,whosedreamofowningafarmisthwartedbytheruthless"halfstrainer"whoownsthelandandhouseheandhisfamilyrent.Attheconclusionof
thetale,EphraimlearnsthatheisOle'Stracted'sson,andthroughadeusexmachinaresolution,themoneyheneedstopurchasehisfarmappearsintheformof
$1,200Ole'Stractedhadsavedtopurchasehisfamily.MacKethanarguesthat"Ole'Stracted"resists,morethananyother

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taleinthecollection,theideologicalintentionsofitsauthor,whorefusestominimizeOle'Stracted'stragicsituationwithany"propagandaofwhitebenevolence,"and
who"letsusfeel[thatEphraim]haseveryrighttorealize[hisdream]"(5657).AsMacKethannotes,Page'stypicalattitudetowardthefreedman,or"newissue
Negro,"wasoneofscornandcontempt,echoesofwhichareclearinoneofUnc'Edinburg'sasidesthat"'lectionswus'lectionsdemdaysdeewarn'nobaitgode
'lections,widev'ysorto'wormssquirmin'up'ginstonenurr,widpieceo'paperd'ain'knowwhaton,drappin'inachink."25Certainlyitisdifficulttoreconcilethe
imageofthevoteselling''newissueNegro"withthesturdyyeomanfarmerof"Ole'Stracted"whoseagrarianindependencealignshim,unlikePage'spreviousblack
characters,withneitheraristocratnorpoorwhite.

"Ole'Stracted"alsodivergesfromPage'sconceptionoftheblackfamily.In"TheOldTimeNegro,"Pageassertsthatthe"familyinstinct"hadnever"takenmuchroot"
inNegroculture,owingeithertoitssubordinationto"atribalinstinct"or,interestingly,to"theverynatureoftheinstitutionofslavery"(312).Raisingthisenvironmental
argumentonlyasapossibility,PageemphasizesfamilialstructureasaracecharacteristicdifferingdramaticallybetweenNegroesand"AngloSaxons,"a"racewhose
historyisfoundeduponthefamilyinstinct."26"Ole'Stracted,"however,placesapositiveemphasisonblackdomesticity.Ephraim'swifeisadevotedmotherandwife,
andOle'Stracted'sheroiceffortstoaccumulatethe$1,200aredirectedtowardreunitingthefamilyseparatedbyslavery.Yettoindictslaveryinthismanneristoresist
Page'snarrativelogic.If"Ole'Stracted"isapartialindictmentofslavery,itis,inaligningthepathosoftheindependentNegrowiththedeclineofaristocraticpower,a
massiveindictmentoftheabsenceofslavery.Whenconfrontedwiththenewsthattheyaretobeevicted,Ephraim'swife"instinctively"thinksofheroldmaster,Marse
Johnny,onlytohaveEphraimdashherhopes:"Heain'gotnuttin,an'efheis,hehyarn
25.MacKethan,DreamofArcady,58.

26.Pagegoesontodefendslaveryasaninstitutionthatpromoted"familytiesamongtheNegroes,"notingthat"maritalfidelity"haddeclinedfollowingemancipation.Inacurious

argument,Pageassertsthat"theinstancesofdesertionofhusbands,ofwives,ofparents,orchildren[followingemancipation]wouldpossiblyoffsetanydivisionthattookplace
underthatinstitution[ofslavery]"("OldTimeNegro,"31112).

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getitinaweek"(148).AlthoughEphraimisdesignatedasher"propersupport,"Pagemakesitclearthatthedomesticidealisunavailableintheabsenceofwhite
benevolence.Thetruevillainofthetaleisthe"po'whitetrash"whohassupplantedthearistocratinthepostbellumsocialhierarchyandwhosharesnoneofthe
aristocrat'spaternalisticconcernfortheNegro.

Inasimilarvein,thepathosofOle'Stracted'ssituationisdirectlyattributedtotheabsenceofhismaster.Sodeepistheformerslave'sdependenceuponhismasterthat
Ole'Stractedis"unabletogiveanyaccountofhimself"exceptinsofarasthatrelationshipisconcerned(153).WhenEphraimasksforhisname,Ole'Stractedcannot
provideit,asserting,however,that"datain'nuttin.He[Marster]knowitgotitsetdownindebook"(157).Intentionallyornot,Pagehereinvertsanenabling
premiseoftheantebellumslavenarrative:thattheslave'sdeepsenseofidentityextendsbeyondhissocialpositionandthusprovidesagroundantitheticaltohisstatus
aschattelproperty.ForPagetheslave'sidentityandhissocialroleareidentical,ortoputthematteranotherway,hisidentityiscontingentuponhisplaceinthesocial
hierarchy.LikeJoelChandlerHarris'sFreeJoe,withoutamaster,heisnoone.Justastheslavenarrativeprovidedapowerfulformforcritiquingslavery,soPagehas
Ole'Stracted'sstory,hisfantasytextofwhiteprotection,exertpoweroverEphraimandhiswife.AlthoughfullyawarethatOld'Stracted'sdreamisafantasy,Ephraim
isneverthelessdeeplyaffectedby"thebeautyofthesublimedevotionofthispooroldcreaturetohis[master's]loveandhistrust,holdingsteadfastbeyondmemory,
beyondreason,aftertheknowledgeevenofhisidentityandofhisverynamewaslost"(151).WhenthecouplevisitsOle'Stracted,theoldmanreaffirmshisbeliefthat
hismasterwillreturn:
"He'scomin',toonuvertol'mealieinhelifecomin'disevenin'.Make'aste."Thisintremulouseagernesstothewoman,whohadinvoluntarilycaughtthefeeling,andwas
nowwitheagerandineffectualhastetryingtobuttonhisshirt[emphasisadded].(159)

EphraimandhiswifeconsumeOle'Stracted'sfantasytext,andforgoodreason:likehim,theydonothaveavailablethearistocraticbenevolencethatmakeslifeasa
Negrobearable.

Orso,atleast,istheinterpretationthatIcontendmadethetalebearable

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forPage.Infact,thefragilityofthisinterpretationandindeedtheveryideaofslaveryhavingnegativevirtuesproducessomethinglikeaselfconsumingtextwhose
authorcomesperilouslyclosetomakingthemistakeofthemaninthejokewhobeatshisheadwithahammerbecauseitfeelssogoodwhenhestops.Itisalmostasif
thetestsorobjectionsPageposesforhisfantasytextthreatentooverwhelmthattextandtheorganicsocialorderitassumes.Thistrendcontinuesin"NoHaidPawn,"
astorythatmarksanotablegenericshiftwithinthecollectionfromthesentimentaltothegothic.Asseveralcriticshavenoted,"NoHaidPawn"borrowsanumberof
tropesandimagesfromEdgarAllanPoe's"FalloftheHouseofUsher,"amongthemtheburialoflivepersonsandahousethatfallsintoabodyofwaterinPage's
case,the"pawn''ofthestory'stitle.27YettoagreaterextentthanPoe,Pagelinksthegothicatmosphereof"NoHaidPawn"tothesocialcontextofthetale.

Theactionofthe"NoHaidPawn"beginsabouthalfwaythroughthetale,thefirsthalfofwhichrecountstheplantation'sdarkhistory.Theplantationhadbeenbuiltby
strangerstothecommunity,andasaconsequence,"notieseitherofbloodorfriendshipwereformedwiththeirneighbors,whowerecertainlyopenheartedandopen
dooredenoughtoovercomeanythingbutthemostpersistentunneighborliness"(166).Fromthebeginning,an"evildestinyhadseemedtoovershadowthe
place"(167).Variouslocallegendscirculateconcerningdungeonsbuiltfor"awful"if"indefinite"purposes,aNegrobuilderwhohadbeendecapitatedin"someawful
andoccultriteconnectedwiththelayingofthecornerstone,"andslaveswhowereburiedaliveandarosetohauntthepond(16768).Eventuallythehousehadbeen
inheritedbyasinisterandbrutalWestIndianwhodecapitatedaslaveandflungthebodyfromawindowdowntowherehishorrifiedslaveswatchedbelow.Clearlya
curioustaletohavebeenwrittenbyanapologistfortheOldSouth,"NoHaidPawn"isnevertheless,asMacKethansuggests,
27."NoHaidPawn"ostensiblyreferstothepond'slackofasource,althoughthemotifofdecapitationassociatedwiththeplantationmakesitaparticularlyaptname.Pageexploits

thetraditionalgothictropeofthehouseaspsychologicalanalogforitsinhabitants.Foradiscussionofhow"NoHaidPawn"invertsPage'susualassociationofplantationhouses
withtheirowners,seeMacKethan,DreamofArcady,4446.

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28
consistentwithPage'sintentionelsewhereindemonstrating"whathappenstotheplantationidealwhenunworthybeingsattempttoimitateitsconcepts." Hencethe
racialdifferencebetweenthesinistergiantandhisfellowplanters,whobrandtheWestIndianasapariah:"Hisbrutaltemperandhabitscuthimofffromeventhesmall
measureofintercoursewhichhadexistedbetweenhispredecessorsandtheirneighbors,andhelivedatNoHaidPawncompletelyisolated"(169).Thewhite
communityacquitsitselfadmirably,publiclyhangingtheWestIndianafterhisfinaloutrage.Indeed,itistheyandnottheslaveswhoareoutraged,sinceaftertheir
master'shanging,his"negroesalllamentedhisdeath,anddeclaredthathewasagoodmasterwhenhewasnotdrunk"(170).

Inanyevent,werethestorytoendwiththesinistergiantwho,afterall,effectivelyservesasascapegoatwhoabsorbstheevilsandabusesofslaverythen"No
HaidPawn"wouldnotresistPage'snarrativelogicinthewaythatitfinallydoes.Thislevelofresistancecomesinthecontemporaneoussettingofthestory,which
takesplaceduringthe1850s.Abolitionistsareintheneighborhood:
NoideacanbegivenatthisdateoftheexcitementoccasionedinaquietneighborhoodinoldtimesbythediscoveryofthemerepresenceofsuchcharactersasAbolitionists.It
wasasifthefoundationofthewholesocialfabricwasundermined.Itwasthesuddendarkeningofashadowthatalwayshunginthehorizon.Theslaveswereinalargemajority,
andhadtheyrisen,thoughthefinalissuecouldnotbedoubted,thelivesofeverywhiteontheplantationsmusthavepaidtheforfeit.Whatevertherightandwrongofslavery
mighthavebeen,itsexistencedemandedthatnooutsideinterferencewithitshouldbetolerated.Somuchwascertainselfpreservationrequiredthis.(174)

Thepresenceofthese"secretagents"accountsforacuriousinversion:whereastheslavesofabrutalmastervalidatehisgoodness,theslavesofhisupright
neighborsatleast"morethanausualnumber"ofthem(171)fleefromthebenevolenceoftheirmasters,apointthatsurelycontradictsPage'srepresentationofthe
contentedslave.Oneoftherunaways,theblack
28.Ibid.,45.

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leaderoftheAbolitionists'secretmeetingsandtheonlyrunawaystillatlarge,isabrutalgiantwhosemaster,"insteadofbeingcommiseratedonthelossofhisslave,
wascongratulatedthathehadnotcuthisthroat"(173).Havingthussetthescene,Page'snarratorrecountshowhehadfoolhardilytransgressedtheboundariesofNo
HaidPawnduringasolitaryduckhunt.Whenathunderstormarises,thenarratorisforcedtoseekrefugeintheplantationhouse,wherehefallsasleep.Awakenedby
acurioussound,thenarratorcatchesabriefglimpseofamaninaboatapproachingthe"hauntedhouse."Terrified,thenarratordescribeshowthemanmakeshisway
intothehouseandisilluminatedbyaflashoflightning:"Directlyinfrontofme,clutchinginhisupraisedhandalong,keen,glitteringknife,onwhosebladeaballoffire
seemedtoplay,stoodagiganticfigureintheveryflameofthelightning,andstretchedathisfeetlay,ghastlyandbloody,ablackandheadlesstrunk"(185).The
narrator"staggeredtothedoorand,tripping,fellprostrateoverthesill,"returninglateronlytofindthatthe''hauntedhouse"hadbeensetafirebythelightningand
"reclaimed"with"allitssecrets"buriedbythedarkwatersofthepond(186).

SoPageendshistalewithoutexplainingtheconnectionbetweentheescapedslaveandwhatisapparentlytheghostoftheformermasterdragginghisdecapitated
victim.E.L.Burlingame,theeditorofScribner'sMagazine,suggestedtopagethathebringoutabitmoreclearlythe"dimlysuggestedconnectionoftherunaway
negro&hisbootywiththeclimax."LouisRubin,notingthatthe"pureghoststory"wasagenreindeclinewhenPagewaswriting,suggeststhatthe"ghost"isactually
theescapedslave,andthe"blackandheadlesstrunk"isthatofastolenhog.Althoughthereissomeevidenceforthisscenariotherunawayisarenownedhogthief,
andNoHaidPawnwouldbeanidealhideoutitiscuriousthatPage'snarratorrefusestoaffirmorevenofferthisexplanation,whichremains,asBurlingamesays,
onlydimlysuggested.LikeHenryJames's"TurnoftheScrew,"Page'stalepreservesthemomentthatTzetvanTodorovlabelsthe"fantastic"inwhichthereaderis
obliged"tohesitatebetweenanaturalandsupernaturalexplanationoftheeventsdescribed."Ifanything,thecontiguityofthesupernaturaldestructionofthehouse,
whichitselfisexplicitlydescribedas"haunted,"pressuresthereaderawayfromanaturalexplanation.(Couldthe

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slavehaveburnedthehouse?)Anaturalexplanationwouldinvolveseveraldisturbingelements,foremostamongthem,asRubinnotes,theperceptionthattheslave
communityisactivelyaidingtherunaway,sincethenoisethatawakensthenarratorisapparentlyacommunicationofsomesort.29Furthermore,otherdetailsfromthe
storythreatentoappearinanewlightforexample,theslaves'activedisseminationofhorrifictalesmightbeinterpretedashavingthestrategicintentionofkeeping
peoplefarfromNoHaidPawn.WhatIamsuggestingisthatPageoffersarationalexplanation,onlytowithdrawitattheveryend,wherehisrecoursetothegenreof
theghoststoryallowshimtonegateasfantasythedisturbingimplicationsofhistale.Toadmitotherwisewouldhavebeentoodarkaltogether.

Nonetheless,therepressivetextureof"NoHaidPawn"representsastarkdeparturefromthefantasyofNegroconsentthatdominatestheearliertales.Toreturntothe
issueofAbolitionistsandtheirefficacyinunderminingthe"foundationofthewholesocialfabric"aninterestinglymixedmetaphorthathasbothhorizontalandvertical
dimensionsweshouldnotethatwhilethenarrator'scommentistrueenoughfortheantebellumculturehedescribes,ithadforPageacertainresonanceinthe
postbellumeraaswell.Inanessaytitled"TheNegroQuestion,"originallypublishedinTheOldSouth(1892)andreprintedwithslightrevisionsinTheNegro:The
Southerner'sProblem(1904),PageblastsaMassachusettssenatorforpredicting"aharvestofhorrorandblood"shouldtheSouthcontinueonitscourseof
disenfranchisement:
Hadheunderstoodthetruegravityofthatproblem,hischeek,ashecaughttheechoofhisownwords,wouldhaveblanchedatthethoughtoftheperilheistransmittingtohis
childrenandgrandchildrennottheperil,perhaps,offireandmassacre,butaperilasdeadly,theperilofcontaminationfromtheovercrowdingofaninferiorrace.Allotherevilsare
butcorollaries:theevilofraceconflict,thoughnotsoawfulastheFrenchRevolutionorSanDomingotheevilofgrowingarmieswiththeirmenace

29.BurlingamequotedinJayB.Hubbell,TheSouthinAmericanLiterature,16071900(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1954),801Rubin,"OtherSideofSlavery,"97,99Tzetvan

Todorov,TheFantastic:AStructuralApproachtoaLiteraryGenre,trans.RichardHoward(Cleveland:PressofCaseWesternReserveUniversity,1973),33.

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tolibertytheevilofracedegenerationfromenforcedandconstantassociationwithaninferiorrace:thesearesomeoftheperilswhichspringfromthatstateofaffairsand
confrontus.30

Inthiscontextfarfromthesceneofmoonlightandmagnolias,thenarrator'scommentsin"NoHaidPawn"concerningtherequirementsofwhiteselfpreservation
acquireanew,moreimmediatedimension.Thepossibilityofanuprisingofeitherslavesorfreedmendealsafatalblowtothenotionthatinterracialrelationshipsare
moreconsensualthancoercive.Toputthematteranotherway,Pagedispenseswithhisfantasytextofhappydarkiesandhonorablegentlemenwhentheformer
becometransformed,asifbymagic,intothedescendantsofNatTurner.Atthiscrucialmoment,theinterracialcontactpreviouslyvalidatedasanorganicbond
becomesa"perilofcontamination,"anintolerable"associationwithaninferiorrace.""NoHaidPawn,"then,exposesthesheercontingencyofPage'sorganicsocial
order,representingthefinalbreakdownoffamilyasafunctionalmetaphorfortheinterracialcommunity.

InOleVirginiastandsatacriticaljunctureinsouthernliteraryhistory.InTheStrangeCareerofJimCrow,C.VannWoodwardcontraststhe"patronizing,
sentimentalized,andpaternalistic...[butnever]venomousorbitter"portrayalsofblackcharactersintheworkofwriterslikePagewiththevenomousportrayalsof
blacksinThomasDixon'sTheClansmanandTheLeopard'sSpots,worksthatwere"theperfectliteraryaccompanimentofthewhitesupremacyand
disenfranchisementcampaign."WorkingwiththesamePageDixonaxis,WalterBennMichaelsarguesthattheinterracialfamilymetaphorinPage'sRedRock
produces"blacks[who]presentnorealracialthreatandstandinsteadasakindofbulwarkagainstthenewwhites."InRedRock,accordingtoMichaels,"whiteness
doesn'tyethaveanyrealmeaning."31
30.Page,"TheNegroQuestion,"inTheNegro:TheSoutherner'sProblem(NewYork:Scribner's,1904),21314.FredHobsonnotesthatPagereplaced"TheNegroQuestion"with

thelesspolemical"TheOldTimeNegro"whenhereissuedTheOldSouthin1912,possiblybecausewidespreaddisenfranchisementandtheinstitutionofJimCrowmadethe
polemicsoftheexcludedessaylessurgentforfurtherdiscussion,seeTellabouttheSouth:TheSouthernRagetoExplain(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1983),
146.
31.C.VannWoodward,TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow,rev.ed.(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1957),78WalterBennMichaels,OurAmerica:Nativism,Modernism,and

Pluralism(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1995),18.

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WhateverthetruthofMichaels'sprovocativeclaimintermsofPage'sreconstructionnovel,itisclearin"TheRaceQuestion,"publishedjustfiveyearsafterInOle
Virginia,thatwhitesupremacyanddisenfranchisementwerecentraltenetsinPage'sracialprogram.Inanindirectmanner,InOleVirginiaaswellprovidesaperfect
literaryaccompanimentofthewhitesupremacyanddisenfranchisementcampaignonecertainlylessvirulentthanDixon's,butperhapsmoreeffectivepreciselyfor
thatreason.HavingspentthebulkofInOleVirginiaaffirmingtheslave'sconsensualparticipationinthepaternalisticorder,Pagesuggestsin"NoHaidPawn"that
shouldthisconsentnotbeforthcoming,thewhitecommunityhadbestbepreparedtoseetoitspreservationatallcosts.

Page'simplicitprogramofconsentwhenpossible,coercionwhennecessary,suggeststhedeepinterrelationshipbetweenpaternalismandwhitesupremacy.ForPage,
blackconsentenablesthefamilymetaphorthroughwhichtheinterracialcommunitybecomespossible,buttheabsencethereofexposesthedarksideofblackness,
nowconceivedasabiologicalandsocialcontaminant.PagethuspredictsDixon,awriterforwhomtheabsenceofblackconsentdefinestheNegroasacontaminant
inanabsolutesense,butwhohimselfpreachedpaternalisticdoctrinesthroughouthiscareer.Dixon,inshort,lookssquarelyatthelatentvisionof"NoHaidPawn."Itis
notsomuchthatracehasnorealmeaninginPage,asMichaelssuggests,butthatconsentmasksandconcealsthatmeaning.Andforawriterwhoseentirenarrative
workstowardproducingandaffirmingblackconsent,thepresenceofacontingencyplandoesmuchtosubverttheauthenticityoftheconsensusthusproduced.In
definingthecontingentlogicofthepaternalism,Pageprovidesausefulpointofdepartureforthetwonarrativeswewillconsidernext:WilliamAlexanderPercy's
LanternsontheLevee,whichexplorestheterminallimitsoftheinterracialcommunity,andWilliamFaulkner'sLightinAugust,aworkinwhichwhitesupremacy
structuresthecommunityinwaysitcanbarelyperceive.

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3
TheAestheticsofCommunity:
WilliamAlexanderPercy'sLanternsontheLevee
BynomeansdidtherhetoricofpaternalismendwiththefindesiclepaeanstotheOldSouthofThomasNelsonPageandhiscontemporaries.Evenawriterso
obsessedwithinterracialcontaminationasThomasDixoncould,withoutapparentsenseofcontradiction,evoke"memoriesofthedearoldnurseinwhosearmsthe
wearyheadofmychildhoodsooftenfoundrest,atwhosefeetIsatandheardthesadstoryofthelifeofaslaveuntilIlearnedtohateslaveryasIhatehell"andclaim
tospeak"withthekindestandtenderestfeelingsfortheNegrorace."ForDixon,however,andtoalesserextentforPageaswell,thepaternalisticbondwasmost
tangibleasanabsence,asanintegralpartofavanishedsociety.Theracialanimositiesofreconstructionand,asthecenturywaned,theriseofracialdemagogueryand
JimCrow,madepaternalismunderslaveryadistantmemory.However,thecontinuedeconomicandsocialinteractionbetweenwhiteandblacksoutherners,bynow
reestablishedonafirmlyand,fromthewhiteperspective,properlyhierarchicalground,necessitatedanewpaternalism,onecertainlylesscentraltosouthern
societygiventhedeepdivisionsinvolvedinsegregation,butonethatneverthelesspreservedatleastafamilyresemblancetoitsantebellumancestor.Nolessthanunder
slavery,paternalismunderJimCrowrequiredafullyelaboratedmythologyofblacklaborandblackconsent.AsRobertPennWarrenoncepointedout,itisavery
difficultthingforamansimplytoadmitthatheoppressesanother.The

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intolerablenatureofexploitationinsomeways,asintolerablefortheexploiterasfortheexploitednecessitatedthatbruteeconomicnecessitybetranslatedintoa
rhetoricofinterracialdependenceandanimageofasocialorderhierarchicallydividedbyinnatedifferences,yetboundtogetherbycommonmanners,codes,and
mutualresponsibilities.Inshort,whatJamesMcBrideDabbssaysofslaveryappliestosegregationaswell:"oneeitherdevelopsthemannerssuitedtoitorbecomesa
barbarian."1

WilliamAlexanderPercywasnobarbarian.ThequintessentialsouthernaristocratevenW.J.Cash,whotendedtodoubtthebreed'sexistence,admittedasmuch
Percywasaplanter,aminorpoet,andtheauthorofaclassicautobiography,LanternsontheLevee:RecollectionsofaPlanter'sSon(1941).Oftenreadasa
paradigmaticelegyforthelostageofsouthernheroes,LanternsontheLeveeisamorefitfulnarrativethanhasgenerallybeenacknowledged.AsJamesE.Rockshas
suggested,"[t]heartofPercy'sautobiographyistheartofoppositionandtension."RocksrightlysuggeststhatonefundamentaltensioncentersaroundPercy's
experienceofprivateandpublicselves,an"interactionof'being'and'doing'"reflectedinthetextual"combinationofprivatereminiscencesandpublicmemoirs."2Ihope
toelucidatethisinteractionbyshowinghowLanternsontheLeveeconfrontstwobasicnarrativeproblems:thetenuousconfigurationofthepastoralcommunityand
thelossofculturalenergyembodiedintherelationshipbetweentheheroicfatherandthepassiveson.AlthoughPercy'sprimarystrategyindealingwiththeseproblems
istolocatesomeculpableantagonisticforceoutsidetheboundariesofthecommunity,hispastoralworlderodesinexcessofwhathecanascribetotheseexternal
forces.IntheendPercywithdrawsfromtheconcreteworldofsocialinteractionawithdrawalembodiedinhispervasiverhetoricoffailurebecausehecannot
negotiatehiscommunity'stacitlogic,especiallywhereracialpaternalismisinvolved.

Oftendismissedaspaternalisticrhetoric,LanternsontheLeveeisinterestingpreciselyforthatreasonperhapsmorethananyothersingletext,Percy'sworkregisters
andattemptstoresolvethecontradictionsofsouthern
1.ThomasDixon."TheSouthernQuestion,"inLivingProblemsinReligionandSocialScience(NewYork:CharlesT.Dillingham,1889),247Dabbs,SouthernHeritage,139.

2.JamesE.Rocks,"TheArtofLanternsontheLevee,"SouthernReview12(1976),815,817.

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paternalism.Itrequiresnogreatinsighttolocatethesecontradictionsandthepremisesthatauthorizethem,butthemannerinwhichPercyconcealsthemfromhis
readerandfromhimselfeludescrudeattemptstodeconstructwhatmight(erroneously)appeartobesheerrhetoricalviolenceundertakeninthenameofclass
defense.AsHaydenWhitehassuggested,theputativecontentofanynarrativeworkstomasktheideologicaloperationsatworkonaformallevel,andPercy's
narrativeinparticularrepayscarefulattentiontothehierarchyofcodesthroughwhichtheelaborationofcultural"content"(classandracialcharacteristics,historical
processes,culturalmores,andsoon)ismadetoappearselfevident.3Essentially,Percyemploystwosuchcodestheethicalandtheaestheticthroughwhichsocial
phenomenaaccruemeaning.AlthoughPercy'scriticshavedealtimplicitlywithhisethicalcodeacodethatworkstodefineandlegitimatesocialhierarchy
insufficientattentionhasbeenpaidtohisaestheticcode,whichallowshimtopreservethecoherenceofacommunitythatthreatenstobeexposedasacoercive,
sheerlysymbolicentity.BydirectingattentiontotheaestheticgroundofLanternsontheLevee,theformofthetextespeciallythelossofnarrativityinitsfinal
chapterscanitselfbeseenasameaningfulattempttopreserveanidealizedimageofthesocialorderPercyheldsodear.

LanternsontheLeveecanbedividedintofourmainsections:chapters12,whichserveasakindofoverturefortheensuingnarrativechapters312,thebildung
chaptersthatprovideanaccountofPercy'svariouseducationschapters1320,whichshowPercyenteringhistoryandassumingapublicroleandchapters2127,in
whichPercywithdrawsfromhistoryandconceptuallyelaborateshisworldview.Fromtheopeningpagesofthetext,naturebeginstoaccretesocialmeanings.Chapter
1,"TheDelta,"framesabriefsynopsisofDeltahistorywithadescriptionofthelandandtheMississippiRiver.TheearlyinhabitantsoftheDeltawereforcedbothto
battleandcultivatenatureinordertodomesticateit.Yet,whetherconstruedasenemyorfriend,natureremainsanalienpresenceasPercysaysoftheriver,"Man
drawsneartoit,fightsit,usesit,cursesit,lovesit,butitremainsremote,unaffected....Asathingusedbymen,ithaschanged:thechangeis
3.HaydenWhite,TheContentoftheForm:NarrativeDiscourseandHistoricalRepresentation(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1987),202204.

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4
notinitself,butinthem." Suchaviewofnaturetendstocollectivizethoseperceivingit,andindeed,PercytendstoportrayDeltainhabitantsasahomogeneousgroup
synecdochicallyrepresentedbytheplanter.Asacorrective,hebeginschapter2,titled"DeltaFolks,"byonlyhalffacetiouslyasserting,"Imayseemtohaveimplied
thatallDeltacitizenswerearistocratstravelingupanddowntheriverorsittingonthefrontgallery,amintjulepinonehandandapalmleaffanintheother,protected
frommosquitoesbythesmudgeburninginthefrontyard.Ifso,Ihavemisinterpretedmycountry"(16).Percydevotestheremainderofthischaptertoaninventory
andanalysisofthedifferentDeltasocialgroups.Afterbrieflycataloging"riverrats,"Jews,andforeignimmigrants,allofwhominhabittheperipheryofDeltaculture,he
assertsunequivocallythat"thebasicfiber,theclothoftheDeltapopulationasofthewholeSouthisbuiltofthreedissimilarthreadsandonlythree''(19):thelanded
gentry,thepoorwhites,andtheNegroes.

Whateveritsmeritsasasociologicalclaim,thistripartitedivisionisessentialtothenarrativeworkofLanternsontheLevee.Withvirtuallynoexceptions,social
groupspossessforPercyabsolutecharacteristicsthatallowhimtorationalizethesocialorder.Althoughmuchofhisnarrativeconcernsthepoorwhite,thenatureof
thisgroupprovideslittleresistancetoPercy'sworldview:Theyare"notblessedwithworldlygoodsormentalattainments"(19)their"breedisprobablythemost
unprepossessingonthebroadfaceoftheillpopulatedearth"(20)."Icanforgivethem,"Percywrites,"astheLordGodforgives,butadmirethem,trustthem,love
themnever"(20).Incontrasttothepoorwhite,theNegroispresentedambiguously:"Hismannersoffsethisinefficiency,hisviceshavethecharmofamiable
weaknesses,heisapainandagrieftolivewith,asolaceandadelight"(21).Unlikethepoorwhite,theNegropossessesaestheticattractionsthatmitigatehisethical
shortcomingssuchisthepurelanguageofpaternalism.ButifPercy'sportrayaloftheNegropresumesattimestobeauthoritative,astrongrhetoricalcountercurrent
suggestsotherwise.Althoughheconcludesthat"darkies"are"theonlySouthernersworthtalkingabout,"heasksrhetor
4.Percy,LanternsontheLevee,1314.Thisworkwillhereinafterbecitedparentheticallybypagenumberinthetext.

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ically,"whatcanawhiteman,northorsouth,sayofthemthatwillevenapproximatethetruth?"(22).Thistensionbetweenthedeeplyfamiliarandtheutterly
inscrutablenatureoftheNegroresonatesthroughoutLanternsontheLevee.

Inaninauguratingeventfortheremainderofhisnarrative,Percyendsthechapterbyshiftinghisfocusfromindividualsocialgroupstoaconsiderationofhowcollective
experienceismadepossible."SotheDeltaproblem,"hewrites,"ishowallthesefolksaristocratsgonetoseed,poorwhitesonthemake,Negroesconvincedmere
livingisgood,aliensofallsortsthatblendorcurdlecandwelltogetherinpeaceifnotinbrotherhoodandlivewhere,firstandlast,thesoilistheonlymeansof
livelihood"(2324).Percythusassignsaplaceinhistorynotsimplyacollectionofpertinenthistoricalfacts,aswefindearlierinthechapter,butateleological
positionorroleintheplotofhistorytoeachgroup:forthearistocrats,historyassumestheformofdevolutionforthepoorwhites,ascendancy.FortheNegro,given
his"obliteratinggeniusforlivinginthepresent,"historyisanullcategoryhe"isinterestedneitherinthepastnorinthefuture,thissideofheaven.Heneitherremembers
norplans"(23).Thusdividedbygrouptraitsandhistoryitself,the"Deltaproblem''wouldappeartobeaterminalcase.YetPercyclaimsthat"weoftheDeltahave
beenfortunateinourmisfortunes.Timeoutofmindwehavebeengiftedwithcommondisastersthathaveunitedusoratleastmadeusleantogether"(24).Nature,in
theformofyellowfeverepidemicsandfloodsthatproduce"thatcozyonefamilyfeelingoftheinmatesoftheArk"(24),thusactsasacommonantagonistbymeansof
whichsocialdivisionsaresuspendedorabolished.YetwithinthecohesiveordersoproducedandthisbecomesclearerasLanternsontheLeveeprogressesthe
naturesofsocialgroupsusurptheantagonisticfunctionofnatureitself,actingasthequasicommonopponentsagainstwhichthecommunitymustdefenditself.
Rhetorically,thisconstructioninvolvesashiftinthereferentofthefirstpersonpronoun,asPercy'squasicollectivefirstpersonelidesthedistinctionbetweenthe
communityandtheplanter,whotherebyassumeshisproperroleasthecommunity'srepresentative.TotakebutoneexampleofastrategyfoundthroughoutLanterns
ontheLevee,Percyassertsthat"moderatepoverty"actsasanexcellent"cementforapeople"("Noclassorindividualwithushaseverknownriches"),beforegoing
ontoreportthat

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"[s]omeyearsthecropandpricesaregoodandwetakeatriporsportanautomobileorbuyanotherplantation"(24).Althoughitissuperfluoustopointoutthatthis
"we"wouldincludeneitherpoorwhitenorNegro,Percy'sreferenceto"common"povertyrhetoricallyobliteratestheroleplayedbycapitalwithinthecommunity,
whichheiseagertoportrayasanorganicsocialorderratherthanonebasedoneconomichierarchy.Similarly,Percy's"soil"acquiresanagrarianconnotationasasite
ofculturalcohesionratherthanameremeansofproducingmaterialwealth.

Percy'squasicollective"we,"whichcomesbeforeushereasalogicalscandal,appearsagain,lessegregiously,ashebringshischaptertoalyrical,ifconceptually
fitful,close:"Behindusacultureliesdying,beforeustheforcesoftheunknownindustrialworldgatherforcatastrophe.Wehavefieldstoplowandtheearthsmells
goodmaybeintimesomeonewillpayusmoreforourcottonthanwespendmakingit.Inthemeantimethedarkiesmakeupnewsongsaboutthebollweevilandthe
river,andthesunpoursoverushisgreattideofwarmthwhichisalsolight"(24).Again,Percyimplicitlysubsitutesanaristocraticperspectiveforacollectiveone,here
withinthecontextofhistory.Yetifadyingculturerepresentsonlythehistoricalvisionoftheplanterclass,anotheralienantagonist,the"unknownindustrialworld,"
makescollectivehistoryatleastapossibility.WithinthesocialorderoftheDeltacommunity,however,thequasicollectivefirstpersonbreaksdownyetagaininterms
oflogicalreferencethe"we"whoplowsandthe''us"whogetspaidrepresenttwodistinctsocialgroups,asalaterchapter,"Planters,ShareCroppers,andSuch,"
makesabundantlyclear.Nevertheless,Percy'squasicollectivefirstpersontentativelyresolvesaproblemthatmanifestsitselfwithgreaterforceashisnarrative
progresses:thefundamentallyillusorynatureofacohesivesocialorderrevealedeitherasapolitefictionorasatemporaryexperiencepossibleonlyinmomentsof"all
inclusivetragedy."(Therearefewsuchmomentsinthetext:oneratherproblematicfloodandnoyellowfeverepidemics.)Becauseoftheattenuationofcollective
identityandhence,theincreasinglytenuousnatureofthecollectivefirstpersonthemoreimportantstylisticfeaturehereisfoundintheshiftfromhistory("Behind
us...beforeus...")toaestheticexperience.Asthechaptercomestoaclose,historyends.WhenPercysaysthat"thedarkiesmakeupnewsongs"(thecreationof
beautyinresponsetothe

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alienantagonist),hespeaksnotofanactualeventbutamythicalandevenmagicalone,aneventthatinvokesafullnessofmeaningalientohistory.Thebasicstyleof
thispassageoccursthroughoutthecodatochapter2,findingperhapsitspurestforminthestatement,"Ifwebecometooprosperous...theleveebreaks"(24).These
statementsconstitutewhatKennethBurkecallsmagicallanguagetheirimpliedformsare"letthedarkiesmakeupsongs,"and"lettheleveebreak,''respectively.5
Bothimagesarethus"conjuredup"inresponsetocommunalthreat,whetheritbeprosperity,whichwouldexacerbateclassdivisionandprecludethat"cozyone
familyfeeling,"orthenightmareofhistoryfromwhichPercyishere,asalways,tryingtoawake.

Iftheimageofcommunitythatcloseschapter2representsanescapefromhistory,weshouldinvestigatemorethoroughlywhatthishistoryismadeof,aquestion
particularlypertinentgivenmyassertionthathistoryhappensonlyinthethirdsectionofthebook.PerhapstheclearestportrayalwehavecomesasPercyjustifieshis
narrativeprojectinhisforeword:"SowhiletheworldIknowiscrashingtobits,andwhatwiththenoiseandthecryingsoutnomancouldhearatrumpetblast,much
lessanidleeveningreverie,Iwillindulgeaheartbeginningtobefretfulbyrepeatingtoitthestoriesitknowsandlovesofmyowncountryandmyownpeople."Again
employingthelanguageofmagic,Percywillrepeathisstoriesasacharmagainsttheonslaughtofhistory,whichappearshereinitstypicalformasanalien,
dispossessingforcethreateningthecommunity.AlthoughthisstatementostensiblyreferstoLanternsasawhole,itselegiacovertonesaremostclearlyevincedinthe
secondsectionofthebook,whichrecountsPercy'schildhoodexperiences,hiseducationatSewaneeandHarvardLaw,histravelsabroad,andhisreturnto
Greenville.Theorganizingmetaphorofthissectioniseducation,thedominantrelationshipthatbetweenpupilandmentor.ThesceneofPercy'seducationisroughly
equivalenttowhatJrgenHabermascallsthe"lifeworld"(Lebenswelt),asymbolicallyconstitutedconceptionofeverydaylifeopposedtothedomainofhistoryin
whichactionisstrategic,instrumental,andfromPercy'sperspectivedispossessing.6Evenintheseearlychapters,historylurksjustoutsidethelifeworldand
continuallyen
5.Burke,PhilosophyofLiteraryForm,45.

6.SeeespeciallyHabermas'scritiqueofCharlesParsons's"systemtheoryofsociety"inLifeworldandSystem,20434.

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croachesuponiteventuallyitwillerodetheapodicticgroundofPercy'ssocialidentity.

AlthoughPercydevotessignificantattentiontotheeducationhereceivesfromhisfather,anothercategoryofteachershapeshiminsuchawayastorenderhisfather's
heroismunavailableandtacitlyundesirable.Inthebildungofanaestheterecountedinthesechapters,thefirstofwhatIwillcallPercy'saestheticmentorsishisblack
nurse,Nain,whoremainsinhismemoryas"moreofanemanationoraurathanaperson"(27).RecallinghisfirstmemoryasasongsungtohimbyNainasong
whose"wordsandtunehavegone,butnotwhattheydidtome"(26)Percygoesontocommentonhismemory:"ApoorsortofegotisticmemoryIknow,that
recordsnothingoftheoutsideworld,butonlyhowcertainbitsofitpleasedordistressedme,yetmine,andnobetternowthanitwasthen,andnodifferent"(27).In
somewaysthisrepresentationofaselfdivorcedfromtheoutsideworldcanbetakenasemblematicoftheentiresection,inwhichahighlysubjective,elegiacmode
replacestheauthoritativevoiceofthefirsttwochapters.Aestheticexperiencetakesprecedenceoverethicalinstruction.Nain'ssinging,Percywrites,"openedvistas
andinducedcontemplations"ofmusicalformsthat,"awakeningkindredcompassionsinthecoreofmybeing,haveguidedmemoresurefootedlythroughlifethanall
tenoftheCommandments''(27).Although"allergic"tothebiblicallessonsofhispaternalgrandmotherMur,Percylearnsfromheramoreimportantlesson:"She
taughtmetoseeflowers,andofcourseanyonewhoseesthemlovesthem.Itwouldhavegonehardwithmeincertainlaterhourswithoutthattraining"(32).Whennot
"Bibleminded,"Percyrecounts,Murreadtohim"superbthings":"GrimmandHansAnderson,HuckleberryFinnandUncleRemus,TheRoseandtheRing,andA
ChristmasCarol,Pilgrim'sProgressandAliceinWonderland"(33).Acknowledgingitspracticaluselessness,Percynonethelesscelebrateshiseducation:
PerhapsadilutedcourseinLeninandMarxwithpassagesfromMeinKampforahandbookonelectricityandaviationwouldhavebetterpreparedayoungsterforlifeasitis.But
not,Ithink,forlifeasitshouldbe.Oldorderschange,Iknow,andMurknew,havingherselflivedthroughthedeaththroesofonewithallitswreckageofaspirationsand
possibilities,withbitternesstomasterandnewhopetocreate.Butneworderschangetoo.Onlyonethingneverchangesthehumanheart.Revolutionsandideologiesmay
lacerateit,evenbreakit,buttheycannotchangeits

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essence.AfterFascismandCommunismandCapitalismandSocialismareoverandforgottenascompletelyasslaveryandtheoldSouth,thatsameheadstronghumanheartwillbe
clamoringfortheoldthingsitweptforinEdenloveandachancetobenoble,laughter,andachancetoadoresomething,someone,somewhere.Murandherbooksdidnot
informme,theyformedme.(3334)

ThispassagecontainsanumberoffeaturesthatrecurthroughoutLanternsontheLevee:arenunciationofinstrumentalismand"practical"education,anemphasison
"lifeasitshouldbe"(alwaysantitheticaltoinstrumentality),aperceptionofhistoryastransitoryandcyclical,andavalorizationoftheeternalveritiesthatsomehow
mitigatehistory'sdispossessingforce.Historyisredeemed,then,when(andonlywhen)itisviewedasformratherthanscene,adialecticfundamentaltoPercy's
narrativenegotiation.Theessentiallyaestheticvisionofhistory(aspureform)ispredicatedonastoicalabstractionofhistory'scycles.When,however,Percyspeaks,
ashedoesin"ASideShowGotterdammerung,""notfromapeakineternitybutfromtheephemeralnow,"historyappearsasamonstrous,vulgarassaultontradition.
Laterinthatsamechapter,however,hereturnstothecyclicalformofhistory,suggestingthat"ineveryageanaristocracyisdyingandoneisbeingborn''(62),anidea
hequalifiesas"chillycomfort,however,tothelivingmembersofanaristocracyintheactofdying"(63).Percy'sdialecticofhistory,then,mediatesbetweenactionand
abstraction,betweenroleplayingandaestheticcontemplation.Althoughhistoryinitsabstractformistolerable,itcomesatthepriceofpositivepublicaction.Thus,the
languageofthecharm,whichwardsoffhistory'sintolerabledispossession,isalsothelanguageofstasissince,initstendencytowardmonumentalism(toborrow
RichardKing'susefullabel),itprecludesgoalorientedbehavior,whichbydefinitionissubjecttoinstrumentalcritique.

AsPercy'seducationtakesshape,thedivisionbetweensubjectiveexperienceandtheoutsideworldbecomesincreasinglypronounced.Attheconclusionofchapter4,
devotedtohismaternalgrandparentsMereandPere,Percyassertsthat"[t]hecolorofourtemperament,ourchiefconcern,isnothingofourmaking....Ifweseethe
worldthroughmauveglasses,there'snosortofsenseinwishingtheywerewhite"(45).ForPercyanaesthetictemperamenthasitscompensations,sinceviewingthe
worldthrough

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"mauveglasses"lendsa"certainopalescence...deniedthetruerandcruderwhitenoonsofthedesert"(45).Atthesametime,suchatemperamentlendsitselfto
loneliness,exile,andasenseoffutility.InapatternPercywilllaterrepeat,mostofPercy'saestheticmentorsliveapartfromhistoryandfromthecommunity.Pere,with
hispassionforopera,isafailureinfarmingandin"onebusinessventureafteranother,"and"hislifepeteredoutinadrablittlecountrytown''(37).JudgeGriffin,
Percy'searlytutorwhointroducedhimtoDante,Milton,andShakespeare,"gainedknowledgeofeveryworldbutthisone"and,ashegrewolder,"becamepoorer
andretiredfartherfromcommunitylifetohisownfamilyandhisownthoughts"(81).FatherKoestenbrock,Percy'sreligiousmentorandapassionateadmirerof
Haydn,"stayeddrunkinhisroom,alone,forweeksandweeks,"eventuallyretiring,as"anoldmanandverytired,"to"ahomeforsuperannuatedpriests,leavinghis
littlechurchandus"(89,90).Thelastchapterofthissection,"TheReturnoftheNative,"islargelydevotedtoPercy's"favoritefriend,"CarolineStern."MissCarrie,"
Percywrites,"hadfailedineverythinginpainting,inpoetry,inmakingmoney,inwinninglove,indyingeasy.YetshewasoneofthefewsuccessesIeverknew.I
thinkIlearnedmorefromherofwhatthegoodlifeisandofhowitmaybelivedthanfromalmostanyoneelse"(139).ThecollectiveidentityofPercy'saesthetic
mentorsisthusorganizedaroundtropesofwithdrawal,privacy,beauty,materialisticfailure,and"thegoodlife"MissCarrieinparticularepitomizesthethemeof
failureassuccessthatpermeatesLanternsontheLeveenolessthanitdoesThoreau'sWaldenorTheEducationofHenryAdams.

PaulJohnEakinhassuggestedthatautobiographyrequiresitssubjecttomediatebetweentheexperienceofpersonalautonomyand"modelsofidentity,"or"example
[s]ofselfhoodorcharacterthatagivencultureoffersforimitation."7OftheculturespecificmodelsavailabletoPercy,theaestheticmentorrepresentsbutoneoption.
ThecompetingmodelisofferedbyhisfatherLeRoy,who,althoughcuriouslyabsentfromhisson'sformativeyearsPercyclaimstohavenomemoryatallofhis
parentsduringhisfirstfouryearsoflife(26)representsanabsoluteidealagainstwhichtheson
7.PaulJohnEakin,TouchingtheWorld:ReferenceinAutobiography(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1992),72.

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measureshimselfandinvariablyfindshimselfwanting.Incontrasttotheaestheticmentor,LeRoyPercyisthepublicmanofactioninoneofhisfirstappearances,he
forbidsPercy'sAuntNanafromreadingtohimInSilkenChains"[t]hemostmovingbookeverwritten"substitutinginsteadthemoremanlyfareofIvanhoe(56
57).Scott'snovel,Percyrelates,"producedunpredictableresults...I,farfrombeinginspiredtoknightlyheroism,grewinfatuatedwiththemonasticlife,ifitcouldbe
pursuedinacaveopeningonadesert....ItwashardhavingsuchadazzlingfathernowonderIlongedtobeahermit"(57).Percy'sreactiontoIvanhoeis
emblematicofhisgeneralreactiontohisfatherinsteadofimitatingthehero's''knightlyheroism,"hewithdrawstoaprivatespace.

In"ASmallBoy'sHeroes,"Percyinitiatesthenarrativetensionbetweenhimselfandhisheroicrolemodelsthatreceivesfullscaletreatmentinthethirdsectionofthe
text.Unlikethatsection,however,"ASmallBoy'sHeroes"issetinaprivatespace,thefrontgalleryofthePercyhomeonwhichLeRoyandhisfriendsfrequentlymet
anddrankmintjuleps.LikePercy'saestheticmentors,thesemenarecategoricallyunwillingtoengageininstrumentalmachinations.GeneralCatchings,thelocal
congressman,"couldnotkissbabiesandconsidereditindecenttorhapsodizeoverthepurityofSouthernwomanhood"consequently,"hewasalwaysaboutnottobe
elected,"asituationPercyanalogicallyinternalizesin"vaguely"realizing"thathewasalwaysabouttobecrucifiedbythepeopleforservingthemsodevoutly"(67).As
agroup,thesemen
wereleadersofthepeople,notelectedorselfelected,butdestined,underthecompulsionofleadershipbecauseoftheirsuperiorintellect,training,character,andopportunity.
Andthepeoplewerewillingtobeledbythembecauseoftheirdesperateneedofleadershipinthosetragictimes,becausetheyrecognizedtheirfitnesstolead,testedandproved
intheseriesofrevealingcrisesthatonlybeganwiththewar,andbecausetheycamefromtheclasswhichtraditionallyhadledintheSouth.Applauseoraggrandizementplayed
nopartintheircalculations.(69)

ThishagiographicpassagefollowsPercy'saccountofthehistoricalroleplayedbythesemen,whoduringReconstructionhad"stole[n]theballotboxeswhich,honestly
counted,wouldhavemadeeverycountyofficialaNegro,[and]whohadshapedtheConstitutionof1890,whichineffectand

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legallydisenfranchisedtheNegro"(69).Althoughsparselyattendedwithauthorialcommentary,theseactions(attheveryleast)divergefromanidealcourseofethical
action.Discussinginalaterchapterhisgrandfather'sactionsduringthatera,Percydescribesthe"votebuying,thestuffingofballotboxes,chicanery,[and]
intimidation"as"[h]eartbreakingbusinessanddegrading,butintheendsuccessful"(274).InbothinstancesPercycomesperilouslyclosetodismissingethics
altogetherbyarguingthattheendjustifiesthemeans,acontradictionheresolvesthroughrecoursetotheconceptofrole,whichlocatesauthorityanddestinyatthe
collectiveratherthanthepersonallevel.Ratherthanactingforapplauseoraggrandizement,thesemenactforthepublicgood,evenwhenasismostoftenthecase
barringculturalemergenciesthepublic(intheantagonisticformofDemos)failstoauthorizetheirleadership."Whentheylost,''Percywriteswithnohintofirony,"it
wasapublicloss"(70).Ethicalactionisthusenabledbythecommunitymoreover,theethicalcodeofnoblesseobligehierarchicallystructuresthecommunitysince
thesemenare,bydefinition,theonlyonesethicalenoughtoactforthepublicgood.

Communitythusfiguresasboththecauseandeffectofaristocraticactionactingasitsrepresentativeandinitsname,thearistocratsecuresthecommunity'ssurvival.
Thisreciprocityisnot,however,unproblematic,primarilybecausecommunityis,inRolandBarthes'ssenseoftheterm,amyth.ThestructuralBarthesofMythologies
definesmythasasecondordersemiologicalsysteminwhichtheliteralsignifiedbecomesthemythicsignifier.TotakeBarthes'snotirrelevantexample,apictureofa
blacksoldiersalutingaFrenchflaghasaliteralsignified,or"meaning"("ablacksoldierisgivingtheFrenchsalute"),thatinturnsignifiesorinvokesthemythiccontent
("thatFranceisagreatempire,thatallhersons,withoutanycolordiscrimination,faithfullyserveunderherflag").AccordingtoBarthes,myththerefore"impoverishes"
literalmeaning,"distorts"it,althoughitdoesnot"makeitdisappear"becausetheliteralmeaningsuppliesits"nourishment."InLanternsontheLeveetheliteral,
concretecommunityissimilarly"emptiedout"asitsignifiesthemythicalcommunityinrelationtowhicharistocraticactionassumesitsfinalform.Whenactionoccurs
withintheliteralcommunity,thereremainstheopportunityforittoresistmythologicalsignification,torefusetotransformcontingencyintoaneternalandnatural"state
of

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things."Moresignificantthantheubiquitousresistanceofferedbyexternalizedenemies(industrialism,thepoorwhite)isaristocraticactionthatthreatenstocallattention
toitsstatusaspurecontingencythatdoesnotpermititselftostandmythicallyforcollectiveaction.BecausesuchactionfailstoaccomplishwhatBarthescallsthe
"principleofmyth""totransformhistoryintoNature"theorganiccommunity,inanalmostliteralsense,iscalledintoquestion.8

OnesuchactioninvolvesGeneralFerguson,afriendofLeRoyPercywho,despitebeinga"manofunimpeachablerectitude,ofuntarnishedhonor"(70),fledtoSouth
Americaafter$20,000inLeveeBoardfundshadgonemissingunderhiswatch.DespiteflatlycontradictingPercy'srepresentationofaristocraticrole,thisepisodeis
neverthelessrescuedthroughnarrativesleightofhand.AlthoughheneveradmitsthatGeneralFergusonstolethemoney(andevengoessofarastosuggestotherwise,
implyingthatthemissingfundswereduetotheGeneral'slackofexperienceinaccounting,andpointingoutthathehadnothingtoshowforit),PercyabsolvesGeneral
Fergusonbecausehegoesinsanefromguilt:"Goingmadforhonor'ssakepresupposeshonor"(72).Inbreakingthecodeofsouthernhonor,GeneralFergusonaffirms
thecodebyimposinguponhimselfitsrigorouspenalty.Howevertenuousthisethicalrationalization,"l'affaireFerguson"offersitselfasakeyepisodeinwhatwemight
call,withfullcognizanceofitsdualmeanings,thearistocraticplot.Ontheonehand,thisplotappearsasagrandnarrative,anenablingdestinythatconfigures
aristocraticactionascollectiveactionontheother,itappearsasascheme,awayofachievingmaterialendsbyusingcollectiveactionasanalibi.BecausePercy's
narrativecontainsnumerousgapsbetweenaristocraticactionandcollectiveaction,theresultingaporiasubvertthemythiccommunityandthearistocraticrole
contingentuponit,andinsodoing,generatealogicalimpasseagainstwhichthenarratingsubjectmustcontend.9

Nevertheless,thedominantnarrativeimpetusofLanternsontheLeveeis
8.RolandBarthes,Mythologies,trans.AnnetteLavers(NewYork:HillandWang,1972),114,116,118,129.

9.ForaninformativediscussionoftheFergusonaffair,seeWilliamF.Holmes,"WilliamAlexanderPercyandtheBourbonEraintheYazooMississippiDelta,"MississippiQuarterly

26(197273):7188.AlthoughPercyconfigurestheopponentsofGeneralFergusonasenemies,

(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

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topreserveatleastandIshallargue,atmostthememoryofthe"pattern"thatgaveLeRoyPercyandhispeers"strengthanddirection,thatkeptthemoriented,
thatpermittedthemtobeatoncePuritansandCavaliers"(74).Itisthedeclineofthispattern,Percywrites,thathasledtoa"disintegrationofthatmoralcohesionof
theSouthwhichhadgivenititsstrengthanditssonstheirsinglenessofpurposeandsimplicity"(74).Theessentialqualityofthispatternliesinitsabilitytoreconcile
contradictions,anabilityPercyassociateswithstrengthandpower.Ontheonehand,thepatterndictatesanabsolutecommitmenttoethicalproprietyontheother,it
involvestheabilitytoinfluenceeventsinthepublicarena."Anybodywhowasanybody,''Percywrites,"mustconcernhimselfwithgoodgovernment,mustfight,
howeverfeeblyorineffectuallyorhopelessly,forthepublicweal"(74).Yetparticipationinthispublicdomaininvolvescontactwithalessthanidealworldanda
consequentmuddyingofhandsatleast,thatis,ifpublicactionisnotundertaken(asisoftenthecase,givenPercy'snarrativelogic)withthetacitunderstandingthat
suchactionwillbefeeble,ineffectual,orhopeless.Percy'srhetoricoffailureofteninvokespreciselythisantitheticalrelationshipbetweenactionandethicsinsuggesting
thatthepublicperformanceofidealswillbe,bydefinition,ineffectual,although(perceivedasaform)aestheticallypleasing.AshewritesinhisForeword,"Itisbetter
towatchthespreadandpatternofthegamethatispastthanengagefeeblyinthepresentplay."Atothertimes,however,andthisisparticularlytrueashe
contemplateshisfather'sheroicenergy,PercyportrayshisenervationasafailuretoinheritthosequalitiesthatgavetheSouthitsmoralcohesion.ForPercy,failurethus
comesinbifurcatedformontheonehand,itrepresentsaprincipledrefusaltosuccumbtotheinstrumentalcodeofDemos,andontheother,itrepresentsaninability
toreplicatehisfather'spublicheroism.Taking,therefore,ethicsandactivityasantinomies,wecanschematizethesocialpositionsavailableinPercy'scommunity
accordingtothefollowingGreimasrectangle:

(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Holmesinterestinglyshowsthattheydifferedlittleinpoliticalphilosophyorsocialclass.Foradiscussionofhowtheepicheroembodieshisculture'sdestiny,seeGeorgLukcs,
TheTheoryoftheNovel,trans.AnnaBostock(Cambridge:MITPress,1990),6667.Barthesusestheanalogyofthealibitodescribethedistortivenatureofmythicalsignification
seeMythologies,115.

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WhereasLeRoyPercyrepresentstheidealsynthesisbetweenethicsandactivityheexistsinaculturalspaceinwhich,asMichaelKreylingsays,"contingencynever
underminesthepurityofaction"10thepoorwhite,drivenbyillegitimateresentment,movesinaworldofpurecontingency.Foreverenactingthealienforcesof
culturalchaosandethicaldegeneration,heisoutforwhathecanget.TheNegro'spassivityandethicalimmaturitymakehimthewhiteman'sburden,althoughthis
space,asweshallsee,representsbothathreatandasolutiontoPercy'sportrayalofanorganiccommunity.Thespaceallottedtotheaesthete,inwhomvalueand
passivityareconjoined,isthespacePercyfinallyinhabitsatthepriceofheroicallyperformingthesocialroleheinherits.

InthethirdsectionofLanternsontheLevee,WillPercyleavestheprivatesettingoftheprecedingchaptersandlivesinhistory.ForPercy,historyobtainsmeaningin
relationtothecommunity.EachofthethreemainhistoricaleventssetinMississippiLeRoyPercy'sdefeatinthe1911senatorialelection,theKuKluxKlanbattleof
1922,andtheGreatFloodof1927constitutecrisesinwhichsocialorderisdisruptedandtheidealrelationshipsbetweenthethreeprimarysocialgroupsarealtered
oratleastthreatened.AlthoughwehaveseenthatPercyrepresentshistoryasanexternalencroachmentuponthecommunity,itsramificationsarelocalandintimate.

Ifthedominantmetaphorofthesecondsectioniseducation,thenthedominantmetaphorofthethirdisconflict.Yet,asIhopetoshow,thereal
10.MichaelKreyling,FiguresoftheHeroinSouthernNarrative(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1987),155.

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threatposedbyhistoryisnotsimplyathreattoawayoflife,buttotheculturallogicthatallowsthatwayoflifetosustainandjustifyitself.Nowheredoesthisanxiety
manifestitselfmorethaninPercy'srelationshipwithhisfather.InhisFreudianreadingofLanternsontheLevee,RichardKingarguesthat"[f]orallthepositive
influenceofhisfather,WillPercywasinsomefundamentalwayunmannedbyhim."AccordingtoKing,LeRoyactedasapsychological"block"who"overwhelmed''
theyoungerPercy,who"couldonlyobliquelyregisterhisprotest"throughtellingsilencesand"extraordinaryreticence."InFiguresoftheHeroinSouthern
Narrative,MichaelKreylingrepresentsPercyas"theextraneousman,theherocrippledbyrecollectionsofanidealorderandaneminentfatherbutimpotentin
realizingheroicactionsandfiguresinhisownlife."Incontrast,FredHobsonseestherelationshipasalessantagonisticone,suggestingthatPercy's"idealization"ofhis
father"wasinmanyrespectsanidealizationofwhatthat[older]Southhadbeen."AlthoughHobsoniscorrectinassertingthatPercycelebrated"thisidealgentleman,
andtheoldorderoverwhichhepresided,"thehagiographicstyleofthiscelebrationconcealsimportantcontradictions,deferrals,andoutrightevasions,sinceintheend
itisLeRoyPercyhimselfwhothreatenstounravelthearistocraticplot.WhenappliedtoLeRoyPercyandtheroleherepresents,theethicalcodethroughwhichPercy
interpretssocialconflictfailstoresolvethescandalousactionsintrinsictolivinginhistory.If,asHobsonsuggests,noblesseobligewasnoabstractionforWillPercy,as
representedbyhisfatheritthreatenedtobecomeone.11

Percy'sconfigurationofhistorypresumesthatconflictexistsbecausetheethicallyimpoverishedareunwillingtoaccepttheleadershipoftheethicallygifted.Thisis
especiallytrueofthefirsttwohistoricaleventsPercydescribes,theelectionof1911andtheKlanbattleof1922,bothofwhichpitLeRoyPercyasarepresentative
aristocratagainsttheadvancesofthepoorwhite.Thefirstepisode,recountedinachaptersuitablytitled"TheBottomRailonTop,"isimmediatelyprecededbyabrief
episodethatsubtlycontextualizestheactionthatfollows.InthisepisodePercydescribeslaunchingintoamoraldiatribeaimedatamarriedfriendwhohadbroughton
anex
11.RichardKing,ASouthernRenaissance:TheCulturalAwakeningoftheAmericanSouth,19301955(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1980),97,98,94Kreyling,Figuresof

theHero,164Hobson,TellabouttheSouth,284.

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tramaritalmiscarriage,anactwhichhefelt"meritedsocialostracism"(141).WhenLeRoydemurs,itfinally"dawned"onPercythathisfather"knewallaboutitand
wasnotaghast"(141)."Heknew,"Percycontinues,"thatanarrowidealismatthestartisbracingandformative''(142).TheyoungPercy'sethicalrigor,weinfer,is
somethingrathereffeteintherealworld,wherea"narrowidealism"issurelyoutofplace.Thisethicalgrayarea,sanctionedherebyhisfather's"voiceofexperience,"is
conspicuouslyabsentinPercy'streatmentoftheelection,wheretheabsolutepurityofhisfather'smotivesstandsinstarkcontrasttotheethicaldepravityofJamesK.
Vardamanandhisilk.ButasPercyentershistory,hedemonstrates(ifsurreptitiously)acertainuneasewithhisfather'scodethatculminatesinamoredramatic,if
equallyoblique,fashionduringthefloodof1927.

Intheelectionepisodeaselsewhere,historyisconfiguredasanintrusionoriginatingatadistance,onlylaterdoitslocalramificationsbecomeclear.Justas,later,
reportsoftheKlanrevivalinAtlantaseemdistantandtrivial(232),newsthatthesittingsenatorhasdieddoesnotatfirstappearespeciallysignificant.Itis,forPercy,
"adeaththatdidnotstirmypulseorsuggesttomeconsequencesthatmighthaveanypersonalbearingonmeormine.Itwasaturningpointinmylife"(143).
Accordingtohisson,LeRoyPercyenteredtheensuingelectionsimplytopreventVardamanfromgainingthemajoritynecessarytoassumethevacantseatonlyafter
theotherantiVardamancandidateswithdrewwasLeRoyelectedtoserveouttheremainingtwoyearsoftheterm.Emphasizinghisfather'saltruisticmotives,Percy
writesthathe"didnotwanttobesenatorfromMississippi,buthewantedtokeepVardamanfrombeing"(144).Inthenextelection,however,LeRoyPercy'sinborn
senseofnoblesseobligeprovestobenomatchfortheNegrobaitingdemagogueryofVardaman,theGreatWhiteChiefwhose"qualificationsasastatesman,"Percy
wrylynotes,werethathe"stoodforthepoorwhiteagainstthe'nigger'"(144).Amidstfalseallegationsofbribery,LeRoyPercyencounters"theunanswerable
charge...thathewasaprosperousplantationowner,acorporationlawyer,andunmistakablyagentleman"(147).12
12.Foraninterestingdiscussionoftheelection,seeBertramWyattBrown,TheHouseofPercy:Honor,Melancholy,andImaginationinaSouthernFamily(NewYork:Oxford

UniversityPress,1994),17891.

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SuchwasthenoisomesituationinwhichFatherfoundhimselfmiredandoutofwhichhemustfighthiswaywithonlyintegrity,courage,andintelligenceforhisweapons.A
differentassortmentwasneededthosecountonlyinaworldofhonor.Buttheworldinwhichheusedthemwasnotaworldofhonoritwasanewborn,goldenageof
demagoguery,theageofrabblerousersandfireeaters,ofJeffDavisandTillmanandBleeseandHeflin,ofproletarianrepresentativesoftheproletariat.(148)

Percyiscategoricallyunwillingtoconsidertheclassperspectiveofthepoorwhite,who,asC.VannWoodwardshowedmanyyearsago,hadgoodreasontoreject
Bourbonpoliticalleadership.ButforPercy,thepoorwhitedoesnothaveaclaimhehasanature:itischaracteristicofhimtorejectinstinctivelyintegrity,courage,
intelligence,andlegitimateleadership.Undersuchcircumstances,defeatsignifiesvirtue.

ThepoorwhiteservesasanequallyperfectantagonistintheKlanbattleof1922.Thereare,however,twoimportantdifferencesfromthesenatorialelection.First,the
sceneisnotMississippiasawhole,butGreenville,Percy'sowncommunity.AsHobsonnotes,thischangeofscenefollowsMarcusAureliusinitsemphasison
individualactioninarestrictedarena,anemphasismadeexplicitinaletterofLeRoyPercy'sincludedinLanternsontheLevee.13Writingtoasupporterafterhis
defeat,LeRoyPercyaffirmedthat"[i]fIcankeepthissmallcorneroftheUnitedStatesinwhichIreside,comparativelycleananddecentinpoliticsandfitforamanto
livein,andinsuchconditionthathemaynotbeashamedtopassitontohischildren,IwillhaveaccomplishedallthatIhopetodo"(152).Thecommunitythusforms
thefinalcontesteddomainofLanternsontheLevee,withtheimportantconsequencethattheantagonistassumestheformnotofthefacelesspoorwhitemobandits
demagogicmanipulators,butthetownsfolkamongwhomPercyhadbeenraised."Whitefolksandcoloredfolks,"PercywritesofGreenvillepriortotheKlanepisode,
"that'swhatwewereandsomeofuswereniceandsomeweren't''(231).PercydescribesGreenvilleasacommunitymorewillingthanmosttoliveandletlivea
"certainlaxityinchurchmatters"leadsthetowntoregard"drunkennessandlechery,Sab
13.Hobson,TellabouttheSouth,280.

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bathbreakingandgambling"aslittlemorethan"poorjudgmentorpoortaste"(231).Ethicaltransgressionisthuslargelyignoredwithintheprivatenetworkof
communalrelationships,whichpresumesatleastatacitacceptanceofcollectivenorms.Yetwithinthispastoralscene,therearesignsoftrouble:"mytownsfolkhadgot
alongprettywelltogetherwekneweachothersowellandhadsufferedsomuchtogether.Butwehadn'tsufferedacommondisaster,onethatwaslocalandour
veryown,likeafloodorayellowfeverepidemic,sincethefloodof1913,andthathadfailedasabinderbecauseitdidn'tfloodthetown"(230).Moreominousisthe
arrivalofan"alienbreedofAngloSaxon"who''haddriftedinsincethewarfromthehills,fromtheNorth,fromallsortsofoddplaceswheretheyhadn'tbeen
wanted"(230).Thisrelativelydisembodiedthreattothecommunityarrivesinthephysicalformofone"Colonel"Camp,aKlanorganizerwhocomestospeakatthe
localcourthouse.Throughsheerrhetoricalforce,LeRoyPercydrivesthemanfromthepodiumwithhisownspeechdenouncingtheKlan.Hereinliesthesecond
differencebetweenthisepisodeandthe1911election:inboththissceneandthelaterclimacticelectionofanantiKlansheriff,theforcesofethicaldegradationare
defeated.

Despitethesedifferences,Percy'sethicalreadingremainsconsistent.InbothepisodesPercyconfigureshistoricalactionasethicalaction,andinbothcasestheethical
normsthroughwhichthoseactionsareinterpretedarenotseriouslyquestioned.Thisispreciselythesenseinwhichwecansaythepoorwhiteisaperfectantagonist:
heexertslittlepressureagainstthestabilityofPercy'smythicalcommunityandthelegitimacyofthesocialrelationshipspresumedtoexisttherein.Thus,whilehistory
maycomeintheformofanimpersonalassaultupontradition,itisanassaulteasilyexplainedthroughrecoursetoethicalcriteria:Historyisalienbecauseitdoesnot
recognizeethicsthepoorwhiteisathreatbecauseheisunethical.Nevertheless,thepoorwhiterepresentsadifferentkindofthreatwithinthecommunitythanhedoes
outsidethecommunalboundary.Inthatexternaldomainclassrelationshipsareintrinsicallyantagonistic,andasaconsequence,nobulwarkavailsagainsttheonslaught
ofhistory.Socializedspaceisnonexistentrationaldiscourseisimpossible.Conversely,thecommunityappearsasasocializedspaceinwhichrationaldiscourseis
possible,acontrastmadeapparentinthepublicspeakingscenesrepresentedinthetwo

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episodes.DuringwhatPercycallsthe"worstday"oftheelectioncampaign,LeRoyPercygivesaspeechatLauderdaleSprings:"WhenFatherrosetospeakhewas
greetedwitharoarofboos,catcalls,hisses,andcriesof'Vardaman!Vardaman!'Itwasimpossibletohearawordhemightsay.Thedinwasinsaneandintolerable,
anditshowednosignofdiminishing.Obviouslythecrowdwasdeterminedtomakeitimpossibleforhimtospeakatall"(150).Finally,LeRoyPercy"cowedthemby
sheerwillpowerandlashedthemintosilencebyleapinginvective"(150).Incontrast,ColonelCamp'sspeech"waslistenedtowithcourtesy,"although"anytrained
mind''couldrecognizeits"lies"(233)thus,mannersandrationaljudgmentreplacethe"obscenepandemonium"oftheLauderdaleSpringsmob(150).Asthechosen
representativeof"[o]urbestcitizens,thosewhothoughtforthepublicgood"(232),LeRoyPercyisabletodefeattheoutmatchedKlanorganizer,who,ironically,is
escortedindefeattohishotelbyaCatholicdeputy(233).Ifconflictistheprimaryoperatorinthepublicdomainofhistory,wecanseethatwhiletheKlanorganizers
andthealienbreedofAngloSaxonsbringhistorytothebordersofthecommunity,LeRoyPercyisabletodefendthosebordersfromtheencroachmentofhistory.
Thecommunitythussurvivesbecauseoftheidealrelationshipbetweenitanditsheroes.

OrsoPercywouldhaveit.Infact,twoquestionablepremisesunderliePercy'srepresentationoftheKlanepisode.First,Percy'sdisplacementofculpabilityontothe
alienbreedofAngloSaxonsdriftinginfromthehillsiscontradictedbyhisemphasisonthecommunalsuspicionengenderedbytheepisode."Themostpoisonousthing
theKlandidtoourtown,"hewrites,"wastorobitscitizensoftheirfaithandtrustinoneanother.Everyonewasundersuspicion:fromKlansmenyoucanexpect
neitherfranknessnortruthnorhonor,andyoucouldn'ttellwhowasaKlansman"(237).Indeed,PercyrelatesthattheKlan"haditsgenesis,asfarasourcommunity
wasinvolved,intheMasonicTemple"(234),hardlyagatheringgroundforpoorwhites.Percy'sdisplacementofculpabilityissignificantbecauseitallowshimtolocate
blameexternaltothecommunitytoadmitotherwisewouldbetoadmittheimpossibilityofresolving"theDeltaproblem."Moreimportantly,theveryconceptofrole
whichwehavesaidisgroundedinacollectivenarrativeor"plot"wouldbeinternallysubvertedalreadyrejectedbytheoutsideworld,LeRoyPercyandtherolehe
epitomizeswouldhavenocom

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munalgrounduponwhichtosupportitself.Thisispreciselywhy"thewholetown"(244)mustgathertocelebrateaftertheantiKlancandidateforsheriffisnarrowly
elected.Onlybystrategicallyattenuatingthecommunityinthismannerbyredrawingthecommunalboundary,ifyouwillisPercyabletoconfigurearistocratic
actionascollectiveaction.ThesecondquestionablepremiseinvolvesthemotivationbehindLeRoyPercy'sbattlewiththeKlan.Onewouldneverknowfromreading
LanternsontheLeveethatLeRoyPercyandhispeershadaverymaterialreasonforwantingtokeeptheKlanoutofGreenville.AsBertramWyattBrownhas
shown,whathefeared,andwhatformedthebasisofhisspeechansweringCaptainCamp,wasthatKlanactivitywouldcausethedispersalofthelocalblack
population,whichprovidedtheprimarysourceoflaborfortheplanterclass.Pointingtoanalreadyserious"lackoflabor,"LeRoyPercypredictedthatshouldtheKlan
gainafoothold,grasswouldsoonbe"growinginthestreetsofGreenville.''14

Incontrasttobothepisodesthatcenteraroundthepoorwhite,the1927floodepisodedoesnotpermitPercyeithertoattenuatehiscommunitystrategicallyorto
ignoretheinstrumentalmotivesofthearistocrat.Consequently,thefloodepisoderepresentsanarrativecrisisespeciallysogiventhatLeRoyPercy,theepitomeof
noblesseoblige,failstoconformtothearistocraticethicalideal.15Immediatelyfollowingthedeluge,WillPercywasnamedchairmanoftheFloodReliefCommittee,
andafterconsultingtheothercommitteemembers,decidedtoevacuatetheNegroeswhowereatthattimebeingshelteredonthelevee.Agroupofplanters,however,
fearingthattheywouldemigratetotheNorth,arguedthattheyshouldremainwheretheywere:
IwasburstingwithfurywhenFatherovertookmeonthelevee.IexplainedthesituationandheagreedIshouldnot,ofcourse,beintimidatedbywhattheplanterssaid,buthe
suggestedthatifwedepopulatedtheDeltaofitslabor,weshouldbedoingitagravedisservice.IinsistedthatIwouldnotbebulliedbyafewblockheadplantersintodoing
somethingIknewtobewrongtheywerethinkingoftheirpocketbooksIoftheNegro'swelfare.(257)

14.LeRoyPercyqtd.inWyattBrown,HouseofPercy,230.

15.Forinterpretationsofthefloodepisodethatcenteraroundthelatentantagonismbetweenfatherandson,seeKing,SouthernRenaissance,9495andKreyling,Figuresofthe

Hero,16264.

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Consultingthecommitteeforafinaltime,Percywasastonishedtolearnthatdespitetheirprevioussupport,toamantheynowagreedthattheNegroesshouldremain
wheretheywere.Afterhisfather'sdeath,PercylearnedthathehadvisitedeachofthecommitteemembersindividuallyandconvincedthemthattheNegroesshould
notbemoved:LeRoyPercy"hadaccomplishedhisendintheonewaypossibleandhadswornthecommitteetosecrecy"(258).DespitePercy'sattempttodownplay
it,thisincidentformsthecentralaporiainthenarrativebecausePercyweaklyattemptstorevokeameaninghehasalreadyprovided.Whenhisfatherfirstattemptsto
changehismind,PercyexplicitlydeciphersthemythofNegrolabor,thepreservationofwhichisnot,ashisfatherhasit,forthe"goodoftheDelta,"butforthegood
oftheplanters'pocketbooks.Yet,apagelater,Percyattemptstorestorehisfather'smeanings:"HeknewthatthedispersalofourlaborwasalongereviltotheDelta
thanaflood.Hewasanaturalgambler:hebetonwarmweatherandtents"(258).Twostrikingequivocationsareapparentinthispassage:First,"theNegro'swelfare''
hasvanishedutterlyasaconsideration,andsecond,whenonebetsinearnest,onestandstolosesomething.

Facedwithaflatethicalcontradiction,Percyshiftshisnarrativefocus,ashetypicallydoesintheabsenceofblackconsent,totheNegro'sreversiontotype.The
Negrocommunity,inflamedbyantiPercyeditorialsintheChicagoDefender(which"climaxedaneloquenteditorialbyobservingthatuntiltheSouthriditselfof
WilliamAlexanderPercysitwouldbenofitplaceforaNegrotolive"[26364]),refusedtounloadtheRedCrossboatsthatcarriedtheirfoodsupplies.When,asa
lastresort,Percyconsentedtoallowthepolicetoroundupaworkcrew,aNegromanrefusedtocomeandwasshot.Toquellanincipientuprising,Percyconfronted
theNegrocommunity,"thesurliest,mosthostilegroupIeverfaced"(266),fromachurchpulpit.Havinglearnedalessonfromhisfather'selection,Percyrecognizes
thatconsensual,socializedspaceisunavailable:"Iknewtherewasnochanceheretoappealtoreason.Retreatwasoutofthequestion.Attackwasimperative"(267).
AlthoughPercy'spowerfulrhetoricforceshisaudiencetotheirkneesinprayer,hegetsonlyfourvolunteerstohelpunloadthesupplies.Thissceneisinstructive
becauseracialresentmentisdirectednotatLeRoyPercy,butathisson,whohaslittledifficultyindefendinghisownmotives.Yet,becauseofhisfather'sactions,the
Negroes'resentmentis,accordingto

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Percy'sownlogic,atleastpartiallylegitimate.InhisspeechtotheNegrocommunity,forexample,Percyhotlyassertsthat"[Everywhiteman]servedyouwithour
moneyandourbrainsandourstrengthand,forallthatwedid,nooneofusreceivedonepenny"(267),convenientlyrepressingthefactthat,whateverhisown
motives,thematerialconsiderationsoftheplanterclass,hisfatheramongthem,largelydeterminedthewhitecommunity'sactions.WhilePercywaswillingtodenounce
privatelythoselandownerswho"wereguiltyofactswhichprofoundlyandjustlymadethenegroesfearthem,"publiclyhemuststandforhisfatherethicallyaswellas
physicallysubstitutinghisownintentionsforhisfather'sinstrumentalmachinations.16

Morethananyother,thefloodepisodethreatenstorevealtheextenttowhichcommunityconstitutesaninstrumentalfield,ameanstowardachievingtheendsofthe
aristocrat.ThisisespeciallytroublingbecauseLeRoyPercy,theepitomeofnoblesseoblige,subvertshisson'sconceptionofaristocraticrole,whichneednotrequire
collectiveconsentsolongasitiscollectivelymotivated.InplacingthegoodofhispocketbookabovetheNegroes'welfareandtoreiterate,thesearethemeanings
assignedbyWillPercyhimselfLeRoyPercyviolatedthisabsoluterule,thuscallingintoquestionthreepremisesthatfundamentallyinformLanternsontheLevee:
that"theDelta"isbasedoncultureratherthancapitalthattheroleepitomizedbyLeRoyPercyisanunconsciousmanifestationofnoblesseobligeratherthananalibi
forinstrumental,selfservingactionandthatthecommunityisconsensualandcollectiveratherthancoerciveandclasscentered.

ThattherespectivefailuresoftheleveeandofLeRoyPercycoincideisnomerecoincidence,sincePercytacitlyassociatesleveeandaristocratthroughouthis
narrative.Hebegins"HellandHighWater,"thechapterthatimmediatelyprecedesthefloodepisode,byreprintingan1893GreenvilleDemocratnoticeequatinga
man'swillingnesstoguardtheleveewith"thosecharacteristicswhichwouldproveyourpatriotisminatimewhenyourcountryisthreatened"(242).Hegoesonto
describetheleveeguardsofanoldergeneration,menwhomheidolizedandwhosepersonalachievementsneverinterferedwiththeirwillingnesstodefendthe
community,a
16.Percyqtd.inWyattBrown,HouseofPercy,243.

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dutythathereisdemonstrablycollectiveinpurpose.Inshort,theleveeprovidestheidealsceneforthearistocrattoactouthisrole."Ifyouwon'tvolunteerforthat
duty,"Percywrites,"youshouldreturntothehillsfromwhichobviouslyyoucame"(247).CarolynHoldsworthhasusefullysuggestedthattheleveeisequated
metaphoricallywithatraditionthatcontrols''notjustgeneralnaturebuthumannature"(38).AspartofwhatGeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnsoncallanexperiential
gestaltwhoseroughformcanbestatedas"theleveeisanaristocrat,"theleveemarksaboundarybetweenthecommunityandthealienthreattocommunity,whetherit
be"nature"or"humannature"moreover,itconstitutesabulwarkagainstthatthreat.Thecomplexofmeaningsassociatedwiththeleveethusincludesbotha
prescriptiveandadescriptivecomponent:theleveedefendsagainstwhatisoutsidethatis,againstwhatitdefinesasthealienantagonist.Inturn,eachcomponent
roughlycorrespondstoaspecificfeatureofPercy'srepresentationofthearistocrat:thedescriptivecomponentcorrespondstotheethicsthatseparatethearistocrat
fromthe"alienbreedofAngloSaxon,"whiletheprescriptivecomponentcorrespondstothearistocrat'sdutyorroletodefendthecommunityagainstthatalien
threat.17

Thattheethical"boundary"associatedwiththeleveecollapsesinthefloodepisodeisonlytooclear.Butperhapsmoreimportantly,Percymustcontendwiththe
Negro'sresistancetothecategoryof"enemy."AlthoughhisrhetoricalattackontheNegrocommunityfromthechurchpulpitbrieflycaststheNegrointhisrole,thisis
astrictlyprovisionalstancethatPercydoesnotsustain.Unlikethepoorwhite,whoseillegitimateresentmentallowsPercytoexilehimfromthecommunityasahostile
force,theNegroisintimatelyboundwithinthecommunity'snetworkofsocialrelationships.Assuch,heisafigureagainstwhomheroismcannotbebroughttobear.
TheethicalanxietythataccruesaroundtherelationshipbetweenaristocratandNegrodoesnot,however,necessitatethatPercyovertlyrejectwhathisfather
representsonthecontrary,LeRoyPercybecomesanevenmoremythicalfigureasthenarrativeprogresses.Percy'sethicalanxietyislargely
17.CarolynHoldsworth,"TheGorgon'sHeadandtheMirror:FactversusMetaphorinLanternsontheLevee,"SouthernLiteraryJournal14,no.1(1981):38GeorgeLakoffand

MarkJohnson,MetaphorsWeLiveBy(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1980),7782.Foranotherviewofthelevee'smetaphoricalconnotations,seeRocks,"Art,"821.

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betrayedbytheformofhiswork.Incontrasttothenarrativelyconfiguredchaptersleadinguptoandcontainingthefloodepisode,thechaptersthatfollowappear
moreasessaysthanstories,andaremarkedbyanearabsenceofnarrativeoccurringinhistoricaltime.Althoughthisshiftallowsatenuousprivaterecuperationofrace
relations,whichhave,aswehaveseen,brokendownonapublicorcollectivelevel,thisrecoverycomesataprice:asPercy'svoicebecomesmorepurelysubjective,
itthreatenstolosecontactwiththeoutsideworld.Percy'slossofwhatIcallanarrativerelationshipwiththecommunity,evidencedbyhisradicaldivisionofpublicand
privateselves,indicatesthedifficultyofsubjectivelysustainingtheconceptofaristocraticroleandtheculturalnarrativethatemplotsit.Iamarguing,then,thatPercy's
failureofinheritancehisinabilitytoimitatehisfather'sidealsynthesisofvirtueandactivityisdrivennotsomuchbypersonalweaknessasaninabilitytonaturalize
thecontradictionsofracialpaternalismandthearistocraticplot.ForPercythisplotcannotbelivedin,becausetodosowouldbetoassumeitsethicalcontradictions
andforfeittheaestheticperspectivenecessarytomaintainitsformalcoherence.Inaestheticallyobjectifyingthepatternembodiedinhisfather,Percynolessthanhis
contemporariesLillianSmithandKatharineDuPreLumpkinsuggeststhedifficultyofsustainingsocialcontradictionsatthelevelofselfhood.18

AttheconclusionofRobertPennWarren'sAlltheKing'sMenanotherworkthatdealswiththecrisisofinheritingaristocraticroleJackBurdensaysthathe"shall
gooutofthehouseandgointotheconvulsionoftheworld,outofhistoryintohistoryandtheawfulresponsibilityofTime."19
18.BothSmithinKillersoftheDream(NewYork:AnchorBooks,1963)andLumpkininTheMakingofaSoutherner(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1947)representthemoral

autonomyofselfhoodasbeingantitheticaltopublicracistideology.Bothworkssharetheformoftheconversionnarrative,whichcanbemappedasathreestageprocess:(1)the
passiveinheritanceofracistideology(2)thecognitivedissonanceresultingfrommoralcontradictionsandcontactwithAfricanAmericanswhofailtoact"accordingtoform,"and
(3)conversion,whichinvolvesthepublicrenunciationofracialtaboos.ButwhereSmithandLumpkinconvert,Percysublimatesseeespeciallyhisdiscussionofmiscegenation,a
topichedefinesasbeingunavailabletoconceptualscrutiny(307308).
19.RobertPennWarren,AlltheKing'sMen(1946reprint,NewYork:HarcourtBrace,1984),438.

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WillPercymovesintheoppositedirection:outoftheuntenablespaceofhistoryintothetimelessspaceofthegarden.Tounderstandthecomplexityofthegarden
metaphor,wemustfirstconsiderPercy'sessentiallydualisticportrayalofcommunityasanentitycomprisedofbothasynchronicandadiachronicdimension,a
"culture"anda"history."EarlyinhisworkPercycomparestheSouth's"dreadful"Confederatemonuments,whichhefearsafutureanthropologistwould''tragicallyand
comically"takeas"relicsofandcluestothevanishedcivilizationwecallours,"tosoutherncookery,a"memorial,"heasserts,that"wouldbemoreinformative"(12).
ImplicithereisahierarchyinwhichPercyprivilegestherichsymbolictextureofthelifeworldoverhisculture'sgrandhistoricalnarrativeasthetruemeasureofthe
South.AlthoughthelifeworldlargelysupersedeshistoryasthesceneofthelatterpartofLanternsontheLevee,therelationshipbetweenthetwoisfarfrom
oppositional,sincethegrandnarrativepermitsthesurvivalofthelifeworld,whichinturnjustifies(astheenablingterm)theheroicactionundertakeninitsname.The
hero,then,enablesthehistoricalarticulationofthelifeworld.Totakebutoneexampleofthisidealsynthesis,Percyframeshisapotheosisofthearistocraticheroin"A
SmallBoy'sHeroes"withatributetothemintjulep,asymbolthatmetonymicallyinvokesawiderangeofvalues,feelings,andrelationshipsbroadlyassociatedwitha
wayoflife.Similarly,inPercy'shomagetosoutherncooking,batterbreadisnotjustbatterbread:itistheconcreteformofalifeworldthatmightotherwisebe
irreducibletoobservation.

ForPercy,thetextureofcommunityextendstosocialrelationships,especiallythebondbetweenthearistocratandtheNegro,ofwhich,hecontinuallyfrets,the
outsideworldreceivesadistortedview.InalettertotheNewRepublicreproducedintheKlanepisode,PercyaffirmsthatonlytheSouth's"unadvertisedleadersof
thought"canestablishracialharmony(228).Notamatterfornorthern"criticism,suggestedpanaceas,[or]scorn,"theraceproblemisanissuetobeprivatelysettled
amongsouthernerswith"commonkindness"asaguidingprinciple(229).Inshort,theraceproblemisacommunityissuewhosesolutionisalreadygrounded,ifnotyet
broughttofruition,intheconcretesocialintercoursethatoccurseverydaybetweenwhiteandblacksoutherners.AsRichardWeavershowsinTheSouthern
TraditionatBayandasPercyhimselfattests,thisattituderepresentsthe

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20
essenceofsouthernconservatism. ButasPercyattemptstodeploythisrationaleinhisdiscussionofracerelations,thefissuresininterracialconsensusandsocial
mannersthatfirstappearinthefloodepisoderefusetobemended.

Percyopens"Planters,Sharecroppers,andSuch,"thechapterthatimmediatelyfollowsthefloodepisode,byrecountingthedeathofhisparents,afterwhich,he
asserts,"mylifeseemedsuperfluous"(270).NordoesLeRoyPercy'sdeathaffectonlyhisson.Actingasthatcentralfigureinsouthernracialdiscourse,thefaithful
retainer,anexslavenamedHoltguidesWillPercytohisfather'schairwhere,Holtaffirms,''youb'long"(270).Distraught,Holtcriesout,"theroofisgonefromover
myheadandfloorfromundermyfeet.Iamoutinthedarkandthecoldalone.Iwanttogowhereheis"(270).AlthoughHolt'sgriefmythicallyinvokestheNegro's
devotion,thearistocrat'sseatheofferstheyoungerPercyrepresentsbutanotherpossessionofthefatherthatthesoncannotinherit:aninterracialrelationshipinwhich
theNegro'slabormythicallyresolvesitselfintoanorganicbondbetweenhimselfandthearistocrat.AsKinghassuggested,Percy'ssubtitle"Recollectionsofa
Planter'sSon"representsnotsomuchafactasanarrativechoice,since,literallyspeaking,Percywaseverybittheplanterhisfatherwas.21YetPercylocatesinthe
pastautopianviewofracerelationsthatdoesnotexist,asweshallsee,onhisplantation.WhereasLeRoyPercy'sNegroesareloyalandfaithfulretainers,hisson
confrontsaworldinwhichNegroeswho"usedtobeservants,now...wereproblems"(312).

ThetenuousnatureofthepaternalisticbondmanifestsitselfmostclearlyinrelationtoNegrolabor,thepreservationofwhich,werecall,haddrivenLeRoyPercy's
actionsduringtheGreatFlood.Attemptingtopreserveanidealconfigurationofracerelationsandtheeconomicformtheyassume,
20.ForWeaverontheSouth'sculturalpreferencefor"atestedmodusvivendi"over"themostattractiveexperiment,"seeTheSouthernTraditionatBay:AHistoryofPostbellum

Thought,ed.GeorgeCoreandM.E.Bradford(NewRochelle,N.Y.:ArlingtonHouse,1968),42.ComparePercy:"IntheSouthouranxietyisnottofindnewideas,buttobringto
realizationoldoneswhichhavebeentestedandprovedbyyearsofanguishafarmoredifficultundertaking.WeSouthernersaren'tasbrightasweareright.Butwhenwedohit
onanewidea,it'snotonlywrong,it'sinconceivable"(229).
21.King,SouthernRenaissance,94.

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Percyrecastslaborasanessentiallysocialrelationship.Inhisdiscussionofsharecropping,Percyrepresentsthegenesisoftheinstitutionasafamilystoryinvolvinghis
grandfatherFafar,whoselifeworkwastherestorationofwhitesupremacyduringReconstruction.AlthoughFafar'sparticipationinthesoutherngrandnarrative
necessitatedaninitiallyantagonisticrelationshipwiththeNegro,afterthe"firstfinefrenzyofemancipation,"heandtheNegrocometoatacitunderstanding:"Onex
slaveandexmasteralikeitdawnedgraduallythattheywereingreatneedofoneanotherandnotonlyeconomically,but,curiouslyenough,emotionally"(275).
Fromthismutualneedresultsthesharecroppingsystemor"partnershipcontract"(asPercyprefers),acontracthepresentsasaverbalofferFafarextendstothe
freedmen:"Ihavelandwhichyouneed,andyouhavemusclewhichIneedlet'sputwhatwe'vegotinthesamepotandcallitours"(275).Althoughheadmitsthatthis
fullysocializedformoflaborcansurviveonlywhenlandownersconceiveofpropertyasatrustratherthananopportunityforprofitaconceptionwhichentailsstrict
adherencetothecodeofnoblesseobligePercyseesthis''onedrawback"asafailurenotofthesystem,butofafailureto"liv[e]uptothecontractualobligationsof
thesystem"(283,82).AlthoughRichardKinghasfaultedPercyfor"opinions[onsharecropping]whichjarourmoreenlightenedsensibilities,"22therealscandalofthis
chapteroccursasPercywidenshisfocustoconsidertheentirehistoryofhisculture.InoneofthefewpassagesinwhichPercyimpliescontinuitybetweenhimselfand
hisforebears,heliststheobstaclesthat"hadtobeovercomebeforeeverthispoorbeautifulunfinishedpresentwasturnedovertousbytheanonymousdead"(284).
Beginningwiththeconcretefactofmalaria,thislistconcludeswithPercylamenting"thepathosofastrongerracecarryingonitsshouldersaweakerraceandfromthe
burdenlosingitsownstrength!"(284).MovingbeyondalegitimationofNegrolabor,Percyimpliesthattheauthenticlaborisexpendedbythearistocrat,whose
"burden"causesthecumulativelossofculturalenergythatconstitutes,aswehavesaid,oneoftheprimarynarrativeproblemstobesolved.

ForPercy,theNegroisaburdenprimarilybecausehisrefusaltoaccept
22.Ibid.,88.PercyadmitsthattheNegro'sredressforexploitativepracticesis"merelytheoretical,"aconcessionthatevadessheercontradictiononlyif"contractualobligations"

areconsideredtobesocialandthusextralegal.

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paternalisticbenevolencethreatensPercy'sperceptionofacohesive,organiccommunity.PercyconfiguresracerelationssothattheNegroresistsnotmerelyhisplace
inthesocialhierarchy,butthephilanthropicintentionsofthearistocrat.Percy'sattempttoemplottheNegrowithinacommunalnarrativefailsoutright,primarily
becauseheandtheNegrointerprettheirmutualrelationshipinradicallydifferentways,asevidencedbytwoimportantscenesinwhichNegroesactivelyvoicetheir
resentment.Inthefirst,PercyrelateshowFord,his"generalfactotum,"informshimthatafriendhadclaimedthatPercy"wenttoAfricato'rangetohavetheniggers
sentbackintoslavery,"asentimentFordbuttressesbyclaimingtohaveheardit"lotsoftimes"(289).Stunnedandhurtbytheaccusation,Percydemandstheidentity
ofanotheraccuser.WhenFordreturnsthenextmorningwiththenameofPercy'scook,"themainstayandintimateofthehouseholdforfifteenyears"(290),Percy
entersthekitchentoconfronther,onlytofindherpacingunderanailshehadsteppedonandhungunderadoorlintel.Thisritual,sheexplains,willdrawthesoreness
fromherfoot.Percywrylyconcludes,''Ididn'tmentionslaverythenorlater"(290).Insteadofadjudicatingwhatheperceivestobeacaseofmiscommunication,
Percyaestheticizesitwhatoriginallyhad"hurt"nowprovidesaestheticinthiscase,comicpleasure.Asinthefloodepisode,Percyrespondstotheabsenceof
blackconsentbyshiftinghisfocusfromracialresentmenttoracialcharacteristics,andinsodoingusesthegroundsofdivisionasanalibifortheabsenceofunity.
Complaintsfrompeopleofthiskind,heimplies,neednotbetakenseriously.

Inasecondandmoretellingscene,PercydescribesvisitinghisplantationandoverhearingaNegrosayofhiscar,"Dat'suscar"(291).Musingonthe"thoughtofhow
sweetitwastohavetherelationbetweenlandlordandtenantsocloseandaffectionatethattothemmycarwastheircar,"PercyisdisabusedofthisnotionbyFord,
whoinformshimthatthespeaker"meantthat'sthecaryouhasboughtwithusmoney"(291).Thisstarkassertionofresentment,basedasitisontheNegro's
perceptionofhisinstrumentalvaluetothelandowner,doesmuchtosubvertthesocial"partnership"Percyaffirmsinhischapteronsharecropping.YetifPercydoes
notconfrontthiscontradictiondirectly,heatleastregistersit,andafterhavingFord'sinterpretationconfirmedbytheplantation'smanagers,heregistershishurt.In

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deed,thisscenerepresentstheclimaxofprivateracialtensionjustasfullyaspublicracialtensionculminatesinthefloodepisode.Unlikethatepisode,however,and
unlikeallepisodesinvolvingthepoorwhite,resentmentdoesnotgeneratemoreresentmentPercy'sreactiontoFord's"bittertutelage"ispain.Insofarassocialdivision
ismarked,asJamesonsuggests,bythe"unavoidablyautoreferential"natureofresentmentthatbegetsfurtherresentment,23Percy'sinabilitytoclassifytheNegroasan
enemythatis,toexilehimfromthecommunityashedoeswiththepoorwhitemakesthisconflictparticularlytroubling.Whereastheexternaldomainofhistory
requiresconflictasapreconditionforaristocraticheroism,conflictwithinthelifeworlddisruptsthereciprocalexchangesthroughwhichthesocialorderisverifiedand
stabilized.Invoicinghisresentment,theNegrothreatenstoobliteratetheobjectivesocialworldinwhichPercy'sidentityfindsmeaningfulform.

Percy'ssolutiontotheproblemofcommunityisnottheevocationofasharedethos,butofasocialstylethroughwhichethicaldifferenceismitigated."[W]hilegood
moralsareallimportantbetweentheLordandHiscreatures,"hewrites,"whatcountsbetweenonecreatureandanotherisgoodmanners"(286).Mannersthusverify
thecoherenceofcommunityinspiteofdifference,whichPercy,asarule,defineswhennecessary,anddeferswhenpossible.Yettomaintainhierarchythatis,the
simultaneityofunityanddivisionPercymustmediatebetweenanaestheticstancethatallowstheperceptionofpastoralunity,andanethicalonethatemphasizes
socialdifference.Asstatedearlier,theNegro'saestheticcharmmitigateshisethicalshortcomings,andasaconsequencePercyisabletoassertthathis"beautiful
manners,"imitatedbywhites,makeitpossiblefor"twosuchdissimilarraces[to]livesidebysidewithsolittlefriction,insuchcomparativepeaceandamity"(286).
Yetatthesametime,heisquicktoinvokeethicalfailuresofonesortoranotheranaptitudeforviolentcrime,apropensityfortheft,arejectionofthewhiteman's
moralityastheprimaryobstaclesblockingtheNegro'ssocialevolution."Howisitpossible,''heasks,"forthewhitemantocommunicatewithpeopleofthis
sort?"(299).Percygoessofarastosaythatdespitebothraces'beliefthat"theyhaveaninnateandmiraculousun
23.Jameson,PoliticalUnconscious,202.

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derstandingofoneanother....thesoberfactisweunderstandoneanothernotatall"(299).Althoughthisassertionunderminestheconcreteevocationofthe
paternalisticbondhow,forexample,could"peopleofthissort"rationallyenterintothe"partnershipcontract"ofsharecropping?italsobluntstheconcretefactof
racialresentment,sincePercycannowrepresenthisphilanthropicintentionsasbeingmisunderstood:"Iwantwithallmyhearttohelphim.But...''(306).Percyis
thusforcedintoaconceptualdoublebind:Iftheracialotherisutterlyalien,thentherelationshipandthemannersthroughwhichitismaintainedrevealthemselvestobe
pleasantfictionsifthisrelationshipisreal,thenthespeechofeitherpartymustbetakenseriously.Percy'srefusalofthestrongformofpaternalisticrhetoriccaptured
memorablyinRichardWright'sassertionthat"ThewhiteSouthsaidthatitknew'niggers'"24representsnotasolutionto,butadeferraloftheNegro'sresentmentlest
itflatlycontradictthecohesivesocialorderofwhichheisostensiblyapart.

Percy'sinabilitytoadjudicateconceptuallythedilemmaofracerelationshelpsexplainwhyoneofhisproposedtitlesforhisnarrativewasAStrangerHereMyself,a
titlethatsuggeststheattenuationofselfhoodandalienationfromcommunitythatoccursastheresistantsocialworlddrivestheselfinward.Inanimportantessayon
raceandsouthernautobiography,WilliamL.AndrewssuggeststhatPercyleavesopenendedtheissueofwhetherhe"confrontedhisselfhoodthroughtheagencyof
the[racial]other."IcontendthattheformofLanternsontheLeveeallowsustoanswerthisquestioninthenegativethatthe"bittertutelage"offeredbyFordisan
educationPercycannotaffordtoreceive.InTheoryoftheNovelGeorgLukcsarguesthatthe"autonomouslifeofinteriorityispossibleandnecessaryonlywhenthe
distinctionsbetweenmenhavemadeanunbridgeablechasm,"thecorollaryofwhichisthat"theworldofdeedsseparatesitselffrommenand,becauseofthis
independence,becomeshollowandincapableofabsorbingthetruemeaningofdeedinitself,incapableofbecomingasymbolthroughdeedsanddissolvingthemin
turnintosymbols."Lukcs'sdescriptionof
24.RichardWright,BlackBoy:ARecordofChildhoodandYouth(1945reprint,Cleveland:WorldPublishing,1947),227.

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"estrangementfromtheoutsideworld"capturespreciselyPercy'srepresentationofhisselfhoodevenasitdictatesthesolutionheadopts:thevalorizationofpure
intention,ofvirtueas"anendinitself"(313).25

AlthoughatseveralpointsPercyimpliesthatvirtueandactionaremutuallyexclusiveheclaims,forexample,thatvirtues"aregoodeveniftheykillyou"(313),with
theclearimplicationthattheyprobablywillheneverthelessconceptuallycoinsatermthroughwhichthisantinomyisputativelyresolved:the"survivalvirtues"suchas
''hardihoodanddiscipline,"which"arenotornamentsbutweapons"(312).Theneedfor"survivalvirtues"inPercy'snarrativewillnodoubtbeclear:theyarethevirtues
thatcategoricallysubsumethepseudoethicsofhisfatherandthegrandnarrativesanctioningthem,andthatcreatetheculturalspaceinwhich,asKreylingsays,
contingencyneverunderminesthepurityofaction.WehavesaidthatthisspaceremainsforeverunavailabletoPercyasasubjectivegroundorfieldnevertheless,it
constitutesanessentialobjectwithinthatfieldbecauseitallowstheperceptionoftheidealrelationshipbetweentheroleplayingaristocratandthecommunity.

Thispatternofidentity,however,mustbeobjectifiedquapatternforeverlost,itcannotbe"actedout"fromwithin.Thequestionofwhythis"lineoffortification"
remainsunavailablebringsustotheheartofPercy'snarrativeproject.AccordingtoLukcsthesubjectcanonlyavoidsuccumbingto"moods"definedasthedespair
resultingfromtheconceptualizationofhostileandimmutablelaws"beyondthereachofman"ifthe"arenaofitsactions,thenormativeobjectofitsactions,ismadeof
thestuffofpureethics:ifrightandcustomareidenticalwithmorality:ifnomoreofthesoulhastobeputintothemanmadestructurestomakethemserveasman's
propersphereofactionthancanbereleased,byaction,fromthosestructures."AccordingtoLukcs,then,theorganiccommunityislostwhenitssocialformsabsorb
moresubjectiveenergythantheyreciprocate.Thisconditionnotbeingmet,thesceneissetforthedespairandreificationofhostileexternalforcesthatcharacterize
Percy'sstoicmeditations.YetPercy's
25.WilliamL.Andrews,"InSearchofaCommonIdentity:TheSelfandtheSouthinFourMississippiAutobiographies,"SouthernReview24(1988):51,54Lukcs,Theory,66.

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attempttoattenuatestrategicallythecommunitysothatall"enemies"lieoutsideitsboundariesastrategywehaveassociatedwiththeleveedoesnotattendtothe
problemofrace.If,ashehasobservedearlier,thegreatestamountofsubjectiveenergyislostinthearenaofracerelations,wherephilanthropicorpaternalintentionis
repeatedlythwartedbytheNegro'sethicalimmaturity,thereificationofexternalforces(the"enemy")appearsasadisplacement,sincetheNegro,whoresists
categorizationasanenemy,representstheprimaryobstacleresistingsubjectiveintention.Moreover,thefloodepisodedemonstratesthatracerelationsprovidethe
arenainwhichtheethicalgroundofthearistocratismosttangiblyerodedandinwhichtheorganiccommunitymostthreatenstorevealitselfasaninstrumentalfield
drivenbyeconomicnecessity.IfTobinSiebersiscorrectinassertingthat''aestheticpleasureservestoputethicaldissatisfactionintoaformthatcanbeswallowed,"
wecanconcludethatthecontradictionsinherentinracerelationsdrivethemassivecodeswitchfromethicstoaestheticsthatoccursinthelastthreechaptersof
LanternsontheLevee.ThisswitchallowsustoreinterpretPercy'srhetoricoffailureas,moreproperly,arhetoricofexhaustionexhaustionresultingnotfrom
fightingthegoodfightsomuchasneedingtowithdrawfromtheconflictsothatitsethicalcontourscanbepreserved.Bydisplacingethicaldegradationbeyondthe
communalboundaryandaestheticizingtheidealrelationshipbetweenthearistocratandhiscommunity,Percyneednotinherittheethicalcontradictionsthatmanifest
themselveswithinthelifeworld.26

InthelastthreechaptersofLanternsontheLevee,Percy'snarrativestyleitselfseemstosuccumbtoexhaustion.Percy'sinabilitytointernalizeandnaturalizethe
contradictionsinherentintheconceptof"survivalvalues"parallelsthebreakdownofnarrativestructure,whichwemightdefineinthiscontextasawayofemplotting
theselfwithinthelifeworld.Unabletoliveforthecommunityasitshero,Percyfindsitincreasinglydifficulttoliveinhiscommunityasacitizen.Thisbreakdownis
evidencedmostclearlyin"ABitofaDiary."Althoughthediaryentriesthatformthebulkofthechap
26.Lukcs,Theory,65TobinSiebers,"EthicsadNauseam,"AmericanLiteraryHistory6(1994):762.

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tershowPercyasthesocialmanparexcellencehostingvisitors,attendingcommitteemeetings,offeringadvicetofriendsandstrangers,collectingforcharities,
advisingthepressandthepoliceforce,evenattendingaRotaryluncheonheneverthelessdismissestheexerciseas"inconsequentialanddaft"(322).Inclosingthe
chapter,Percyindicatesthesymbolicvacuityofhisactionsinwritingthat"themore[facts]yousetdown,thelessprogressyouseemtomaketowarda
likeness"(331)."Thisbitofadiary,"hecontinues,"ifcontinuedindefinitely,wouldnothelpmyguardianangeltorecognizemeifhemetmecomingdownthemiddleof
abigroad"(331).Percy'sestrangementfromthecommunitycouldhardlybeclearer.Inreducingsocialintercoursetothestatusoffacts,heimpliesthatbecauseitno
longercontainssubjectiveenergy,thecommunitynolongerprovidesameaningfulfieldofactiontheauthenticself,finally,isextrasocial.Tocatchthelikenessofthis
''queercreature"(ashecallshimself),Percywillhaveto"easeuponhimunbeknownstsaywhenheissittinginthegardenidly"(331).Thediaryformunderscores
theabsenceofanarrativerelationshipwiththecommunity:Thedisjointed"facts"ofhisexistencecomeasmeresequencetheyformnopartofalargerstory.

Thelossoftheconcretesocialworldasadomainthatcontainsidentityneverthelessdictatesitsownsolution:theperceptionofthelifeworldasanaestheticizedobject
ratherthanafieldforethicalaction.InthecontextofPercy'sfinallogic,aestheticexperienceitselfallowstheperceptionofcommunity."Itisgivenmantobehold
beautyandtoworshipnobility,"hewrites,"[o]nlywhenheisintheirpresencedoestheairtastenativeandtheplaceseemhome"(320).Althoughthisaesthetic
imperativemightappearasatranscendentwithdrawalfromsociety,itneverthelesshasclearsocialcontent.In"JackdawintheGarden,"Percyperceivescharacter
typesasnaturalfacts:acidlovingazaleasexplaintohimawomanwho"neededtragedyandcouldn'tthrivewithoutit"hybridstrainsthatcannotresistdiseasewarn
himofthedangersof"crossing"humanbeingsand"fusing"bloodsplantsdislocatedfromtheirproperenvironmentremindhimthat"thehearttoohasitsclimate"hardy
rosesthatare"nottoobeautiful"teachhimthat"[a]fterall,strengthisoneoftheprimarycolors"(333)."Butthemajormoralaffordedbyagarden,"Percywrites,
"comesfromwatchingthefightforsunlightwagedbythoseunhappythingsrootedagainsttheirwillin

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shade.Noneofthemwillflower,butbydesperatedevices,tragicsubstitutes,someofthemwilllive"(334).AlthoughCarolynHoldsworthcriticizesthese"hackneyed
comparisons,"27theyrepresentatenuoussolutiontothechaosthatthreatensPercy'scommunity.Throughthissymbolicreduction,communitybecomes,notthe
context,butthecontentnotthecontainerofidentity,butthethingcontainedwithinsubjectiveperception.Inshort,Percy'sgardenmetaphorinvolvesthesubjective
impositionofastableorderonexperienceotherwiseirreducibletothatorder.Thegardenthusrevealsitselfasanarrowedversionoftheplantationthatis,asascene
congenialtopurecontemplationofasortimpossibleintheconcrete,resistantworldofsocialintercourse.

Byobjectifyingcharactertypesandreducingthemtoacollectionofinnatecharacteristics,Percyisabletorestoreaestheticallythereifiedfragmentsofhiscommunity,
justasbrokenbitsofglassmightbecombinedinamosaic.Indeed,thisisaparticularlyaptmetaphorfor"JackdawintheGarden,"achapterwhosestatedpurposeis
forPercytodisplay"thejackdawpickingsofmycuriousandsecretheart...bitsofcolorandscrapsofgoinman...ofnoworthsavetothemiserlyfanatic
heart"(336).Justasthegardenitselfis''asubstituteforthingspreferredbutdenied,"these"tinselhoardings"memoriesoftransitory,sublimemomentsinwhichself
brieflylocatespureanalogsintheoutsideworldarepresentedaseffetesubstitutesforthegreatertreasurestarnishedbyhistory.Indeed,"theonlytreasure,"Percy
writes,"that'sexemptfromtarnishiswhatthejackdawgathers"(343).Inshoringthesefragmentsagainsthisruinandindivorcingtheaffectiveobjectsofconsciousness
fromeffectivesocialactionwhichislargelywhatthejuxtapositionof"ABitofDiary"and"JackdawintheGarden"structurallyaccomplishesPercyregistershis
deepsenseofalienation.

IfPercy'sgardenconstitutesanarrowed,aestheticizedversionoftheplantation,LanternsontheLeveeconcludesinathirdkindofgarden."Home,"thefinalchapter
ofPercy'snarrative,issetintheGreenvillecemetery,"oneofthepleasantestplacesnearthehometown"(344)."Here,"Percyrelates,"Icome...notinfrequently
becauseitisrestfulandcomforting.Iamwithmyownpeople"(345).Inthisfinalscenetheaestheticperception
27.Holdsworth,"Gorgon'sHead,"39.

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ofcommunityinvolvesaradicalsuspensionofethics:"Whilepeoplearestillalivewejudgethemasgoodorbad,condemnthemasfailuresorpraisethemas
successes,lovethemordespisethem.Onlywhentheyaredeaddoweseethem,notwithcharity,butwithunderstanding.Alivetheyseemremote,evenhostiledead
theyjoinourcircleandyouseethefamilylikeness"(347).Althoughsuchsentimentsmayseemstrangelyoutofplaceinanarrativethatreflectsarigidethicalcode,
Percyismerelyapplyingthecodethathascometodominatehistext,acodethatvalorizesintentionoveraction.AsPercysaysashecontemplatesthegravesofthe
erstwhile"enemiesofmeandmineandallthatwehelddear,""Iknowtheirstories,butnottheirhearts"(347).Inconsideringthattheirworldtooofferedresistanceto
thepublicarticulationofself,Percyindicateshowcompletelyanystablemediumofethicalnormshasvanished.Intheend,maintainingtheconceptualintegrityof
communityrequirestherenunciationofanarrativerelationshipwiththeworld.Failingtoinheritfromhisfatherthemythicalsubstanceinwhichvirtueandactionare
conjoined,Percyendshisnarrativeassertinghimselftohistruefather,Death.

WillPercy'sthanatossyndromeidentifieshimasthatpeculiarlysouthernversionofNarcissus.28IfthereisaliteraryanalogofWillPercywanderingamongthegraves
oftheGreenvilledeadconfrontinghismosttroublingdoubt"Ihavelovednoonesomuchasmyself"(348)itmustsurelybeAllenTate'sspeakerwanderingamong
theConfederatedead,foreveralienatedfrom"theimmoderatepast,"from"thefuriousmurmuroftheirchivalry,"andsuccumbingatlasttonarcissisticselfannihilation.
In"NarcissusasNarcissus,"hisexegesisofthe''Ode,"Tatewrotethatpoemwas"aboutNarcissism,oranyotherismthatdenotesthefailureofthehumanpersonality
tofunctionobjectivelyinnatureandsociety.""Society,"Tatecontinues,"appearstoofferlimitedfieldsfortheexerciseofthewholeman,whowasteshisenergy
piecemealoverseparatefunctionsthatoughttocome
28.TouseWalkerPercy'sterminology,Percyriskstradingimmanencefortranscendence,anominousexchange,sinceitcreatestheconditionnecessaryforsuicideanot

irrelevantconsiderationgiventhesettingofanddeathwishapparentin"Home."FordiscussionoftherelationshipbetweentheworkofthetwoPercys,seeKreyling,Figuresof
theHero,15482andLewisLawson,"WalkerPercy'sSouthernStoic,"SouthernLiteraryJournal3,no.1(1970):531.

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29
underaunityofbeing." LikeTate'sspeaker,Percyfailstolocateasocialorderinwhichhecanfunctionobjectivelysince,intheend,thecommunitypartakesofthe
samedisorderthatPercyattemptstodisplaceoutsideofitsboundaries.Percydwellsinacommunitythatdoesnotreflecthisexperienceofinteriority,aworldinwhich
theNegrofailstoauthorizethepaternalroleofthearistocrat.Hisvalorizationofpureintentionandpuresubjectivityallowshimtoconfigureaestheticallythecommunity
ashishome,butinthefinalanalysis,thestoryhetellsisoneofexile.
29.AllenTate,CollectedPoems,19191976(NewYork:FarrarStrausGiroux,1977),21,22Tate,"NarcissusasNarcissus,"inTheManofLettersintheModernWorld:Selected

Essays,19281955(NewYork:MeridianBooks,1955),334.

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4
NarratingtheCommunityNarrating:
WilliamFaulkner'sLightinAugust
InTheSouthernHeritageJamesMcBrideDabbsdescribes,withtonguefirmlyincheek,thewhitesoutherner'sattitudetowardtheNegroundersegregation:"We
liketheNegroinhisplace.Thelikingisabonusforhisstayingthere."1AswehaveseeninbothPageandPercy,thepaternalisticbonddependeduponNegro
consenttotheextentthatheresistedhisplace,theNegrowasdefinedasacontaminant.Indeed,itwashisuniqueabilitytocontaminatethatmadetheNegro'splace
possibleandevennecessaryunderthebizarrelogicofsegregation.Ifonedropofblackbloodcouldtaintanentireperson,thenthecorruptivepropertiesofblackness
werepowerfulindeed.Despitetheircommitmenttothepaternalisticbond,neitherPagenorPercyquestionthepossibilityofNegrocontamination.Discussing
miscegenation,Percywrites,"Itisacademictoarguethewisdomorjusticeofthistaboo.Wiseorunwise,justorunjust,itisthecornerstoneoffriendlyrelations,of
interracialpeace"(308).Itispreciselythiskindofreticence,thiscategoricalinabilitytosubmitthebasicpremiseofsegregationtoconceptualscrutinythatmakesthe
institutionappearsobizarreandirrationaltothemodernmind.Whereslaveryhadanobviouseconomicmotive,segregationburieditseconomicsubtextinamassof
arcaneforms.Whereslavery
1.Dabbs,SouthernHeritage,177.

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hadtoughminded,intellectuallyrigorousapologists,segregationhadnone.Paradoxically,itisthebizarrenatureofsegregationthatallowsittobeviewedfromthe
relativelysafedistanceofthreedecadesasamarginalcomponentofsouthernculture,akindoffreakaccidentthatneednotdisruptcontemporarynostalgiaforthe
communitiesofanearlierera.WilliamFaulkner'sLightinAugust(1932)tellsanotherstory.Relentlesslyrevealingthesymboliclogicofsegregation,thenarrative
structuresofLightinAugustdemonstratethedeepinterdependencebetweensocialcohesionandthecontaminationassociatedwithblackblood.

InmanyrespectsLightinAugustdiffersqualitativelyfromthenarrativeswehaveconsideredtothispoint,eachofwhichinvolvesacommunitythatisessentially
heterogeneousthatis,composedofatleasttwodistinctclasseswhosehierarchicalarrangementdoesnotpreventtheperceptionofinterdependenceandmutual
obligation.AndwiththeexceptionofGeorgiaScenes,aworkinwhichslavesplayanegligiblerole,eachoftheseworksstrategicallyincorporatesblackswithinthe
community.Tobesure,thatintegrationistenuousandimpure,butfromKennedytoPercy,thecommunityobtainsapluralistic,interracialcast.Incontrast,the
communityofLightinAugustexcludesblacksabsolutely.Lackingevenavestigeofpaternalisticrhetoric,LightinAugustisunusualamongFaulkner'snovels,which
oftencontain,asRalphEllisonnotedina1953essay,the"benignstereotype"ofthe"goodnigger"soprevalentinthepaternalistictradition.Likewise,thefigureofthe
family,socentralelsewheretoFaulkner'srepresentationofrace,isnearlyinvisible.NotonlyisthecommunityofLightinAugustexclusivelywhite,itapproaches
monolithicwhiteness.AsMyraJehlenobserves,thecommunityconsistsalmostexclusivelyofplainfolk,andthuslacksthenuancedhierarchyofwhitesocialclassesso
essentialtotheFaulknercanon.Although,asweshallsee,thenoveloccasionallyintroducesclassdistinctionswithinthewhitecommunity,theyprovetobeofa
decidedlyprovisionalnature:intheend,thecommunityiswhiteinahomogeneoussenseapproachingwhatW.J.Cashcalledthe"savageideal...whereunderdissent
andvarietyarecompletelysuppressedandmenbecome,inalltheirattitudes,professions,andactions,virtualreplicasofoneanother."LightinAugustthusreplicates
abroaderAmericantrendtoconceive,asWalterBenn

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2
MichaelsshowsinOurAmerica,ofcultureandnationhoodintermsofraceatthelevelofarelativelyhumbleMississippicommunity.

AnotherdifferencebetweenLightinAugustandtheworkswehaveconsideredtothispointinvolvesnarrativevoice.Despitetheirmanydifferences,ourprevious
narrativeshaveallcontainedacoherentnarratingsubjectthatframesandattemptstostabilizethesocialcontradictionswithwhichitisconfronted.LightinAugust
appearstooffernosuchstability,asitsnarrativevoiceisthesinglemostunstablefeatureofthenovel'sintricatedesign.Incontrasttoourpreviousnarratives,where
stabilityexistsatthesubjectivelevelandislargelythreatenedbydissonantobjectsofconsciousness,theoppositeistrueofLightinAugust,anarrativewhose
complexshiftsinfocalizationandvoiceworktounderminewhateversubjectivestabilityitmightseemtooffer.ReadingFaulkner'snovel,wearerarelysurequite
whereweare.TheparadoxofLightinAugustisthatdespiteitstremendouscentrifugalenergythatis,itsnumerouskindsofshiftsthatthreatentofracturethenovel
intoamultitudeofnarrativeshardsanequallypowerfulcentripetalforcepreventssuchadispersal.InhisclassicessayonthenovelinTheYoknapatawpha
Country,CleanthBrooksassociatesthiscentripetalforcewiththecommunityitself,"thecircumambientatmosphere,theessentialetherofFaulkner'sfiction"thatis"at
oncethefieldforman'sactionandthenormbywhichhisactionisjudgedandregulated."3InthischapterIwanttoreviseBrooks'sterminologyandclaimthatthe
essentialetherofFaulkner'snarrativeisnarrativeitself,thesocialandepistemologicalmodethroughwhichsocietyregulatesitself.Narrativeishowcommunity
happenscommunity,inonesense,isaformofnarrative.Asasocialtransactionandasanideologicalvehicle,narrativeobtainscoherenceinresponsetoacentral
symbol:blackblood.Byfocusingattentionuponnarrativeasacommunalactivity,I
2.RalphEllison,"TwentiethCenturyFictionandtheBlackMaskofHumanity,"inTheCollectedEssaysofRalphEllison,ed.JohnF.Callahan(NewYork:ModernLibrary,1995),

97MyraJehlen,ClassandCharacterinFaulkner'sSouth(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1976),91Cash,MindoftheSouth,9091Michaels,OurAmerica,2340.
3.CleanthBrooks,WilliamFaulkner:TheYoknapatawphaCountry(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1963),52,69.Theoppositionbetweencentrifugalandcentripetalforcesis

borrowedfromEllenGoellnerseenote15below.

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hopetodemonstratetheinterdependenceofcommunity,narrative,andblackblood,therebyelucidatinghowthecommunityrespondstoracialsymbolsinsuchaway
astomakeacollectivesubjectivitynotonlypossible,butdarklynecessary.

ApassagenearthemiddleofLightinAugustdescribesJoeChristmasasheliesbleedingafterhavingbeensavagelybeaten:"Hewasnotthinkingatall,notsuffering.
Perhapshewasconsciousofsomewherewithinhimthetwoseveredwireendsofvolitionandsentiencelying,nottouchingnow,waitingtotouch,toknitanewsothat
hecouldmove."4The"severedwireendsofvolitionandsentience"removeChristmasfromnarrativetimeandtheplotthatishislifewhenthey"knitandmade
connection,"he''enteredthestreetwhichwastorunforfifteenyears"(222,223).Christmas'ssuspendedmomentispredicatedonthedissociationofvolitionand
sentience,akeydualismnotonlyinthecontextofhisownstoryoneinfusedwithissuesofdeterminismandknowledgebutalsointhecontextofthenovel's
narrativestyle.ThereaderfirstencountersChristmasinchapter2,thefirstsectionofwhichwillserveasalikelypointofentryintoanexaminationofthatstyleandits
torturedrelationshipbetweensentienceandvolition.Thechapterbeginssimplyenough:"ByronBunchknowsthis:ItwasoneFridaymorningthreeyearsago"(31),an
embeddinglocutionwhosestablesyntax(subjectverbobject)impliesastableepistemologicalrelationship.Thenarratinginstanceofthischapterthuscontainstwo
importantpiecesofinformation:first,thatthenarrator(andnotByron)willnarratewhatByronBunchknowsthatis,Byron,asfocalcharacter,"sees"butthenarrator
"speaks,"touseGrardGenette'simportantdistinctionbetweenperspectiveandvoiceandsecond,thatthenarrativediscourseoccursinthepresent("knows"),but
describeseventsinastorythatoccurredthreeyearspriortotheactofnarration.5
4.WilliamFaulkner,LightinAugust,CorrectedTexteditedbyNoelPolk(NewYork:Vintage,1990),220.Thisworkwillhereinafterbecitedparentheticallybypagenumberinthe

text.
5.Here,IamusingJonathanCuller'sstandardizationoftheterms"story,"consistingof"asequenceofactionsorevents,conceivedasindependentoftheirmanifestationin

discourse,"and"discourse,"consistingof"thediscursivepresentationornarrationofevents."Forfurther

(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

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Inanextendedreadingofthesection,ArthurF.Kinneytakestheapparentstabilityofthenarratinginstancetoitslogicalconclusion,makingintheprocessatleast
threeassumptionsthatillustratethedifficultiesposedbyFaulkner'scomplexregulationofnarrativeinformation.WorkingfromKant'snotion"thatrealityisindividually
constructedbyshapingideasandimages,"Kinneyarguesthat"Byronhereisnotareceiverofimagesbutacreatorofawarenesseshecallsitknowledge,'Byron
Bunchknowsthis'becausehechoosesandshapeswhatheseesandsoabsorbsitintowhathethinks."First,KinneyfailstodistinguishByronfromthenarrator,as
evidencedbyhisclaimthatByron"callsitknowledge."Notonlyisthereacleardistinctionbetweenthetwo(sinceByronisnotcalled"I"),thereis,asweshallsee,
internalevidenceclearlyindicatingthatthesectionisnotevenwhatGenettecallspseudodiegesis,inwhichthenarratorappropriatesandtellsanother'sstoryasifit
werehisown.Second,KinneyviewsByronastheexclusivefocalcharacter,whereasinternalevidencesuggestsnotonlythatByrondoesnotspeak,butthathedoes
notseeeverythingeither.Considerthefollowingpassage,whichcomesjustaftertheworkmenlearnChristmas'sname:''Itseemedto[Byron]thatnoneofthemhad
lookedespeciallyatthestrangeruntiltheyheardhisname"(33emphasisadded).IfthissectionisfocalizedsolelythroughByron'sconsciousness,thenthe
followingpassages,whichoccurpriortothemenlearningChristmas'sname,representacleartheoreticalproblem:
themeninfadedandworksoiledoverallslookedathisbackwithasortofbaffledoutrage."Weoughttorunhimthoughaplaner,"theforemansaid,"Maybethatwilltakethat
lookoffhisface."...Theothershadnotstoppedwork,yettherewasnotamanintheshedwhowasnotagainwatchingthestranger....Theotherswatchedhimgodowntothe
sawdustpile.(3233emphasesadded)

HowhasByronmanagedtobothregisterandmissthatthemenhavedonenothingbutlookatChristmassincehemakeshisappearance?Third,Kinneyattributesto
Byronalevelofcognitivevolitionthatishighlyproblematizedbynarrativestylistics,claimingofthepassagebelow,forexample,that

(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
discussion,seeCuller,ThePursuitofSigns:Semiotics,Literature,Deconstruction(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1981),16971.

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6
"Byronwishestoanalogize('likeatramp')orclassify('thestranger')inordertogivesomemeaningtotheimagesheperceives."
ByronBunchknowsthis:ItwasoneFridaymorningthreeyearsago.Andthegroupofmenatworkintheplanershedlookedup,andsawthestrangerstandingthere,watching
them.Theydidnotknowhowlonghehadbeenthere.Helookedlikeatramp,andyetnotlikeatrampeither.Hisshoesweredustyandhistrousersweresoiledtoo.Buttheywere
ofdecentserge,sharplycreased,andhisshirtwassoiledbutitwasawhiteshirt,andheworeatieandastiffbrimstrawhatthatwasquitenew,cockedatananglearrogantand
balefulabovehisstillface.Hedidnotlooklikeaprofessionalhoboinhisprofessionalrags,buttherewasstillsomethingdefinitelyrootlessabouthim,asthoughnocitywashis,
nostreet,nowalls,nosquareofearthhishome.(31)

Extendingtoitslogicalconclusionthechapter'snarratinginstance,KinneylocatessentienceandvolitionexclusivelywithinthecharacterofByron.Butifitlooksas
though"ByronBunchknowsthis,"weshouldnotethatthenarratinginstanceiscompletelydestablizedasthesectionunfolds.

Theimmediatenominalshiftfrom"ByronBunch"tothe"groupofmen"callsintoquestionwhatwemightcallthefocalpaththatis,thesubjectiveintermediaries
throughwhichthenarratorapprehendsChristmas.Thepossiblefocalpathscanbeschematizedaccordingtothefollowingdiagram:

Evenifwedismissastraightnbxpath,whichfailstoaccountforthepresenceofthemen,thereremainseveralalternativepathsthroughwhichthepassagecan,at
leastprovisionally,beread.Inthenaxpaththenarrator
6.ArthurF.Kinney,Faulkner'sNarrativePoetics:StyleasVision(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1978),1617,emphasesaddedGrardGenette,Narrative

Discourse:AnEssayinMethod,trans.JaneE.Lewin(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1980),236.

(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

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shiftshisfocallocationfromByrontothemen.InthencxpaththefocalizinglocusshiftstothegroupofmenincludingByron,inwhichcasethethirdpersonpronouns
(them,they)canbetransposedtothefirstperson(us,we)withaminimallossofmeaning.Inthenbacpaththegroupofmen(excludingByron)providesthefinal
locusoffocalization,buttheirperceptionsofChristmasaremediatedthroughByron's"framing"focalization:thenarratorisconsciousofByron'sconsciousnessofthe
men'sconsciousnessofChristmas.Anotherpath,whichwemightdesignatenba/nbx,allowsustoreadByron'sfocalizationasbeingequallyconsciousofthemen
andChristmas.Tofurthercomplicatematters,theabsenceofembeddinglocutions(heknew,theybelieved)inthelatterpartofthepassagewherethereaderfirst
"sees"ChristmasmakesitpossibletoreadthepassageasnonfocalizednarrativeinwhichthenarratorisconsciousofByron,themen,andChristmasasequivalent
narrativeunits(withthesignaldifferencethatthenarratorhasaccesstothesubjectivitiesofByronand/orthemen,butnotthatofChristmas)ratherthanbecoming
consciousofChristmasthroughoneofthefocalpathsdescribedabove.

Sowho"owns"theknowledgeofJoeChristmas?Who"decides"ifvolitionisevenatissuethat"helookedlikeatramp,yetnotlikeatrampeither"?Thesyntactic
structureofthesentence"Helookedlikeatramp"theessentialfeaturesofwhicharereplicatedthroughoutthepassageinvolveswhatBrianMacaskillcallsmiddle
voiceutterance,agrammaticalstructureinwhichtheagentiveorinstrumentalphraseiscalledintoquestion.7Althoughthereadermightsupplyanynumberofostensibly
recoverabledeletions("Helooked[tothenarrator?themen?Byron?]likeatramp''),theactualsyntacticstructureassignstoChristmasthegrammaticallocation
typicallyaffordedtotheagentoftheaction.Theaccretionofmiddlevoiceutteranceduringthecourseofthispassagecausesanelisionofagency:thequalities
"attributed"toChristmastendto"appear"asobjective

(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Genettenotesthattheconventionoftheflashbackinfilm,oftenintroducedwithacharacter'svoiceover,isacommonformofpseudodiegeticdiscourse.
7.BrianMacaskill,"ChartingJ.M.Coetzee'sMiddleVoice,"ContemporaryLiterature35(1994):45051.

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qualities.Atthesametime,therangeofChristmas's"appearance"makesitimpossibletoreadthepassageasasimpledescriptiveregister.Interestingly,asthepassage
becomesmoresubjective,movingasitdoesfromrelativelyobjectivequalitieslikeChristmas'swhiteshirttoanalogicsimilesto(attheend)somethinglikeaproto
narrative("asthoughnotownnorcitywashis..."),itbecomeslessclearpreciselywhichsubjectivitiesareorientingthenarrative.Yetevencouldwedecide
conclusivelythat,say,thefocalpathofthepassageisncx,andthatthepassagerepresentsthemen'sactiveperceptionofChristmas("thementhoughtthathelooked
likeatramp"),wemuststillconsiderthemodeofrepresentationthatis,therelationshipbetweenthelanguageofthispassageandthethoughts,feelings,and
conceptualizationsofthemen.Didthemenliterallysaytothemselves,''Helook[s]likeatramp,"oristhenarratorprovidinglanguageandanalogiesthatcapturethe
vaguefeelingsandimpressionsofthefocalcharacters?Bytheendofthepassage,itisdifficulttoascribetheheighteneddictiontowhatByronandhispeersmight
conceivablysayoreventhink.Inshort,whathappensbetween"ByronBunchknowsthis"andtheconclusionofthepassage?Iproposethatwecannotknow.
Faulkner'snarrativestylesoradicallyandsystematicallydissemblesanyCartesianmodelofepistemologythananydecisionregardinghowknowledgehappensis
inherentlyprecarious.NorarethesedestabilizingtechniquespeculiartothispassagetheinstabilitiesIhaveconsideredherearereplicatedthroughoutthenovel.

ThefuzzyedgesofFaulkner'snarrativestyleare,asitwere,centraltoLightinAugust,anovelobsessednotonlywithmaintainingboundaries,butwiththeproblem
ofdefiningthem.Althoughtheseboundariesare,ofcourse,thematizedattheculturallevelofgenderandespeciallyrace,theyareimmanentlyatworkinthenovel's
narrativestyle,which,initscontinualforaysintoprivateandpublicsubjectivities,obscuresboththelocusandthestatusofthecognitiveworkbeingperformed.
Further,thisstylemodulatesbetweenmimesisanddiegesiswithoutclearlymarkingeitherweareneverquitesurewhatwearebeingshownandwhatwearebeing
told.Asanindexofthistextualcharacteristic,criticsofthenovelarefairlyevenlydividedbetweenreferringtothenarratorasa"narrativeconsciousness"(amimetic
metaphor)and"narrativevoice"(adiegeticmetaphor).AlthoughHugh

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RuppersburgandStephenRosshaveprovidedusefulheuristictaxonomiesfordistinguishingbetweenthevarious"voices"and"perspectives"ofFaulkner'snovel,
neitheraccountsforthephenomenonnotedbyDavidM.Toomey,whoobservesthatthenarratorofLightinAugust"blendssoeasilyintocharacter'sspeechor
thoughtthatinmanyinstancestheircertaindifferentiationisimpossible....LightinAugustseemsnotonlytoeschewsuchindicatorsitseemsactuallytoobscurethe
placesnarrativetransitionswouldnaturallyoccur.''8

Consider,forexample,thefollowingpassagefromchapter5,whichtakesplacejustafterChristmashasbeatenBrownandshortlybeforehekillsJoannaBurden:
Hestoodinthedarknessabovethepronebody,withBrown'sbreathalternatelyhotandcoldonhisfingers,thinkingquietlySomethingisgoingtohappentome.Iamgoingto
dosomethingWithoutremovinghislefthandfromBrown'sfacehecouldreachwithhisrightacrosstohiscot,tohispillowbeneathwhichlayhisrazorwithitsfiveinchblade.
Buthedidnotdoit.PerhapsthinkinghadalreadygonefarenoughanddarkenoughtotellhimThisisnottherightoneAnywayhedidnotreachfortherazor.(104)

Thepassagebeginswithanonfocalizedrepresentationofaction(ChristmasstandingaboveBrown),beforeshiftingtoalocationassociatedwithChristmas's
consciousness(Somethingisgoingtohappentome.Iamgoingtodosomething,thechiasmusofwhichperfectlyillustratestheproblemofvolitionandagency).
TheitalicizedinternaldiscourseofFaulkner'snovelhasgeneratedsubstantialcriticalcommentary:Ruppersburgclaimsthatitrepresents"forallintentsandpurposes"a
mergerofnarratorandcharacterJosephReedlocatesatleastoneinstanceofit"ataleveljustbelowspeech,moreorlessformulatedforspeech"whileRossclaims
thatalthoughFaulkner"neverinterfereswiththemimeticillusionthatacharacteristhinkinginhisorher
8.HughM.Ruppersburg,VoiceandEyeinFaulkner'sFiction(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1983),3056StephenM.Ross,Fiction'sInexhaustibleVoice:Speechand

WritinginFaulkner(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1989),5158,14754DavidM.Toomey,"TheHumanHeartinConflict:LightinAugust'sSchizophrenicNarrator,"
StudiesintheNovel23(1991):456.

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ownidiom,"suchdiscourse,whichRosscategorizesundertheheading"psychicvoice,""transcendsthelimitsofanyindividualconsciousnessandcomestobeashared
oratleastasharablediscourse."AlthoughItendtoreadthemajorityofitalicized"thinking"aswhatAnnBanfieldcallsnonreflectiveconsciousnessthatis,
consciousnessnotyetarticulatedinlanguagethegenericidiominwhichitisarticulatedsuggestsatleastsomeinterventiononthepartofthenarrator.Weshould
clarify,however,thatnonreflectiveconsciousnessrarelyinvolvesatotalshiftinfocalizationthenarratorisequivalentlyconsciousofChristmas'sphysicalandmental
activity.ThispassageistypicalofFaulkner'srepresentationofnonreflectiveconsciousnessinthatitisnot,touseGenette'sphrase,emancipatedfromnarrative
patronage.9

Theremainderofthepassage,however,complicatesthisfocalmodel.Immediately,thereaderconfrontsasentencethatappearstobefocalizedthroughChristmas.
Thenarrativehereregistersnotmerelydistances,butintentions:insofarasChristmasisthinkingaboutreachingforhisrazor,thepassageisfocalizedthroughhim.
Twofactors,however,suggestthatthefocalizationisnotabsolute.First,thereisanexcessofinformationeventhoughheisapparentlythinkingabouttherazorandits
proximity,Christmaswouldnotbethinkingaboutithavingafiveinchblade.Second,therepetitionof"his"ratherthan"the"("hiscot,""hispillow,''"hisrazor")
representsasubtleinfiltrationofthenarrator'slanguagewerethepassagefullyfocalized,"his"wouldclearlybeanomalous.MiekeBalhaslabeledthistechnique
"transposedfocalization,"whichshedefinesaswhenthenarrator"assumesthecharacter'sviewbutwithouttherebyyieldingthefocalizationtohim."10Followingthe
externalshiftinthenextsentence("Buthedidnotdoit")which,focalizedthroughChristmas,wouldbesomeversionof"No"thefocalmodelbecomesevenmore
convoluted.Theembeddinglocution"Perhapsthinkinghadalreadygonefarenoughanddarkenoughto
9.Ruppersburg,VoiceandEye,37JosephW.Reed,Jr.,Faulkner'sNarrative(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1973),121Ross,Fiction'sInexhaustibleVoice,149,150Ann

Banfield,"ReflectiveandNonReflectiveConsciousnessintheLanguageofFiction,"PoeticsToday2(1981):6367Genette,NarrativeDiscourse,174.
10.MiekeBal,"TheNarratingandtheFocalizing:ATheoryoftheAgentsinNarrative,"Style17(1983):252.

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tellhim"qualifiesthe"thought"("Thisisnottherightone")asanarrativespeculation,therebyovertlycallingattentiontothenarrator'spresenceforthefirsttimein
whathadexisted,despiteitsshiftsinfocalization,asaminimallynarratedregisterofphysicalandpsychologicalevents.Asintheopeningpassageofchapter2,the
narrativebecomeslessstable,lessauthoritative,asitbeginstoconcernitselfwithissuesofcausationandmotivationinshort,asitbecomesconcernedwithmeanings.

Asthenovelmovesinward,then,wefindproblemsoffocalization,modeofrepresentation,andnarrativeauthoritysimilartothosewenotedaboveasthenovelmoves
amongdifferentcharacters.Thestylistictechniquesproducingthisphenomenonsystematicallyobscurehownorms,conceptualizations,andcausalscenariosenterthe
discursivespaceofthenovel.ForChristmastohave"lookedlikeatramp,andyetnotlikeatrampeither"orforChristmas'shypotheticalthoughttobe"dark,"
someoneorrather,somesubjectivity,since,asRuppersburgsays,thenarratoris"[i]nnosenseacharacterorevenaperson"11musthavedecidedso.Yet
determiningpreciselywherethatsubjectivityexistsorindeed,whetherasubjectivityiseventangiblypresent,sincemanyvaluationsandconceptionsarepresentedas
objective"facts''isadifficultmatterindeed.Thatthenarrativediscoursesometimesappearsasarelativelypassivemediuminwhichtheeventsofthestoryaremerely
registered,butatothersassumesthetextureofastorybeingactivelytold,addscomplicationsuponcomplexities.Yetforallitscomplexities,thenarrativestyleof
LightinAugustissingularlyfittedtocapturethenuancesofthisparticularsocialworld,withitsuncertainandunstableboundariesbetweenprivateandpublicspace,
betweensubjectandobject,betweenindividualandcommunity.LightinAugustpositsagrammar,orsetofstructuralimperatives,thatcannotbereducedtothelevel
oftheindividualandthat,tosomeextent,issharedbetweenindividuals.Inthusestablishingsomethinglikethecommunity'scontinuousmind,Faulkner'snarrativestyle
refusestorecognizethediscretecognitiveboundariesnormallyassociatedwithindividualpersons.Toputthematteranotherway,althoughthecommunityisdifferent
from,itisnotseparatefromtheindividualswhocompriseit.WhileLightinAugustfrequentlyreifies"thecom
11.Ruppersburg,VoiceandEye,32.

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munity"asanagentinandofitselfanentitygreaterthanthesumofitscitizens,sotospeakitalsoregistershowthecommunityispartofthemindsofitscitizens.

Thecontinuousminddoesnotsimplyformconceptionsandmakejudgmentsitalsotellsstories.Andifthecommunitydoesnottellstoriesinpreciselythesameway
astheprimarynarratorofthenovel,thealignmentofthetwoentitiesmakesitimpossibletodifferentiatebetweenthemwithanyprecision.(Indeed,asIshallargue,the
limitedcritiqueofcommunitythatemergesinthenovelisinnosensedependentuponnormsexternaltothecommunity.)Beforeturningourattentiontothesignificance
ofthesenarrativetechniquesinrelationtocommunalideologiesofrace,letusreturntotheopeningsectionofchapter2andconsiderthesecondfeatureweidentified
asbeingcommunicatedbytheembeddinglocution"ByronBunchknowsthis."LiketherelationshipbetweenthenarratorandByron,thetenseofthesectionthe
temporalconfigurationitassumesundergoessubtleandsometimesproblematicshifts.Considerthefollowingpassage:
AndthatwasthefirsttimeByronrememberedthathehadeverthoughthowaman'sname,whichissupposedtobejustthesoundforwhoheis,canbesomehowanaugurof
whathewilldo,ifothermencanonlyreadthemeaningintime.Itseemedtohimthatnoneofthemhadlookedespeciallyatthestrangeruntiltheyheardhisname.Butassoonas
theyheardit,itwasasthoughtherewassomethinginthesoundofitthatwastryingtotellthemwhattoexpectthathecarriedwithhimhisowninescapablewarning,likeaflower
itsscentorarattlesnakeitsrattle.Onlynoneofthemhadsenseenoughtorecognizeit.Theyjustthoughtthathewasaforeigner.(33)

AlthoughwehavenotedhowthemenhavealreadybeenwatchingChristmasobsessively,andthusthatByron'sexclusivefocalizationisrenderedproblematic,another
importantfeatureofthispassageisthetemporalparadoxcontainedwithinit.If,asthepassageindicates,Christmas'snameisan"augurofwhathewilldo,"thisinsight,
specificallyattributedtoByronthreeyearspriortothepresenttenseofthesection'stelling,ispredicatedonwhatByrondoesnotyetknoweveninthepresenttense:
namely,thatChristmashas"blackblood.""They"whichapparentlyreferstothemenexclusiveofByron,sincetheaugurhypothesisisspecificallyattributedtohim
donot

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recognizethe"inescapablewarning"ofChristmas'snamepreciselybecause,astheensuinglanguageexplicitlyindicates,they"justthoughtthathewasaforeigner,"a
categorizationwhich,inindicatingonlyaslight(andhenceinsufficient)deviationfromthenorm"white,"clearlypointsto"Negro"asthepropercategory.Notmaking
thismistakethusstandsinacausalrelationtobeingabletorecognizethewarning.AndyetnowheredowehaveanyevidencethatByronisinclinedtoviewChristmas
withanyunduesuspicionByronis,infact,lesssuspiciousthantheothermen,oneofwhomlatersaysthatByron"staysoutofmeannesstoomuchhimselftokeepup
withotherfolks'''(43)muchlessthatheintuitsChristmas'sblackblood.UnlessthereaderisherewillingtograntByronapresciencehesorelylackselsewhere,the
passageispossibleonlyinsofarasitpositsafuturetenseprovidingthenecessaryperspectivefromwhich"ByronBunchknows"atenseperhapssuggestedbythe
embeddinglocution"Byronremembered"inwhichcasetheoriginalattributionofthehypothesistoByronthreeyearsagorepresentsaclearcontradiction.Wemight
labelthistheproblemofembeddedforeshadowing,sinceByronhimselfisrepresentedaspossessingsomethinglikenarrativelicensetheabilitytoselectsignificant
eventswithinachainofsignificationwhoseultimatesignifiedisnotyetavailable.Toputthematteranotherway,Byronisunableto"readthemeaningintime,"andyet
stillrecognizesthewarning,despitethatthesefeaturestheoreticallycanceloneanotherout.

Asimilartemporalshiftoccurslaterinthesection,justafterapassagedescribingthefewfactsthemenhaveofChristmasaroundsixmonthsafterhehadbegun
workingatthemill:
ThisisnotwhatByronknowsnow.Thisisjustwhatheknewthen,whatheheardandwatchedasitcametohisknowledge.NoneofthemknewthenwhereChristmaslivedand
whathewasactuallydoingbehindtheveil,thescreen,ofhisnegro'sjobatthemill.Possiblynoonewouldhaveknownitifithadnotbeenfortheotherstranger,Brown.Butas
soonasBrowntold,therewereadozenmenwhoadmittedhavingboughtwhiskeyfromChristmasforovertwoyears,meetinghimatnightandaloneinthewoodsbehindanold
colonialplantationhousetwomilesfromtown,inwhichamiddleagedspinsternamedBurdenlivedalone.Buteventhe

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oneswhoboughtthewhiskeydidnotknowthatChristmaswasactuallylivinginatumbledownnegrocabinonMissBurden'splace,andthathehadbeenlivinginitformorethan
twoyears.(36)

Althoughtheaegisofthefirstsentence,whichdirectlycontradictsthefirstsentenceofthesection,isnotclearlydelineated,therealenigmaofthispassageiswhat
"Browntold"thatcausedadozenmentoadmitthattheyhadboughtwhiskeyfromChristmas.Clearlythesemenarenotthemillworkers,wholaterinformthe
innocentByronthatChristmasandBrownsellwhiskeytoothermen,althoughthespeakercarefullyqualifiesChristmas'sinvolvementashearsay(43).Norarethese
mennumberedamongthe"youngmenandevenboys"whobuywhiskeyfromBrownintown.Evenattheendofthesection,thetown"stilldo[es]notknowfor
certainifChristmasisconnectedwithit,savethatnoonebelievesthatBrownalonehassenseenoughtomakeaprofitevenfrombootlegging,andsomeofthemknow
thatChristmasandBrownbothliveinacabinontheBurdenplace"(46).SowhoarethesedozenmenagroupclearlydistinctfromByron,themillworkers,and"the
town,"whichhasonepieceofknowledgeunavailabletothedozenmen(thatChristmasandBrownliveinJoannaBurden'sNegrocabin)butlacksanother(that
Christmasisdefinitelyinvolved)andwhatdoesBrowntellthatcausesthemtoadmittheirpurchases?Thefirstquestionisadmittedlyinsignificantexceptinsofarasit
createsadiscretegroup,butthesecondismoreintriguing.BecausethisdiscretegroupexistsandbecausetheoffhandnarrativereferencetoBrown'stellingpointstoa
collectivelyknownevent,themostlikelyreferenceistoBrown'sassertiontothesheriffinchapter4thatChristmashas"niggerblood.''Ifthisistrue,thenthenarrative
consciousnessextendsnotonlybeyondByronforreasonsthatarealtogetherobvious,butbeyondthepresenttenseofthesection'stelling.Thesecondsectionof
chapter2,narratedlargelyinthepresenttense,takesplaceontheafternoonafterChristmaskillsJoannaBurdenBrown,however,doesnotreachthesheriffuntilthe
eveningofthatday.

Accordingtothenormalrulesofnarrative,suchpresciencecanlogicallybeattributedonlytothenarrator.Indeed,thenarratordemonstratesforeknowledge
throughoutthetext,notablyattheconclusionofchapter17,whereHightower'sreliefatByronandLena'sdeparture("Andthismustbe

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all")isfollowedbytheominousnarratorialcomment,"Butitisnotall.Thereisonethingmorereservedforhim"(414).Suchpassagesembody,onaformalandnot
merelythematiclevel,whatJosephReeddescribesasthenovel'smomentumfromwastomustbe.DiscussingthisfeatureofLightinAugust,BrianRichardson
contendsthatsuchmetafictiveelements"dra[w]attentiontotheparadoxicalstatusofcausalityinfiction":"Anycoincidence,determinism,orteleologywithinafictional
worldispresentbecauseithasbeenplacedtherebytheauthor.Atsomelevel,destinyisalwaysafabrication.''12Iwouldcontend,however,thatdestinyisfabricated
notmerelyatthelevelofauthorialdiscourse,butatthelevelsofnarratorialandcommunaldiscourseaswell.AsthecommunityattemptstoexplainthemeaningofJoe
Christmas,itscausalsequencesarerevealedtoexistonlyafterthefact.

WehavenowtentativelydefinedsomeofthefeaturesofLightinAugust'snarrativestyle,takingthefirstsectionofchapter2asaprovisionallyrepresentativetext.
Essentially,thesefeaturesorganizethemselvesaroundissuesofsentienceandvolition,or,torevisethesetermsslightly,offocalizationandagency.Wehavefurther
seenhownarrativestylisticsplacebothfocalizationandagencyinacontinualstateofdeferral.As"thetown"whichwecantakeasanominalizationofthevarious
focalizingsubjectivitiesinvolved,andwhichexplicitlyprovidesthefinal(collective)focalizationofthesectioncomesto"know"Christmas,theresponsibilityforor
originalownershipofthisknowledge,althoughprovisionallyascribedtoByron,issystematicallyobscured,asis,insofarasByron'sembeddedforeshadowingandthe
referencetoBrown'stellingcallintoquestionthetemporalperspectiveofthenarratinginstance,themotivationstructuringthenarrativethroughwhichChristmas
becomesknown.Toputthematterthiswayiscertainlytousecircularlogic,butsuchlogicisextremelyrelevanttoLightinAugust,anovelinwhichstories
consistentlypresentthemselvesasrepetitionsofthealreadytoldor,alternatively,astellingsofthealreadythere.Inconsideringhownarrativefunctionswithinthe
community,bothintermsofthe"outsidenarratives"constructedbythecommunityand"insidenarratives"thatthecharactersinhabit,Iwanttocallattentiontohow,on
theone
12.Reed,Faulkner'sNarrative,113BrianRichardson,"DeathbyFictioninLightinAugust,"FaulknerJournal3,no.2(1988):28.

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hand,thenovelsystematicallytraceshowstoriesarebuilt,thusprovidinganopportunitytoexaminehowideologicalpressuresinfluenceanddistorttheevolutionof
talespresentingthemselvesasobjectiveregistersof"thingsastheyare,"andhow,ontheother,storiesconsistentlyappearasobjectiveformsexistingpriortoany
individualorgroupappropriatingandtellingthem.LightinAugustasksustotakeseriouslytheideaofsocialroleinitsliteraldramaticsense,asaplayingoutof
alreadyscriptedactionsandwords.Narrativeisextremelymalleableitisalsoperfectlyrigid.Paradoxically,thecommunity'sstoriesarealwaysintheprocessof
becomingwhattheyalreadyare.

DeferraloccursnotonlyinrelationtothefocalshiftsofLightinAugust'snormativediegesis,butalsoatthelevelofitsembeddedstorytelling.FromByronBunch's
earlyrevelationstothefurnituredealer'stalethatclosesthenovel,thereaderreceivesagreatdealofinformationviasecondlevelnarrators.Thistechniquehasseveral
importantconsequences.First,ashasbeencommonlyrecognized,thereaderisplacedwithintheworldofthenovel,receivingtheinformationanditsstylistictexturing
alongwiththecharacter(s)towhomitisdirected.Second,Faulkner'sembeddingtechniquesoftenforegroundtheunstablenatureofthenarrativediscourseby
obscuring,ondifferentoccasions,boththetellerandthetale.Third,theembeddingtechniquesforegroundthenatureofstorytellingasasocialtransaction,ashared
attempttounderstandandsocializephenomenathroughtheframeworkofcommunalnorms.

AsanintroductiontoembeddednarrativeinLightinAugust,letusconsiderthetwoversionsofHightower'shistorytoldinchapter3byanonymousnarrators.The
firstinstanceisanexampleofwhatGenettecallsthepseudoiterative13aneventpresentedasoccurringrepeatedly,butwhosespecificityensuresthatthereader
doesnottakethisclaimliterally:"astrangerhappeningalongthequietandremoteandunpavedandlittleusedstreetwouldpauseandreadthesign[infrontof
Hightower'shouse]andthenlookupatthesmall,brown,almostconcealedhouse,andpassonnowandthenthestrangerwouldmentionthesigntosome
acquaintancein
13.Genette,NarrativeDiscourse,121.

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thetown.'Ohyes,'thefriendwouldsay.'Hightower.Helivestherebyhimself'"(59).Theensuingstory,whichoccupiesjustunderapageoftext,recountsthebasic
plotofHightower'slifeinJeffersonhowhiswife"wentbadonhim"because,as"[s]omefolksclaimed,''"hecouldn'torwouldn'tsatisfyherhimself"howhe"hadto
resignfromthechurchbutwouldn'tleaveJefferson"after"shegotkilled,inahouseorsomethinginMemphis"howheremainsintownlivingaloneandmostly
forgotten(59).Theunnamednarratortellsatentativestory,qualifyingseveralofhisfactsashearsay,refusingtospeculateonwhyHightowerremains("Wedon'tknow
whyhestayshere"),andfocalizinghistalethroughacommunalperspective.Inshort,thisbriefhistory,setofffromthenormativediegesisasarecurrenttale,
realisticallydepictswhatacitizenofJeffersonmightactuallysayifaskedaboutHightower.

Incontrast,theimmediateretellingandelaborationofHightower'slifeinJefferson(6073)involvesagreaterdegreeofnarrativelicense.Althoughtheostensible
narratorisacollective"they"whohadrecountedthetaletoByronsevenyearspreviously,asthestoryprogressesitbecomesfartherremovedfromitsnarrative
instanceandclosertothenormaldiegeticmodeofthenovel.Theembeddinglocutions"theytoldhim"or"theytoldByron"appeartentimes,fivetimeswithinthefirst
threepagesoftext.Althoughthestoryisconsistentlyfocalizedthroughthecommunity"thepeople"andthe"thetown"arecitedrepeatedlywhatoriginallyappears
astransposedspeech("they"speakingthroughthenarrator)graduallydemonstratesmoreandmorefeaturesofnarratizedspeech(thenarratorspeakingfor"them"),
finallyterminatinginwhatappearsverymuchlikepseudodiegesis.14Theeffectofthisnarrativetransferistoaligntheprimarynarratorandtheembeddedcollective
narrator,thelatterofwhichseemstomergewiththeformerwithoutaclearlineofdemarcationbeingdrawn.Thenarratorthus(pseudodiegetically)assumesthe
community'sperspectivenotonlyattheleveloffocalization,butatthelevelofnarrationitself.

YetasthereaderconsumesHightower'sstory,heorsheisalsoforcedtoapprehendthediscursivepracticesproducingthatstory.Inaprovocative
14.ThetermsareGenette'sseehisdiscussionofthe"narrativeofwords"inNarrativeDiscourse,16985.

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essayonLightinAugustEllenGoellnerarguesthatgossipactssimultaneouslyasacentripetalforce(adispersedpublicvoicerepresentingcommunaljudgment)anda
centrifugalforce(a"nonmainstream,alternative,subversivesetofhistories").AlthoughIfindlittleevidencethatgossipservesanysubversiverole,Goellner'sanalysis
ofthenovel'snormativenarrativemodeas"anamalgamatedtalking"notdissimilarfromthegossipcontainedwithinitrepresentsanimportantinsightintothenarrative
dynamicsofLightinAugust.15Oneimportantfeatureofgossipishowitdeferstheoriginofthenarratingsubject.GossipinLightinAugustisvirtuallyoriginlessin
onesense,itisnotnarratedatall,butmerelyrepeatedasastorythatalreadyexists.Byron,forexample,istoldabouthowHightower's"wifewashardlycoldinthe
shamefulgravebeforethewhisperingbegan.Abouthowhehadmadehiswifegobadandcommitsuicidebecausehewasnotanaturalhusband,anaturalman,and
thatthenegrowomenwasthereason.Andthat'sallittookallthatwaslacking....thatwasallthatitrequired:thatidea,thatsingleidleworldblownfrommindto
mind"(71).The''whispering"occursasaneventwithintheembeddednarrativeByronreceivesthecollectivenarratorneitherassumesnorassignsresponsibilityforit.
Andwhileithasnoconcreteorigin,thestory,orratherthe"singleidleword"isimmediatelydisseminatedamongthemembersofthecommunity,whichhere,as
elsewhere,demonstratesanalmostobsessivedesireforstories,eventhose,asByronbelieveswithrespecttoanotherluridtaleinvolvingHightower,"whichtheydid
notbelievethemselves"(74).InanotherinstancethetowncirculatesarumorthatHightowerhadinsuredhiswife'slifeandhadhermurdered:"Buteveryoneknewthat
thiswasnotso,includingtheoneswhotoldandrepeateditandtheoneswholistenedwhenitwastold"(71).

Notonly,then,dothesenarrativeslackapropernarrator,theyalsofrequentlylackaverifiablereferent.Whatthesestoriesdopossessisaneageraudienceforwhich
theyserveanessentialsocialfunction.Suchnarrativescontainviolenceinbothsensesoftheword:althoughthat"singleidleword"terminatesinHightower'sbeing
savagelybeatenbytheKlan,afterheisbeaten,"allofasuddenthewholethingseemedtoblowaway,likeanevil
15.EllenGoellner,"ByWordofMouth:NarrativeDynamicsofGossipinFaulkner'sLightinAugust,"Narrative1(1993):107.

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wind.Itwasasthoughthetownrealisedatlastthathewouldbeapartofitslifeuntilhedied,andthattheymightaswellbecomereconciled.Asthough,Byron
thought,theentireaffairhadbeenalotofpeopleperformingaplayandthatnowandatlasttheyhadallplayedoutthepartswhichhadbeenallottedthemandnow
theycouldlivequietlywithoneanother"(73).Theimageofthewind,whichseemsto"bring"storiesandthento"blowthemaway,"isahighlysuggestiveone,asisthe
metafictionalequationofsocialactionand''performingaplay"onewhosepredeterminedplotpermitsnodeviation.Theoneimagesuggeststransienceandinstability,
theotherstrictrigidity:thestoryoriginatesfromnowhere,yetseemstobeintractablyemplotted.Yet,afterthestoryhasreacheditsclimax,Hightower,likeJoanna
BurdenandforacertaintimeJoeChristmas,comestoinhabitwhatwemightcall(toborrowanideafromBrooks)anarrativecyst,bywhichImeanthathehasbeen
narratedinsuchawayastorenderhimnearlyinvisibletopublicview.Isaynearlyinvisiblebecausesuchcystsconstantlythreatentorupture,asevidencedbythe
renewedthreatofviolencewhenHightowerdeliversastillbornchildrumoredtobehis,anincidentthat"wasjusttooclosetothatotherbusiness...evendespitethe
fifteenyearsbetweenthem"(74).

Inmanyrespects,HightowerprefiguresChristmasasanobjectinthetown'snarrativeconsciousness.LikeHightower,Christmasliveslargelyoffstageduringtheyears
betweenhisarrivalinJeffersonandhiskillingofJoannaBurdeninchapter13,forexample,heisdescribedas"anotherstranger...aboutwhom,despitethefactthat
hehadlivedinJeffersonforthreeyears,evenlesswasknownthanaboutBrown"(295).AswithHightower,therupturehecausesbykillingJoannaengenderstwo
separatetellings:Byron'sembeddednarrativetoldtoHightowerinchapter4andthediegeticnarrativetoldinchapter13,betweenwhichlietheinterveningchapters
(612)recountingChristmas'schildhoodandlifeuptotheactualkilling.Andineachcasethenarrativeandsocialdynamicssurroundingthetwocharacterswork
accordingtoaprincipleofdeferral.Byron'saccountinchapter4,interspersedwithinhisaccountofmeetingLenaatthemillandtakinghertotown,beginswitha
mimeticrepresentationofByrontellinghisstory.Astheepisodeproceeds,however,wefind,aswiththecollectivenarrationofthestoryaboutHightower,the
boundarybetweenembedded

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storytellingandpseudodiegesisbecomingincreasinglyindistinct.ThefirstmajorshiftoccursasByronbeginstotellHightowerabouthisdecisiontotakeLena,to
whomhehasrevealedthatLucasBurchlivesinJefferson,toaboardinghouseintown:"Byroncontinuesinthatflatvoice:abouthowatsixoclock..."(82).Several
factorsclearlymarktheensuingnarrativeaspseudodiegesis:Byronisreferredtointhethirdpersonthenarrativeisnolongersetoffwithquotationmarksthestyleof
thenarrativerepresentsaclearshiftfromByron'sdialectandononeoccasiontheprivatethoughtsofacharacterotherthanByronarerepresented,therebysubverting
evenBryon'sexclusivefocalization.Byron'snarrativethusfadesintopseudodiegesis:
AndByrontalkingquietly,thinking,remembering:Itwaslikesomethinggonethroughtheair,theevening,makingthefamiliarfacesofmenappearstrange,andhe,whohadnot
yetheard,withouthavingtoknowthatsomethinghadhappenedwhichmadeoftheformerdilemmaofhisinnocence[i.e.,hisdilemmaovertellingLenaaboutBurch/Brown]a
matterforchildren,sothatheknewbeforeheknewwhathadhappened,thatLenamustnothearaboutit....Itseemedtohimthatfate,circumstance,hadsetawarninginthesky
alldaylonginthatpillarofsmoke,andhetoostupidtoreadit.Andsohewouldnotletthemtellthemenwhomtheypassed,theairthatblewuponthemfullofitlestshehear
too.(83)

AsBryonbringsLenaintotown,heisengulfedbyanarrativehedoesnotyetknow,despitehavingbeengivenawarningwhosestatusassuch,aswithChristmas's
nameearlier,isrecognizableonlyafterthefact,whenmerecircumstancerevealsitselftohavebeenpartofafatedpattern.Therecurrentimageofnarrative"intheair"
askstobetakenalmostliterallyonceagain,astoryappearsasaphysicalobjectwithinthecommunity.

ThenarrativefinallyreturnstoByron'sembeddednarration,whichheconcludesbyrelatingtoHightower,inwhatpurporttobehisownwords,thestoryhehadnot
knowninthepassageabove.Althoughthereaderisnevershownhowthisstoryistransmitted,Byronhasapparentlyreceiveditwell.Histale,whichembedsboththe
countryman'saccountoffindingthefireandBrown'saccountofthekillingis,indeed,tooauthoritative.InspiteofthemimeticpresentationofByron'snarrative,which
issetoffbyquotationmarksandwhichcontainsnumerouslocutions("Ireckon,""hesaid

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that,""hetoldhow")maintainingtheappearancethatByronliterallytellsit,theoverabundanceandauthoritativenessoftheinformationcontainedtherein,combinedwith
ashifttothepresenttense("thesheriffsays"),makesitdifficulttointerpretthestoryaseitheraliteraltaleofwhathappenedoraliteralregisterofwhatByronmight
havetold,andimpossibletointerpretitasboth.How,forexample,doesByrongainaccesstotheinterviewbetweenthesheriffandBrown,whichherelatesindetail
toHightower?Hisstorymakesclearthattheinterviewisheardbynooneelsebutthemarshal:aparentheticalcomment(Byron's?thenarrator's?weareneverquite
sure)relatesthat"theyhadlockedthedoor[tothecabinwheretheinterviewtakesplace[,butthewindowswaslinedwithfolks'facesagainsttheglass"(97).Later,as
themarshalbringsBrownfromthecabin,thespectatorsaskifBrownis''theonethatdoneit"(100),informationtheywouldhaveiftheyhadbeenabletohear
Brown'saccountandthesheriff'sreactiontoit.Interestingly,Byron'sembeddednarrativeconcludeswiththemarshal'srefusaltoanswerthemen'squestions,although
thiscontactprovidesthemostlikelysiteforthetransmissionofBrown'saccount.YetevenifweallowByronbothindirectaccessto"thefacts"andaliberalamountof
narrativelicense,hewouldstillbeunabletotellhisstorythisway,sinceByronreproducesverbatimnotonlythespeechbetweenBrownandtheauthorities,but
speechwithinthatspeech,atonepointquotingBrown'squotingofconversationbetweenhimselfandChristmasthathadoccurredsometimepriortothekilling.Even
ifByroncouldpiecetogethertheeventsherelates,arealistictelling,suchasthefirstembeddednarrativeinchapter3,wouldsurelynotextendthisfar,since,as
Genetteobserves,"thepresenceofanarrator...isinprinciplecontrarytonovelisticmimesis."16

Byron'sstorycombineselementsofembeddednarrativeandpseudodiegesisindeed,attheendofhisstory,verylittledistinguisheshimfromtheprimarynarrator,
especiallyinthisimportantrespect:neithertheprimarynarratornorByrondemonstrateshowthenarrativecametoexist.Atthenormaldiegeticlevel,thereaderof
LightinAugust(orforthatmatter,anynarrativethatlacks,asFaulkner'snoveldoes,asustainedextradiegeticlevel)simplysuspendsdisbeliefandacceptsthe
narrativeonitsownterms:
16.Genette,NarrativeDiscourse,210.

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diegeticnarrative"justhappens."Atthelevelofembeddednarrative,however,theimpossibilityofByronnarratingthiscrucialmomentinthiswayraisesserious
questionsconcerningtheontologyofhisstory,which,likemanyinthenovel,seemstoappearfromoutoftheblue.ThisisespeciallysalientgiventhatByron"quotes"
therevelationenablingallofthecommunity'ssubsequentnarrativesaboutChristmas:
'You'resosmart,'he[Brown[says.'Thefolksinthistownissosmart.Fooledforthreeyears.Callinghimaforeignerforthreeyears,whensoonasIwatchedhimthreedaysIknew
hewasn'tnomoreaforeignerthanIam.Iknewbeforeheeventoldmehimself....He'sgotniggerbloodinhim.'...

'Anigger,'themarshalsaid.'Ialwaysthoughttherewassomethingfunnyaboutthatfellow.'...

'Well,'thesheriffsays,'Ibelieveyouaretellingthetruthatlast.'(9899)

DespitetheproblemswehavenotedconcerningByron'sstorytowhichwecanaddtheunreliabilityofBrown'sassertionthatheknewallalongaboutChristmas's
blackblood,oneofmanyobviousliesthatthesheriffshrewdlyexposestheimpliedreader,letmesuggest,tendstoacceptthereliabilityofBrown'srevelationas
bothaneventandafactitisalmostasiftheeventbeingnarratedtemporarilyoverwhelmswhateverscruplesthereadermighthaveconcerningtheauthenticityofits
transmission.BecausethestoriesconcerningChristmashavebeenfocalizedthroughthecommunity,andbecausethereaderhasbeenprovidedwithampleopportunity
toobservealongwiththetownthat"therewassomethingfunnyaboutthatfellow,"theresultingalignmentbetweenreaderandcommunitytendstocreateasenseof
fulfilledexpectation,ofthingshavingfinally"fallenintoplace."Yetatthesametime,thevariousinstabilitiessurroundingBrown'srevelationensurethatthismomentof
gestaltisinnosensefinalforeitherthecommunityorthereader.

ThesheerimpossibilityofByron'sstoryreplicatesonaformalleveltheproblemofpositiveknowledgethatplaguesthecommunityitself.Christmas'sownuncertain
knowledgeofhisblackbloodissubjecttoaregressiveseriesofnarrativesterminatinginthemurkyconversationbetweenDocHinesandthecircusowner(374),and
anevenmorecomplexprogressiveseriesofnarratives(fromBrowntothesheriffandmarshal,throughan

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anonymousintermediaryorintermediaries,toByron,andthroughByrontoHightower),whichfinallyrevealsthepresenceofblackbloodtothereaderofLightin
August.Yetateachstageoftransmissioneventhosenotrepresented"blackblood"produces,asakindofirresistibleforce,anarrativeatthenextlevel:black
bloodabolishesnarrativeellipsis.Simultaneously,however,thenarratingsubjectivityinquestionisnotpermittedtorepressfullyitsunstablegenealogy,itsrelianceon
previous,potentiallyunreliablenarratives.YetforthestoryofJoeChristmastomakesensethatis,foracausalseriesofotherwiserandomeventstobe
establishedblackbloodmustbepresent,asChristmashimselfrecognizeswhenhetellsJoannaBurdenthatifheisnotblack,"damnedifIhaven'twastedalotof
time"(254).Likethecommunityitself,Christmasisdeeplyinvestedinthepresenceofblackblood,sincewithoutit,hislifeobtainsnonarrativecoherenceand
devolvesinsteadintoaseriesofunorganized,"wasted"episodes.Asanobjectwithinastoryindeed,asthedefiningobjectinthestoriesthataccumulateinandfinally
compriseLightinAugustblackbloodenablesthenarratingsubject:hencethepossibilityofByron'simpossiblestory.Christmas'sblackbloodthuspermitsa
tentativeconvergenceofthevariousnarratingsubjects,againstwhichiscounterbalancedthedeferralofthesesamesubjects,noneofwhichhastheauthoritytostate
positivelythepresenceofblackblood.Althoughthisdeferralthreatens,asinByron'sretellingofBrown'sstory,tounderminetheveryfoundationsofnarrative
representation,thepotentiallyarbitrarynatureofsuchrepresentationissuspendedorabolishedatthemomentblackbloodispresent.ThecircularlogicofLightin
August,then,dictatesthatwithoutblackblood,there'snostory,andsincethestoryexists,thentheremustbeblackblood.Althoughlackingbothastable,
authoritativesubjectandaverifiableobject,thestoryofChristmas'sblackbloodisonethatcontinuestobetold,thatkeepsonhappening.

Inanimportantsense,itisastorythathasalreadyhappened.Thefollowingpassagefromchapter13priortoBrown'srevelationinstorytimebutsubsequenttoitin
discursivetimedescribesthecrowdthatgatherstowatchJoanna'shousegoupinflames:
AmongthemthecasualYankeesandthepoorwhitesandeventhesouthernerswhohadlivedforawhileinthenorth,whobelievedaloudthatitwasananonymousnegro

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crimecommittednotbyanegrobutbyNegroandwhoknew,believed,andhopedthatshehadbeenravishedtoo:atleastoncebeforeherthroatwascutandatleastonce
afterwards.(288emphasisadded)

Hencetheneedforblackblood.Yetofthemanycriticswhodiscussthispassage,fewforegroundtheitalicizedtext,andforreasonsthatwillbequiteapparent:the
displacementofguiltontopoorwhites,Yankees,andquasisouthernersthatis,ontopeopleoutsideofthecommunityappearstosubvertthecorporaterape
narrativemanycriticsareconcernedtoestablish.Consideredasadisplacement,however,thestoryissimplyalreadytherethecommunityneednot,aswiththe
whisperingthatsurroundsHightower,takeresponsibilityforit.ThenarrativeofNegrorape,then,existsasanobjectiveplotinsearchofitsactors,oneofwhomis
dead,whiletheothersimplyrequiresBrown'sstoryinordertoberevealed.Yettheabsenceoffocalizationthroughthecommunityinthispassageraisestheissueof
thenarrator'scomplicityinthisdisplacement,forthenarratorclearlydisplacestherapenarrativeontodisreputablesocialgroupsthatis,thoseotherthan"true
southerners."

Therelationshipbetweenthecommunityandthenarratorisindeedacomplexone.Aswehaveseen,twotechniquesinparticulartendtoalignthetwo:thepseudo
diegeticshiftsthatmodallyaligntheprimarynarratorwithembeddednarrators,andthesubtlefocalshiftstoeithermembersofthecommunityorthecommunityitself
reifiedas"thetown"oracollective"they."Wehavealsoseenhowthenarratorcomplicatessuchalignmentsbyreservingaspaceforhimselfafterostensiblydeferring
toanotherfocalizer("ByronBunchknowsthis")oranembeddednarrator,oftenassertinghispresenceintheoreticallytroublesomeways,asin,forexample,his
pseudodiegeticappropriationofthetown'sandByron'sspeech.

Nevertheless,thesetheoreticalcomplicationsdonotcreateamarkeddivisionbetweennarratorandcommunity.Ross,whonotesthatFaulknerwrotetheearly
chaptersas"quotedcolloquialnarration"(thatis,"pure"embeddednarrative),pointsout"howsurprisinglyfewmajorstylisticdistinctionsexistbetweentheauthorial
voiceandatownnarrator."Tracesofthisoriginalformremain,lendingtheprimarynarrator'svoicesomethingofacorporatetexture:tracessuchascolloquial
expressions(''Anywayhedidnot

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doit"),aphorismsdirectlyattributabletothenarrator("Manknowssolittleabouthisfellows"[47]),ortemporalreferences("onedayaboutsixmonthsagoanother
strangerappearedatthemill'')thatfixthenarratorinnarrativetimeratherthanthetimelesspresentusuallyreserved,asGenettepointsout,forextradiegeticnarrators.17
Asavoice,thenarratorthusoccasionallyimplieshis"presence"inthediegeticworld,ashedoes(asaneye)inpassageslikethefollowing,wherethecombinationof
nonfocalization,deictics,andpresenttenseverbsseemtosituatethenarratorphysicallywithinthescene:"[Lena]standstherejustinsidethedoor,watchinghimintently
butwithoutalarm,withthatuntroubled,faintlybaffled,faintlysuspiciousgaze.Hereyesarequiteblue"(51).

Althoughthenarrator'sinitialalignmentwith,andlocationwithin,thecommunitymightseemtoexplainthedisplacementofguiltontopoorwhitesandother
marginalizedgroupsinthepassagequotedabove,theensuingnarrativeclearlydemonstratesthespreadoftherapenarrativetothecommunityatlarge.Becauseitis
oneoftheveryfewpassagesinwhichthenarrativeovertlydistancesitselffromthecommunity'scontinuousmind,Iwillquoteitatlength:
Theycametooandwereshownseveraldifferentplaceswherethesheethadlain,andsomeofthemwithpistolsalreadyintheirpocketsbegantocanvassaboutforsomeoneto
crucify.

Buttherewasn'tanybody.Shehadlivedsuchaquietlife,attendedsotoherownaffairs,thatshebequeathedtothetowninwhichshehadbeenbornandlivedanddieda
foreigner,anoutlander,akindofheritageofastonishmentandoutrage,forwhich,eventhoughshehadsuppliedthematlastwithanemotionalbarbecue,aRomanholidayalmost,
theywouldneverforgiveherandletherbedeadinpeaceandquiet.Notthat....Becausetheothermadenicebelieving.Betterthantheshelvesandthecountersfilledwith
longfamiliarobjectsbought,notbecausetheownerdesiredoradmiredthem,couldtakeanypleasureintheowningofthem,butinordertocajoleortrickothermenintobuying
themataprofitandwhomustnow

17.Ross,Fiction'sInexhaustibleVoice,152Genette,NarrativeDiscourse,220.ForfurtherdiscussionofFaulkner'srevisionintheseearlychapters,seeReginaK.Fadiman,

Faulkner's"LightinAugust":ADescriptionandInterpretationoftheRevisions(Charlottesville:UniversityPressofVirginia,1975),15261.

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andthencontemplateboththeobjectswhichhadnotyetsoldandthemencouldbuythembuthadnotyetdoneso,withangerandmaybeoutrageandmaybedespairtoo.Better
thanthemustyofficeswherethelawyerswaitedlurkingamongghostsofoldlustsandlies,orwherethedoctorswaitedwithsharpknivesandsharpdrugs,tellingman,believing
thatheshouldbelieve,withoutresortingtoprintedadmonishments,thattheylaboredforthatendwhoseultimateattainmentwouldleavethemnothingwhatevertodo.Andthe
womencametoo,theidleonesinbrightandsometimeshurriedgarments,withsecretandpassionateandglitteringlooksandwithsecretfrustratedbreasts(whohaveeverloved
deathbetterthanpeace)toprintwithamyriadsmallhardheelstotheconstantmurmurWhodidit?Whodidit?periodssuchasperhapsIshestillfree?Ah.Ishe?Ishe?(28990)

Thecrucialfeatureofthispassageisthatthe"other,whichmadenicebelieving"doesnotmerelycontaintheviolencegeneratedbyBurden'sdeath,butassumes,asa
kindofsurrogatenarrative,violencethatalreadyexistsandthatisspecificallyattributedtothe"angerandmaybeoutrageandmaybedespair"generatedbyabortive
transactions.Thisisacommunityentirelyunlikeanythingthereaderhaspreviouslyencountered,atownwhosenormalsystemsofexchangehavebrokendownand
whosecitizensarevirtuallyateachother'sthroats.Yetoutofthiscommunityseethingwithviolence,therapenarrativeproducesnotonlyaconsensus,butasingle
body.Thecrowdgathers
withfacesidenticalonewithanother.Itwasasiftheirindividualfivesenseshadbecomeoneorganoflooking,likeanapotheosis,thewordsthatflewamongthemwindor
airengenderedIsthathim?Isthattheonethatdidit?Sheriff'sgothim.Sheriffhasalreadycaughthim....Behindtheminturnthedyingfireroared,fillingtheairthoughnot
louderthanthevoicesandmuchmoreunsourcelessByGod,ifthat'shim,whatarewedoing,standingaroundhere?Murderingawhitewomantheblacksonofa(291)

Itisclearfrominternalevidence,especiallythe"sourceless,""windorairengendered"italicizedtext,that"theother"iscloselyrelatedtotherapenarrativeoriginally
andexplicitlyattributedtoagroupmarginalizedinrelationtothenormativegroupmarkedas''southerners."Yet"theother"isjustasclearlyattributedtothisnormative
group,whichhereincludes,besidesan

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entiregender,threesociallyprominentprofessions.Justaswenotedearlierhow"blackblood"engenders,throughakindofsuspensionofdisbelief,aconflationof
narrativesubjectivities,itappearsthatasimilarphenomenonisoccurringinthispassage:therapenarrative,initiallydisplacedoutsideofthecommunity,threatensto
engulfthecollectiveofthecrowdgatheredtowatchthehouseburn.

Recognizingthatthistransferofviolencecoincideswitharadicallynewrepresentationofthecommunity,weareforcedtoaskwhy,ifthenarratordisapprovesofthis
transferasheclearlydoesReedisperfectlycorrectinlabelingthisa"passageofcondemnation,almostvituperation"heisinitiallycomplicitinitsdisplacementonto
theextranormativegroup.Thisdisplacement,weshouldfurthernote,wasfrequentlyreplicatedinpublicrhetoriccontemporaneoustothenovel.Discussingthe
aristocratic"conventionthatnowhitemanofanyselfrespectwouldparticipateinalynchingorindulgeinniggerhazingofanysort,"W.J.CashconcludedinTheMind
oftheSouththatwhile"commonwhiteshaveusuallydonetheactualexecution,""theyhavekeptondoingit,inthelastanalysis,onlybecausetheirbetterseither
consentedquietlyor,moreoften,definitelyapproved.''Ina1957interviewattheUniversityofVirginia,Faulknerhimselfassertedthat"notallMississippianswearthe
sheetandburnthesticks.Thattheyscornandhateandlookwithcontemptonthepeoplethatdo,butthesamespirit,thesameimpulseisinthemtoo."18Itisprecisely
thisinvocation,andthensuspension,ofwhitehierarchythatFaulkner'snarrativesobrilliantlyregistersasamechanismofdisplacement.Astherapenarrativespreads
fromthe"poorwhites"tothecommunityatlarge,itisasifthenarrator,formallycomplicitinthenarrativeexchangesconstitutingthecommunity'scohesivebonds,must
divorcehimselffromastorythatarbitrarilyarticulatestheobjectofviolenceuponwhichthosebondsarerevealedtobedependent.

Thisviolencemightbesaidtoproduce,onaformallevel,abifurcationoftheensuingnarrativeintotwodistinctalthoughinterrelatedmodes,whichIwilllabelthe
detectivestoryandthenarrativeofdesire.BytheformerImeannotonlytheliteralattempttoapprehendJoeChristmas,butthe
18.Reed,Faulkner'sNarrative,136Cash,MindoftheSouth,308,311WilliamFaulkner,FaulknerintheUniversity:ClassConferencesattheUniversityofVirginia,1957

1958,ed.FrederickL.GwynnandJosephL.Blotner(1959reprint,NewYork:Vintage,1965),94.

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morecomplexeffortonthepartofthecommunitytocomprehendhimtoincorporateandsubsumehimwithinitsideologies,norms,codes,andlaws.HaydenWhite
hassuggestedthat"narrativity,whetheroffictionalorthefactualsort,presupposestheexistenceofalegalsystemagainstoronbehalfofwhichthetypicalagentsofa
narrativeaccountmilitate."Thisraises,Whitecontinues,"thesuspicionthatnarrativeingeneral...hastodowiththetopicsoflaw,legality,legitimacy,or,more
generally,authority."19Whateveritsmeritsasageneraltheory,White'sassertionoftheinterdependenceofthelawandnarrativehasimportantimplicationsforLightin
August,anovelinwhichlawandstorytellingfunctionsimilarlyasformsofauthority,punitivemechanismsthatregulateandcontainthreateningsocialphenomena.
Christmas,ofcourse,generatesthemajorityofembeddednarrativesinthenovel,mostofwhichinvolveacommunityspokesmanalawabidingcitizen,soto
speakwhoattemptstoincorporatehimwithincommunalnorms.Wedonothearfromthecitizensconsumedbyalynchmentality,andwhenweseethem,itis
throughanarrativeperspectivenotdissimilartothatalawabidingcitizenmightinhabit.AlthoughwhatIamcallingthedetectivemodeentailsadispersalof
subjectivitiessuchaswehavepreviouslyencountered,itsmainactorsarethesheriff(whoenforcesthecode)andthelawyerGavinStevens(whoappliesitatthefinal
levelofcollectiveinterpretation).Althoughthedetectivemodeentailsviolencefromthesheriff'sliterallybeatingastoryoutofaNegrotoStevens'sfigurativelyviolent
divisionandreificationofblackandwhiteblooditalsostructuresandcontainsviolence.Thesheriffinparticularreceivesapeculiarbrandofnarrativesanctiondueto
hisabilitytocontrolthecrowdcanvassingaboutforsomeonetocrucifyandhislater(unsuccessful)attempttocontrolPercyGrimm.Heis,thenarratortellsus,a
''goodofficer"(330).

Bynarrativesofdesire,Iamdesignatingamoreamorphousgroupofstorieswhosecommonfeatureisthattheythreatentospiraloutofcontrol.Indeed,the
community'slevelofcontrolmaybetheprimarydistinctionbetweenthetwomodesIamdescribing.LikethemagazineChristmasreads"ofthattypewhosecovers
beareitherpicturesofyoungwomeninunderclothesorpicturesofmenintheactofshootingoneanotherwithpistols"
19.White,ContentoftheForm,13.

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(110),thenarrativeofdesiretypicallycentersaroundanamalgamationofsexandviolence,producingdesireinexcessoftheabilityofsocietalcodestocontainit.20
Thesenarrativestendtoappearoutofnowhere,andgenerallyfollowasexualparadigmofrisingaction,climax,anddenouement.WheretheeffectofwhatIamcalling
thedetectivemodeisprimarilytostructureandmaintainanequilibrium,thenarrativeofdesireworksintheoppositedirection,elaboratingandexacerbatingthe
tensionslatentinthecommunity.ItsdominantactorsareDocHinesandPercyGrimm,thelatterofwhom,significantly,isinitiallycommittedtotheimpositionoforder.
Wheretheonemodeisenabledbythelaw,theotherisessentiallyanarchic,producinganexcessofviolentenergy.Wheretheoneactsasamodeofsocialtransaction,
theotherisantisocialinanynormativesense,although,asinthecaseofHightower'sbeating,theviolentclimaxofsuchnarrativesisoftenfollowedbythe
reestablishmentofthesocialequilibrium.Bothnarrativemodesproduceaconsensus,althoughagainadistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenthecommunityproducedby
theoneandthemobproducedbytheother.Inthiscontextwecanusefullyjuxtaposetherapenarrativeandtherageitfeedsupon,which,aswehaveseen,is
attributedtofailedeconomictransactions,withthe"detective"narrationofArmstidandWinterbottomconcerningthearrivalofLenaGrove.Althoughthetwomen's
bargainingdoesnotproduceanexchangeofgoods,andthusrepresentsapotentialsiteoffrustrationimpliedbythesarcasticrhetoricWinterbottomemploys,asJohn
N.Duvallnotes,"inasemioticsensetherehasbeenasuccessfulcontractexecutedthroughtheirdialogueconcerningLena'sorigin."21

Heuristicallydividingthenarrativeintothesetwomodesallowsustomakediscriminationsconcerningtheproblematicrelationshipbetweennarrativeideologyand
communalideology.AlthoughBrooks'sconservativereadingofthenovelhasbeensubjectedtocountlesshostilecritiquesforits
20.Goellner'sassertionthatgossipdisruptstheFreudianmodelofdesirethat"achievesdischargeinamomentofepiphanicofheuristicclimax"("ByWordofMouth,"106)seems

particularlysurprisinginthiscontextpreciselybecausegossipdoesgeneratetheneedforsuchclimax.Indeed,thenarrativeofdesireinLightinAugustfollowscloselythesexual
paradigmseveraltheoristshaveassociatedwithnarrativegenerally.
21.JohnN.Duvall,Faulkner'sMarginalCouple:Invisible,Outlaw,andUnspeakableCommunities(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1990),26.

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valorizationofcommunalnorms,manyofBrooks'scriticshavehaddifficultyinlocatingacritiqueofthecommunitywithinthetext.Suchcriticshavegenerallyargued
oneoftwopositions:(1)thatnarrativeideologydiffersfromthatofthecommunity,or(2)thatthenarratoris"transparently"complicitinthisideologythatis,
complicitinsuchawayastobetextually"obvious,"usuallythroughsomeversionofanimpliedauthor.Arguingthelatterstrategy,JamesA.Sneadlocatesnumerous
racistassumptionspermeatingthenovel'sdiegeticlevel:forexample,''thetext'srepeatednotionthatblackssmelldifferentthanwhitesdo"ornarrativeassertionssuch
as,"onlyanegrocantellwhenamuleisasleeporawake"(10)."Tofindthese[racist]rhetoricsinwellsocializedspeakersisonething,"Sneadwrites,"butitisquite
anothertofindtheminthevoiceofthenarrator."Labelingtheseassertions"outrageous,""duplicitous,"and"transparent,"SneadconcludesthatFaulknerexposes
"omniscienceasunreliability,"addingthat"[t]heunreliabilityisanactivedeception.Thereisnodeficiency,ofeitherintelligenceorperspicacity:thenarratorisactively
creatingerror."Althoughhehasdifficultyshowinghowthetextexposesthiscreationoferror,Sneadiscorrectinassertingacertainideologicalconsonancebetween
narratorandtown,whichmerge,aswehaveseen,atthelevelofperceptionandnarration.Thisconsonanceextendsbeyondracialideologiestomoregeneralnorms:
theimperativetoextendcharity,forexample,toLenaandeventothedisgracedministerintheformoffood,whichactsasabasicunitofexchangewithinthe
community.Snead'sparadigm,however,cannotaccountforthecentralpassageenablingtheargumentofJosephReed,whofindsthenarratortobeovertlyhostileto
thetown.ClaimingthatthemobsceneinChapter13"rulesallofthisbook'spriorreferencestocommunity,"heassertsunequivocallythatthe"narrative...doesnot
attempttoformanalliancebetweenusandthecommunity."22

Bothgroupsofcritics,Ibelieve,aresearchinginvainforastablerelationshipbetweenthenarratorandthecommunityherepresents.Infact,sucharelationshipis
nowheretobefound:thenarrativeneithersanctionsnorcensuresthecommunityinabsoluteterms.Itismycontentionthatadissonancebetweenthenarratorandthe
communitymanifestsitselfonlyin
22.JamesA.Snead,"LightinAugustandtheRhetoricsofRacialDivision,"inFaulknerandRace,ed.DoreenFowlerandAnnJ.Abadie(Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,

1987),157,157,160Reed,Faulkner'sNarrative,139.

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thepresenceofthenarrativeofdesire,andextendsonlysofarasthecommunitysubmitstosuchnarratives.Thissubmissionis,inturn,oftensubjecttoapeculiarkind
ofafterthefactcensorshipbythecommunityitself.ConsiderthevariousstoriesthatcirculateaboutHightower,allofwhichelaborateabasicplotoftransgressive
desireinvolvingmiscegenation,homosexuality,orboth.AfterHightowerisbeatenbecauseofhissupposedliaisonwiththemalecook,"thetownknewthatthatwas
wrong"andofferstoprosecutetheperpetrators,ineffecttakinglegalrecourseagainstthepunitiveactgeneratedbythecollectivestory(72).Conversely,thetaleof
howHightowerfatheredthestillbornNegrochildfailstoengenderviolencebecause,asByronspeculates,itresultsmorefromhabitthanpassionoractualbeliefitis,
inshort,anincipientnarrativeofdesirethatfailstosuspenddisbeliefpowerfullyenoughtoovercomecommunalcensorship.Yetevenwhenitisfullyrealized,thefrenzy
associatedwiththiskindofstoryisonlytemporary,leavinginthecollectivemindafeelingakintoguilt.Afterthepassingofthe"windorairengendered"rapenarrative
inchapter13,''[i]twasasiftheveryinitialoutrageofthemurdercarriedinitswakeandmadeofallsubsequentactionssomethingmonstrousandparadoxicaland
wrong,inthemselvesagainstbothreasonandnature"(296).Thedissonancefeltherebythecommunityregistersonlyafterthefacttheincommensurabilitybetweenthe
"initialoutrage"anditsostensiblecausethatthenarratormoreexplicitlyarticulatesandcritiqueswhilethefrenzyragesatfullforce.

Thenarratoristhuscriticalofthecommunityinawaythatitiscriticalofitself.Thecommunity's"everydayracism"bywhichImeantorefertotheracialnorms
acceptableinthecommunity'spublicdiscourselikewisefindsexpressioninthenarrator.Inoneinstancethenarrativerefers,withoutembeddingorfocalizationofany
kind,tothe"vacuousidiocy"ofaNegronursemaid's"idleandilliteratekind"(59),clearlyemployingthekindofracialcategorythatawhitecitizenwouldlikelyuse.On
otheroccasions,suchracialcategoriesoriginatebetweenthenarratorandacharacter,asinthefollowingpassage:"Hightowerknewthatthemanwouldwalkallthe
waytotownandthenspendprobablythirtyminutesmoregettingintouchwithadoctor,inhisfumblingandtimelessnegrofashion,insteadofaskingsomewhite
womantotelephoneforhim"(74).Althoughthecategory"fumblingandtimelessnegrofashion"isattributedtoHightower's"knowledge,"its

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statusremainsunclear.Becauseoftheverb"knew"andthetransposedfocalization,itispossibletoreadthepassageaseitherthenarrator'srepresentationofwhat
Hightoweristhinkingor,alternatively,anassertionthatHightowerisawareofanobjectivefact("HightowerknewX,andXistrue").Ineithercase,thecategoryof
"negrofashion"which,accordingtotherulesofthedetectivemode,reducesambiguityandexplainsbehaviorentersthediegesiswiththenarrator'ssanction,which
istosaythattheembeddednarrativedoesnotenterthetextdialogically,asacontestedsitebetweenthenarratorandthecharacterresponsibleforeitherfocalization
orembeddednarration.

Icontendthatinsofarasembeddingisconcerned,thereareveryfewdialogicelementsinLightinAugust.Standingatwhatwemightthinkofasthetopofthe
continuousmind,thenarratorsanctionsthedetectivemodeandtheracialnormsitentailsuptoandincludingGavinStevens'sinfamousbloodtheory.Iamclaiming,
then,thatthenarratoriscomplicitinthecommunity'sattempttoassimilateJoeChristmaswithinitsalreadyexistingstructuresofmeaning,whichissimplytosaythatthe
narrator,likethetown,attemptstonarratehim,totellhisstory.LightinAugustisanovelnearlywithoutirony,exceptforthegreatestironyofall:Christmas'sstory
provesimminentlyresistanttothedetectivemodeandthenormsitpresumes.Heiscaptured,butneverarrested.

Thedetectivemodeisdoomedtofailureontwocounts.First,itinvolvesbaddetectivework.AsStephenMeatshasargued,thesheriffacceptsBrown'sassertionthat
Christmashasblackblood"inspiteofthestrongcircumstantialevidenceagainstBrown,andinthefaceofthenearcertaintythateverythingBrownhastoldthemisa
lie"(272).Thedetectivemodeispredicated,fromthebeginningofthemanhunttoGavinStevens'stheorizing,onChristmas's"blackblood,"thepresenceofwhichthe
narrativeneverestablishes,butwhichhastheuniqueability,aswehavesaid,toproduceastoryatthenextlevel.Thisabilitytoovercomenarrativeellipsisisreflected
inthemissing"murder"scene,towhichneitherthecommunitynorthenarratorhasaccess,butwhichboth,withBrown'sintroductionofblackblood,specificallylabel
asmurder.Duvall,whohascalledattentiontothismisidentification(legally,thekillingiseithermanslaughterorselfdefense),

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suggeststhattheword"murder"entersthediegeticlevelofthenovellargelythroughacharacter'sspeechorthroughindirectdiscourse:forexample,inthepassage
quotedabove("themurdercarriedinitswake..."),where,accordingtoDuvall,thenarrator"speaksfor"themenarrivingonthetrain.23Thereis,however,little
evidenceforindirectdiscourseinthispassagethenarratormight"seewith"themen,butheclearlydoesnot"speakfor''themandinanycasethepointismooted
whenthenarratorclearlyusesthewordinalaterpassagewhenBrownandthedeputy"droveouttothesceneofthefireandmurder"(428).Attheveryleast,the
narrativeiscomplicitinthecommunity'sidentificationofthekillingasmurderjustasitisgenerallyalignedwiththecommunity'sracialnorms.

Thesecondproblemwiththedetectivemodeismoreserious:undercertainconditions,itproducesmoreviolenceratherthanassimilatingandcontainingit.The
detectivemodeiscontractualinnature:thetransgressingpartymustconsenttothecommunity'spunitivesanctionsaftertheyhavebeenappliedthroughnarrative.Lena
Groveinparticularmeetsthiscriterionitispreciselybecauseshesubjectsherselftocommunalnormsthatsheisabletoinvokethecommunity'scharity.Conversely,
Hightower'shistorydemonstratestheconsequencesofthisconditionnotbeingmet,andindoingsodefinestheconjunctionbetweenthedetectivemodeandthe
narrativeofdesire.Thetown'sstorybeginsasacorporateefforttomakesenseofitsdisgracedminister:"thetownsaidthatifHightowerhadjustbeenamore
dependablekindofman,thekindofmanaministershouldbeinsteadofbeingbornaboutthirtyyearsaftertheonlydayheseemedtohaveeverlivedinthatday
whenhisgrandfatherwasshotfromthegallopinghorseshewouldhavebeenallrighttoo"(62).Thetownisnotonlyshrewd,butright,asHightowerhimselflater
comestorealizetheirrequestthatheresignhispulpitis,bythecontractualstandardsofthecommunity,aperfectlylegitimateone.AsBrooksputsit(correctly,I
think),"Naturally,hewasaskedtoresign"(emphasisadded).YetHightowerrefusesthecontracthisrefusaltoconformtothecommunity'scodesandresignhis
inability,inshort,toseehimselfashavingbeendisgracedproducesthat"singleidleword"thatcategorizeshimassomethingotherthana"naturalman."Itisas
23.StephenE.Meats,"whoKilledJoannaBurden?"MississippiQuarterly24(1971):272Duvall,Faulkner'sMarginalCouple,21.

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ifthereisanimperativeforthecommunitytoproduceamoregrotesque,morearbitrarytransgressiontoverifyitsnormsandtojustifyitspunitivemeasures.(Curiously,
whilethecommunityoverproducesdevianceinordertoverifyitssenseofnormalcy,thatoverproductionisitselfperceivedtobedeviantandthussubjectto
censorship.)Atthismomentofnullifiedreciprocity,thedetectivemodebecomestransformedintoanarrativevehiclethatassumesthecommunity'slatent,freefloating
violence,although,aswiththedisplacementoftherapenarrativeonto"poorwhites"inchapter13,amarginalgrouphere,theKlanactuallyarticulatestheviolence.
InitsbroadcontoursthisshiftfromthedetectivemodetothenarrativeofdesirereplicatesthegenericshiftTzetvanTodorovlocatesinthe1930sfromthewhodunitto
thethriller,thelatterofwhichreplacesthebloodlessinvestigationoftheformerwith"violenceinallitsforms,andespeciallythemostshamefulbeatings,killings....
lovepreferablyvileviolentpassion,implacablehatred"(48).24Mydistinctionbetweenthedetectivemodeandthenarrativeofdesire,then,mustbequalifiedinlight
oftheformer'sabilitytomergealmostseamlesslywiththelatterintheabsenceofconsent.

AlthoughRichardGoddenhasinterestinglysuggestedthat"LightinAugustcanbereadasathrillerwhosevillainistheword'nigger,'"25thethrilleraspectsofthenovel
reallyappearonlyafterthecommunity'sinterpretiveresourceshavebeenexhausted.AfterChristmasgiveshimselfupinMottstown,thetalkthat"wenthereandthere
aboutthetown"isconcernednotwithvigilanteretributionbutwithclassifyingChristmasandunderstandinghisactions:
Hedon'tlookanymorelikeaniggerthanIdo.Butitmusthavebeentheniggerbloodinhim....Heneveractedlikeeitheraniggerorawhiteman.Thatwasit.Thatwaswhat
madethefolkssomad.Forhimtobeamurdererandalldressedupandwalkingthetownlikehedaredthemtotouchhim,whenheoughttohavebeenskulkingandhidinginthe
woods,muddyanddirtyandrunning.Itwaslikeheneverevenknewhewasamurderer,letaloneaniggertoo.(34950)

24.CleanthBrooks,OnthePrejudices,Predilections,andFirmBeliefsofWilliamFaulkner(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1987),37TzetvanTodorov,The

PoeticsofProse,trans.RichardHoward(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1977),48.
25.RichardGodden,"CallMeNigger!RaceandSpeechinFaulkner'sLightinAugust,"JournalofAmericanStudies14(1980):240.

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Theembeddedstory,setoffwithquotationmarks,thatcontainsthispassageisanotherexampleofquasiiterativediegesisalthoughthespecificityofinformationand
thesingular"I"whospeaksclearlyindicateasinglenarrativeevent,theembeddinglocution("theytolditagain")indicatesacollectivestorynarratedmultipletimes.
Implyingthe(theoreticallyimpossible)dispersalofasinglestory,thistechniqueasksustotakeseriouslytheexistenceofacollectivenarrator.Atthiscrucialpointthe
collectivemindisdisturbednotonlybyChristmas'sresistancetoracialcategories,butalsobyhisrefusaltoplayhisroleasmurderer,arolethatdictatesthatone
shouldskulkandhideinthewoodswaitingtobeapprehendedbythelaw.Althoughthecommunity'sattempttoestablishacausalrelationshipbetweenChristmas's
blackbloodandhisactionsiscontravenedbyhisrefusaltoconsenttotheroleof"niggermurderer,"thenarrativeofdesirehasnotmanifesteditselfinthecollective
mind,whichatthispointisdominatedbythelaw.WhenDocHinesbeginshisranting,"folkswerebeginningtothinkthatmaybetheplaceforhimwasinthejailwith
thenigger,"andwhentheMottstownsheriffinformsthecrowdthat''itwashisswornwordgiventothemonthedaytheyelectedhimthathewastryingtokeep"(354),
thecrowdoffersonlyhalfheartedlythesentimentthatheshouldbelynched(355).EvenasPercyGrimmwalkstothesheriff'shousetoaskhispermissiontokeepthe
peace,hecrosses"aquietsquareemptyofpeoplepeacefullyatsuppertablesaboutthatpeacefultownandthatpeacefulcountry"(454).

Mottstown,likeJeffersonasGavinStevensdescribesit,iswillingtokeepthepeacebypermittingthelawtoassimilateChristmastoallowhimto"die'decent,'"as
Stevensputsit,andbe"[d]ecentlyhungbyaForce,aprinciplenotburnedorhackedordraggeddeadbyaThing"(445).EveninJefferson,whenDocHinesescapes
fromhiswifeandbegins"preachinglynching...hisaudiencewasmoreinterestedthanmoved"(447).Significantly,itisStevenswhoherecallsattentiontoJefferson's
willingnesstosubmittothelaw,forhearticulatesthecausalprinciplesthatstabilizethemeaningofblackbloodandtherebyallowChristmas'sdeathtomakesense.
AlthoughrecentcriticshavealmostunanimouslyarguedthatStevens'sbloodtheoryisintendedtobereadasironic,ironyproveselusiveinthiscontext.However
ludicrousitmayappear,Stevens'sembeddednarrativeisfullysanctionedbythenarrator,whoclearlyoffersitasacorrectivetothethree

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alternativeexplanationsastowhyChristmashadfledtoHightower'shouse.Moreover,thenarrativeapprovesofStevens:thatheiswelleducated,that"[h]isfamilyis
oldinJefferson,"thathe"hasaneasy,quietwaywithcountrypeople,withthevotersandthejuries"(444).Inaddition,Stevens'saccountcontainsseveralinsightsand
intuitionsthataresupportedelsewhereinthetext.Forexample,hisassertionthatMrs.HineswantsChristmasto"diedecent"echoesherownassertiontoByronand
Hightowerthat"[i]fhedoneit,Iwouldnotbetheonecomebetweenhimandwhathemustsuffer''(388).Stevens,ofcourse,hashad,bythetimehetellshisstory,
individualcontactwiththeHineses.Yet,evenifweattributetothiscontactmuchoftheinformationherelates,hestilldemonstratesanalmostuncannyinsight,
suggesting,forexample,thatChristmasfledtoHightower'shousebecausehisgrandmother"somehow"communicatedtohimthatit"wasasanctuarywhichwouldbe
inviolablenotonlytoofficersandmobs,buttheveryirrevocablepast"(448).26Hightowerhimselfbelieves,asheremarksonseveraloccasions,thathehas"boughthis
immunity."Thathehas,infact,donesoformsthebasisforByron'splanthatheprovideanalibi:"Anditwontbelikeyouhaven'tdoneitbefore,haven'talreadypaida
billlikeitoncebefore,"hetellsHightower,"Itoughtn'tbesobadnowasitwasthen"(390).

Inamoresubstantialinstanceofnarrativeoverlap,StevensrelatesthatChristmasflees"[n]otpursuers:buthimself:years,acts,deedsomittedandcommitted"(448),
whileChristmashimselfhasalreadythought,"IhaveneverbrokenoutoftheringofwhatIhavealreadydoneandcannoteverundo"(339).Thesimilaritybetween
thesetwopassagesisparticularlystrikinginthatbothareimmediatelyfollowedbythephysicalpresenceofblacknessinChristmas'sbody:theblackbloodthat"would
notbequiet"(449)and"theblacktidecreepinguphislegs,movingfromhisfeetupwardasdeathmoves"(339),respectively.ElaineScarryhassuggestedthat"when
thereiswithinasocietyacrisisofbeliefthatis,whensomecentralideaorideologyorculturalconstructhasceasedtoelicitapopulation'sbeliefeitherbecauseitis
manifestlyfictitiousorbecauseithasforsomereasonbeendi
26.ForadiscussionofthisdetailofStevens'snarrativeas"demonstrablyincorrect,"seeJayWatson,ForensicFictions:TheLawyerFigureinFaulkner(Athens:Universityof

GeorgiaPress,1993),96.

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vestedofordinaryformsofsubstantiationthesheermaterialfactualnessofthehumanbodywillbeborrowedtolendthatculturalconstructtheauraof'realness'and
'certainty.'"27WhileStevens'sbloodtheorypreciselyillustrateswhatScarrycallsanalogicalverification,thenarratorperformsanidenticalsymbolicactinproducingthe
imageoftheblacktide.Justastheblacktidepredicts,assomethinglikeaphysiologicalfact,thesocialroleChristmashasapparentlychosentoplay,soitisa
physiologicalfactthatpermitsStevenstoexplainChristmas'sperformanceofthatrolehispassivesuicide.Toreiterate,althoughrecentcriticshavebeenskepticalof
Stevens'scausallinkbetweenblackbloodandChristmas'sactions,itisfullyconsonantwiththenarrative'srepeatedreificationofbloodnotonlyasameaningfulsocial
metaphor,butasanagentaswell.28Thisistruenotonlyofthecommunity'sattemptstomakesenseofChristmas("itmusthavebeentheniggerbloodinhim"),but
fromtheperspectiveofothercharactersNathanielBurden'sFrenchblooddoesnotpermithim,Joannaexplains,totakerevengeonColonelSartoris(25455)
Christmashimselfattempts"toexpelfromhimselfthewhitebloodandthewhitethinkingandbeing''(226)andthenarratoraswell:"[Christmas's]bloodbeganagain,
talkingandtalking"(116).

Blackblood,then,gainslegitimacyasanagentthatnotonlydefinessocialcaste,butthatalsocausesandexplainsbehavior.Likethestocksceneindetectivefiction
wheretheinvestigatoraccountsforeverything,Stevens'saccountprovidesaclosuretothestoryofJoeChristmas.Yet,whileIwouldassertunequivocallythat
Stevens'stheoryisnotironic,neitherdoesitfullycontainthemeaningofblackbloodtheclosurehisstoryprovidesis,asitwere,immediatelyreopened.Asinthecase
ofHightower,meaningsthatareputativelystabilizedthroughstorytellingretainalatentpowertogenerateadditional,moreviolentnarratives.Suchisthecasewith
Stevens'sparableofblackblood,whichlimitsitselftoblackbloodasitactsuponanobjectifiedJoeChristmas.Bycontainingblackbloodwithintheblackbody,
Stevens
27.ElaineScarry,TheBodyinPain:TheMakingandUnmakingoftheWorld(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1985),14.

28.ThatFaulknerlatertermedStevens'stheorya"rationalization"(FaulknerintheUniversity,72)doesnothingtounderminemyassertion,sinceIamclaimingonlythatthenarratoris

complicitinthisrationalization.

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neednotsimilarlyobjectifythecommunity,andsohisstoryendswiththedeathofanarmedandpresumablydangerousfelon,whichfromthecommunity'sperspective
isnotonlylegal,butperfectlydefensible.Butthatisnotthewholestory.Bynarrowingthefieldofhisnarrative,StevenscensorstheroleplayedbyPercyGrimm.

ButPercyGrimmexists,anddespitethenarrative'shostilitytowardhisallAmericanracialfanaticism,blackbloodinitsmostarbitraryformdriveshimtocommita
horrificdeed.Hightowerhasalreadypredictedso:"Isitcertain,"heasksByron,"thathehasnegroblood?Think,Byronwhatitwillmeanwhenthepeopleif
theycatch.......Poorman.Poormankind"(100).Havingnofaithinthelaw,Hightowerisapariahinthespecialsenseofbeingexiledfromthecommunity's
interpretivenorms.AloneamongthecharactersofLightinAugust,heisabletoinspectthosenorms,aconditionnotunrelatedtohisseparationfromorimmunity
tothecommunity.
Hepaceson,thinkingquietly,peacefully,sadly:'Poorman.Poorfellow.Nomanis,canbe,justifiedintakinghumanlifeleastofall,awarrantedofficer,aswornservantofhis
fellowman.Whenitissanctionedpubliclyinthepersonofanelectedofficerwhoknowsthathehasnothimselfsufferedatthehandsofhisvictim,callthatvictimbywhatname
youwill,howcanweexpectanindividualtorefrainwhenhebelievesthathehassufferedatthehandsofhisvictim?'(414)

EchoingtheMottstownsheriff,whodefendshisofficeintermsofhislegalcontractwiththecommunity,Hightowercritiquesthatoffice,refusing,onthegroundsthat
revengeisatleastauthentic,theverydistinctionStevensmakesbetweenbeinghungbyaprincipleandbeinghackedbyathing.InViolenceandtheSacredRen
Girardconcurs,claimingthat"theprincipleof[legal]justiceisinnorealconflictwiththeconceptofrevenge,"towhichheadds,however,thecrucialqualificationthat
"onthesociallevel,thedifferenceisenormous."AccordingtoGirard,becausethelawremovesvengeancefromthehandsofthepublicandplacesitinthehandsof"a
sovereignauthorityspecializinginthisparticularfunction,''itdeflectsthecycleofviolencethatthreatensanycommunity,arole,significantly,alsoplayedby
scapegoatingorsacrificialrituals,whicharbitrarilyfixcommunalviolence

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29
onasurrogatevictimwhosedeathallowsthecycleofviolencetobebrokenandacollectiveequilibriumtobereestablished. Herewecanrecallhowtheincipient
sacrificeofthe"Negrorapist"inchapter13createsamoboutofindividualcommunitymemberspreviouslyatoneanother'sthroatsamob,moreover,which,
"beginningtocanvasaboutforsomeonetocrucify,"almostarbitrarilyselectsitspotentialvictim:"Isthathim?Isthattheonewhodidit?...ByGodifthat'shim,
whatarewedoingstandingaroundhere?Murderingawhitewomantheblacksonofa."

Girard'sequationoflegaljusticeandsacrificialritualsechoesthroughoutthePercyGrimmsection,whichimmediatelyfollowsStevens'sembeddednarrativeandis
narratedbytheprimarynarrator.ByronBunchhasnoticedtheominousairaroundthemenlurkingoutsideofthegrandjury,men"whohadagenerallyidentical
authoritativeair,likepolicemenindisguiseandnotespeciallycaringifthedisguisehidthepolicemenornot"(41516).Thewords"GrandJury"evokesomething
"secretandirrevocableandsomethingofahiddenandunsleepingandomnipotenteyewatchingthedoingsofmen"(456).Theincipientexecutionerishimself
fanaticallycommittedtothelaw."Wegottopreserveorder,''Grimmsays,"Wemustletthelawtakeitscourse.Thelaw,thenation.Itistherightofnocivilianto
sentenceamantodeath"(45152).LikeGrimm,thecommunityhasatremendousinvestmentinthedistinctionbetweenhangingandhacking:indeed,itisGrimm's
commitmenttothisdistinctionthatleadsthetown"toaccepthimwithrespectandperhapsalittleaweandadealofactualfaithandconfidence,asthoughsomehowhis
visionandpatriotismandprideinthetown,theoccasion,hadbeenquickerandtruerthantheirs"(45657).Atthesametimeweshouldnotethatthisdistinctionisthe
productofanelaboratesymbolicapparatus,which,inproducingaprinciple(justice)thatestablishestheliteralguiltofthehung,censorsthebruteliteralityofhacking,
whichestablishesmerelythesymbolicvalueofthehacked.(Hereagainwecanrecallthepotentialhackersinchapter13whoconceiveofJoanna's"murder"asa
"crimecommittednotbyanegrobutbyNegro.")Justice,wemightsay,objectifiesthevictimofritualpunishment,andthusconcealsthepotentiallyarbitrary
29.RenGirard,ViolenceandtheSacred,trans.PatrickGregory(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1977),16,15.

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natureofavictimwhoseselectionmightconceivablyresultfromsubjectiveimperatives.

IfthecommunityacceptsGrimmasitsrepresentativeintermsofhiscommitmenttothelaw,therelationshipbetweenthetwoismorecomplicatedinrelationto
Grimm'scastrationofChristmas.ClearlyGrimmarticulatesthelatentcommunaldesiresverynearlyarticulatedoutsideofJoanna'sburninghouse,butthatalsoand
recentcriticshavebeenreluctanttoseethispointhavebeenlargelycensoredthroughthecommunity'slegalstructuresthatremovevengeancefromprivatehands.
Thequestion,then,becomestheextenttowhichthecommunityisimplicatedinGrimm'sactions.Brooks,forwhomtheissueiscrucialinrecuperatingtheorganic
community,arguesthatGrimmdemonstrablyfailstorepresentthecommunityinthisdecisiveinstance.30Butatthesametime,Grimmisclearlynotafreeagent.Ashe
tracksChristmasdownwith"theimplacableundeviationofJuggernautorFate,"Grimmmoveswith"thatlean,swift,blindobediencetowhateverPlayermovedhimon
theboard"(460,62).EvenafterthePlayer"whomovedhimforapawn"leadshim,automaticblazing,intothekitchenwith"unfailingcertitude,''"thePlayerwasnot
doneyet":"ThenGrimmtoosprangback,flingingbehindhimthebloodybutcherknife.'Nowyou'llletwhitewomenalone,eveninhell,'hesaid"(462,64).ThePlayer
punishesChristmasnotformurder,butfortherapeofawhitewoman,andinsodoingrevealshimselftobeabaddetective,forthisisoneoffensethatChristmashas
notcommitted.Indeed,thePlayerappearstoseizearbitrarilyontransgressiveoraberrantformsofsexuality:uponhearingHightower'salibiforChristmas,Grimm
asks,inavoice"likethatofayoungpriest,""HaseverypreacherandoldmaidinJeffersontakentheirpantsdowntotheyellowbelliedsonofabitch?"(464).Through
thesestories,thePlayerhasGrimmandnotonlyGrimm,buthisaccomplicesaswellphysicallyinhisgrasp:"Itwasuponthem,ofthem:itsshameless
savageness"(463).

WhencethePlayer?Reedclaims,correctly,thathe"hasalwaysbeenthere....Heisthelogicalconclusion,thepersonifiedagentofallthehabitstowhichthebook's
strategyhasbeenaccustomingus."31Thisisespecially
30.Brooks,YoknapatawphaCountry,52,6062.

31.Reed,Faulkner'sNarrative,117.

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trueoftheseveralscenesofpursuitterminatinginaviolentconfrontationinwhich,further,thepursuerisrepresentedasbeingmovedbysomesupernatural(whether
deificordemonic)force.InadditiontoGrimm'spursuit,McEachernfindsChristmasdancingwithBobbieAlleninabuildingthat"hehadneitherreasonnormannerof
knowing"wouldbehavingadance,and"ifhewerethinkingatall,hebelievedthathehadbeenguidedandwerenowbeingpropelledbysomemilitantMichael
Himselfasheenteredtheroom"(204).DocHineshuntsdownhisdaughterandher"Mexican"loverbychoosingoutofahalfdozenroadstherightone:"Andyetit
wasn'tanypossiblewaythathecouldhaveknownwhichroadtheyhadtaken.Buthedid"(375).EventhenormallypassiveByronBunch,chasingdownLucasBurch
tofightwhatheknowswillbealosingbattle,ismovedbya''desire...morethandesire:itisconvictionquietandassuredbeforeheisawarethathisbrainhas
telegraphedhishandhehasturnedthemulefromtheroadandisgallopingalongtheridge"(425).InsofaraseachofthesescenesimpliesthepresenceofaPlayer,we
mightdesignatethatagentasonesimultaneouslyrequiringandenablingviolentretribution,oftencloakedinsacredrhetoric,againsttransgressionsassociatedwith
sexuality.Thatthesetransgressionsarefrequentlyofdubiousauthenticitymatterslittle,sinceretributionattimesappearstonecessitatethecrimeandnotviceversa.

WithintheworldofLightinAugust,whereviolenceusuallyaccumulatesaroundsexuality,therelationshipbetweenthetwoisanintegralone:bothrepresentlatent
threatstothesocialorderandmust,asaconsequence,comeundersomekindofregulationordiscipline.Significantly,bothviolenceandsexualityarereifiedas
contaminantsintheformofblood:blackbloodandmenstrualblood,respectively.Bothformsofbloodhavetheabilitytocontaminate,toinfect,justasthestoriesthey
engenderthreatentocontaminatethecommunity.Tothemobgatheredattheburninghouse,Joanna's"blood...criedoutforvengeance"the"sourceless"rape
narrativethatarisesspontaneouslyselectsblackbloodastheculpritandlikelysacrificialvictim.Menstrual"filth"resonatesmainlyinrelationtoChristmas,who,upon
havingthephysiologicalprocessdescribedtohimasaboy,buyshis"immunity"fromitthroughthegrislysacrificeofasheep(18586).When,later,BobbieAllen
explainsthatsheismenstruating,andthereforecannothavesexualintercoursewithhim,heencountersonhiswayhome"suavely

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shapedurns...crackedandfromeachcrackthereissuedsomethingliquid,deathcolored,andfoul"(189).Overcomebythecontagionofsexualviolence,Joe
vomitspreciselythereactionofthemenwhocomeuponGrimmasheiscastratingChristmas.Althoughthesymbolicweightofmenstrualblooddoesnot
systematicallyregisterinthecollectivemind,itseffectonChristmas'sconceptionofhisownblackbloodis,asJosephUrgoobserves,profound:throughit,he
analogicallyinternalizesblackbloodasthe"secret,irremovable'filth'ofhisownexistence."Asaresult,Christmasneedstopresenthimselfasfilthaswhen,for
example,heinformswhiteprostitutesthathehas"niggerblood"orwhen,asGoddensays,hetakesdelightindespoilingthecookingofMrs.McEachernandJoanna
Burden.32ForChristmas,identityiscontingentuponhisabilitytocontaminate.

AsMaryDouglasshowsinPurityandDanger,thepresenceoffilthindicatesthepresenceofasystem."[I]funcleanness,"Douglassays,"ismatteroutofplace,we
mustapproachitthroughorder.Uncleannessordirtisthatwhichmustnotbeincludedifapatternistobemaintained.Torecognizethisisthefirststeptowardinsight
intopollution."33ThesymbolicfieldofJefferson,withitselaborateprotectionsagainstthefilthandviolenceitassociateswithblood,is,inadarklyironicway,theideal
settingforChristmas'snegativeassertionofself.YetthecommunityfailsChristmasinacrucialway:itallowsthelawtotakeitscourse.UntilChristmasescapes,all
indicationsarethatthecommunitywillallowhimtopleadguiltytomurderandtakealifesentence.Insofaraswecanpositareasonforhisescapehis"plansto
passivelycommitsuicide,"asthetownaptlyputsit(443)itmustsurelyhavetodowiththedifferencebetweenthecrimeforwhichheisbeingpunishedandthecrime
forwhichheneedstobepunishedinordertoverify,ineffect,hisexistence.AlthoughChristmaswouldreceivealifesentenceformurder,heiskilledbythePlayerfor
rapingawhitewoman.

Christmas'srationalemust,however,remainasomewhatspeculativematter,sincethenovelshiftsexclusivelytothecommunity'sperspective
32.JosephUrgo,"MenstrualBloodand'Nigger'Blood:JoeChristmasandtheIdeologyofSexandRace,"MississippiQuarterly41(1988):395Godden,"CallMeNigger!"241.

33.MaryDouglas,PurityandDanger:AnAnalysisofConceptsofPollutionandTaboo(NewYork:FrederickA.Praeger,1966),40forafullerapplicationofDouglas'stheorytoLight

inAugust,seeGodden,"CallMeNigger!"23942.

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afterchapter14.WhatisclearisthatChristmasinvokesthecontestbetweenthetwonarrativemodesthroughwhichheandblackbloodobtainsocialmeaning,
clarifyingintheprocessthealternativesystemsthelaw,whichsegregatesandexilesblackblood,andthelynchingritual,whichpurgesthecommunitythrough
sacrificialbloodlettingthroughwhichthecommunityisolatesoreliminates"filth"sothatitscontagioncannotspread.That"filth"is,fromthecommunity'sperspective,
nothingmorethanareificationofviolenceismadeabundantlyclearthroughoutthenovel,nowheremoresothaninStevens'snarrative,whichbringstoclosurethe
detectivestoryinauguratedbyBrown'srevelation.ForStevens,blackbloodcontainsandabsorbsviolenceanddeath:"Itwastheblackblood,"hesays,"whichswept
himbyhisowndesirebeyondtheaidofanyman,swepthimupintothatecstasyoutofablackjunglewherelifehasalreadyceasedbeforetheheartstopsanddeathis
desireandfulfillment''(449).Consciouslyornot,StevenslegitimatestheactofsegregationthathasproducedFreedmanTown,whichcanbeconsideredalegal
separationbymeansofwhichthecommunitymaintainsitssymboliccleanlinessthatistosay,itsseparationfromviolence.Thesymboliclogicofsegregationthus
repeatstheprimitivepracticeofsegregatingwomenduringmenstruation,ananalogyfurtherreinforcedwhenthenarrativeassociatesFreedmanTown,"theoriginal
quarry,theabyssitself"(116),with"thelightlesshotwetprimogenitiveFemale"(115).

AlthoughStevenssegregatesblackbloodevenwithintheconfinesofChristmas'sbody,itreappearsinadifferentforminHightower'skitchen:"Thenhisface,body,all,
seemedtocollapse,tofallinuponitself,andfromouttheslashedgarmentsabouthishipsandloinsthepentblackbloodseemedtorushlikeareleasedbreath.It
seemedtorushoutofhispalebodyliketherushofsparksfromarisingrocketuponthatblackblastthemanseemedtorisesoaringintotheirmemoriesforeverand
ever"(465).Thecrucialfeatureofthispassageisthediffusionofviolenceproducedbythe"blackblast"ofChristmas's"pentblackblood."Atthiscriticalmomentthe
narrative,previouslycomplicitintheassociationbetweenblackbloodandviolence,reifiesblackbloodasanimage"ofitselfaloneserene,ofitselfalone
triumphant"(465).Thenarrative'scomplicity,then,seemstohavemovedinadifferentdirection,asdoesitsrelationshiptothestoryofNegrorape:although
unequivocallyhostiletoitspresenceearlier,herethenarrativeap

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pearstomitigateoreveninvert,insofarasviolenceproducesserenityitsbloodyconsequences.Sneadisthuspartiallycorrectinfindingthenarratorculpablefor
"offer[ing]a'serene'and'triumphant'recollectionofavigilantemurder."Butitisnota"vigilantemurder,"andnotonlybecauseGrimm'skillingofChristmasis
perfectlyjustifiedfromalegalperspective.Itiswhathappensafterthekillingthatmatters,forwhenGrimmcastratesChristmas,hisactionsaretranslatedfromthe
realmoflawtotherealmofsacrifice.AccordingtoGirard,sacrifice''purifies"violencebymetaphoricallytransformingbloodfromanagentofcontaminationtoan
agentofpurification."Thesamesubstance,"hewrites,"canstainorcleanse,contaminateorpurify,drivementofuryandmurderorappeasetheirangerandrestore
themtolife."34ThesacrificeofJoeChristmasworksaccordingtoanidenticallogichavingarbitrarilydesignatedblackbloodtoabsorbviolenceviolenceintimately
linkedtosexualitythecommunityisabletoprotectitselfthroughthepurifyingsacrificeofblackblood:hencethediffusionofviolenceproducedbyChristmas's"black
blast,"whichappearshereasadarkparodyoforgasm.Anddespitethenarrative'sprevioushostilitytowardlynchingandtowardPercyGrimm,itscomplicityinthis
diffusioninvolvesacompletealignmentwiththecommunityanditssacrificialrite.

Intheend,thestoryofJoeChristmasmakesnothinghappenthecenterholds,andmereanarchyisexiledfromthisparticularnarrativeworld.Besidesthesereneand
triumphantapotheosisthatprovidesclosuretohisstory,theclearestindicationthathissacrificeenablesthecommunity'sregenerationisthenovel'sconclusion,which,
despitecountlesscriticaltreatmentsattemptingtomakeitmorecomplicatedthanitis,representsnothingmorethanthehappyendingmanyearlycommentators
perceivedandcriticizedasbeingextraneoustothenovel'smainaction.Boththeembeddingcontext(thefurnituredealerinbedwithhiswife)andtheembeddedstory
(LenaandByronridingoff,moreorless,intothesunset)portrayintheonecaseandpredictintheotherasexualdrivethathasassumeditsproperlysocializedform
thatis,aforminwhichthecycleofviolencethatsurroundssexualitythroughoutthenovelhasbroken.Althoughsexuallytransgressive
34.Snead,"RhetoricsofRacialDivision,"168Girard,ViolenceandtheSacred,3637.ForadiscussionofChristmas'sdeathasanineffectivesacrifice,seeEricSundquist,

Faulkner:TheHouseDivided(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1983),93.

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herself,Lenahas,ofcourse,beenprotectedbythecommunityallalong,apointBrooksemphasizesinhisportrayaloftheorganiccommunity.Yetinlabelingthenovel
"abloodyandviolentpastoral,"35Brookslargelyignorestheextenttowhichthepastoralmodeispredicateduponbloodblackbloodsincethecommunity
expendsuponChristmasaggressiveimpulsesthat,withoutmechanismsofsurrogatevictimization,mightwellhavepreventedcharityinotherscenarios.Thisisnot,of
course,toimplythatLenawouldhavecometoabadendhadChristmasnotbeenavailableinthespecificwaythatheis,buttoassertthedeepconnectionbetween
thesymbolicfunctionservedbyblackbloodandthesymbolicexchangesthatconstitutecommunalvirtue,whichwemaytakeasthepositiveformofthecommunity's
suppressionofviolence.InsofarasthetragedyofJoeChristmasenablesthecomedyofLenaGrove,Lenamaybemoreperspicaciousthansherealizesinconfusedly
perceivingChristmastobethefatherofherchild(409).

ButLightinAugustisnotsimplyastoryaboutasacrificeanditsconsequencesitisalsoastoryaboutnarrative.Blackbloodservesthefunctionthatitdoesonly
becauseofthestoriestoldaboutit.Andforthosestoriestodisplaceviolenceontoblackblood,thecommunitymustelideanyrupturesbetweendiscourseandstory.
Thecentralinstanceenablingthecommunity'scollectivegestaltis,aswehaveseen,Brown'srevelationofChristmas'sblackblood,aneventthatleadstheentire
communitytosay,alongwiththeunnamedproprietorofthegeneralstore,"Isaidallthetimethathewasn'tright.Wasn'tawhiteman.Thattherewassomethingfunny
abouthim"(309).Brown'srevelation,likethecluethatbreaksthecase,enablesthecommunity'sdetectivemode,revealingthestructurethat"wasthereallalong"and
therebypermittingcollectiveracialnormstoemanatefromChristmas'sstory.Inthisrespect,thecommunity'scollectivenarrativethatis,thesumtotalofthevarious
embeddingsandfocalshiftsthroughwhichthecontinuousmindisestablishedreflectsthebasicstructureofliterarynarrative,which,asWhitesays,typically"contains
aplot[i.e.,discourse]whichimposesameaningontheeventsthatcompriseitsstorylevelbyrevealingat
35.Brooks,YoknapatawphaCountry,54.

36.White,ContentoftheForm,19.

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36
theendastructurethatwasimmanentineventsallalong." Thecommunity,however,hasagreatdealinvestedinrepressingthefictionalstatusofitsstoriesinthis
specificsense.Whatthecommunityrequiresisahardboileddetectivestorythatgetstothebottomofthingsthroughtherevelationofevidencethatis,therevelation
ofeventsthatformpartsofanalreadyexistingnarrative.

Byassigningprioritytostoryoverdiscourse,then,thecommunityneednotimposemeaning.Andyetthisisnotonlypreciselywhatitdoes,butpreciselywhatthe
storyofJoeChristmasthreatenstoreveal.AsJonathanCullerremarks,thehierarchyofstoryoverdiscourseeasilyreversesitselfwheneventsarepresented"notas
givensbutasproductsofdiscursiveforcesorrequirements."When"meaningisnottheeffectofaprioreventbutitscause,"thewholelogicofcausationisdisrupted.37
ReadingBrown'srevelationasaneffectofanexistingdiscursiverequirementspecifically,thedesireforablackculpritthreatenstodestabilizethesociallyessential
meaningofblackbloodasamagicalsubstancethatcontainsviolence.Thecommunityhas,ofcourse,longassociatedChristmashimselfwithviolence,fromhisfirst
appearanceatthesawmilltohisshadowycareerasamoonshiner,oneviolentdetailofwhichleadsamantocomment,"Woulditsurpriseyoutohearthatthatfellow
Christmashadn'tdonenoworsethanthatinhislife?''(87).Butthecommunity'scaseagainstJoeChristmasisnotastrongoneasByronpointsout,"alltheevidence
theygotagainsthimisBrown'sword,whichisnexttonone"(390)andtheircase,ultimately,isnotagainsthimatall.Divestedofevidenceagainstblackbloodby
Christmas'sphysicalappearanceandbyhisrefusal,astheMottstowncitizenputs,"toactlikeanigger,"thecommunitymustsuspenddisbeliefanddispensewithjustice
asamechanismofobjectificationinordertomaintainthesacrificialefficacyofChristmas'sblackblast.Intheend,GavinStevens'sdetectivenarrative,which
"discovers"thatblackbloodcausesviolence,giveswaytothesacrificialimperativeofthePlayer'snarrativeofdesire,thetacitlogicofwhichdictatesthatviolence,
sinceitexists,mustbeattributabletoblackbloodakindofpostfactocausality,ifyouwill.AndifStevensshowshowthemeaningofJoeChristmaswillbe
stabilizedinasociallyacceptableform,the
37.Culler,PursuitofSigns,172.

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castrationofChristmasinHightower'skitchenthreatenstoexposethearbitrary,purelydiscursivenatureofthatmeaning.Itisnotmerelythatthecommunitybringsits
racialnormstobearonitsstories,butthatthestoriesthemselvesgeneratethosenorms.HencetheintolerablecircularityofLightinAugustandthenecessityofthe
blackblastemanatingfromChristmas'sloins:withoutit,theelaboratefiction,thecollectivedesigndegeneratesintochaos,andtheviolenceisrandomviolence.

ThatthenarrativefinallyparticipatesinGrimm'ssacrificialritesuggestsdeepinterdependenceofthecommunity'severydayracismanditshystericalracism,forboth
ultimatelyrespondtothesamesymbol.WritingfouryearsbeforeLightinAugustwaspublished,UlrichBonnellPhillipswrotethatwhitesupremacy,"whether
expressedwiththefrenzyofademagogueormaintainedwithapatrician'squietude,isthecardinaltestofaSouthernerandthecentralthemeofSouthernhistory."38
LightinAugust,Ithink,corroborates,ifnotthatprecisethesis,atleastthecentralityofracialscapegoatingtothesoutherncommunity.WhetheritappearsinGavin
Stevens'spatriciantheorizing,DocHines'sfrenziedranting,oronPercyGrimm'sbloodyknife,blackbloodservesasakindofvanishingpointatwhichallwhite
perspectivesconverge.Intheend,blackbloodprovidesthecentralsymbolwhosesegregationorsacrificepermitsthemaintenanceofthecollectivemind.Thatmind
andthestoriesittellsrevealasocietyincrisis,acultureintheprocessofbecomingreflexivelyawareofitsracialideology,deferringonlyatthelastmomentknowledge
thatwouldprofoundlyaltersoutherncommunitieseverywhere.
38.UlrichBonnellPhillips,"TheCentralThemeofSouthernHistory,"AmericanHistoricalReview34(1928):31.

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EpilogueWhencetheCommunity:
SomeThoughtsonContemporarySouthernNarrative
InAHomemadeWorld,hisidiosyncraticstudyofAmericanmodernism,HughKennercallsWilliamFaulknerthe"lastnovelist."AfterFaulkner,Kennerwrites,"[w]
hatevergoesin,satireiswhatcomesout."Writinginthecontextofsouthernliterature,MichaelKreylingarguesasimilarpoint.Kreylingiseagertovalorizepost
Faulknerianparodyforitsexposureandsuspensionof"theSouth"conceivedasamimeticgivenunmediatedbyrepresentationratherthana"wayofmakingand
maintainingmeaning''that,bythe1970s,"hadceasedfunctioning,asitwere,oninvoluntarymusclesandhadbecomeakindofwilledhabit."Kreyling'scentralinsight
seemsinescapable:Faulkner'sstyledefinesakeymomentinsouthernliterature,amomentafterwhich"theSouth"ceasestofunction"oninvoluntarymuscles"or,to
usePolanyi'sterminology,asatacitdimension.Indeed,Kreylinglargelysees,fromtheperspectiveaffordedbyseveraldecadesandanentirelydifferentideological
view,whatAllenTatepredictedina1945essay:that"withoutregionalism,withoutlocalityinthesenseoflocalcontinuityintraditionandbelief,"agenerationof
novelistswouldappearwho"seewith,notthroughtheeye."1
1.HughKenner,AHomemadeWorld:TheAmericanModernistWriters(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1975),220MichaelKreyling,"Fee,Fie,FauxFaulkner:Parody

andPostmodernisminSouthernLiterature,"SouthernReview29(1993):1AllenTate,"TheNew

(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

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Weshouldfirstclarifythatthe"finality"of"Faulkner"isinnosensechronological:manywriterssincehaveforgottenwhattheauthorofhisbooksknew.Yetinsofaras
itembodiesacollectivewayofknowing,Faulkner'sstylethreatenstobecomereflexivelyconsciousofitself,apointatwhichitspositivisttendencies,itsdisplacement
intothings,devolvesintomeretextualityandceasestofunctioninvoluntarily.ThequestionoftherelationshipbetweenFaulknerandtheendofsouthernliteratureis,of
course,amassiveone,onlyonefacetofwhichwillIexaminehere.ThatfacethastodowithhowFaulknerdefinesthelimitsofthesoutherncommunityasapossibility
forfiction.Aswehaveseen,thecommunityhasneverbeenatrulyautochthonousgroundasaconstantsiteofdeferral,thecommunityrequiresaconstantinvestment
ofenergylestitsselfevidentorganizationbegintoappearassomethingentirelydifferent.YetFaulkner'scommunityremainsselfevidentinthelimitedsensethatsocial
rolesbasedonraceandclassremainoperative.FaulkneroncecommentedthatthetragedyofJoeChristmaswasthat"hedidn'tknowwhathewas,andsowas
nothing.Hedeliberatelyevictedhimselffromthehumanracebecausehedidn'tknowwhichhewas."2Notetheshiftinpronouns.Itapparentlyneveroccurredto
Faulkner,nordoesitregisterinhisfiction,that''whichhewas"mightbearnoessentialrelationto"whathewas."AndifLightinAugusthasonlytwobasicclassesof
characters,thehistoryofYoknapatawphaCountyshowsclearlythat"aristocrat,""poorwhite,""plainwhite,"and"Negro"allretainacollectivetacitmeaning.Such
categoriesmightvergeonthearbitrary,buttheyarenevermeaningless.

Anovelincludingsuchtypestodaywould,almostbydefault,devolveintoanovel"about"thearistocrat,thepoorwhite,theplainwhite,ortheNegrothatis,these
typeswouldlikelydevolveintostereotypes.AsKreylingsuggests,afterFaulkner'smassiveencodingofthesetypes,mererepetitionisimpossible.Toputthematter
anotherway,Faulknerisabletoexploitthecollectivemeaningofthesesocialtypesinawaythatisunavailabletothe

(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Provincialism:WithanEpilogueontheSouthernNovel,"inManofLettersintheModernWorld,19281955(NewYork:MeridianBooks,1955),322.
2.FaulknerintheUniversity,72.

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contemporarynovelist,whoseknowledgeoftypeis,almostbydefinition,focalratherthantacit.AsJackButlersays,"There'sstillalotofsheriffsouttherewith
cowboyhats,bigfatbellies,andmirrorshades,buttrygettingawaywithusingoneasacharacter."3Anotherwayofstatingtheproblemistosaythatafter
YoknapatawphaCounty,HazzardCountyisallthat'sleft.Inturninghisnarrativeeyeuponthetacitdimension,Faulknerdefinedthereflexivelimitatwhichcollective
meaningbecomescollectivefictionandatwhich,moreover,"collective"itselfbecomesafiction.Insodoing,hedefinedthelimitsofcommunityatleast,onekindof
community.

AtaboutthesametimeasFaulkner,theAgrarianswereconfrontingtheproblemofreflexivityaswell.AsRichardWeaversaysin"AgrarianisminExile,""assoonthe
agrariananywhereadds,orallowstobeadded,theism,heispreparingthewayforhisownexile.Wearesimplyconfrontedwithdifferentplanesofhuman
consciousness.Everyismisanintellectualmanufactureithas,inallsobriety,littlerelationtothepeoplewhotillthesoilforaliving."Noonefeltthisdilemmamorethan
AllenTate,whoobservesin"RemarksontheSouthernReligion"that"theactofloyalty,orthefactofloyalty,mustbespontaneoustocountatalltraditionmust,in
otherwords,beautomaticallyoperativebeforeitcanbecalledtradition.''Choiceprecludestradition,andeventoframetheissuethiswayistoconceiveoftraditionin
amannerantitheticaltoitsnature.WhenTateadvisesthesouthernertotakeholdofhistradition"byviolence,"heisadvisingthechoiceofanoption,andhissenseof
inevitableexileistangibleenough.4AsTatewellrealizedinhisproseandhispoetry,thetraditionalcommunitycannotbeenteredbyanactofwill.

Evenastheyattemptedtorecuperatethetraditionalcommunity,theAgrariansregisteredakindofreflexivedissonancethatwouldmanifestitselfmoretangiblyasthe
centuryprogressed.WhileanuneasyambivalencetowardtraditionalmodesofsocialorderwoulddominatemidcenturyfictiononethinksofJackBurden'sattitude
towardBurden'sLandinginAll
3.JackButler,"StillSouthernafterAllTheseYears,"inTheFutureofSouthernLetters,ed.JeffersonHumphriesandJohnLowe(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1996),38.

4.RichardM.Weaver,"AgrarianisminExile,"inSouthernEssaysofRichardM.Weaver,40Tate,"SouthernReligion,"162,174.

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theKing'sMen,forexample,oranynumberofworksbyEudoraWeltyitwouldremainforWalkerPercytoconfrontreflexivityasagiven.Inbroadterms,where
QuentinCompsonandJackBurdenfindthattheycannolongersustainthetacitdimensionofatraditionalculture,BinxBollingappearsonthefirstpageofThe
Moviegoerwithouthavingthatdimensionavailable,evenasanoption.Andyet,paradoxically,Binxisconfrontedwithaplenitudeofoptions,nottheleastofwhichis
hischoiceofcommunity.Ifheisnotthefirstcharacterinsouthernliteraturetochoosewherehelives,heisprobablythefirsttolivetherewithoutfirstrenouncingwhere
hecomesfrom.Anotherfirst(ornearfirst)inTheMoviegoeristheappearanceofasuburbanlandscapefullof"shoppingcentersandblocksofduplexesand
bungalowsandraisedcottages."TocallGentillyacommunityistoabusetheterm.Whatremains,vestigially,ofthetraditionalcommunityisassociatedwiththeGarden
District,whereBinx'sAuntEmilyresides."[B]utwheneverItrytolivethere,"Binxrelates,"IfindmyselffirstinarageduringwhichIdevelopstrongopinionsona
varietyofsubjectsandwriteletterstoeditors,theninadepressionduringwhichIlierigidasastickforhoursstaringstraightupattheplastermedallionintheceilingof
mybedroom."AlthoughBinxwouldhavesomeliterarycompanyinthisregard,itisnearlyimpossibletoimaginehimragingaboutanything.Heisinexileasthenovel
openseventheimperativetoresisttraditionalroleshasdissipated.Identityconferredbyclass,family,andcommunityisalreadyanullcategory.Reflectingonhis
attachmenttobureaucraticdocumentsthatwouldhavechilledAgrarianblood,Binxopines,"Itisapleasuretocarryoutthedutiesofacitizenandtoreceiveinreturna
receiptoraneatstyrenecardwithone'snameonitcertifying,sotospeak,one'srighttoexist."5

ThetraditionalSouthmakesanappearanceinthecharacterofBinx'sAuntEmily,whoselikenesstoWillPercy,towhomTheMoviegoerisdedicated,hasnotgone
unnoticed.Like"UncleWill"andhis"Fode,"AuntEmilyhasafaithfulretainernamedMercer.Atleastshethinksso:"Myaunttrulyloveshimandseeshimasafaithful
retainer,alivingconnectionwithabygoneage."Binxisnotsosurehefullyunderstandstheperformative,dramaticnatureofMercer'srole,andheconstantlyfretsthat
Mercerwillforget
5.WalkerPercy,TheMoviegoer(1961reprint,NewYork:NoondayPress,1967),9,6,7.

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hislines."MymainemotionaroundMercer,"hesays,"isuneaseinthatthreadinghiswaybetweenservilityandpresumption,hisfootmightslip."Asitstitlesuggests,
TheMoviegoerisanovelaboutperformanceanditsreceptionindeed,Binx'sdefiningcharactertraitishistendencytowardanendlessregressofspectatorship.He
notonlyobserves,butheobservesspectators(attheMardiGrasparade,forexample),andheobserveshisownactofspectatorship.Heisreflexivelyawareofthe
performativedemandsplaceduponhimanduponeveryoneelse.Heremembershisauntinforminghimthathisbrotherwasdeadandaskinghim"toactlikeasoldier":
"Icouldeasilyactlikeasoldier."6Butifactingisatoneremovefromreality,sospectatorshipisattworemoves,andsooninapotentiallyinfiniteregressiveseries.Yet
paradoxically,whatisleastrealtoBinxisadirectconfrontationwithrealityitisthehyperrealityconferredbymoviesandotherspectaclesthatsuspendsthetyrannyof
the''everyday."

AlthoughitisnotmypurposetountanglethecomplexmetaphysicsbehindBinx's(andPercy's)conceptionofreality,Iwillobservethatthisconceptionmakesit
impossibleforhimtodwellinthecommongroundthatenablesnormalsocialrelationships.IfBinxisnotpreciselybeyondideology,certainlyheisbeyondtheideology
ofhisAuntEmily,whostatesherobjectionstohisbehavior,intermsoftacitknowing."Ihavebeenassuming,"shesays,"thatbetweenuswordsmeanroughlythe
samething,thatamongcertainpeople,gentlefolkIdon'tmindcallingthem,thereexistsacertainsetofmeaningsheldincommon."BesideslearningthatsheandBinx
donotsharethis"certainsetofmeanings,"AuntEmilylearnsthatBinxcannotexplainwhywhenpressed,hereplies,"Myobjections,thoughtheyarenotexactly
objections,cannotbeexpressedintheusualway.Totellthetruth,Ican'texpressthematall."7Thisisacurioussilenceonthepartofacharacterwhoisperfectlyat
homeinhisreflexiveconsciousness,anditisadeafeningsilence,asilencethatmarkstheterminallimitsofcommunityinanytraditionalistsense.ForBinxmeaninghas
desertedthesocialworldandcanbeconceivedonlyinotherworldlyspecifically,religiousterms.Connectionrequiresnotasetofgivens,butaleapoffaith.

WhereBinxissilent,manynovelistsofthe1950sand1960swerevocal,
6.Ibid.,23,22,4.

7.Ibid.,222,225.

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vehementlyandexplicitlyobjectingtotheracialsinsofthefathers."Racenovels,"manyexamplesofwhichhavejustifiablyfadedintothewoodworkofsouthern
literaryhistory,didnotreflexivelydefinethelimitsofcommunitysomuchasattempttoabolishitoutright.ThecommunityinDouglasKiker'sTheSoutherner(1957),
whichIwillconsider(somewhatarbitrarily)asakindofepitomeofthisform,exertsanunequivocallyinsidiouspressureagainstKiker'shero.Theplotofthenovelis
simpleenough.JessWitherow,anewspaperreporter,observesanAfricanAmericanfriend,WillTaylor,attempttoenrollhissoninawhiteschoolwhentheprincipal
oftheschoolfalselyaccusesWillofassault,JessiscalledupontotestifyinWill'sbehalf.KikerhalfheartedlyattemptstointroducesomeambiguityintoJess'spolitics,
aneffortthatconsistsprimarilyofhavingJessknow"thattherewasanelementoftruthinSoutherners'claimsaboutNegroes."Theseracialfaultsincludethefollowing:
Negroesturnhousesintoslums,theyrarelybathe,theybuy"flashyautomobileswhentheirhousesareleaking,"andthey''gointomassivesexdemonstrationsrighton
thedancefloor."AlthoughJessproteststhat"beingidentifiedassomefanaticalchampionoftheracerevoltedme,"thereis,infact,littleevidenceforthisclaimthebest
reasonKikercanmusterforhavingJessrefusetotestifyisthathemustgiveup,forreasonsthatareneverquiteexplained,anaristocraticbeautynamedDugan
Phillips.8WhatJessthinksofasadilemmaisanythingbut,andbecausehisdutyissounambiguouslyclear,TheSoutherner,likemanynovelsofasimilarstripe,rarely
risesabovethelevelofamoralityplay.

Inhispolemical1968LamarLectures,TheDeathofArt,FloydC.Watkinsarguedthispointheatedly,suggestingthatthepost1954southernnovelhadbeen
contaminatedbydepictingAfricanAmericancharacters"astoogoodtobetrue."9TheDeathofArtincludesascasestudiesseveralnovelsthathardlysubstantiate
Watkins'sthesis,andittacitlybutclearlycommunicatesareactionarypoliticalstanceontheCivilRightsmovement.Thereis,nonetheless,sometruthinWatkins's
charge.WithKiker'sNegro,wearevirtuallybackwherewewerewithPage,andperhapsevenalittlefurtherback,sinceevenPage'sblackcharactersarecomplexin
waysthateludeauthorialintention.Conversely,Kiker'sNegrodoespreciselywhathewants.
8.DouglasKiker,TheSoutherner(NewYork:Rinehart,1957),189.

9.FloydC.Watkins,TheDeathofArt:BlackandWhiteintheRecentSouthernNovel(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1970),12.

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Williseminentlyrespectable,aperfectspokesmanforthecauseheisalso,itshouldbenoted,neatlyseparatedfromtheunwashed,dialectspeakingNegro,whois
mentionedinpassingbutrarelyshown.ComparedwiththeRenascencenovelitmostresemblesFaulkner'sIntruderintheDust(1948),itselfoftencriticizedfor
beingtoorhetoricalindrivinghomeitsmoralTheSouthernerisineveryrespectanimpoverishednovelitscharactersunambiguouslyfailLukcs'scriterionforthe
type:that"allthehumanlyandsociallyessentialdeterminantsarepresent."WhereLucasBeauchampisbothmanand"Negro,"WillTayloris"justplainWill,"amanto
whomJesscanspeaklikeanyother.WhereChickMallison'sdutytoLucasisintricateandconvolutedduetohiscommunity'sracialnorms,Jess'sdutytoWillis
perfectlyclear:itisthedutyofonemantoanother.

InTheSoutherner"Negro"hasceasedtohaveanymeaningortoputthematteranotherway,thoseforwhomitretainsmeaningareexposedasviciousbigots.
Perhapsnotsocuriously,thesameistrueof"southerner."Despitethenovel'stitle,Jesseffortlesslyrenounceshis"heritageofhatred"andthatispreciselywhathis
heritageconsistsof.Yetneartheendofthenovel,asJessispreparingtoleavetheSouth,hecataloguesthecrimesofthesouthern"forcesofviolenceandhatred"
beforequalifyinghisdenunciation:"Theirreconcilablepartofitwasthat,inrepudiatingtheevilintheSouth,youalsohadtorepudiatethegood,thegoodpeopleand
thegreatmajorityofSouthernersweregoodpeopleandthegoodthingsabouttheplacetheloyaltyoffriendship,thecharity,thehonor.Butyoucouldnotrejecta
partwithoutrejectingthewholebecause,Godhelpus,wewereallboundtogetherinthisthing.''10Althoughitistooweightyathemeforaweakwriter,itisinteresting
tonotehow,despitethatthe"goodpeople"and"goodthings"JessmentionsarenowhereinevidenceinanovelwhoseSouthconsistsmainlyofhypocriticalaristocrats
anddepravedpoorwhites(oneofwhomkeepsaNegrotoeasasouvenirofalynching),heisessentiallystatingapointthattheWhiteCitizensCouncilsweremaking
ataboutthesametime:thatwiththedisappearanceofitsracialhierarchies,thesoutherntraditionwoulddisappearaswell.Thisisprobablyahalftruth,butthehalfthat
istrueisnotinsignificant.Insofarassouthernhegemonydepended
10.Kiker,TheSoutherner,294.

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uponracialhierarchies,thenTheSouthernermightbesaidtomark,asasomewhatarbitrarybutstillrepresentativepointofreference,thepointatwhichhegemonyis
markedasmorallyirredeemable.

Whetherthismarkstheterminationofthesoutherncommunityasapossibilityfornarrativeisasomewhatmorecomplicatedissue.Whilethecommunityfiguresless
prominentlyinpostwarfiction,thisshiftcantosomeextentbeascribedtothemassivesocialandeconomicchangesthatspawnedstripmallsandsuburbs,anderoded
communitiesconceivedinatraditionalsense.Ifcommunityisnotmerelyakindofplace,butamythologyofplace,itmaywellbethatacertainkindofplacemustbe
theretomythologize.Significantly,TheSouthernerissetnotinJess'shometownofCleo,asmallmillcommunity,butinAntioch,alargecityseethingwithcommerce
amongthenovel'smanyartifactualvirtuesisitsdepictionofhowindustrialism,boosterism,andthedemandsofthemarketcombinetocreateanimperativethatthe
Southrenounceits"backward"ways.Theconnectionbetweenindustrialismandthebreakdownofsocialhierarchieshaslongbeenastapleofbothconservativeand
liberalrhetoricwhattheonehaslamented,theotherhascelebrated.Butwhiletherelationshipbetweendemographicsandideologyisfartoocomplextoexamine
here,Iwillhazardthegeneralobservationthatassegregationended,southernnarrativetendedtobecomemoresegregated.Idonottakethisasanecessarily
perniciousdevelopment,especiallygiventhekindofquasiintegrationwehavetracedinwriterslikeKennedy,Page,and(morefitfully)Percy,forwhomtheblack
southerneractsasakeeperofthewhiteconscience.(HerewecanthinkofAliceWalkercommendingFlanneryO'Connorforleavingherblackcharacters
undeveloped,fornotpresumingtoknow.)Ontheotherhand,itoftenseemsasifthatcoerciverelationship,insteadofevolvingonamoreauthenticallyconsensual
ground,hassimplydisappeared,which,inacuriousway,iswhattheconservativetraditionhadbeenwarningallalong.ItiseerietohearGeorgeFitzhugh'sironya
centuryandahalflater:"Theoldrelationhasbecomeunsuitable,obsolete,perhapsunjustandtheremedyis,abolishitlettherehenceforthbenorelationatall."11
11.AliceWalker,"BeyondthePeacock:TheReconstructionofFlanneryO'Connor,"inInSearchofOurMothers'Gardens(SanDiego:HarcourtBrace,1983),5254Fitzhugh,

CannibalsAll!11.

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Communitysurvivesinsouthernliterature,butinanideologicallydilutedform.Communityisrarelyequatedwithhegemonypersonalrelationshipsarerarelymediated
bysocialcategoriestheveryconceptofasocialorderisallbutanachronistic.Towhatextent,then,doescommunitysurvive?First,itsurvivesvestigiallyinthesense
ofplacethathaslongbeendesignated(andoftenexaggerated)asadistinctiveanddefiningtraitofsouthernliterature.Evenifthereisnothingdistinctivelysouthern
aboutplace,itisequallyclearthatplacehasservedadistinctivefunctioninsouthernliterature,wherehistoricallyithastendedtoabsorbandnegate,asaconcrete
icon,manyanxietiesassociatedwiththehegemonicorder.Placeis,onsomelevel,anameforandaformofideologyitisnever"justplace."Whileplacecontinuesto
exertaweakpressureincontemporarynarrative,itseemsapparentthatplaceservesmoreasameresettingandlessasadeterminantthanitdidinthefictionofahalf
centuryagoplacemeanslessbecauselessmeaningisdisplacedtoit.AsJamesJustusbluntlyputsit,"Theoldpietyofplacesocommontotheagrariangenerationis
nolongeroperable."JuliusRowanRaperseesthisasapositivedevelopment.Findingmodernistrepresentationsofplacetobeconsonantwiththe"controlofreality"
exertedby"theadvertisersandideologuesoftheage,"Rapercontendsthat"inmodernSouthernliteraturethesenseofplacetakesonarolebetterplayedbyasense
ofself.''BorrowingapagefromAlainRobbeGrillet,Rapersuggeststhatpostmodernistsubversionsofverisimilitudemayallowsouthernwriters,atlastfreeof
collectiveguiltandshame,andpossessedofa"solid"senseofself,to"dispensewiththegrandioseloyaltiesgroundedinthepietyofplace."12Raper'sconceptionof
placeasadefensemechanism,apathologicalsurrogateforselfhood,parallelshistrust,derivedfromJungianpsychoanalysis,intheutopianpossibilitiesofindividualism.

Whatpietyremainstendstoaccumulatearoundalternativeormarginalizedplaces.Manycommunitiesincontemporarysouthernfictioninvolveanimplicitactof
segregation.Communitiesofwomenaboundintheworkof
12.JamesH.Justus,ForewordtoSouthernWritersatCentury'sEnd,ed.JeffreyJ.FolksandJamesA.Perkins(Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,1997),xiiiJuliusRowan

Raper,"InventingModernSouthernFiction:APostmodernView,"SouthernLiteraryJournal22(1990):10,3,13.

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AliceWalker,LeeSmith,AnneTyler,GailGodwin,JillMcCorkle,SherleyAnneWilliams,andKayeGibbons.Discussingseveralofthesewritersina1990essay,
LindaWagnerMartinwritesthatTheColorPurpleistypicalofcontemporaryfictionwrittenbywomeninthatitproduces"egoidentities"thathave"strangely
permeableboundaries."AccordingtoWagnerMartin,''Whatformerlyconstituted'self'assomerigidlydefinedunitbecomes'self'asapartofsomesharingwhole."13
Thiswhole,however,canneverbecomprehensive,sincecommunityinthissensecanappearonlyasanenclaveopposedto,excludedfrom,orotherwiseoutsidethe
hegemonicorder.AlthoughWagnerMartinandRapermaydisagreeastothedesirabilityofdiscreteegoidentities,theyaredescribingtwodistinctandnot
necessarilymutuallyexclusivereactionstocommunityconceivedinatraditionalistsense:avalorizationofenclavesintheonecase,andasubversionofthe"pietiesof
place"associatedwithhegemonyintheother.Bothreflecttrendswithincontemporaryfictionthatarepartofalargershiftawayfromtheconceptionofsocialrealityin
comprehensiveterms.

Insofarasthetraditionalcommunityremainsapossibilityforrealisticnarrative,itdoessoinanincreasinglytenuousway.Thepossibilityexiststhat"theSouth"has
becomeavailableexclusivelytodiscourseandnottonarrative,inBenveniste'ssenseofthesetermsthecontemporary(nottomentionpostmodern)southernwriter
findsitdifficult(ifnotundesirable)todwellinthetacitdimensionuponwhichanobjective,"mimetic"South(touseKreyling'slabel)iscontingent.Itwouldbean
overstatementtosaythattheSouthnolongerproducescollectivefictionsbecauseitisone,butthereisaperceptibleshiftinthisdirection.Itisdifficulttowriteabout
theSouthwithoutbeingconsciousoftheact.AsFredHobsonobservesinTheSouthernWriterinthePostmodernWorld,thecontemporarysouthernwriteris"in
dangerofwritingasortoftwentiethcenturylocalcolor"resultingfromtheselfreflexiveviolationoftheautochthonousideal.Thisisnotaproblemexclusivetowriters,
sinceonewaysouthernnesssurvivesisasakindofnonreferentialperformance.Itispossibleevenprofitableto"actsouthern"todayinawaythatwouldhavebeen
inconceivableacenturyago.
13.LindaWagnerMartin,"'JusttheDoingofIt':SouthernWomenWritersandtheIdeaofCommunity,"SouthernLiteraryJournal22(1990):21.

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Eatinggrits,forexample,canmeansomethingentirelydifferenttodayfromwhatitdidthentotheMississippisharecropperwhoatethembecausethat'swhathehad.
Eatinggritstodaycanbemanipulatedasasignofsouthernness:toeatgritsis,inonesense,toidentifyoneselfasoutherner.Andcuriously,onecanmakealivingfrom
eatinggrits,asthecareerofJeffFoxworthyadequatelydemonstrates.Hobsonseesseveralcontemporarywritersassuccumbingtoasimilartemptation.

AmongthemostsymptomaticworksinthisregardisClydeEdgerton'sRaney(1985),aworkthatcommits,initsrepresentationofasmallNorthCarolinacommunity,
whatDavidsonmightcalltheethnographicheresy.Edgerton'sattempttorepresentan"authentic"voicefromthiscultureresultsinegregiousventriloquismthetitle
characterissoradicallyoverdeterminedasarepressedhickthatitisimpossibletotakeherseriously.AsJackButlerobserves,theerosionofculturalgivenshas
necessitatedthatthecontemporarywriter"accumulaterealworlddetails,"aneffortthat,without"theentireculturebackingthemup...mayseemantiquatedor
worse,clichd"(38).Edgertontoooftenseemsclichd.RaneythinksvegetariansarebornthatwayRaneythinksJesusturnedwaterintograpejuiceRaneythinks
"segregation"means"integration''Raneythinksthat"apersonshouldn'tsay'nigger'toaniggerunlessmaybetheniggeractslikeone"14thelistgoeson.AlthoughI
donotdoubtthateverydetailhasanactualreferentsomewhereinthecontemporarySouth,thecumulativeeffectisoneofoverkillintheend,Raneycrossesthelimit
atwhichthemimeticrepresentationof"theSouth"devolvesintoperformativeselfindulgence.

IfRaneyproducesthetraditionalcommunityasmimeticobject,itdoessoinamannerthatisultimatelyunconvincing.Inthisrespectitmightbesaidtorepresentthe
firstofthreemodesbywhichthetraditionalsoutherncommunitysurvivesincontemporarynarrative:(1)asatenuouslyauthentic,autochthonouscommunityavailableto
realistnarration,(2)asanoppressivesocialordernecessitatingalternativecommunitiesorenclaves,and(3)asanobjectofpostmoderndeconstructionorparody.Itis
thethirdthatIwouldliketoconsiderinmoredetail,particularlyinlightofKreyling'sdiscussion
14.FredHobson,TheSouthernWriterinthePostmodernWorld(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1991),8081Butler,"StillSouthern,"38ClydeEdgerton,Raney(NewYork:

BallantineBooks,1985),126.

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ofthe"collisionofthesouthern'immovableobject'andthepostmodern'irresistibleforce.'"RejectingthehopesofHobsonandLewisSimpsonthat"southernliterary
historywillcontinueonitsclassic,renaissancefoundations,"Kreylingcontendsthatthereis"noescapefromaworldmediatedthroughrepresentations,norecourseto
thetotalizingandtotallyauthoritativereferent:capitalism,patriarchy,thenovel,theSouth."AlthoughKreyling'sliteraryexamplesofpostsouthernparodyfromReynolds
PricetoBarryHannahtendtomoveinanexclusivelydeconstructivedirection,his"cautionary"stepprovocativelyopensawayinwhich''theSouth"mightsurvive
postmoderninterrogation:"Toputquotationmarksaroundtherealisnottoeffacetherealrather,itistoputitintoaconditionofmultiplecodesratherthanthe
traditionalrealisticmimeticsystem.Historystillexistswenowacknowledgethatweknowitthroughasystemofrepresentationsratherthaninanunmediated,direct
way....Postmodernismdoesnotdeconstructthepastandmeaning,exceptbyinterrogatingthesystemsbywhichthoseentitieshavebeenknownassuch."15The
"except"inthelastsentenceisamassiveone,sincetointerrogatethesystemsbywhichknowledgeisproducedis,inafundamentalsense,adeconstructiveact.In
manyrespectsthenarrativeswehaveconsideredhereareprimarilyconcernedwithdeferringsuchinterrogation,fortoknowasystemquasystemistoproducea
radicallydifferentkindofknowledge.InsofaraspostFaulknerianparodyparticipatesinwhatmightbecalled(borrowingapagefromcubism)analyticpostmodernism,
somuchforthegood:thetraditionalSouthwasbasedonsocialhierarchieswhosearbitraryandperniciouscharacternecessitatedthiskindofanalysis.Butatthesame
time,theanalysisanddeconstructionofmeaningcanbeextendedindefinitely:anythingthatmeans,canpotentiallymeansomethingelse.Tofunctionassocialbeings,
weneed,atsomelevel,todeferthetextualityofthingssothatbeliefcanexistakindofsyntheticorpragmaticpostmodernism,ifyouwill.Asthepostmodern
conditionisanagnosticone,thisbeliefwillprobablybelesslikethatoftheold,autochthonousdispensationandmorelikeWallaceStevens's"supremefiction":afiction
weknowassuchandcanstilllivewith.
15.MichaelKreyling,InventingSouthernLiterature(Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi,1998),155,153,155.

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Itisnot,Ithink,theoreticallyimpossibletoput"theSouth"inquotationmarksandthenremovethemunderapragmaticaegis.Inshort,myhopeisthatafter
interrogatingthemeaningproducingsystemsthatis,theideologyoftheSouth,itmightbepossibletoidentifycertainfoundationassumptionsbymeansofwhicha
legitimatecommunitycouldbesustained.AsSacvanBercovitchremindsus,ideologyisnotsimplywhattherichdotothepoor,itis"thegroundandtextureof
consensus."Nor,asBercovitchsays,isideology"simplyrepressive":"theverytermsofculturalrestriction[canbecome]asourceofcreativerelease:theyserveto
incitetheimagination,tounleashtheenergiesofreform,toencouragediversityandaccommodatechangeallthis,whiledirectingtherightsofdiversityintoariteof
culturalassent.''16Tobesure,BercovitchisspeakingofAmericanideologyhiscomments,historicallyatleast,arelessapplicabletotheideologyof"UncleSam's
otherprovince,"wheretheritesofassenthavetoooftenbeentheproductofsheercoercion.Consequently,anyattempttorecuperateasouthernideologymustbegin
inaspiritoftoughmindedcritique,lestitdegenerateintoafacileattempttoextractasanitizedtraditioninmuchthesamemanneraspostbellumwriterslikePage
recuperatedaniconic"OldSouth"whileevadingtheconcreteevilsofslavery.Yetanalyticpostmodernism,forwhichideologyisalwaysfalseconsciousness,would
precludecommunityaltogether.

Eveninapostsouthernagecircumstancesarenotaltogetherunfavorablefornegotiatingcommunityonnewterms.Foronething,thetransitionbetweenatraditional
agrarianeconomyandmultinationalcapitalismhasbeenespeciallyabruptintheSouth,resultinginarichmatrixofjuxtapositionsbetweentraditionalandcontemporary
formsofculture.Anhour'sdrivefromAtlantaorCharlottecanstillopenone'seyes.Inonecontext,thisinteractionhasproducedSouthernLiving,SouthernComfort
whiskey,TheDukesofHazzard,andothercommodificationsofsouthernness.Morehopefully,however,theresidualcultureofanearlieragemaysituatesouthern
writersinapositiontomediatemeaningfullybetweenpostmodernityandtradition.Asecondfavorablecircumstanceinvolvesadurablebeliefin
16.SacvanBercovitch,"TheProblemofIdeologyinAmericanLiteraryHistory,"CriticalInquiry12(1986):635.

 Page209

southerndistinctiveness.AlthoughHughRuppersburgiscorrectinassertingthatcontemporarywritingoftenlacksthesensesoprevalentintheRenascenceeraof
the"Southasanalternativetowhatmanyregardasdepersonalizingandhostileintherestoftheworld,"17manysouthernerscontinue,incontrovertibly,tothinkofthe
Southinpreciselytheseterms.EveniftheSouthislessdistinctivethanitusedtobe,theredemptivemythologythatcontinuestoaccruearoundsoutherndistinctiveness
is,perhaps,somethingtogoon.

InIntruderintheDustGavinStevenspredictedthattheSouth'ssheerexperienceininterracialrelationshipspromisedaneventualredemption.Hewas,tobesure,a
windbag,butaprovocativeonenonetheless.Yet,ifweareindeed"allboundtogetherinthisthing,"manyofourcontemporarywritershavefailedtoshowusexactly
how.Contemporarynarrativewrittenbywhiteshastendedtoeffacesocialcategoriesthatstillfunctionpowerfully:althoughracecontinuestoholdimmenseand
manifoldmeaningsintheSouthandinthenationasawhole,onesearchesalmostinvainforamajornovelafterTheConfessionsofNatTurnerthatthematizesrace
atametaculturallevel.Thetypesarestilloutthere,buttheirencodingoccursfarmorepowerfullyand,Iwouldcontend,moreperniciouslyinmassculturethanin
narrative.Thisisonereason,Ithink,whycommentatorslikeHobsonfind"thebignovel"tobeconspicuouslyabsentincontemporaryfiction.18Theloss,ratherthan
theevolution,oftheinterracialcommunityinsouthernnarrativereflects,Ithink,alostopportunity.LikeRaney,westilldonotknowthemeaningof"integration."

Withawordsoencrustedwithtabooandpoliticalrhetoric,itwilltakeaspecialstyleanacidicone,perhapstouncoverwhatanintegratedcommunitymightreally
looklike.Thestylistsareamongus,andnotallofthemhaveavertedtheireyesfromtheissue.BarryHannah,oneofthegreatsentencelevelwriterstoappearinthe
pastthreedecades,darestobeoffensiveinhistreatmentofraceinawaythatallowsthemeaningofracetoemergespowerfullyanddisturbingly.LewisNordan's
WolfWhistle,anovel
17.HughRuppersburg,"JamesWilcox:TheNormalityofMadness,"inSouthernWritersatCentury'sEnd,34.

18.FredHobson,"OfCanonsandCultureWars:SouthernLiteratureandLiteraryScholarshipafterMidcentury,"inFutureofSouthernLetters,85.

 Page210

basedonthe1955murderofEmmettTill,isoneofahandfuloftrulysignificantnovelstoappearinthisdecade.Thecollisionofracialrageandparodythatdominates
hisnovelisonewayofformalizingtheragethatisstillthere.LikeHannah,Nordanemploystypesthataresooverdetermined,sooverthetop,thattheyavoidclich.
Inanentirelydifferentkey,JosephineHumphreysemploysadistinctivelysouthernbrandofsyntheticpostmodernismthatbrilliantlyinterrogateswordslike"family"and
"romance,"butherstyleandthevisionitencompassesextendtoracerelationsinacompellingway.WellintoTheFireman'sFair,anAfricanAmericancharacter
informsawhitefriendofashockingfact:hehasbeentreatedasa"niggerfriend"whosesolejobistolistenandoffersageadvice.Itisadisorientingmomentforthe
whitecharacterandthereader.InDreamsofSleep,Humphreys'sprotagonistwonders:
Whatwillhappentoalltheseblackpeople,nowthemovementisdead,theirheroestuckedawayinpublicoffices?Wasthewholecivilrightsmovementnothingbutaminor
disturbanceinthesuccessionofyears?Whitepeoplehavestartedtellingjokesagain.Blacksandwhiteslivefartherapartthanever,likethedoublecurveofahyperbolicfunction,
twoworldsofidenticalmiseryandpassionbutoccupyingoppositequadrants,nonintersecting.Inaway,equalbutseparate.Onedaysomethingwillblowup,butAlicedoesn't
knowwhetheritwillbetheworldortheSouthortheReesefamily.19

Asoneofourleadingcontemporarynovelistsofmanners,Humphreysisaskingimportantquestionsaboutthestructureofracerelationsinapostsouthernworld.
Southernwriterswoulddowelltoaskthesequestionsmorefrequently,forasAliceReeserecognizes,thepromiseofaninterracialcommunityemergingfromtheCivil
Rightsmovementhasconspicuouslyfailedtomaterializeinmanyways.Itistoosoontosaywhether"somethingwillblowup"inourowntime,butthepossibilityis
there.Theneedforacollectiveideologyagroundofconsensushasneverbeengreater.

Inapostmodernworldofdissensus,informationoverload,andtruculentdifferences,communityitselfbeginstolooklikeaconceptualdinosaur,andit
19.JosephineHumphreys,TheFireman'sFair(NewYork:Viking,1991),226Humphreys,DreamsofSleep(NewYork:Penguin,1984),134.

 Page211

maywellbethatcommunityistoofargonetoserveasthekindofpublicspaceorgroundforideologicalnegotiationthatIhaveinmind.ButIdonotthinkso.Jameson
saysthatallnarrativespointtowardutopia,andwiththatinmind,letmeendminewithacommunitythatIwouldliketoreadabout.In1994ayoungwomaninUnion,
SouthCarolina,killedhertwochildrenbydrowningtheminacarshepushedintoalake.Shewaseventuallyarrested,convicted,andsentencedtolifeinprison.The
storywouldprobablynothavegarnerednationalattentionhadthewomannotconcoctedastoryaboutanAfricanAmericanassailantwhohadkidnapedherchildren.
Ahalfcenturyearlierthatstorywouldsurelyhaveproducedalynching,asseveralblackleadersinUnionattested.Yetthewoman'sstorydidnotworkasshe
envisioned.Thebattlelinesdidnotappearintheexpectedway,andadialogueemergedacrossraciallinesthatwouldbeinconceivableinNewYorkorevenAtlanta.
Tobesure,thereismoretothishorrificepisodethanthehappyendingthatIperhapshaveappended,andwhichatelevisionproducersomewhereperhaps
constructed.Yettoallappearances,asoutherncommunityincrisisextendedtheoldidealsofresponsibility,connectedness,andmannersacrossraciallines.Ifthe
southerncommunityistoremainavitalgroundforfictionandaresourceforinterracialdialogue,itwilltakeawriterwhoiswillingtolookbehindappearances,to
interrogateboth"southern"and"community,"andseeifthereisanythinglefttorecuperate.IfI'mnotmistaken,there'sastorythere.

 Page213

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Index

Andrews,WilliamL.,689,889,90,142

Bakhtin,M.M.,33,57,69,70,78

Bakker,Jan,78,83n

Bal,Mieke,158

Banfield,Ann,158

Barthes,Roland,1234

Benveniste,Emile,19,205

Bercovitch,Sacvan,91,208

Booth,WayneC.,28,44

Bourdieu,Pierre,7,910,19

Bradford,M.E.,11

Brooks,Cleanth,12,151,167,177,181,188,1923

Brown,CarolynS.,50

Burke,Kenneth,61,118

Butler,Jack,198,206

Cash,W.J.,10,22,92,113,150,175

Chafe,WilliamH.,17n

Chesnutt,Charles,22,75,96

Community:

boundaryof,46,12,76,823,88,113,1302,135,144,148

evasivenatureof,13,4,810,27,61,64,142

hierarchyand,67,125,17,656,678,93,989,105,1123,150,2023,207

imageof,78,12,70,789,86,114,118

tacitnatureof,102,1821,27,43,61,64,113,130,1968,199,200,205

consensusin,3,19,21,72,77,111,138,174,177,208,210

Consent,7,18,68,90,91,109,110,111,112,133,134,140,149,1812,183,204

Cox,JamesM.,32

Culler,Jonathan,152n,194

Dabbs,JamesMcBride,89,17,113,149

Davidson,Donald,101,14,15,36,206

Davis,LennardJ.,33

Dixon,Thomas,110,111,112

Douglas,Mary,190

Douglass,Frederick,22

Durkheim,Emile,23,10,20

Duvall,JohnN.,177,1801

Eakin,PaulJohn,121

Edgerton,Clyde,206

 Page224

Elkins,StanleyM.,723

Ellison,Ralph,150

Fadiman,ReginaK.,173n

Faulkner,William,1,3,4,24,111,15095,1968,202.SeealsoLightinAugust

Fitzhugh,George,123,14,65,203

Genette,Grard,152,153,154n,164,165n,169,173

Genovese,EugeneD.,12,14,65,66

GeorgiaScenes:

consensusin:27,34,47,49,55,60,61,64

hierarchyin,36,43,46,47,49,524,56

narrativeframeof,2931,39,40,4950,623

naturein,312,35,479

negotiationin,29,325,456,47,49,50,55,57,58,61,63

politicalrepresentationin,534,602

socialtypesin,26,32,356,37,41,43,456,4852,578,603

Girard,Ren,1867,192

Godden,Richard,182,190

Goellner,Ellen,166

Gramsci,Antonio,7

Gray,Richard,48n

Grayson,William,69

Habermas,Jrgen,8,467,118

Hahn,Steven,26

Harris,JoelChandler,73,105

Hegemony,4,7,19,212,25,90,96,99,2023,204,205

Hobson,Fred,127,129,2056,207,209

Holdsworth,Carolyn,135,146

Holmes,WilliamF.,124n

Humphreys,Josephine,210

Hundley,DanielR.,26

I'llTakeMyStand,12,13,14

InOleVirginia:

familymetaphorin,967,99100,101,102,1045,1101

paternalismin,93,105,110

slave'svoicein,91,94,957,989,102

socialstatusin,99101

structureof,97,102

Jakobson,Roman,28

Jameson,Fredric,15,53,60,63,70,89,91,141,211

Jehlen,Myra,150

Justus,JamesH.,204

Kennedy,JohnPendleton,34,56,17,18,67,7091,98,150,203.SeealsoSwallowBarn

Kenner,Hugh,196

Kibler,JamesE.,Jr.,27,28,36,59

Kiker,Douglas,2013

King,Kimball,27,92,102

King,Richard,127,138,139

Kinney,ArthurF.,1534

Kreyling,Michael,126,127,147n,196,205,2067

Lakoff,George,andMarkJohnson,135

LanternsontheLevee:

aristocratin,115,116,117,1219,1319,141,143,144,148

hierarchyin,114,117,123,140,141

historyin,116,1179,120,126,1278,130,1367,141,146

Negroin,1156,126,1334,135,1378,13942,144,148

paternalismin,1134,115,136,13740,142,144,148

poorwhitein,115,116,117,126,127,12832

Lawson,Lewis,147n

Leinwand,TheodoreB.,334

LightinAugust:

"blackblood"in,150,1512,1601,162,1702,175,176,180,1836,18995

embeddednarrationin,16470,172,176,180,1834,192,193

focalizationin,1525,156,1589,163,

 Page225

165,168,170,172,17980,193

lawin,176,177,180,1868,1901,192,194

whitehierarchyin,150,175

Longstreet,AugustusBaldwin,3,4,5,6,18,21,2464,91.SeealsoGeorgiaScenes

Lukcs,Georg,16,1423,202

Lumpkin,KatharineDuPre,136

Lynn,Kenneth,25,2930,32,34,39

Macaskill,Brian,155

MacKethan,LucindaH.,73n,88,93,945,98,1034,1067

Manners,1,3,17,18,27,36,113,115,138,1412,210

Meats,StephenE.,180

Meriwether,JamesB.,36,41

Michaels,WalterBenn,1101,1501

Newlin,Keith,30

Nordan,Lewis,20910

Oriard,Michael,44

Page,ThomasNelson,3,4,5,67,16,18,22,67,82,91111,113,149,201,203,208.SeealsoInOleVirginia

Pastoral,178,31,35,36,37,39,48,667,68,69,92,93,103,113,141,193.SeealsoSwallowBarn

Percy,Walker,147n,199200

Percy,WilliamAlexander,2,3,45,6,7,178,82,111,11348,149,150,199,203.SeealsoLanternsontheLevee

Phillips,RobertL.,Jr.28,96

Phillips,UlrichBonnell,195

Poe,EdgarAllan,24,106

Polanyi,Michael,10,18,43,196

Raper,JuliusRowan,2045

Reed,JosephW.,Jr.,157,163,175,178,188

Richardson,Brian,163

Rocks,JamesE.,113

Ross,StephenM.,1578,172

Rubin,LouisD.,Jr.,92,94n,1089

Ruppersburg,HughM.,1567,159,209

Scarry,Elaine,1845

Siebers,Tobin,144

Simms,WilliamGilmore,678

Simpson,LewisP.,65,68,69,70,71,74,89

Smith,Lillian,136

Snead,JamesA.,178,1912

Styron,William,209

Sundquist,Eric,192n

SwallowBarn:

hierarchyin,74,76,77,84

narrativeorientationof,70,778,79,813,8690

parodyin,713,76

pastoralorientationof:70,77,789,82,834,8690

satirein,77,7980

slaveryin,717,8390

Tate,Allen,3,11,13,156,28,1478,196,198

Taylor,WilliamR.,67,77

Todorov,Tzetvan,108,182

Toomey,DavidM.,157

Tucker,George,67

Tuttleton,JamesW.,17

Twain,Mark,22,24,29,79

Urgo,Joseph,190

Wade,JohnDonald,25n,46n

Walker,Alice,203,205

WagnerMartin,Linda,205

Warren,RobertPenn,14,112,136

Watkins,FloydC.,201

Watson,Jay,184n

Watson,RichieDevon,24

 Page226

Weaver,RichardM.,11,134,20,137,138n,198

White,Hayden,114,176,193

Williamson,Joel,94n

Wilson,ClydeN.,95

Winthrop,John,656

Woodward,C.Vann,110,129

Wright,Richard,22,142

WyattBrown,Bertram,128n,132