Actuators My Notes and Calculations

Chapter 3

Actuators
Objective
This course on actuators will give you a good understanding of how actuators
work in a hydraulic system. The actuator is the interface component that converts
hydraulic horsepower back into mechanical horsepower. An actuator may either be
a cylinder giving linear motion or a hydraulic motor giving rotating motion.
Cylinders
Cylinders are linear actuators. Their output force, or motion, is in a straight line.
Their function is to convert hydraulic power into linear mechanical power. Their
work applications may include pushing, pulling, tilting, and pressing. Cylinder type
and design are based on specific applications.

Figure 3.1 A typical cylinder

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Types
A ram is perhaps the most simple of the actuators. It has only one fluid chamber
and exerts force in only one direction. It is used in applications where stability is
needed on heavy loads.
A single acting cylinder is pressurized on one end only. The opposite end is vented
to the tank or atmosphere.
They are designed so that a load, or a device such as an internal spring, retracts
them.
The double acting cylinder is the most common cylinder used in industrial
hydraulics. Pressure can be applied to either port, giving power in both directions.
These cylinders are also classified as differential cylinders because of their unequal
exposed areas during extension and retraction. The area of the rod reduces the
effective area of the piston during retraction. Extension is slower than retraction
because more fluid is required to fill the piston side of the cylinder. However,
more force can be generated on extension because of greater effective area. On
retraction, the same amount of pump flow will retract the cylinder faster because
of the reduced fluid volume displaced by the rod. Less force, however, can be
generated due to less effective area.

Figure 3.2 Double acting cylinder Figure 3.3 Double rod cylinder

A double rod cylinder is considered a non-differential type cylinder. The areas on

both sides of the piston are equal, thus providing equal force in both directions.
Applications for such cylinders would be when it is advantageous to couple a load
to both ends or when equal speeds are needed in both directions.
Telescoping cylinders have multiple stages and can be either single or double acting.
This type of cylinder is used in various mobile applications when a long working
stroke is required, while the collapsed length must remain relatively short.

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Double-acting telescoping cylinders are used when hydraulic force, not load
induced force, is required to retract the cylinder. During cylinder retraction of
a double-acting telescoping cylinder, the effective area available is only the outer
diameter of each stage. Because of this reduced area, relatively little force can be
generated during retraction.
An inherent characteristic of a telescoping cylinder due to its sequencing from
large to small stage or sleeves during extension is a reduction in force with an
increase in speed during extension. This is due to changes in area and volume with
each stage as it extends. The highest force with the slower speed occurs during
extension of the first stage.

Figure 3.4 Telescoping cylinder

DID YOU KNOW?

Mill type cylinders are more robust in design than tie rod cylinders.
Applications for the mill type cylinders include presses, cranes, iron works,
and rolling mills.

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Design
The cylinder assembly is constructed of a steel cap end head, a steel barrel assembly,
a rod end head, a rod bearing, a piston, and a piston rod. Tie rods and nuts are used
to hold the heads and barrel assembly together. Static seals keep the joint pressure
tight. A rod wiper is provided to prevent foreign material from entering the bearing
and seal area. The sealing of a moving surface is provided by the rod seal that
prevents fluid from leaking past the rod, and by the piston seal that prevents fluid
from bypassing the piston. Fluid is routed to and from the cylinder through the rod
end port and the cap end port.

Figure 3.5 Typical cylinder design

Motors
Motor actuators are commonly used in the fluid power industry where hydraulic
power is being converted to a rotary output drive device. These actuators are used
as a direct drive or in combination with a gear reducer. Such applications often
include, vehicle wheels, conveyors, winches, and spreader drives. Fixed displacement
actuators are typically classified as gerotor, geroller, radial piston, or external gear.
While piston type motors can be used as fixed displacement actuators, axial and
bent axis motors can also be used as variable displacement actuators.

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Figure 3.6 Several types of hydraulic motors commonly used in industry

The gerotor and geroller motors are fixed displacement actuators that are low
speed, high torque, bidirectional motors. They are considered durable, compact in
size, and inexpensive. These motors are used in many mobile applications where
size, costs, and weight are factors.
The external gear motor is designed much the same as the external gear pump.
These motors are used in many high speed, low torque applications, are fixed
displacement, and can be bidirectional. These motors are used in many mobile
applications where size, costs, and weight are factors.
Radial piston motors are the most robust of all motors and are fixed displacement.
They are very low speed, high torque motors. Compared to their physical size, they
are very efficient; however cost may be a consideration. These motors are used in
many high load wheel, conveyor, and low direct mount applications.
Axial piston motors can be fixed displacement or can give greater flexibility in
machine design and capacity when used as variable displacement motors. There are
two general designs, axial piston and bent axis piston motors. They are high speed,
low torque motors, and are robust and very efficient. They are used in many mobile
applications when design flexibility is needed.

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Applications
Hydraulic motors are rated according to displacement and torque. The first
consideration should be torque. Hydraulic motors are rated in foot or inch-pounds
of torque per given psi, typically inch-pounds per 100 psi. Torque is equal to load
times radius.
Equation 3.1
Torque = Load x Radius
Large displacement motors usually have a greater radius for the hydraulic fluid to
push against; therefore, they create more torque at a specific pressure.

Figure 3.7 An example of torque being calculated

with a 10 lb load and 4 in radius

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Example 3.1
In Figure 3.8, a hydraulic motor rated at 100 inch-pounds of force per 1 psi is
rotating a winch with a radius of 4 inches. The load is 500 pounds. What is the
required torque? Based on the torque rating of the motor, the operating pressure
is 2000 psi.

Figure 3.8 A hydraulic motor with a 4 inch radius, lifting 500 lbs

Solution: Substituting the formula into Equation 3.1, we get:

Torque = 500 lbs x 4 in = 2000 lbs
Answer: 2000 in lbs

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The second consideration would be displacement. This is necessary to determine

the amount of flow required to rotate the hydraulic motor at the required rpm.
Gerotor Motor
A gerotor motor has an orbital internal gear system. The main components of the
gerotor motor are: the stator (an internal gear), the rotor (an external gear), the
drive coupling, an output shaft, a rotary valve, and the housing with the ports.
The rotor sits offset in the cavity of the stator. An open cavity between the rotor
and the stator is created by the offset of the rotor, which has one less tooth than
the stator. One tooth of the rotor is always opposed to one roller tooth of the
stator. The cavity is divided into two pressure zones by the opposing teeth. One
side of the opposing teeth is high pressure and the other side is low pressure.

Figure 3.9 The gears inside a gerotor motor

The rotary valve ports fluid from the inlet to the high pressure cavity between the
gears. Fluid from the low pressure cavity is ported back through the rotary valve
to the outlet.
Fluid enters the high pressure cavity, and, as pressure builds, the rotor tooth is
forced off of the stator tooth. This causes the rotor and the rotary valve to rotate
slightly. The output shaft, which is connected to the rotor by the drive coupler, also
rotates slightly. Fluid on the opposite side of the cavity is forced through the rotary
valve to the outlet port. As the rotor moves, the next rotor tooth and stator tooth

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are on each other. The rotary valve allows fluid to enter the high pressure cavity in
its new position and the cycle begins again.
These cycles cause the rotor to orbit around the inside of the stator. For each orbit
the rotor makes, the rotor rotates one tooth in relation to the stator. Since this
stator has seven teeth it takes seven orbits of the rotor to complete one rotation
of the output shaft. This creates a seven-to-one speed reduction and a similar
multiplication of the torque output.
Torque output from the motor is a result of pressure against the side of the rotor
in the cavity between the rotor and the stator. The diameter and width of the
rotor dictate the area available for the pressure to work against in order to create
torque.
Geroller Motor
A geroller motor is of an orbital internal gear design. The main components of
the geroller motor are: the stator (an internal gear with roller teeth), the rotor
(an external gear), the drive coupling, an output shaft, a rotary valve that is often
incorporated into the output shaft, and the housing with the ports.

Figure 3.10 The basic components inside of a geroller motor

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The rotor sits offset in the cavity of the stator. An open cavity between the rotor
and the stator is created by the offset of the rotor, which has one less tooth than
the stator. One tooth of the rotor is always opposed to one roller tooth of the
stator. The cavity is divided into two pressure zones by the opposing teeth. One
side of the opposing teeth is high pressure and the other side is low pressure.
The rotary valve ports fluid from the inlet to the high-pressure cavity between the
gears. Fluid from the low-pressure cavity is ported back through the rotary valve
to the outlet.
Fluid enters the high-pressure cavity and pressure builds; the rotor tooth is forced
off of the roller tooth. This causes the rotor and the rotary valve to rotate slightly.
The output shaft, which is connected to the rotor by the drive coupler, also rotates
slightly. Fluid on the opposite side of the cavity is forced through the rotary valve
to the outlet port. As the rotor moves, the next rotor tooth and roller tooth
oppose each other. The rotary valve allows fluid to enter the high-pressure cavity
in its new position and the cycle begins again.
These cycles cause the rotor to orbit around the inside of the stator. For each
orbit the rotor makes, the rotor rotates one tooth in relation to the stator. Since
this stator has seven roller teeth it takes seven orbits of the rotor to complete one
rotation of the output shaft. This creates a seven-to-one speed reduction and a
similar multiplication of the torque output.
Torque output from the motor is a result of pressure against part of the diameter
of the rotor in the cavity between the rotor and the stator. The diameter and width
of the rotor dictate the area available for the pressure to work against in order to
create torque.
Bent Axis
The major components of a fixed displacement bent axis piston motor are: the
housing, port plate, control plate, output shaft, barrel, pistons, centering pin, and
drive flange.
The ball of the pistons and the centering pin are held in sockets on the end of the
output shaft by the drive flange. The pistons and barrel sit in the housing at about a
40-degree angle to the output shaft axis. A preload spring in the centering pin holds
the barrel against the control plate.

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As pressurized fluid enters the inlet, it is fed through a kidney shaped opening in
the control plate to the three or four pistons situated over the opening. Pressure
against the end of these pistons creates force which acts at an angle to the output
shaft. These pistons are pushed back in the barrel toward the output shaft. The
result is an output torque that causes the output shaft, the pistons, and the barrel
to rotate. The pistons over the outlet area are being forced into the barrel toward
the control plate. Return oil from these pistons is forced through the other kidney-
shaped opening and out the outlet port.

Figure 3.11 The flow through a bent axis piston gear motor

When the flow to the motor is reversed, the inlet becomes the outlet and the outlet
becomes the inlet. The motor then rotates in the opposite direction.

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Any internal leakage passes into the area between the rotating group and the
housing. This leakage is directed from the case drain port directly back to the
reservoir.
Output speed of the fixed displacement bent axis motor is proportional to the
input flow. Drive torque is proportional to the difference in pressure between the
motor inlet and the outlet.
Axial Piston
The major components of a fixed displacement axial piston motor are: the housing,
port plate, valve plate, swashplate, cylinder barrel, pistons, piston shoes, shoeplate,
shoeplate bias spring, and output shaft.
The cylinder barrel is fixed to the output shaft. The pistons reciprocate in and out
of the cylinder barrel on an axis parallel to the output shaft. A bias spring and the
shoeplate hold the piston shoes against the swashplate and the barrel against the
valve plate.

Figure 3.12 The flow through an axial piston motor

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The swashplate sits at an angle to the pistons. As pressurized fluid enters the inlet,
it is fed through a kidney-shaped opening in the valve plate to the three or four
pistons situated over the opening. Pressure against the end of these pistons creates
force which acts at an angle to the swashplate. These pistons are pushed outward
in the barrel towards the swashplate. As this happens, the piston shoes slide across
the surface of the swashplate.
The result is an output torque that causes the output shaft, the pistons, and the
barrel to rotate. The pistons over the outlet area are forced into the barrel towards
the valve plate. Return oil from these pistons is forced through the other kidney-
shaped opening of the valve plate and out the outlet port.
When the flow to the motor is reversed, the inlet becomes the outlet and the outlet
becomes the inlet. The motor then rotates in the opposite direction.
Output speed of the fixed displacement axial motor is proportional to the input
flow. Drive torque is proportional to the difference in pressure between the motor
inlet and the outlet.
Any internal leakage passes into the area between the rotating group and the
housing. This leakage is directed from the case drain port directly back to the
reservoir.
Radial Piston
Radial hydraulic motors are classified as low speed, high torque rotary actuators.
Their major components are the pistons, the camshaft drum or stator, the output
shaft, and the rotary valve.
Fluid enters the motor through the rotary valve which ports it to the pistons. The
force created by the area of the piston under fluid pressure, acting against the
offset of the eccentric crankshaft drum or stator, creates a rotation of the output
shaft as the piston telescopes and extends in its full bore. As the shaft rotates, it
rotates the rotary valve, porting fluid into successive pistons, and maintaining a
continuous and smooth rotation. Returning fluid, exhausted from the collapsing
pistons, is ported through the rotary valve and back to the reservoir. Three pistons
are pressurized at once. This prevents any dead spots caused by a single piston
being at top dead center. This also assures a smooth, rotating output.

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This type of radial motor is typically bidirectional. With a bidirectional motor, it

is important to ensure that the fluid conductors are accurately connected to their
respective ports on the motor to insure correct rotation.

Figure 3.13 Three pistons are pressurized at once in a radial piston motor

Output speed of the fixed displacement, radial piston motor is proportional to the
input flow. Drive torque is proportional to the difference in pressure between the
motor inlet and the outlet. Any internal leakage passes into the area between the
rotating group and the housing. This leakage is directed from the case drain port
directly back to the reservoir.

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Actuators My Notes and Calculations

DID YOU KNOW?

Hydraulic motors are typically classified as high speed motors (500 10,000
rpm) or low speed motors (0 1,000) rpm.
63025 x hp (in lb) x rpm
Torque (in lb) = hp = Torque
rpm 63025

SUMMARY
The actuator is the interface component that converts hydraulic horsepower back
into mechanical horsepower.
Cylinders are linear actuators that convert hydraulic power into linear mechanical
power.
A ram has only one fluid chamber and exerts force in only one direction.
A single acting cylinder is pressurized on one end only.
Double acting cylinders are pressurized on both ends. They are the most common
cylinder used in industrial hydraulics. They can provide power when extending and
retracting.
Telescoping cylinders have multiple stages and can be either single or double
acting.
Hydraulic motors are commonly used in the fluid power industry when hydraulic
power is being converted to a rotary output drive device.
Hydraulic motors are primarily rated according to displacement and torque.
A gerotor motor has an orbital internal gear design. The main components of
the gerotor motor are: the stator, the rotor, the drive coupling or wobble shaft, an
output shaft, a rotary valve, and the housing with the ports.
A geroller motor has an orbital internal gear design. The main components of the
geroler motor are: the stator, the rotor, the drive coupling, an output shaft, a rotary
valve, and the housing with the ports.

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A bent axis piston motor has a fixed displacement gear design. The major 8. What are the major components of a
components of this motor are: the housing, port plate, control plate, output shaft, radial piston motor?
barrel, pistons, centering pin, and drive flange. a. output shaft, drum, pistons,
swashplate
The major components of a fixed displacement, axial piston motor are: the b. stator, rotor, output shaft, drive
housing, port plate, valve plate, swashplate, cylinder barrel, pistons, piston shoes, coupling
shoeplate, shoeplate bias spring, and output shaft. c. pistons, camshaft drum, output
Radial hydraulic motors are classified as low speed, high torque rotary actuators. shaft, rotary valve
d. output shaft, control plate, drive
Their major components are the pistons, the camshaft drum or stator, the output
flange, centering pin
shaft, and the rotary valve.
9. Radial piston motors cannot be bi-
QUESTIONS directional.
a. True
Cylinders Motors b. False
1. A hydraulic ram exerts force ______. 4. Fixed displacement rotary actuators
a. in both directions include ______.
b. in one direction only a. geroller and geroter motors
c. only when pressure is present b. axial and bent axis motors
d. Both b and c are correct. c. radial piston motors
d. Both a and c are correct.
2. A single acting cylinder is pressurized in e. Both b and c are correct.
one end only and ______.
a. vents the opposite end to the 5. Geroller and gerotor motors are
atmosphere or tank considered to be low speed, low torque
b. must have a cushion device actuators.
c. is used when stability is required a. True
d. has a double rod b. False

3. A double acting cylinder ______. 6. Piston motors are classified as radial,

a. allows pressure to be applied to axial, and bent axis.
either port a. True
b. has differential areas during b. False
retract and extend
c. has equal speed on extension 7. Radial piston motors are best suited to
and retraction low speed, high torque applications.
d. Both a and b are correct. a. True
b. False

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