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INTRODUCTION
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 28, NO. 1 JANUARY 1992 125
II. IMPULSE RADAR A N D WAVEFORMS
A. The Radar
The impulse radar employed in this project is
monostatic with the antenna design being based on a
constant f lare-angle variable-width open horn. With
the end of the antenna 15 cm above the ground (see
Fig. l(b)), the footprint covers an area 40 cm by 25
cm, with the electric field being parallel to the narrow
dimension. The antenna is mounted with the larger
dimension giving width so that the swath produced
along a line covers the maximum area. The generated
signal is a monocycle, shown in Fig. 2(a), having a
pulsewidth of approximately 1ns and a repetition
rate of 5 million pulses/s. Essentially, the antenna
differentiates this monocycle producing the ideal
symmetric impulse shown in Fig. 2@). We note that
the negative going peaks at P and Q should be the
same magnitude and their average should be half the
amplitude of the peak at A in order to satisfy zero
average voltage. The reflected signal is sampled much
like in a sampling oscilloscope using the sliding gate
(b) technique and producing an output voltage pulse
fig. 1. (a) h4TO van at bridge site with radar mounted. Boom on waveform of approximately 1 ms duration [15]. ?b
front of van used for infrared camera. @) Detailed view of avoid confusion, all plots are presented using the
antenna and radar transmiVreceive unit. nanosecond scale.
The actual transmitted radar waveform can be
obtained by positioning the antenna directly over
PS-24 impulse radar purchased from Penetradar Corp. a thin metal plate (which is much larger in extent
of Niagara Falls, New York; a fifth wheel for distance than the antenna footprint) placed on the asphalt
measurement, and a multichannel instrumentation data surface and obtaining the reflection, as illustrated
recorder for recording radar waveforms, radar trigger in Fig. 3. The peak at A represents the electric
pulses, and fifth wheel distance pulses. The radar field strength at the asphalt surface and provides a
waveforms and distance measuring pulses recorded on calibration measurement for evaluating the relative
the data recorder are fed off-line to a microcomputer dielectric constant of asphalt which is needed for
system for signal analysis. the asphalt thickness measurement. This waveform
We show how the above mentioned impulse is not, however, the true reflected radar waveform.
radar can be exploited to provide information We see that for an ideal transmitted radar signal, the
concerning the condition of asphaltcovered two negative peaks at P and Q are expected to have
concrete bridge deck. By identifying the reflected comparable magnitude, as illustrated in Fig. 2(b),
waveforms from the different layers, it is possible and the portion from 0 ns to S and U to 20 ns in
to extract features of the deck such as asphalt Fig. 3 should be null. These imperfections are caused
thickness, concrete cover over reinforcement, by the reflections which are generated inside of the
and deterioration including delamination, antenna. In addition, when the antenna is mounted on
debonding and scaling. Since the signal-to-noise the van, further small changes to the waveform take
ratio of the reflected waveforms is very high, place due to the presence of the van itself. Thus, it
detection is not a problem and the usefulness of the is necessary to remove these imperfections from the
measurements is restricted only by the resolution received waveform in order to obtain an accurate radar
of the pulsewidth and the interference generated by reflection.
antenna internal reflections. The results contained
here have been verified for actual bridge decks when B. Waveform Correction
the asphalt is removed and the deck is repaired,
In addition, we show how the radar signal can be One method for removing these imperfections
calibrated and how the antenna internal reflections from the data set is to record the radar signature of
can be reduced in strength. This technique clearly the imperfections alone producing an imperfection
demonstrates the usefulness of impulse radar as a set. This can be accomplished by locating the van on a
diagnostic tool in nondestructive testing of bridge ramp thus raising the antenna well above ground level.
decks. By recording the signal with the antenna at a suitable
126 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 28,NO. 1 JANUARY 1992
- -r ~~~
- . ~ _ _
V V
ns
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.E 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.E 1.0
(4 (b)
Fig. 2. (a) Monocycle waveform. (b) Impulse generated by differentiating monocycle.
V V
10.01 10.0-
E.0-
6.0-
4.0r
l . . . .. .. . I . . , . . . . .
. ns I
2. 4. 6. E . I O . 12. 14. 16. I E . 20. 2. 4. 6. E . 10. 12. 14. 16.
Fig. 3. Actual transmitted waveform with internal reflections. Fig. 4. Signature of internal reflections.
Note corrupting influence prior to point S and after point U.
Waveform between points P and Q is also affected.
ANTENNA
8.0
4.0
'
4
2.0..ii
FLATPLATE
2.0
0.0- - - -
0.0 -2.0-
-4.0-
-6.0-
-8.0-
P V
-6.01 r
L I
2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 1
-8.01
Fig. 6. Corrected waveform reflected from metal plate at
L . I . I . I . I . , . I n s D = 0.54 m.
2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12.
: :
aligned with respect to point R (called the reference
point). The error generated by the imperfections can
be further reduced by performing the subtraction for
: : :
10.0
9.0
8.0-
---
-- .___
computed in a rms sense from points R to S and is V = [a/(D + b)] volts ; a = 5.88 ; b = 0.464
compared for the three cases. 1.0
128 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 28,NO. 1 JANUARY 1992
- -~
I
~ ~
REFLECTED SIGNAL
t EC"o CONCRETE-ASPHALT
IN C INTERFACE REBARS
AIR FEF A
/ d 1 C D
TRANS
ASPHALT
--INC c.
( [) REBARS ( ) 0
I
Tad
Das= - From actual measurements, the composition of
(3)
G* asphalt is found to vary from area to area. Thus, it is
Since the sampling rate used for the radar signal is necessary to calculate as for each location.
250oO samplesh, the asphalt thickness in millimeters The relative dielectric constant of concrete cannot
becomes, be measured through the asphalt layer so easily
6Mas since, as mentioned before, scattering and spherical
Das= z m m (4) spreading losses affect the amplitude. However the
130 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 28, NO. 1 JANUARY 1992
- ~ ~ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ ___~ ~~ -~~ ~~
sample p t s
200.0
190.0
160.0-
170.0
140.0-
Pt h C
1
3
0.
0
-
120.0-
110.0
317. 19. 21. 23. 25. 27. 29. 31. 33. 35. 37. 39. 41.
meters
43. 45.
Fig. 11. Relative locations of peaks A, C, and D with respect to system trigger for 30 m distance along one line of bridge deck.
thickness of concrete cover over reinforcement can be incident wave of -10 V and the reflection coefficients
estimated using (4) by noting the number of samples, for p1 and p2 being -0.42 and -0.07 respectively,
M,,, between peaks C and D, with an assumed value the reflection at peak C should be approximately
of the relative dielectric constant of concrete, E,, 0.47 V. From Fig. 10, the reflection at peak C is seen
(typically S), replacing Eas. t o be 0.35 V which is approximately 75 percent of
the predicted value. This discrepancy can easily be
C. Radar Signature from Good Bridge Deck explained by noting that the negative transient at B has
reduced the level at peak C.
The radar waveform obtained from a good area Usually, hundreds of meters of radar waveforms are
of an asphaltcovered bridge deck is illustrated in collected for DART, with each waveform indicating
Fig. 10. (It is noted that this waveform is corrected 20 cm displacement along a bridge deck. Therefore,
by subtracting the imperfection set as previously an automatic procedure is used to search for the
discussed). The metal plate reflection was found to reflection peaks A, C and D and the results, from a
be 10 V. The reflections from each boundary are selected section of an asphaltcovered bridge deck, are
indicated on the plot: peak A (4.25 V) is the reflection shown in Fig. 11. The locations of peaks A, C and D
from the air-asphalt interface; peak C (0.35 V) is the are given in term of point samples and are plotted as a
reflection from the asphalt-concrete boundary; peak D function of the fifth wheel distance.
(0.34 V) is the reflection from the rebars. The relative We note that curve A (peaks of A) is relatively
dielectric constant of asphalt is 6.22 (from (5) and (6)) constant whereas curves C and D, representing peaks
and there are about 23 samples between peaks A and of C and D, respectively, vary with respect to the
C. Consequently, the asphalt thickness (from (4)) is asphalt thickness and concrete cover. It is noted that
55 mm. Fig. 11 provides the value for parameters M , (which
The characteristic W, illustrated in Fig. 10, appears is the difference between curves A and C) and M,,
in the waveform as expected. If delamination occurs (which is the difference between curves C and D)
in this region, then the W-shaped reflection becomes as required by (4). Thus, the asphalt thickness and
distorted as described later. concrete cover can be computed.
The calibration factor, CF1 (in (l)),for the
reflection from the asphalt-concrete boundary, can IV. RADAR SIGNATURE DUE TO DETERIORATION
now be calculated using the overall signal strength
curve given for the antenna in Fig. 7. It is noted that The radar signature for undamaged bridge deck
the antenna is at 12 cm (point M ) above the asphalt is relatively simple to interpret since the reflections
having E, = 6.22, then the loss in amplitude due to are quite distinct. This is also true where scaling
spherical spreading after passing through 55 mm of occurs since the reflection at the asphalt-concrete
asphalt (point P) reduces the waveform peak from boundary is very strong. However, with debonding
10 V to approximately 8.20 V. Thus, CF1 is measured and delamination the interpretation is more complex.
to be 0.82. Using the second term in (l), with an These problems are now discussed in detail.
I
COMPONENT
REFLECTED
SIGNALS
SURFACEECHO
I S U R F A C E ECHO
A
R E F L E C T I O N FROM
S C A L E D CONCRETE
TOTAL
REFLECTED
TOTAL
t REFLECTED SIGNALS
SIGNAL
R E F L E C T I O N FROM
S U R F A C E EC"O S C A L E D CONCRETE
S U R F A C E ECHO I A
(b) (b)
Fig. 12 Reflections from scaled concrete containing air. Fig. 13. Reflections from scaled concrete containing water.
(a) Component waveforms. @) %tal reflected waveform. (a) Component waveforms. @) Btal reflected waveform.
V
A. Scaling
132 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 28,NO. 1 JANUARY 1992
~ ~ __ . -~
volt
1.5
17. 19. 21. 23. 25. 27. 29. 31. 33. 35. 37. 39. 41. 43. 45.
meters
Rg. IS. Curve showing amplitude of peak C. Values in excess of 0.75 V usually indicate scaling whereas values below 0.5 V are usually
not scaled.
Fig. 16. Ray diagram illustrating multiple reflections from gap Q O ( ~=) P G ~(1 - pi)CFls(t - 2Tas) (9)
between asphalt and concrete. Rays are drawn at angle simply to where p ~ is, the reflection coefficient from asphalt
demonstrate reflections.
to material in the gap. The first reflection from the
bottom of the gap is,
reflection, this time with the same polarity, as rll(t) = pGze-'l(l-p~I)(1-pT.)CFls(t-2Tas-2T,p)
illustrated in Fig. 13. Since it is not known a priori
(10)
whether the scaled material contains water or air, it
is useful to measure the value at peak C and identify where p~~ is the reflection coefficient from material
values much larger than normal. in the gap to concrete, Tgapis the one-way time delay
This is the result observed in Fig. 14, which in the gap of thickness Dgap,and (Y is the loss factor
illustrates the reflection from a region of known through layer D p p .
scaling of a bridge deck. The value at peak C (1.06 V) The second reflection from the bottom of the gap
is far higher than those measured from any good is,
bridge deck. The amplitude of peaks C from Fig. 11 2
are plotted in Fig. 15. The high values around the 16m, r12(t) = - P G , P G ~ ~ --~p ~ l - P?>
& )(( ~
21m, and 3Om locations indicate regions of scaling. x CFls(t - 2Tas - 4Tgap). (11)
CONCRETE-ASPHALT
INTERFACE
[
E
= (1 - P:)CFI PG1S ( f - 2zs) I-(1 - &,) REBARS
N
x ~ { e - n " ( - l ) n " ~ ~ 2 p ~ ~-
n=l
' s2T,,
(t
1
- 2nTw)}
(12)
\ DEL
REFLECTION FROM
AMI N A T ION
Since the gap is usually narrow (about 0.1 to 0.5 mm), (8)
then the reflection from the gap can be estimated as a TOTAL
single reflection, REFLECTED
SIGNAL
~ G ( c=
) PEP(^ - P : ) C F I ~-(2~as)
~ (14)
where p ~ is
p the effective reflection coefficient of the
gap,
I NO CHARACTERISTIC W
(b)
The material filling the gap could either be air or
Fig. 17. Reflections from structure with delamination containing
water. For examples: 1) if the gap is filled with air air. (a) Component waveforms. @) 'Ibtal reflected waveform.
and we know that the intrinsic impedances for air,
asphalt and concrete are 377 R, 154 R, and 133 R, COMPONENT
respectively, then from (2) the values of p ~ and , p~~
tI
REFLECTED
SIGNAL
are calculated to be 0.42 and -0.48. If the value of
e-u is arbitrary taken to be 0.94 (which corresponds to
CONCRETE-ASPHALT
a 6 percent or 0.5 dB loss in amplitude per reflection), INTERFACE
then from (U), we find that PEF = -0.04. If the
incident signal again has value of -10 V, then the peak
at A has amplitude equal to 4.20 V and the peak at
C (from (14) with CF1 = 0.82) is 0.27 V, and 2) if the
gap is filled with water and we know that the intrinsic
impedance for water is 41.8 R, then from (2) p~~ and
p~~ are calculated to be -0.57 and 0.52, respectively.
From (15), ~ E is F measured to be -0.113. Again, if the
incident signal is -10 V, then peak A is 4.20 V and
peak C is 0.76 V. TOTAL
REFLECTED
It is believed that if the gap is filled with material SIGNAL
-
134
- IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 28, NO. 1 JANUARY 1992
__ ~___ ~~ -~ __-_____
V
rebars. Thus,
5.0 r D ( t ) = p2(1-p?)CFls(t-2Tas)
+ P E F ( -~ - p:)CFds(t - 2Tas - 2Td)
+ P3(1 - P h I ( 1 - P W - P 3
x CFzs(t - 2T, - 2Td - 2Tm) (17)
where PEF is calculated using (15) and Td is the
one-way time delay between the concrete surface and
the delamination, and CFd is the calibration factor for
the reflection from the delamination.
We now provide some sample calculations. The
effective reflection coefficient assuming air in the
crack (and e-a = 0.94, for example) can be calculated
noting that p~~ = - P G ~ = 0.48.Hence, PEF = 0.04. For
L . , . # . .. . , . 1 ns
I .
the three terms in (17), the amplitude (assuming the
5 . 6. 7. 8. 9 . 1 0 . 1 1 . 1 2 .
incident signal has magnitude of -10 V and CF1 =
Fig. 19. Actual reflection from delaminated region. Note absence
of characteristic W.
CF2 = CFd = 0.82) are 0.48 V, -0.27 V,and 0.27 v,
respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 17. It is clear that the
characteristic W presented in the good structure is now
0.5 mm) develops in the concrete which may contain absent due to the delamination.
air or water leading to a discontinuity between the When the crack contains water, = -PG~=
concrete surface and the rebars. With no delamination, -0.52, resulting in the value of ~ E being
F -0.04. Now,
the asphalt-concrete interface and the rebars produce the three terms in (17) all have the same sign resulting
reflections given by in the waveforms of Fig. 18. In this case, there is a
greatly exaggerated W, but this is quite distinguishable
for the normal W .
Fig. 19 shows the radar reflection due to
delamination. It is found that from the waveform, the
+ p ~ ( 1 -&)(I - P:)CF2S(t - 2Tas - 2Tco). characteristic W is poorly defined or absent between
(16) peaks C and D. This particular feature can b e used as
an identification for delamination.
With delamination, we have reflections from the A simple procedure has been developed to
asphalt-concrete interface, the delamination and the determine the presence of the characteristic W .
sign changes
1.0 1
17. 19. 21. 23. 25. 27. 29. 31. 33. 35. 37. 39. 41. 43. 45.
meters
Fig. 20. Plot of sign changes between peaks C and D for data of Fig. 11. Normally, for good deck the number of sign changes is 3 or 4.
For delaminated deck, the number of sign changes is 2.
I
The method is based on the number of slope sign Alongi, A. V. (1973)
changes between the two peaks. If the number of A short-pulse high-resolution radar for cadaver detection.
In Proceedings of the First International Electronic Crime
sign changes is two, then the waveform is said to Countermeasures Conference, 1973,7947.
exhibit delamination. If the number of sign changes is lbdesse, A. T. (1973)
greater than two, then the waveform is said to be good Cadaver detection.
provided that the center peak is not exaggerated. A In P r m d n g s of the First International Electronic Crime
plot of the sign changes, from the waveforms obtained Countermeasures Conference, 1973,61-78.
Manning, D. G.,and Holt, E B. (1983)
from a section of asphalt-covered bridge deck, is given Detecting deterioration in asphaltcovered bridge decks.
in Fig. 20. The result indicates that the bridge deck has Tramportation Research Record 899,Washington, D.C.,
a high percentage of deterioration due to delamination. Jan. 1983, 1&20.
Steinway, W. J., Echard, J. D., and Luke, C. M.(1981)
Locating voids beneath pavement using pulsed
V. CONCLUSION electromagneticwaves.
Report 237, National Cooperative Highway Research
Impulse radar can be employed as a remote sensing Program, 'Ransportation Research Board, Washington,
device for asphalt-covered bridge deck and is useful DC, Nov. 1981.
in identifying faults such as scaling, delamination, Alongi, A. V.,Cantor, T. R., Kneeter, C. P., and Alongi, A. J.
and debonding. As well, the impulse radar provides (1982)
Concrete evaluation by radar theoretical analysis
a means for measuring the thickness of asphalt and Tramportation Research Record 853, Washington, DC, Jan.
the depth of concrete cover over reinforcement. 1982,31-37.
However, an important first step is to ensure that Cantor, T. R., and Kneeter, C. P. (1982)
the received radar data is free of imperfections. This Radar as applied to evaluation of bridge decks.
TransportationResearch Record 853, Washington, DC, Jan.
is accomplished by recording the imperfections in a 1982,3742.
separate measurement and subtracting these from the Cantor, T. R., and Kneeter, C. P. (1977)
bridge deck data sets. Radar and acoustic emission applied to the study of bridge
decks, suspension cables and a masonry tunnel.
REFERENCES Report 77-13, The Port Authority of New York and New
Jersey, Engineering Dept., Research and Development
[l] IEE Proceedings, Pt. F,Communication, Radar and Signal Division, Dec. 1977.
profcssng (1988). Carter, C. R., Chung, T., Holt, E B., and Manning, D. G.
Special issue on Subsurface Radar, 135,4 (Aug. 1988). (1%)
(21 DeLauder, D. M.,and Balanis, C. A. (1982) An automated signal processing system for the signature
Microwave short-pulse generator for bed-level detection. analysis of radar waveforms from bridge decks.
IEEE lhnsactiOnr on Instnunentation and Measurement, Canadan Electrical Engineering Journal, 11,3 (1986),
IM-31,4 (D~c. 198% 27S278. 128-137.
[3] Moffatt, D. L., and Puskar, R J. (1976) Alongi, A. V.,and Alongi, A. J. (1977)
Subsurface electromagnetic pulse radar. Design considerations for a short-pulse, high resolution
Geqdysia, 41,3 (June 1976), 506-517. radar.
[4] Daniels, D. J. (1980) Report PTR-0677, Penetradar Corp., 6865 Walmore Road,
Short pulse radar far stratified lossy dielectric layer Niagara Falls, NY, 14304.
measurements. b u s , J. D., and Carver, K. R. (1973)
IEE Pr~~eedings, PL F, CmUnication, Radar and Signal Electromapetics (2nd ed.).
Process, ln,5(Oct. 1980). 384388. New York McGraw-Hill, 1973.
[s] Caldecott, R.,Rnuoli, A. J., and Hall, J. P. (1979) Chung, T,and Carter, C. R. (1989)
Underground transmission 1-An underground mapping Radar signal enhancement for DART
system using impulse radar. Report ME-8945, Ontario Ministry of Thnsportation,
In ProceeaYngs of the 7th IEEEIPES T r m n and Downsview, Ontario, Canada.
Distribution Confirence and Exposition, Apr. 14,1979,
-107.
[q Yaplee, B. S., Shapiro, A. S., Hammond, D. L., Au, B. D., and
Uliana, E. A. (1971)
Nanosecond radar observations of the ocean surface from
a stable platform.
IEEE Pansactwm (RI Geoscience Electronics, GE-9,3 (July
1971), 170-174.
136 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL.28,NO. 1 JANUARY 1992
Thomas Chung (S76-M83) received the B. Eng., M. Eng. and Ph.D. degrees from
McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada in 1980, 1982, and 1988, respectively.
In 1983, he joined the Communications Research Laboratory (CRL) at McMaster
University as a Research Engineer and has worked in the areas of digital signal processing,
radar, and satellite-based systems. He is now a Senior Research Engineer in CRL where
he investigates new techniques applied to the processing of impulse radar signals.
Charles R Carter (M74) received the B.A.Sc. and M.A.Sc. degrees in electrical
engineering from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada in 1%2 and 1966,
respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada in 1974.
From 1966 to 1971, he was employed at Canadian General Electric Company in
B r o n t o where he researched advanced constant false-alarm rate receiver systems for
radar.
Since 1974 he has worked in the Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering at
McMaster University where he is currently a Professor. His research interests include
the fields of radar, satellite-based systems and signal processing where he has over 100
published papers and reports.
In 1982, he received the McMaster Students Union (MSU) Certificate of
Appreciation for outstanding teaching and, in 1983 and 1987, was the MSU Faculty of
Engineering Eaching Award Winner, for teaching excellence.
Tony Masliwec received the B.A.Sc. degree in engineering science and the M A . and Ph.D.
degrees in physics all from the University of Ibronto, Toronto, Canada.
H e joined the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario in 1985 where he is currently
a Research Scientist. His research interests lie in the application of remote sensing
technologies and instrumentation to highway engineering problems.
David G . Manning received the BSc. (Eng.) degree from the University of London,
England, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Queens University, Kingston, Canada,
all in Civil Engineering.
He joined the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario in 1972 where he is presently
Head, Materials Research. His interests include improvements to the durability of
new bridges and the development of techniques and a decision methodology for the
rehabilitation of existing bridge decks.
H e is the author of more than 60 articles published in Canada, the United States, and
Europe including five reports in the National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP) Synthesis of Highway Practice Series. H e is active in a number of organizations
including the Pansportation Research Board, the American Concrete Institute (ACI),
the Strategic Highway Research program, the Canadian Strategic Research Program and
the Comite Euro-International du Beton. He is also the recipient of a number of awards,
including ACIs Delmar L. Bloem Distinguished Service Award in 1987.