Introductory Mathematics II (MTS 102)

Integration
Dansu, Emmanuel Jesuyon
Department of Mathematical Sciences
Federal University of Technology, Akure
ejdansu@futa.edu.ng

1 Basic Principles of Integration

1.1 Integration as Summation
Integration can be regarded as a process of adding up, that is, as a summation. Whenever we wish to
find areas under curves, volumes etc, we can do this by finding the area or volume of a small portion,
and then summing over the whole region of interest. The calculation can then be performed using the
technique of definite integration. Integration as a sum can be expressed as
Z b b
X
f (x)dx = lim f (x)x (1.1)
a x0
x=a

1.1.1 Examples
R6 3
1. limx0 x=6 3
P
x=1 4x x = 1 4x dx
R3 2
2. limx0 x=3 2
P
x=2 (x + sin x) x = 2 (x + sin x) dx

1.2 Integration as Anti-Differentiation

1.2.1 Example
Given the function y = 4x2 + 5x + 7. From our knowledge of differentiation, we proceed as follows

dy d
= (4x2 + 5x + 7) (1.2)
dx dx
dy
= 8x + 5 (1.3)
dx
If we turn around to integrate, though the general concept has not been introduced, we have
dy = (8x + 5)dx (1.4)
Z Z
dy = (8x + 5)dx
8x2 5x1
Z
dy = +
2 1
2
y = 4x + 5x (1.5)

1
From the result, we see that we have a function looking almost like the initial function y = 4x2 + 5x + 7.
So, it is obvious that integration is a process of anti-differentiation.

1.3 Arbitrary Constant

From (1.5), we discover that the 7 in the initial function is missing. Each time differentiation is done,
every constant value goes to 0. As a result of that, whenever we integrate, an arbitrary constant is
added to the result to compensate for any likely missing constant.

As such, for dy = (8x + 5)dx, a more comprehensive result would be y = 4x2 + 5x + c, where c
is the arbitrary constant. In order to get the actual constant, more information would be required.
For instance, given dy = (8x + 5)dx and y(0) = 7, we will obtain c = 7 and then we would have
y = 4x2 + 5x + 7 as given initially.

1.4 Definite and Indefinite Integral

An integral is the result of integration while an integrand is the function to be integrated. The result
of a definite integral is usually a numerical value while the result of an indefinite integral is a function
with an arbitrary or actual constant, as the case may be.

A definite integral can be expressed as

Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) F (a) (1.6)
a

where F (a) and F (b) are the values of the integral of f (x) evaluated at the integral limits a and b. The
arbitrary constant cancels out in the process of substituting a and b.

An indefinite integral can be expressed as

Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + c (1.7)

where f (x) is the integrand, F (x) is the integral and c is the arbitrary constant.

1.4.1 Examples
1.
x2
Z
x dx = +c (1.8)
2
2.
1 1
x2
Z 
x dx = +c (1.9)
2 2
 2 2 
(2)2

(1)
=
2 2
1 4
=
2 2
3
= (1.10)
2

2
2 Integration of Polynomials
Given a general polynomial of the form y = axn , we have

Z Z
ydx = axn dx (2.1)
axn+1
= +c (2.2)
n+1

2.1 Examples
1.
x3+1 3x2+1 4x1+1 6x0+1
Z
(x3 + 3x2 4x + 6)dx = + + +c (2.3)
3+1 2+1 1+1 0+1
x4 3x3 4x2 6x1
= + + +c
4 3 2 1
1 4
= x + x3 2x2 + 6x + c (2.4)
4

2.
x4 3x3 + x2 x4 3x3 x2
Z   Z  
dx = + dx (2.5)
x x x x
Z
x3 3x2 + x dx


=
x4 3x3 x2
= + +c
4 3 2
1 4 1
= x x3 + x2 + c (2.6)
4 2

2.2 Exercise
Evaluate the following:
R
1. (6x5 + 5x4 4x3 + 3x2 2x + 1)dx
R  2x7 3x5 +x4 
2. x2
dx
R
3. (x2 + x + 1)(3x2 2x + 1)dx

f 0 (x)
3 Integration of Functions of the Form f (x)
1
R
In trying to evaluate x
dx using the previous method, we have

3
 Z Z
1
dx = x1 dx (3.1)
x
x1+1
= +c
1 + 1
x0
= +c
0
1
= +c
0
= (3.2)

The method is not helpful because the result is undefined. However, thinking of integration as anti-
differentiation, we see that
d 1
(ln x) = (3.3)
dx x
following the principle that
d f 0 (x)
[ln f (x)] = . (3.4)
dx f (x)
d
Since dx
(ln x) = x1 , we can have

1
dx = d(ln x) (3.5)
Z x Z
1
dx = d(ln x)
x
= ln x + c (3.6)
1
R
So, it is obvious that x
dx = ln x + c.

On a general note,

f 0 (x)
Z
dx = ln f (x) + c (3.7)
f (x)

3.1 Examples
4x+3 d
R
1. To evaluate 2x2 +3x1
dx, since it is clear that dx (2x2 + 3x 1) = 4x + 3, then
Z
4x + 3
2
dx = ln(2x2 + 3x 1) + c (3.8)
2x + 3x 1

x+1 d
R
2. Given x2 +2x+1
dx, we have that dx
(x2 + 2x + 1) = 2x + 2 = 2(x + 1), so we proceed as follows

4
 1 (x + 1)
Z Z
x+1
2
dx = dx (3.9)
x + 2x + 1 x2 + 2x + 1
Z 1
2
2 (x + 1)
= dx
x2 + 2x + 1
Z
1 2(x + 1)
= 2
dx
2 x + 2x + 1
Z
1 2x + 2
= dx
2 x2 + 2x + 1
1
= ln(x2 + 2x + 1) + c (3.10)
2

3.2 Exercise
Evaluate the following
2 +2x+5
1. 7x21x
R
3 +x2 +5x+8 dx

R x2 +2x1
2. x3 +3x 2 3x+5 dx

R 2x
3. sec
tan x
dx

4 Integration of Trigonometric Functions

4.1 Examples
Integration of simple trigonometric functions is easily understood from the perspective of anti-differentiation.

1. For instance Z
sin xdx = cos x + c. (4.1)

2. Also Z
cos xdx = sin x + c. (4.2)
R
3. To evaluate tan xdx, we have
Z Z
sin x
tan xdx = dx (4.3)
cos x
1 sin x
Z
= dx
cos x
1 1 sin x
Z
= dx
cos x
sin x
Z
= dx
cos x
= ln cos x + c. (4.4)

5
To evaluate Z
sin2 xdx
we have to use our knowledge of trigonometry since there is no direct solution. We have to recall that
cos 2x =
cos(x + x) (4.5)
cos 2x cos x cos x sin x sin x
=
cos 2x cos2 x sin2 x
=
cos 2x (1 sin2 x) sin2 x
=
cos 2x 1 sin2 x sin2 x
=
cos 2x 1 2 sin2 x
=
2 sin2 x 1 cos 2x
=
1 cos 2x
sin2 x =
2
1 1
sin2 x = cos 2x (4.6)
2 2
Now, we perform the integration,
Z Z  
2 1 1
sin xdx = cos 2x dx (4.7)
2 2
Z Z
1 1
= dx cos 2xdx
2 2
1 1 1
= x sin 2x + c
2 2 2
1 1
= x sin 2x + c (4.8)
2 4
Recall that
   
p+q pq
sin p + sin q = 2 sin cos (4.9)
2 2
   
p+q pq
sin p sin q = 2 cos sin (4.10)
2 2
   
p+q pq
cos p + cos q = 2 cos cos (4.11)
2 2
   
p+q pq
cos p cos q = 2 sin sin (4.12)
2 2
We need one of the relationships above to evaluate
Z
sin 2x cos xdx

From inspection, it looks like (4.9) will do the job. How?

From (4.9), we can have

   
p+q pq 1
sin cos = (sin p + sin q) (4.13)
2 2 2
   
p+q pq 1 1
sin cos = sin p + sin q (4.14)
2 2 2 2

6
Comparing the Left Hand Side with sin 2x cos x, have
p+q
= 2x (4.15)
2
pq
=x (4.16)
2
Solving (4.15) and (4.16) simulataneously, we have

p = 3x; q=x

and
1 1
sin 2x cos x = sin 3x + sin x (4.17)
2 2

We can now proceed with the solution as follows

Z Z  
1 1
sin 2x cos xdx = sin 3x + sin x dx (4.18)
2 2
Z Z
1 1
= sin 3xdx + sin xdx
2 2
 
1 1 1
= cos 3x + ( cos x) + c
2 3 2
1 1
= cos 3x cos x + c (4.19)
6 2

4.2 Exercise
Evaluate the following:
R
1. cot wdw
R
2. sec xdx
R
3. cos2 xdx
R
4. cosec ydy
R
5. cos 5y sin 3ydy
R
6. cos 7z sin 4zdz

5 Integration by Substitution
Sometimes, in order to integrate certain functions, we will have to make substitutions. Such substitutions
can be algebraic or trigonometric. In algebraic subsitution, we replace an expression with an alphabet.
On the other hand, an alphabet is replaced with a trigonometric ratio when we perform trigonometric
substitution.

7
5.1 Algebraic Substitution
5.1.1 Examples
To evaluate Z
(9x + 2)6 dx
we can take p = 9x + 2 such that
dp
=9
dx
dp
and dx = 9
. Now,
Z Z
6 dp
(9x + 2) dx = p6 (5.1)
9
Z
1
= p6 dp
9
1 p7
 
= +c
9 7
1 7
= p +c
63
1
= (9x + 2)7 + c (5.2)
63
To evaluate
8
Z
x 5x + 2 dx
1
p2 dp
let p = 5x + 2 so x = 5
and = 5 = dx = dp
dx 5
. Note should be taken that the integral limits will
also change as follows: Since p = 5x + 2, at x = 1; p = 7 and at x = 8; p = 42. So, we can progress as
follows

8 42    
p2
Z Z
dp
x 5x + 2 dx = p (5.3)
1 7 5 5
Z 42
1 1
= (p 2)p 2 dp
25 7
Z 42 
1 3 1

= p 2 2p 2 dp
25 7
Z 42 Z 42 
1 3 1
= p 2 dp 2 p 2 dp
25 7 7
" # " 3 #42
5 42
1 p2 p2
= 5 2 3
25 2 2
7 7
" #42
5
# 42 " 3
1 2p 2 2p 2
= 2
25 5 3
7 7
 h i 
1 2 5 42 4 3
h i 42
= p2 p2
25 5 7 3 7
2 h 5 5
i 4 h 3 3
i
= 42 7
2 2 42 7
2 2
125 75
= 167.3090 (5.4)

8
To evaluate Z
sin6 x cos xdx
dp dp
let p = sinx = dx
= cos x = dx = cos x
and so

Z Z
6 dp
sin x cos xdx = p6 cos x (5.5)
cos x
Z
= p6 dp
 7
p
= +c
7
1 7
= p +c
7
1
= (sin x)7 + c
7
1 7
= sin x + c (5.6)
7

5.1.2 Exercise
Evaluate the following:
Rp
1. (2x + 3)7 dx
R
2. x(6x 1)5 dx
R
3. y 4y + 9 dy
R 1
4. (w + 5) 3 dw
R
5. sin x cos9 xdx
R
6. tan2 x sec2 xdx
R 4
7. p3 ep dp
R sin q
8. cos 15 q dq

1
R (1+ x) 3
9.
x
dx

5.2 Trigonometric Substitution

The most common substitutions
are
x = a sin , x = a tan , and x = a sec for transforming integrals
involving a2 x2 , a2 + x2 , and x2 a2 into integrals we can evaluate directly. These substitutions
are obtained from the reference right-angled triangles for the three basic substitutions identifying the
sides labelled x and a for each substitution.{The reference triangles will be discussed in the class}

9
5.2.1 Examples
Considering
Z 3
2dx

0 9 x2
we make the substitution x = 3 sin dx = 3 cos d. We also have to transform the limits of
integration using x = 3 sin : At x = 0; = 0. At x = 23 ; = 6 . Now,

Z 3 Z
2 dx 6 3 cos d
= p (5.7)
0 9 x2 0 9 (3 sin )2
Z
6 3 cos d
= p
0 9 9 sin2
Z
6 3 cos d
= p
0 9(1 sin2 )
Z
6 3 cos d
=
0 9 cos2
Z
6 3 cos d
=
0 3 cos
Z
6
= d
0

= []06

= 0
6

= (5.8)
6
To evaluate
x2
Z
dx
4 + x2
then x = 2 tan dx = 2 sec2 d. So,

x2 (2 tan )2
Z Z
dx = 2 sec2 d (5.9)
4 + x2 4 + (2 tan ) 2

4 tan2
Z
= 2
2 sec2 d
4 + 4 tan
4 tan2
Z
= 2
2 sec2 d
4(1 + tan )
4 tan2
Z
= 2 sec2 d
4 sec2
Z
= 2 tan2 d (5.10)

10
 Z Z
2
2 tan d = 2 (sec2 1)d (5.11)
Z Z 
2
= 2 sec d d

= 2(tan ) + c
= 2 tan 2 + c (5.12)

5.2.2 Exercise
Evaluate the following:
Ra
1. 0 a2 x2 dx
R dy
2. 3+y 2

R 3 dz
3. zz2 1
R v2 dv
4. 2
5
(1v ) 2

t2 49
R
5. t
dt
R2 dx
6. 0 8+2x2
R
7. 1 9r2 dr

6 Integration by Parts
Occasions arise when we have to integrate the product of two functions and the techniques we have
learnt so far may not be applicable. In such cases, we can integrate by parts as we will soon find out.

The formula for integration by parts arises from the Product Rule technique in differential calculus as
follows: Given

y = uv (6.1)
where y = y(x); u = u(x); = v(x),
dy dv du
=u +v (6.2)
dx dx dx
Multiplying through by dx, we can progress as follows
dy = udv + vdu (6.3)
Z Z Z
dy = udv + vdu
Z Z
y = udv + vdu
Z Z
uv = udv + vdu
Z Z
udv = uv vdu (6.4)

11
Equation (6.4) is the required formula for the integration of functions by parts. To integrate by parts,
we have to identify a part of the function u, which should be more easily differentiable (and probably
goes to a constant after a degree of differentiation) than the second part dv, which should be integrable.
After identifying u, dv and obtaining du and v, we substitute using the formula. The process continues
until part integration is no longer necessary.

6.1 Examples
In order to evaluate Z
I= x2 sin xdx

we take u = x2 du = 2xdx and dv = sin xdx v = cos x + c and

Z
I = uv vdu
Z
2
I = x ( cos x) ( cos x) 2xdx
Z
2
I = x cos x + 2 x cos xdx

I = x2 cos x + 2I1 (6.5)

Since Z
I1 = x cos xdx

cannot be integrated directly, we repeat the process by taking u = x du = dx and dv = cos xdx
v = sin x + c and then

Z
I1 = uv vdu
Z
I1 = x sin x sin xdx
I1 = x sin x ( cos x) + c
I1 = x sin x + cos x + c (6.6)

Substituting (6.6) into (6.5), we have

I = x2 cos x + 2(x sin x + cos x + c)

I = x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + 2c
I = x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + d (6.7)

where d = 2c is the arbitrary constant.

Considering Z
I= e2x cos xdx

it is not very clear the choices of u and dv to make but we can make a try with u = e2x du = 2e2x dx
and dv = cos xdx v = sin x + c and then

12
 Z
I = uv vdu
Z
I = e sin x sin x 2e2x dx
2x

Z
I = e sin x 2 e2x sin xdx
2x

I = e2x sin x 2I1 (6.8)

For Z
I1 = e2x sin xdx

we take u = e2x du = 2e2x dx and dv = sin x v = cos x + c, so

Z
I1 = uv vdu
Z
I1 = e ( cos x) ( cos x) 2e2x dx
2x

Z
I1 = e cos x + 2 e2x cos xdx
2x

I1 = e2x cos x + 2I (6.9)

R
The loop should be ending but fortunately we can capitalize on the fact that I = e2x cos xdx appears
in (6.9). So we substitute (6.9) into (6.8) and obtain the result as follows

I e2x sin x 2I1

=
I e2x sin x 2(e2x cos x + 2I) + c
=
I e2x sin x + 2e2x cos x 4I + c
=
I + 4I e2x sin x + 2e2x cos x + c
=
5I e2x sin x + 2e2x cos x + c
=
1 2x 2 1
I = e sin x + e2x cos x + c
5 5 5
1 2x 2 2x
I = e sin x + e cos x + d (6.10)
5 5
It is a bit tricky to evaluate Z
tan1 xdx

Since it is difficult to integrate tan1 x, we take u = tan1 x du = 1+x 1

2 dx and dv = dx v = x + c.

So,
Z
I = uv vdu
Z
1 1
I = tan x x x dx
1 + x2
Z
x
I = x tan1 x dx
1 + x2
Z
1 1 2x
I = x tan x dx
2 1 + x2
1
I = x tan1 x ln(1 + x2 ) + c (6.11)
2
13
6.2 Exercise
Evaluate the following:

1. e3t sin 5tdt

R

R
2. u3 sin udu
R
3. ln vdv

4. sin1 wdw
R

R 3
5. x 4 ln 4xdx

6. cos1 2ydy
R

7. ln 23 z cos 12 zdz
R

7 Integration of Compound Fractions

There are times when we have to integrate compound fractions. In such cases, we have to resolve the
compound fractions into partial fractions for easy integration. Compound fractions are classified based
on their denominators.

7.1 Examples
7.1.1 Compound Fractions with Denominators involving Nonrepeated Linear Factors
To evaluate Z 1
b+4
db
1
2
b2 + b
b+4
we resolve b2 +b
into partial fractions as follows:

b+4 b+4
2
= (7.1)
b +b b(b + 1)
b+4 A B
+
b(b + 1) b b+1
b + 4 = A(b + 1) + Bb (7.2)

From equation (7.2), when b = 0, A = 4; when b = 1, B = 3 and so

b+4 4 3
2
= (7.3)
b +b b b+1

14
Now, we proceed to solve the problem
Z 1 Z 1 
b+4 4 3
db = db (7.4)
1 b2 + b 1 b b+1
2 2
Z 1 Z 1
4 3
= db db
1 b 1 b + 1
2 2

= 4 (ln |b|)11 3 (ln |b + 1|)11

2 2
    
 1  1 
= 4 ln 1  3 ln (1 + 1)
  + 1 
2 2
   
 1   3 
= 4 ln 1  3 ln 2 
2 2
1 1
= 4 ln 3 ln
2 2
1
= ln
2
= ln 2
= 0.6931 (7.5)

7.1.2 Compound Fractions with Denominators involving Repeated Linear Factors

To evaluate Z
dc
(c2 1)2
1
we resolve (c2 1)2
into partial fractions, that is

1 1
= (7.6)
(c2
1)2 [(c 1)(c + 1)]2
1 1
=
(c2 1)2 (c 1)2 (c + 1)2
1 A B C D
+ + +
(c 1)2 (c + 1)2 c 1 (c 1)2 c + 1 (c + 1)2
1 = A(c 1)(c + 1)2 + B(c + 1)2 + C(c 1)2 (c + 1) + D(c 1)2 (7.7)

From equation (7.7), when c = 1, B = 41 ; when c = 1, D = 41 . When we substitute c = 0 and c = 2

together with the values of B and D, we obtain the following simultaneous equations in A and C:

2A 2C = 1 (7.8)
6A + 2C = 1 (7.9)

Solving the simulatneous equations, we have that A = 41 and C = 14 . So, it is clear that
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + (7.10)
(c2 1)2 4(c 1) 4(c 1)2 4(c + 1) 4(c + 1)2
We now proceed to integrate as follows

15
 Z Z  
1 1 1 1 1
dc = + + + dc (7.11)
(c 1)2
2 4(c 1) 4(c 1)2 4(c + 1) 4(c + 1)2
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= dc + 2
dc + dc + dc
4 c1 4 (c 1) 4 (c + 1) 4 (c + 1)2
1 1 1 1
= ln |c 1| + ln |c + 1| +c (7.12)
4 4(c 1) 4 4(c + 1)

7.1.3 Compound Fractions with Denominators involving Irreducible Quadratic Factors

To evaluate
f2
Z
df
f4 1
f2
we resolve f 4 1
into partial fractions.

f2 f2
= (7.13)
f4 1 (f 2 1)(f 2 + 1)
f2 f2
= (7.14)
f4 1 (f 1)(f + 1)(f 2 + 1)
f2 A B Cf + D
= + + 2 (7.15)
(f 1)(f + 1)(f 2 + 1) f 1 f +1 f +1
f2 = A(f + 1)(f + 1) + B(f 1)(f 2 + 1) + (Cf + D)(f 1)(f + 1)
2
(7.16)

From equation (7.16), when f = 1, A = 41 ; when f = 1, B = 14 . When we substitute f = 0 together

with the values of A and B, we obtain D = 21 . When we substitute f = 2 and the values of A, B and
D, we get C = 0. Then

f2 1 1 1
4
= + 2
(7.17)
f 1 4(f 1) 4(f + 1) 2(f + 1)
The integration goes as follows

f2
Z Z  
1 1 1
df = + df (7.18)
f4 1 4(f 1) 4(f + 1) 2(f 2 + 1)
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
= df df + df (7.19)
4 f 1 4 f +1 2 f2 + 1
1 1 1
= ln |f 1| ln |f + 1| + tan1 f + c (7.20)
4 4 2

7.1.4 Improper Compound Fractions

To evaluate
3g 3 g 2 13g 13
Z
dg
g2 g 6
3 2
we have to resolve 3g g 13g13
g 2 g6
into partial fractions but the fraction is improper so we have to evaluate
to identify the whole and the fraction parts. On evaluation, we have that

16
 3g 3 g 2 13g 13 7g 1
2
= (3g + 2) + 2 (7.21)
g g6 g g6
7g1
We now have to resolve g 2 g6
into partial fractions.

7g 1 7g 1
= (7.22)
g2 g6 (g + 2)(g 3)
7g 1 A B
+ (7.23)
(g + 2)(g 3) g+2 g3
7g 1 = A(g 3) + B(g + 2) (7.24)

From equation (7.24), when g = 2, A = 3; when g = 3, B = 4. So,

7g 1 3 4
= + (7.25)
g2 g6 g+2 g3

And equation (7.21) becomes

3g 3 g 2 13g 13 3 4
2
= (3g + 2) + + (7.26)
g g6 g+2 g3
Therefore

3g 3 g 2 13g 13
Z Z  
3 4
dg = 3g + 2 + + dg (7.27)
g2 g 6 g+2 g3
Z Z Z Z
1 1
= 3 gdg + 2 dg + 3 dg + 4 dg (7.28)
g+2 g3
 2
g
= 3 + 2g + 3 ln |g + 2| + 4 ln |g 3| + c (7.29)
2
3 2
= g + 2g + 3 ln |g + 2| + 4 ln |g 3| + c (7.30)
2

7.2 Exercise
Evaluate the following:

1. t3 +tdt2 2t
R

R 2p+1
2. p2 7p+12 dp

3. 2uu+3
R
3 8u du

x2 dx
R
4. (x1)(x 2 +2x+1)

R y1
5. (y+1) 3 dy

5z 3 25z 2 +44z7
R
6. (z+1)(z2)3
dz
R 3 3t2 +t+4
7. 1 t3 +t
dt

17
 s4 +81
R
8. s(s2 +9)2
ds
22 +52 +8+4
R
9. (2 +2+2)2

x4
R
10. x2 1
dx
9y 3 3y+1
R
11. y 3 y 2
dy
2z 4
R
12. z 3 z 2 +z1
dz

8 Basic Integration Formulas

The list below shows some basic integration formulas:
R R
1. kdx = kx + c, (any number k) 12. tan xdx = ln | sec x| + c
n+1
R
2. xn dx = xn+1 + c, (n 6= 1) 13. cot xdx = ln | sin x| + c
R
R
3.
R dx
= ln |x| + c 14. sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| + c
x
R
R
4. ex dx = ex + c 15. cosec xdx = ln |cosec x + cot x| + c
R
x 16. sinh xdx = cosh x + c
5. ax dx = lna a + c, (a > 0, a 6= 1)
R
R
R 17. cosh xdx = sinh x + c
6. sin xdx = cos x + c
1 x
18. adx
R

2 x2 = sin +c
R
7. cos xdx = sin x + c a

19. a2dx = a1 tan1 xa + c

R R

8. sec2 xdx = tan x + c +x2
 
1  x 
dx 1
R
R 2
9. cosec xdx = cot x + c 20. 2
x x a 2 = a
sec a
+c
1 x
21. adx
R

2 +x2 = sinh + c, (a > 0)
R
10. sec x tan xdx = sec x + c a

1  x 
 
22. xdx
R R
11. cosec x cot xdx = cosec x + c 2 a2 = cosh a
+ c, (x > a > 0)

References
1. Engineering Maths First Aid Kit 8.1, Integration as Summation, Retrieved from

www.booksites.net/download/croft_me/student_files/first_aid_kit.pdf

on the 12th August 2014.

2. Hass, J., Weir, M.D. and Thomas, G.B. (2012), University Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Sec-
ond Edition, Pearson Education, Inc., Boston.

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