Particle Dynamics

Derivative of a Vector:
Consider a vector A (t) which is a function of time. The derivative of A

with respect to time is defined as,

dA
A (t + t) A
A (t)
= lim = lim
dt t0 t t0 t
A vector has magnitude and direction, and it changes whenever either of
them changes. Therefore, the rate of change of a vector will be equal to
the sum of the changes due to magnitude and direction.
Rate of change due to the magnitude change:
When a vector only changes in magnitude from A to A
+dA, the rate of
is clearly parallel to the original vector A
change vector dA .

Rate of change due to direction changes:

Let us look at the situation where only the direction of the vector changes,
while the magnitude stays constant. This is illustrated in the figure where
a vector A undergoes a small rotation. From the sketch, it is clear that if
the magnitude of the vector does not change, dA is perpendicular to A and
as a consequence, the derivative of A , must be perpendicular to A . (Note
that in the picture dA has a finite magnitude and therefore, A and dA are
not exactly perpendicular. In reality, dA has infinitesimal length and we
can see that when the magnitude of dA tends to zero, A and dA are indeed
perpendicular).

An alternative, more mathematical, explanation can be derived by

changes but its modulus stays constant, then the
realizing that even if A
 with itself is a constant and its derivative is therefore zero.
dot product of A
A . A
= constant. Differentiating, we have that,

.A
dA +A
. dA
= 2A
. dA
=0

Suppose that A is instantaneously rotating in the plane of the paper at a

rate dt = d and the magnitude of dA , will be

| = Ad = Adt
= |dA
dA
Hence, the magnitude of the vector derivative is

dA
| | = A
dt

If we express the instantaneous rotation of A in terms of an angular

velocity (recall that the angular velocity vector is aligned with the axis of
rotation and the direction of the rotation is determined by the right-hand
with respect to time is simply,
rule), then the derivative of A

dA
( ) = A
dt constant magnitude

The general expression for the derivative of a vector is given as

dA
dA
dA
=( ) +( )
dt dt constant direction dt constant magnitude

dA
dA
=( )
+A
dt dt constant direction
Kinematics:
To track the motion of a particle P through space, we need a frame of
reference, consisting of a clock and a Cartesian coordinate system. The
clock keeps track of time t, and the xyz axes of the Cartesian coordinate
system are used to locate the spatial position of the particle. In
nonrelativistic mechanics, a single universal clock serves for all possible
Cartesian coordinate systems. So when we refer to a frame of reference,
we need to think only of the mutually orthogonal axes themselves.
Given a frame of reference, the position of the particle P at a time t is
defined by the position vector (t) extending from the origin O of the frame
out to P itself, as illustrated in Figure 1. The components of r(t) are just
the x, y, and z coordinates,

r (t) = x(t)e1 + y(t)e2 + z(t)e3

The distance of P from the origin is the magnitude or length of (t),

denoted

r = r = x2 + y 2 + z 2

The magnitude of r can also be computed by means of the dot product

operation,
r = r . r

In terms of the vector representations, one can use the definition of the
scalar product to show it can be calculated simply as the sum of the
products of like components.
3

r = xi ei
i=1
Where,
= ; = ; = = ; = ; =
Velocity Vector:

We consider the positions of the particle at two different times t and t + t,

where t is a small increment of time. Let r be the displacement vector,

r = r (t + t) r (t)

The average velocity of the particle over this small increment of time is

r r (t + t) r (t)
Vaverage = =
t t

Which is a vector whose direction is that of r and whose magnitude is

the length of r divide by t. If t is small, then r become tangent to the
path, and the modulus of r will be equal to the distance the particle has
moved on the curve s.

The instantaneous velocity vector of the particle is given by,

r dr (t)
= lim
V r
t0 t dt
is always tangent to the path.
V

r r (t + t) r (t)
= lim
V = lim
t0 t t0 t

We know that,
3

r (t) = xi ei = x1(t)e1 + x2 (t)e2 + x3 (t)e3

i=1

The velocity vector becomes,

 xi (t + t)ei xi (t)ei
= lim
V
t0 t

(xi t + xi t)ei xi (t)ei

= lim
V
t0 t
3 3
(xi (t))ei dxi (t)
= lim
V = . ei
t0 t dt
i=1 i=1

dx(t) dy(t) dz(t)

(t) =
V e1 + e2 + e
dt dt dt 3
3
(t) = x i (t) . ei
V
i=1

= x 1 (t)e1 + x 2 (t)e2 + x 3 (t)e3 = x x + y y + z z

V

The magnitude of the velocity vector is given as,

= V = V
V . V

V = (x 1 (t)e1 + x 2 (t)e2 + x 3 (t)e3 ). (x 1 (t)e1 + x 2 (t)e2 + x 3 (t)e3 )

V = x 12 + x 22 + x 32

Acceleration Vector:

In an analogous manner, we can define the acceleration vector. Particle

A at time t, and has a velocity V (t), and at time t + t, it has position
(t + t) = V
r (t + t) = r (t) + r , and velocity V (t) + V
. Considering an
infinitesimal time increment, we define the acceleration vector as the
derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time,

dV
V d2r
a = lim =
t0 t dt dt 2
The acceleration of the particle in space is given as

dV
a= = rate of change of velocity
dt
dV1 (t)
dV dV2 (t) dV3 (t)
a(t) = = e1 + e2 + e3 = V1 e1 + V2 e2 + V3 e3
dt dt dt dt

a(t) = a1 (t)e1 + a2 (t)e2 + a3 (t)e3

Cartesian Coordinates:

When working with fixed Cartesian coordinates, vector differentiation

takes a particularly simple form. Since the vectors e1 , e2 , and e3 do not
change, the derivative of a vector

(t) d
dA
= (A1 (t)e1 + A2 (t)e2 + A3 (t)e3 ) = A1 (t)e1 + A2 (t)e2 + A3 (t)e3
dt dt

That is, the components of the derivative vector are simply the derivatives
of the components. Thus, if we refer the position, velocity, and
acceleration vectors to a fixed Cartesian coordinate system, we have,
 r (t) = x1(t)e 1 + x2 (t)e 2 + x3(t)e 3

(t) = V1(t)e 1 + V2(t)e 2 + V3 (t)e 3 = 1(t)e 1 + 2(t)e 2 + 3(t)e 3

V

(t) = a1 (t)e 1 + a2(t)e 2 + a3 (t)e 3 = V 1 (t)e 1 + V 2 (t)e 2 + V 3(t)e 3

V

The advantages of Cartesian coordinate systems is that they are simple

to use, and that if a is constant, or a function of time only, we can integrate
each component of the acceleration and velocity independently.

Polar Coordinates:

The locus of points that a particle occupies as it moves through space is

called its path or trajectory. If the path is a straight line, then the motion is
rectilinear. Otherwise, the path is curved, and the motion is called
curvilinear. The velocity vector V is tangent to the path. If er is the unit
vector normal to the trajectory, then

= Vr er
V

Velocity vector can be resolved into two components. One perpendicular

to the path and other tangent to the path.

= Vr er + V e
V
We also know that,
r = rer

dr
= r er + rer
dt

We generally have to deal with derivatives of the above vectors. Or

particular interest here is the representation in plane-polar coordinates. It
should be noted that the basis vectors in the (inertial) rectangular
coordinate system do not change in magnitude or direction, and hence
are constant. In plane-polar coordinates, the basis vectors are constant in
magnitude, but are changing direction. Hence their derivatives are not
zero. We can note the following development:
 er = er (t + t) er (t)

The magnitude of er is given as

er = |er (t)|.

|er (t)| = 1
So
er = er =

Now,
er
=
t t

As becomes smaller and smaller, er becomes perpendicular to er (t)

er
er = lim = lim e = e
t0 t t0 t

dr
= r er + re
dt
dr
= r er + re = Vr er + V e
=V
dt

In a similar manner we can represent the acceleration.

d dr
dV
a = = ( ) = r er + r er + r e + re + re
dt dt dt

From the vector diagram, we can write

e = er

er = e

dV
a = = r er + r er + r e + re r2 er
dt

dV
= r er + r e + r e + re r2 er
dt

a = (r r2 )er + (2r + r)e

Example 1:

Let the position vector be

r = (2 + 3t + 4t2 )e1 + (t + 2t3 )e2 + 7t4 . e3

Find the velocity and acceleration at time, t = 4 sec.

Velocity:
dr
= (3 + 8t)e1 + (1 + 6t2 )e2 + 28t3 . e3
dt

Putting t = 4 sec

dr
= (3 + 32)e1 + (1 + 96)e2 + (28 64)e3
dt

dr
= 35e1 + 97e2 + (28 64)e3
dt

dr
| | = V = 352 + 972 + (2864)2 = 111.47 m/s
dt

Acceleration:

d2 r
2
= 8e1 + 12te2 + 84t2 e3 = 8e1 + 48e2 + (8416)e3
dt
Example 2:

Let the position vector be

r = (2 + 3t)e1 + t e2 + 3t. e3

Find the components of the velocity vector at t = 1 sec.

The magnitude of the given position vector is:

r = (2 + 3t)2 + t2 + (3t)2 r 2 = (2 + 3t)2 + t2 + (3t)2

On differentiating r 2 , we get

dr
2r. = 2(2 + 3t)3 + 2t + 18t
dt

dr (2 + 3t)3 + 2t + 18t
Vr = = r =
dt r
Putting t = 1

15 + 1 + 9 25
Vr = r = =
35 35

We know that,
V = r

We cannot find V as we need to represent r in terms of . However,

indirectly we can find V

2
25
V = V 2 Vr2 = 35 ( ) = 111.389 m/s
35
Example 3:

The position vector in meters is given as a function of time in seconds

as
r = (8t2 + 7t + 6)e1 + (5t3 + 4)e2 + (0.3t4 + 2t2 + 1)e3

At t = 10 sec, calculate (a) V (the magnitude of the derivative of r )

and (b) r (the derivative of the magnitude of r )

(a) The velocity V is found by differentiating the given position

vector with respect to time,

dr
=
V = (16t + 7)e1 + 15t2 e2 + (1.2t3 + 4t)e3
dt

The magnitude of this vector is the square root of the sum of

the square of its components,

2
V = (16t + 7)2 + (15t2 )2 + ((1.2t3 + 4t))

V = 256t2 + 49 + 225t4 + 1.44t6 + 16t2

V = 1.44t6 + 225t4 + 272t2 + 49 = 1928.01 m/s

(b) Calculating the magnitude of r leads to

r = (8t2 + 7t + 6)2 + (5t3 + 4)2 + (0.3t4 + 2t2 + 1)2

r = 64t4 + 49t2 + 36 + 25t6 + 16 + 0.9t8 + 4t4 + 1 = 10755.69

r 2 = 64t4 + 49t2 + 36 + 25t6 + 16 + 0.9t8 + 4t4 + 1

dr
2r. = 256t3 + 98t + 150t5 + 7.2t7 + 16t3
dt
 dr 256t3 + 98t + 150t5 + 7.2t7 + 16t3
=
dt 2(64t4 + 49t2 + 36 + 25t6 + 16 + 0.9t8 + 4t4 + 1)

dr 87272980
= = 4057.06 m/s
dt 2(10755.69)

Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates:

The locus of points that a particle occupies as it moves through space is

called its path or trajectory. If the path is a straight line, then the motion is
rectilinear. Otherwise, the path is curved, and the motion is called
curvilinear. The velocity vector V is tangent to the path. If et is the unit
vector tangent to the trajectory, then

=1

lim |r | = lim |s|

t0 t0

dr r r s
= lim = lim
dt t0 t t0 s t

As t approaches zero, the magnitude of r becomes equal to s and r

becomes tangential to the curvature at point A
 r s ds
lim = 1. et .
t0 s t dt

et is the unit vector along V

Vr er + V e Vr
V V r r
et = = = er + e = er + e
V V V V V V

Acceleration:
d dr
dV
a = = ( )
dt dt dt

d ds d2 s ds de
a = ( et ) = 2 et +
dt dt dt dt dt

To evaluate ()
dr det det ds
et = = .
ds dt ds dt

det det
= V.
dt ds

det et
= lim
ds s0 s

As becomes smaller and smaller,

|et| = |et | =

det det et
= V. = V. lim = V. lim en
dt ds s0 s s0 s

From the diagram,

s
=

So,
det s V
= V. lim en = en
dt s0 s.

d2 s 1 ds 2
a = ( 2 ) et + ( ) en
dt dt

Tangential Normal
Acceleration Acceleration

is given, then we can find the components of the unit tangent et in

If V
the Cartesian coordinate frame of reference

Vr er + V e Vr
V V r r
et = = = er + e = er + e
V V V V V V

The acceleration may be written as,

a = at et + an en

Where at and an are the tangential and normal components of

acceleration, given by

d2 s 1 ds 2
a = ( 2 ) et + ( ) en
dt R dt

So,
d2 s
at = ( 2 ) = s
dt

1 ds 2 V 2
an = ( ) =
R dt R

where is the radius of curvature, which is the distance from the

particle P to the center of curvature of the path at that point. The unit
principal normal en is perpendicular to et and points toward the center
of curvature C.

The orthogonal unit vectors et and en form a plane called the

osculating plane. The unit normal to the osculating plane is eb, the
binormal, and it is obtained from et and en by taking their cross
product:
eb = et en

From the above equations, we have

a = Vet (at et + an en ) = Van (et en ) = Van eb

V

a = V
V aeb

The binormal vector is given as,

a
V
eb =
V a
Note:

The unit vectors et, en and eb form a right-handed triad of orthogonal

unit vectors. That is

= = =

Example 4:

Relative to a Cartesian coordinate system, the position, velocity, and

acceleration of a particle P at a given instant are

r = 250e 1 + 630e 2 + 430e 3

= 90e 1 + 125e 2 + 170e 3

V

= 16e 1 + 125e 2 + 30e 3

The coordinates of the center of curvature C are the components of its
position vector r C
r C = r + e n

Where r is the position vector of the point P, is the radius of curvature

and en is the unit principal normal vector. and en are unknowns at
this point.
en = eb et

The unit tangent vector et is found at once from the velocity vector,

90e1 + 125e2 + 170e3 90e1 + 125e2 + 170e3

V
et = = =
V 90 2 + 125 2 + 170 2 229.4

et = 0.39233e1 + 0.5449e2 + 0.74106e3

To find the bi-normal unit vector,

e1 e2 e3
|90 125 70|
a
V
eb = = 16 125 30
V a V a

17500e1 + 20e2 + 9250e3 17500e1 + 20e2 + 9250e3

eb = =
(17500)2 + (20)2 + (9250)2 19794.26

eb = 0.88409e1 + 0.0010104e2 + 0.46731e3

e1 e2 e3
en = |0.88409 0.0010104 0.46731|
0.39233 0.5449 0.74106

en = 0.25389e1 + 0.8385e2 0.48214e3

The only unknown remaining is

V2 V2
= =
an a . en

a . en = (16e1 + 125e2 + 30e3 ). (0.25389e1 + 0.8385e2 0.48214e3 )

an = a . en = 86.287 ms 2

V2 V2 (229.4)2
= = = = 609.89 m
an a . en 86.287

We obtain the position vector of the center of curvature

r C = r + e n

r C = (250e 1 + 630e 2 + 430e 3) + 609.89(0.25389e 1 + 0.8385e 2 0.48214e 3)

r C = 95.159e 1 + 1141.4e 2 + 135.95e 3

Therefore, the coordinates of C are

X = 95.159 m; Y = 1141.4 m; Z = 135.95 m

Relationship between Inertial Frame of Reference and Non-
Inertial Frame of Reference:

Let E1E2E3 represents the non-rotating frame of reference (inertial

frame of reference) and e1e2e3 represents rotating frame of reference
(or non-inertial) attached to a rigid body. e1e2e3 also known as body
frame of reference.

.
Consider a point P on a rigid body with position vector A

= A1 e1 + A2 e2 + A3 e3
A

Where A1, A2 and A3 are the components of the position vector along
e1, e2 and e3 in the body reference frame e1e2e3. If the point P is
fixed then A1, A2 and A3 are fixed quantities. A1, A2 and A3 are scalar
quantities, which does not depend on frame of reference.

dA
dA
| = | +
A
dt E dt e
1 E2 E3 1 e2 e3

Since there is no change in magnitude in both inertial and body

frame, the derivative of a vector is zero.

dA
| =0
dt e
1 e2 e3

dA
| =
A
dt E
1 E2 E3

dA
| = (1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3 ) (A1 e1 + A2 e2 + A3 e3 )
dt E
1 E2 E3
e1 e2 e3
= |1
A 2 3 |
A1 A2 A3
 = e1 (2 A3 3 A2 ) + e2 (3 A1 1 A3 ) + e3 (1 A2 2 A1 )
A

Alternate way:

dA d
| = (A e + A2 e2 + A3 e3 )
dt E dt 1 1
1 E2 E3

dA dA1 dA2 dA3 de1 de2 de3
| =( e1 + e2 + e3 ) + (A1 + A2 + A3 )
dt E dt dt dt dt dt dt
1 E2 E3

Since there is no change in magnitude,

dA1 dA2 dA3

( e1 + e2 + e ) = 0
dt dt dt 3

dA de1 de2 de3
| = (A1 + A2 + A3 )
dt E dt dt dt
1 E2 E3

e1 de1
lim = = lim = =
t0 t dt t0 t

de1
A1 = A1 (3 e2 2 e3 )
dt
de2
A2 = A2 (3 e1 + 1 e3 )
dt
de2
A3 = A3 (1 e2 + 2 e1 )
dt

dA
| = A1 (3 e2 2 e3 ) + A2 (3 e1 + 1 e3) + A3 (1 e2 + 2 e1 )
dt E
1 E2 E3

dA
| = e1 (2 A3 3 A2 ) + e2 (3 A1 1 A3 )
dt E
1 E2 E3
+ e3 (1 A2 2 A1 )

Relative Motion:

Consider a rigid body which is rotating with angular velocity about

point O and simultaneously point O is moving relative to a fixed frame
of reference with origin O

Let P be a particle in arbitrary motion. The absolute position vector

is
of P is r and the position of P relative to the moving frame is . If R
the absolute position of the origin of the moving frame, then

+
r = R

Since is measured in the moving frame,

= 1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3

Where 1, 2, and 3 are the coordinates of P relative to the moving

reference.

of P is dr dt, we have
The absolute velocity V
 dr
dR d d
|E = Vo |E + |
| = | + | V
dt E dt E dt E dt E

dt is the absolute velocity of the origin of the e1 e2 e3 frame

Where dR

E + E = V
r E = R o + E
We can write,

| = | + +
=

Where (ddt)|e is the velocity of P relative to the e1 e2 e3 frame

| = + +

So
E + [e +
r E = R ]|E

The absolute acceleration of the particle P,

d
E + [e +
r E = R ]|E
dt

E = ao is the absolute acceleration of the origin of the e1 e2e3

Where R
frame

d d
E + [e ]|E + [
r E = R ]|E
dt dt

]| = [
[ + + ]|

[ ]| =
+
| |

d d d d d
d
E + [ 1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3 ]| +
r E = R | +
|
dt dt dt dt E dt E dt E
d d1 d2 d3
[ e1 + e2 + e ]|
dt dt dt dt 3 E
de1 de2 de3
= (1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3 )|Ee + (1 + 2 + 3 )|
dt dt dt E

ae = (1 e1 + 2 e2 + 3 e3 ) = Acceleration w. r. t body frame

d
d
E + ae +
r E = R + | +
|
dt E dt E
Again,




| = | + +
=

So,
E + ae +
r E = R +
+
(e +
)

E + ae +
r E = R e +
V +
(e +
)

+
(
) = +


= +
( )

E + ae +
r E = R e +
V
+ (
Ve + )

E + ae + 2(
r E = R e ) +
V +
(
)

Where,
E and ae = Absolute and Relative Acceleration
R

2( e ) = Corioli s Acceleration
V

= Angular Acceleration

(
) = Centripetal Acceleration

Centripetal Acceleration:

(
Centripetal Acceleration = )

Recall here that for any three vectors A, B and C, we have

 A (B C) = (A. C)B (A. B)C

Therefore,
(
) = (
. ) 2 =
2

Take

= e3 and = e1

) = e3 (e3 e1) = 2 (e3 e2 ) = 2 e1

(

Example 5:

At a given instant, the absolute position (m), velocity (m/s), and

acceleration (m/s2) of the origin O of a moving frame are

1 + 200E
r o = 100E 2 + 300E
3 ; V
o = 50E
1 + 30E
2 10E
3 ;

1 + 40E
ao = 15E 2 + 25E
3

The angular velocity (rad/s) and acceleration (rad/s2) f the moving

frame are

1 0.4E
= 1.0E 2 + 0.6E
3 ; 1 + 0.3E
= 1.0E 2 0.4E
3

The unit vectors of the moving frame are

1 + 0.7428E
e1 = 0.5571E 2 + 0.3714E
3

1 + 0.4839E
e2 = 0.06331E 2 0.8728E
3

1 + 0.4627E
e3 = 0.8280E 2 + 0.3166E
3

The absolute position, velocity and acceleration of P are

1 100E
r = 300E 2 + 150E
3 ; V
= 70E
1 + 25E
2 20E
3 ;

1 8.5E
a = 7.5E 2 + 6.0E
3

Find the velocity and the acceleration of P relative to the moving

frame.
Solution:

1, E
Let us first solve for E 2 and E
3 in terms of e1, e2 and e3

]
[e] = [E][E

] = [E]T [e]
[E

1
E 0.5571 0.06331 0.8280 e1
2 ] = [0.7428
[E 0.4839 0.4627 ] [e2 ]
3
E 0.3714 0.8728 0.3166 e3

1 = 0.5571e1 0.06331e2 0.8280e3

E

2 = 0.7428e1 + 0.4839e2 + 0.4627e3

E

3 = 0.3714e1 0.8728e2 + 0.3166e3

E

The relative position vector is

r = r r o
= R

1 100E
= (300E 2 + 150E
3 ) (100E
1 + 200E
2 + 300E
3 )

The relative velocity vector is

E + [e +
r E = R ]|E

E
e = r E R

1 + 25E
e = (70E 2 20E
3 ) (50E
1 + 30E
2 10E
3 )

1
E 2
E 3
E
= | 1.0 0.4
1 + 270E
0.6 | = 240E 2 220E
3
200 300 150

= +

To obtain the components of the relative velocity along the axes of the
moving frame,

e = 120(0.5571e1 0.06331e2 0.8280e3 )

275(0.7428e1 + 0.4839e2 + 0.4627e3 )
+ 210(0.3714e1 0.8728e2 + 0.3166e3 )

e = 193.1e1 308.8e2 + 38.60e3 (ms)

To find the relative acceleration,

E 2(
ae = r E R e )
V
(
)

1 8.5E
r E = 7.5E 2 + 6.0E
3

E = 15E
R 1 + 40E
2 + 25E
3

1
E 2
E 3
E
2( e ) = 2 | 1.0
V 1 564E
0.4 0.6 | = 162E 2 646E
3
120 275 210
1
E 2
E 3
E
= |1.0
0.3 1 230E
0.4 | = 165E 2 + 240E
3
200 300 150

(
1 + 364E
) = 74E 2 + 366E
3

1 + 381.5E
ae = 99.5E 2 + 21E
3