Electrics and Electronics

Material

Lecturer: Dr. Muhammad Amin Sulthoni

 Flowof electrons and hole will generate
currents. The process of carrier flowing is
called transport.

Carrier transport originate from carriers

drift and diffusion mechanism.
 Carriers are moving rapidly to all direction. This
thermal motion may be visualized as a succession of
random scattering from collisions with lattice atom,
impurity atoms, and other scattering centers. This
motion lead to zero displacement.
The average distance between collisions called mean
free path, the average time between collisions called
mean free time c.
When an electric field is applied, the carriers will be
accelerated along the field, therefore an additional
velocity component will be superimposed the thermal
motions. This additional components called drift
velocity.
The interaction between a free electron and phonons or crystal
defects can be viewed as a series of collisions obeying the principles
of conservation of energy and momentum. As a consequence
electrons are never at rest and are submitted to a perpetual random
motion that can be compared to the Brownian motion of fine particles
in a liquid.
 Conductivity for most material expressed
as = n.e.n where n is electron mobility,
that is the frequency of collision from the
interaction between a free electron and
phonons or crystal defects.

Or in another word, = n.e.n

n= 1/n where n is average time between
two collision events.
 Carrier mobility relates the average drift
velocity of a carrier to electric field,
= .
= +
Electric force which gives acceleration to

carriers is = . = =

Integrating the equation, assuming initial
..
drift velocity to be zero, we get =

 .
The drift velocity, = = ,

n is electron mobility. Similarly, =

 Lattice
scattering: scatterings come from
thermal vibration of lattice atoms.
Allowing energy transfer between carriers and
lattice atoms
Increases with temperature increase, and become
dominant at high temperature, mobility reduced with
proportion of T3/2
Impurity scattering: scattering when
carrier travels pass an ionized impurities,
coming from electrostatic interactions.
The impurity scattering less dominant at higher
temperature, since the carriers move faster.
When temperature increase, mobility is increasing
proportional to T3/2/NT
1 1 1
= +

or

1 1 1
= +

Lightly doped
semiconductor,
lattice scattering
dominates, while
for highly doped
semiconductor, the
impurity scattering
is most pronounced
at low temperature.
 Electric
force received by electron is
equal the negative gradient of potential

energy =

Define electric potential (voltage) as

relation quantity = or =

The transport of carriers under appliance
of electric field produces drift current.

= = =

 Ifholes also existed in semiconductor, by
treating hole transport similarly,

= =

And total drift current density

= + = + =
Conductivity, = ( + )

1 1
Where resistivity is = =
(+)
Measured resistivity:

= .

CF is correction factor,
typically 4.54 for d/s > 20
 The carrier concentration may be different
from the impurity concentration, for
incomplete ionization regarding the
temperature and ionization energy level.
Direct method to measure carrier
concentration is using Hall effect
Hall measurement is also the convincing
method to prove the existence of hole, since
hall measurement can distinguish the
carrier type.
A magnetic field BZ is applied in z direction.
When no electric current in y direction, the
electric field along the y-axis exactly balances
the Lorentz force,

q. = . .
is the electric field coming from the
accumulation of holes in top layer of the
conductor. The potential to get the equilibrium
state called Hall voltage

=

= . = = . . . Then,
.

1 1
= and = or =
. .

The carrier concentration then

1 /
= = = =
( /)
 Carrier transport originate from carriers
drift and diffusion mechanism.
An important current component can
exist if there is a spatial variation of
carrier concentration in the
semiconductor material.
The carriers tend to move from a region
of high concentration to a region of low
concentration. This current component is
called diffusion current.
Assumtions:

Temperature is
homogen,
independent of x

is the mean free

path
 Consider the number of electrons crossing the
plane at = 0 per unit time and per unit area.
Because of finite temperature, the electrons have
random thermal motions with a thermal velocity
, and a mean free path (note that = . ,
where is the mean free time.)
The electrons at = , one mean free path away
on the left side, have equal chances of moving
left or right; and in a mean free time one half of
them will move across the plane x = O
 Average rate of electron flow per unit
area from left side,
1
. () 1
= 2 = ().
2
Similarly for flow from right side,
1
= ().
2
 Recallthe Taylor expansion for from
n=0 until = ,
1 2
= (0 + + 2 2 + )
2
The net rate of electron flow is
=
1
= 0 0 +
2

= =

is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity.

The electron diffusion current density is

=


and for hole, =

 = +

= ( + + )

General form in 3D,

= ( + + )
 Consider a material with non-
uniform impurity (which is most
case in real device), in thermal
equilibrium, no current flow.
At initial, carriers flow from high
concentration to area with lower
concentration.
Electrons flows leaving holes,
creating an electric field.
As equilibrium reached, this
electric field prevent further
diffusion process
 Electricpotential is related to electron
potential energy by a charge,
1
= ( )

The electric field for one dimensional,
1
= = =

 Assuming that the electron density is almost equal
the donor concentration, 0

0 = exp( ) = ln( )

The fermi level is constant in equilibrium. Then

taking the derivative in respect to , the equation
become
()
=
()

Subtituting we get

1 ()
=
()
 Assuming quasi neutrality where , total
current is zero in equilibrium, so that

= 0 = +

Substitue for ,
1
0 = +

As a result, we get

= or for hole =

 Generation is the process whereby electrons
and holes are created
Recombination is the process whereby
electron and holes are annihilated
Any deviation from thermal equilibrium will
tend to change the electron and hole
concentrations in a semiconductor
Whenever the thermal-equilibrium condition is
disturbed (i.e., 2) , processes exist to
restore the system to equilibrium (i.e., = 2)
 Electrons are continually being thermally excited
from the valence band into the conduction band by
the random nature of the thermal process.
At the same time, electrons moving randomly
through the crystal in the conduction band may
come in close proximity to holes and "fall" into the
empty states in the valence band. This
recombination process annihilates both the electron
and hole.
In thermal equilibrium, the rate at which electrons
and holes are generated and the rate at which they
recombine must be equal.
Suppose is recombination rate, is generation
rate, is proportionality constant, then at thermal
equilibrium = = 0 0
Direct recombination occures in semiconductor with direct bandgap
Rate of recombination is proportional to
electrons and holes concentration,

At equilibrium, rate of recombination

equal generation, or

= = 0 0
At non equilibrium, some extra generations
occur from outside excitation,
= +
Assuming an n type semiconductor, the
recombination becomes
= = (0 + )(0 + )
and are excess carrier concentration,
given by
= 0 ; = 0
Where and must be equal to maintain
charge neutrality.
The net rate of change in hole/electron concentration
then

()
= = +

In steady state, the net rate of change must be zero,
so that the rate of generation is
= =
Substituting for Gth and R yield

= . (0 + 0 + )
For low level injection, , 0 for n-type or
vice versa,
0 0
= 0 = =
1
0

is called carrier lifetime. Solusi untuk

persamaan diatas,

= 0 +

= 0 +
Unlike direct
recombination which
occurs in direct badgap
semiconductor,
recombination in indirect
bandgap requires
momentum change.

Recombination occurs via

a localized energy state in
forbidden gap as a
stepping stone
 = capture cross section (effectiveness),
Nt = recombination center
Low injection
Assuming = = 0
The abrupt atomic bonds at the surface may introduce
energy levels act as recombination centers.
Assuming low level injection and a limiting case that
electron at surface is equal bulk atom concentration:

Slr is low injection surface

recombination velocity as
function of thermal velocity,
conductivity, and
recombination center
density
 The direct recombination
involving third particles
which receives energy
from direct recombination
process.

The third particle loses its

energy by scattering
events.

This mechanism usually

occurs at high impurity
level.
Continuity equation is the governing equation that integrate
overall effect of drift, diffusion, and recombination
mechanism of a current
 The total electron flow in infinitesimal
slice dx located at x, is the sum of:

net electron flowing into the slice at x

the net electron leaving the slice
the generation & recombination processes
occured inside the slice.
The overal rate of change of electron number is
+
= +

Using Taylor expansion for + , we get

1
= + ( )

for n, and similarly for hole

1
= + ( )

 The poisson equation which relate the
space charge and permitivity must be
satisfied

=

where =