Driscoll, M. (2005). Meaningful learning and schema theory.

Psychology of Learning for

Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 111-152). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.(e.g. Chapter 4)

The processes of meaningful learning can be described three ways. The first way would be that
new information can enter the cognitive structure lower on the hierarchy than the information
already in the structure. Secondly, the new information can be entered into the hierarchy above
the anchoring ideas that are already built. Lastly, new information can enter the cognitive
structure at the same level as other information preexisting in the structure. Readiness to learn is
another factor that contributes to the learning process. In order to be ready to learn new content,
then learners from any level must possess a relevant, stable, and organized cognitive structure
(pg. 125). Instruction can only be as great and successful as the lowest achieving student in the
class can be. If teachers dont know their students, students cant be open to new content or even
be ready to learn. Once rapport is established, then teachers can use familiar experiences as a
teaching tool. Learners are more likely to comprehend and remember information better when
they relate it to a similar theme (pg 127).
Relating new content to prior knowledge it is critical to the designing and planning of
instruction. Word webs, graphic organizers, KWL charts, pre-assessments, and advanced
organizers are all teaching tools that can be used when bridging the gap between prior knowledge
and new content knowledge. When introducing new content, teachers may choose to use
progressive differentiation (pg. 144). Start the unit with very simple and broad concepts and
become more and more elaborate as the unit progresses on.

Driscoll, M. (2005). Situated Cognition. Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp.
153-184).Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.(e.g. Chapter 5)

Situated cognition is based on what people perceive, think, and do develops in a fundamentally
social context (pg. 157). Situated cognition can be developed through two processes, the first
being that knowledge can be perceived as lived practices and the second is that learning is done
through participation in communities of practice. Where you grow up and how you are raised is
a big part of the way you practice information processing. The greatest factor is the learners and
instructors socioeconomic present status or socioeconomic history. The second process in
situated cognition is learning as participation in communities. For example, a honor roll student
may learn best by visual and verbal instruction techniques in the classroom, but then walks onto
a baseball field and can only learn through kinesthetic instruction. Different communities is
simply meant as a learner must identify their identity in each community through personal
participation within.
The academic environment is a large factor in whoevers learning processes. Legitimate
peripheral participation is a concept that explains how most careers are organized. For example,
as a college student pursues a teaching career, they must first be student-teachers, as they begin
to instruct one class at a time the main teacher will gradually allow the student teacher to instruct
all of the teachers classes. This is just the newcomer phase of belonging to a teaching
community. Eventually, the student teacher will graduate from college and apply to become a
teacher in their own classroom, which in turn would classify that new teacher as a newcomer in a
new community of practice. Throughout the years teaching in a classroom the teacher might find
interest in taking graduate courses that would make them apart of two communities of learners.
The process continues when advancing in your career field. Semiotic theory claims that all
knowledge of the world is mediated through signs (pg. 170).

Keraro, F.N. & Shihusa, H. (2009) Using advanced organizers to enhance students motivation in
learning biology. Eurasia journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education. (pp. 413-
420). Kenya: Egerton, Egerton University.

Research was completed within the topic of pollution and data was collected using a student
motivation questionnaire. The results concluded that students that were taught using advanced
organizers were more successful than the students taught without. With the assumption that
students come to school with inquiry about science and how life works, the teachers are
responsible for ensuring that the students are given the opportunity to continue their learning and
understanding of science in and out of the classroom environment. Therefore, the teachers
instructional approach to science content will require the students to enhance their attitudes
towards the learning of science. There is also a shift of science based instruction, for example
teaching biology, teachers have to shift their instructional design from direct instruction of facts
to conceptual understanding and application of acquired knowledge to solve emerging problems
(pg. 413). Instruction should then use a variety of teaching methods, which the most beneficial
teaching methods involve the learners and require some form of problem solving. Cooperative
concept mapping is an example of a motivating teaching method used to enhance student
learning among middle school students. By using cooperative concept mapping, the teacher
allows the students to motivate their learning because they are highly engaged throughout the
instructional process (pg. 414).
Motivation, selection, direction, and continuation are all factors of a learners behavior that can
critically determine the learners success (pg 414). By using advanced organizers teachers allow
the learners to make connection among what they know and what they have learned throughout
the instruction. Advanced organizers provide the framework that enables the student to learn
new concepts or information and link those new ideas to their existing cognitive structure (pg.
414). Since Ausubel claims that cognitive restructuring process is directly a result of advanced
organizers and positive learning outcomes (pg. 414).

Mayer, R.E. & Pilegard C. (2014) Principles for managing essential processing in multimedia

learning: segmenting, pre-training, and modality principles. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The

Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 316-344). New York: Cambridge. (e.g.

Chapter 13)

Cognitive overload is common in computer based programs in which the software or application

has a set pace for presenting the essential information. Therefore, segmenting, pre-training, and

the modality principles are introduced in order to prevent essential overload (pg 226). These

principles may be used to reduce essential overload, but should not be used if they reduce the

essential material. Students need to learn the essential material because that is part of the content

objective. While designing instruction, teachers objectives should be to help students process the

essential material without assigning content where the learners experience essential overload (pg.

227). Each principle can be used throughout the instructional design process because most

multimedia selection must meet the required essential material indicators.

The segmenting principle is generally practiced when the instruction calls for the use of a

multimedia application that is showing an animation in which the students need to focus on key

words, note specific processes, and relate the new information to prior knowledge (pg. 228). For

example, students are introduced to the rock cycle model. The content indicator is to use the

rock cycle model to describe the relationship between the processes and forces that create

igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. The options for animations are found on the

digital content that explains the essential material within a 180 second presentation. In order for

the lower level students to completely comprehend the new scientific information and to resist

essential overload, the videos previous to the animation would be segments of how each rock

type forms, and then they would piece all of the rocks together as they watch the rock cycle

animation.

By breaking the rock cycle into smaller specific rock demonstrations or presentations, then the

instructional design would use the pre-training principle. The content related to each specific
rock type would make the entire rock cycle animation easier to comprehend (pg. 230). With the

final animation, the modality principle will be used by only selecting an animation that includes

concurrent narration (pg 232). Each animation will be selected based on the presentation of

information both visually and verbally. Learners will be more successful with the essential

material is the animation allows them to hear and see the explanations.