ME 189 Microsystems Design and Manufacture

Chapter 5

Thermofluid Engineering and Microsystems Design

There are many microscaled devices that involve heat or/and fluid flows.

Examples such as thermal force-actuated devices and valves and pumps in

micro fluidic systems.

Thermofluid principles are used in the design of these devices for both
performance (i.e. functions) and strength (e.g. fluid-induced forces).

Thermofluid principles are also used in the design of microfabrication

processes such as chemical vapor deposition, oxidation, etc.
Characteristics of Moving Fluids

Fluids have volume but no shape.

Compressible fluids (gases)

Incompressible fluids (liquids)

Fluids cannot withstand normal stresses, other than hydrostatic pressures

Shear stress is responsible for fluid flow.

Shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient in moving fluid:
y du ( y )
Velocity profile, u(y)
uo The shear stress: = (5.2)
dy
where = dynamic viscosity of the fluid
u(y)

LV
Many fluid flow cases are characterized by Reynolds number: Re = (5.3)

in which = mass density; V = velocity; L = characteristic length
Laminar fluid flows occur at Re < 10-100 for compressible fluids,
and Re< 1000 for incompressible fluids.
 The Continuity Equation

It is often used to compute the volumetric flow, Q and the velocity, V of a moving
fluid through conduits with variable cross-sectional areas.

In the situation such as illustrated below:

1 2
Q = V1A1 = V2A2 m3/s (5.6)
V1 Reducer V2

To micro fluidic

1 2

Diameter
d1 = 1000 m V1 V2 d2 = 20 m
 The Momentum Equation

This equation is derived on the basis of conservation of momentum. It is used to

compute the fluid flow-induced forces on the interfacing solids.

It is used in assessing the strength of microvalves and pumps in a design process.

2
C
1
C
A D
A
V2
dt
V1 V2
D

2
B B

V1dt

The force required to drive the fluid from 1-1 to 2-2, or the flow-induced forces to be:
r r
F = m& (V2 V1 ) (5.7)
Example 5.2 Assessing the flow-induced force in a micro valve.

A micromachined silicon valve utilizing electrostatic actuation is constructed.

The valve unit has a similar configuration as that reported in [Ohnstein et.al. 1990]
as illustrated below.

The thin closure plate is used as the valve with a dimension of 300 m wide x 400 m
long x 4 m thick. The plate is bent to open or close by electrostatic actuation to
regulate the hydrogen gas flow. The maximum opening of the closure plate is
15-degree tilt from the horizontal closed position.

Determine the force induced by the flow of the gas at a velocity of 60 cm/min and
a volumetric rate of 30000 cm3/min. Also, calculate the split of mass flow over
the lower surface of the plate. y
o
in g : 15
n 1
a x. ope Fy
M
3 2
Fx
4 x
5
Mx2,Vx2 Mx1,Vx1
Gas Flow
1 Closure plate 2 Dielectric base plate
3 Electrodes 4 Orifice V Vy
5 Silicon die Vx
Solution:

We look at the situation when the valve plate is at the maximum tilt angle of 15o,
which leads to =75o in the following diagram.
y
1
Fy
3 2
Fx
4 x
5
Mx2,Vx2 Mx1,Vx1
Gas Flow
1 Closure plate 2 Dielectric base plate
3 Electrodes 4 Orifice V Vy
5 Silicon die Vx

The gas stream splits into two components, i.e. Mx1 induced by velocity Vx1 and
Mx2 by velocity Vx2 . We designate Mx1 and Mx2 to be the respective components
&
of the rate of mass flow of the gas, m
The volumetric flow of the gas, Q = 30000 cm3/min or 500x10-6 m3/sec.
The mass density of the gas, = 0.0826 Kg/m3 [Janna 1993] with

m& = Q = 0.0826 x (500 x10 6 ) = 41.3 x10 6 kg/s

 y
1
Fy
3 2
Fx
4 x
5
Mx2,Vx2 Mx1,Vx1
Gas Flow
1 Closure plate 2 Dielectric base plate
3 Electrodes 4 Orifice V Vy
5 Silicon die Vx

Using Eq. (5.7), we have the following relations:

F y = m& (V y 2 V y ) (a)

F x = ( M x1V x1 M x 2 V x 2) m& V x (b)

and

in which Vy2 = 0; Vx = V cos and Vy = V sin

Thus, by substituting the values of = 75o and V = 60 cm/min or 10-2 m/sec

into Eq. (a), we obtained the force Fy = 40x10-8 Kg-m/sec2, or 40x10-8 N.
The horizontal force component, Fx on the plate exists only if the coefficient
of friction between the gas and the contacting plate surface is known.
However, we may reasonably assume a friction-less gas flow at that surface,
which will then lead, according to Eq. (b), the following relationship:
( M x1V x1 M x 2 V x 2) m& V cos = 0

It is further reasonable to assume that Vx1 = Vx2 = V in a friction-less flow.

Consequently, the split of mass flow at the lower surface of the plate can be
obtained by solving the following simultaneous equations:

M x1 M x 2 = m& cos (c)

M x1 + M x 2 = m& (d)

From which, we obtain the split mass flow rates to be:

m& 41.3 x10 6
M x1 = (1 + cos ) = (1 + cos 75 o ) = 26 x10 6 kg/s
2 2
m& 41.3 x10 6 kg/s
M x 2 = (1 cos ) = (1 cos 75 o ) = 15.3 x10 6
2 2

A good design, of course, would desire Mx1 >> Mx2.

 This equation relates the
Laminar Fluid Flow in Circular Conduits
volumetric flow, Q and the
- The Hagen-Poiseuille Equation corresponding pressure drop, P.
w
r
Velocity profile: Shear stress r a
profile: (r)
x
Vr(r)

x2 - x1 = L
x1 x2
a4 d (5.16)
Q= ( P + gy )
8 dx

where y = elevation of the tube from a reference plane.
The pressure drop in the fluid over the tube length, L is:
8LQ
P = (5.17)
a4
1 meaning a reduction in half in the radius24=16
NOTE: The pressure drop, P
a 4 times increase in pressure drop (pumping power)!!
The equivalent head loss in relation to Q is:
128LQ
h f ,l = (5.18)
g d 4
Laminar Fluid Flow in Circular Conduits For conduits with non-circular
- The Hagen-Poiseuille Equation cross-sections.

In such cases, hydraulic diameter, dh is used in the Hagen-Poiseuille equations.

This diameter is defined as:

4A
dh =
p (5.19)
where A = cross-sectional area of fluid flow
p = wet perimeter.
w

h h1

Rectangular conduit filled Rectangular conduit filled

with fluid with fluid up to h1
4 wh1
4A 4( wh) 2 wh dh =
dh = = = w + 2h1
p 2( w + h) w + h
 Incompressible Fluid Flow in Microconduits
Observation: Droplets of water on flat surfaces exhibit spherical topography
and such phenomenon is possible only with small droplets.

Reason: It is the surface tension of the water that produces such spherical
surface of droplets of liquids.
Surface Tension in Liquids
It is the cohesion forces of molecules that exist in all liquids.
When a liquid is in contact with air or a solid, the inter- molecular forces
in the liquid bind the liquid molecules beneath the contacting surface,
whereas no such force exist at the contacting surface.
Consequently, when the liquid is in contact with air, the inter-molecular forces
of the liquid tend to bond the liquid molecules together.
Since there is no force at the liquid/air contacting surface, the shape of the
liquid at the interface becomes spherical.
In the case of larger sized droplets, the weight of the liquid droplet itself
exceed the inherited surface tension, and no droplet of spherical shape is
possible.

Thus, surface tension is a dominant factor in small volume of liquids.

The surface tension of the small volume of fluids at the contacting
surface of the conduits, and the friction at the interface result in
radically different flow phenomena in microconduits.

Surface tension in small volume fluids presents obstacle to the flow,

and extra pressure is required in pumping such flows Capillary flow.

Magnitude of Surface tension in a liquid

Surface tension Wet perimeter Coefficient of
Fs S surface tension,

The coefficient of surface tension, with a unit of N/m is a measure of the

magnitude of the surface tension.

The - value for water can be obtained by the following empirical formula:

(T) = 0.07615 1.692 x 10-4T (5.23)

where T is the temperature in oC and has units of N/m

 Pressure change due to surface tension across liquid volumes
a2P
2aLP
2 a

L L

L
a

a
2
P = (5.24a) P = (5.24b)
a a
Combining the above two cases for a volume in a microconduit:
Tube wall

3 Radius, a Tube diameter

P = Fluid volume
d
a Radius, a

P is the minimum pressure to be overcome for pumping this volume of liquid.

 Example 5.5

Determine the pressure required overcoming the surface tension of water in a

small tube of 0.5 mm inside diameter. Assume that the water is at 20oC.

Solution:

We first determine the surface tension coefficient of water at 20oC from Eq. (5-23)
to be = 0.073 N/m.

The tube has a radius of a = 250 m = 250x10-6 m.

Following the expressions in Eqs. (5-24a,b), we have the pressure required to

overcome the surface tension to be:

3 3x0.073
P = = = 876 N/m2 or 876 Pa
a 250 x10 6
Overview of Heat Conduction in Micro Structures

To assess temperature distribution (i.e. variations), T(r,t) in a micro structure

subject heat flow, in which r = position vector, t = time.

The computed temperature distribution T(r,t) is used to assess the induced

thermal stresses and strains (and displacements) in the structure such as
In Eqs. (4.49) (4.51-4.57) in Chapter 4.

Fourier Law of Heat Conduction

Total amount of heat flow through the slab, Q

during time period, t is:
Amount of
Q A(T a T b )t (5.26)
heat flow, Q
Area, A Q=k
d
where k = thermal conductivity of the solid with
d
a unit Btu/in-s-oF or W/m-oC

Thermal conductivity, k is a material property, which represents a materials

ability to conduct heat. It is normally a constant in normal range of temperature.
Heat flux, q, which is equal to:
Q (T T b )
q= =k a (5.27)
At d
is a more meaningful quantity in heat transfer analysis. It represents the intensity
of heat flow. It has a unit of Btu/in2-s or W/m2.

The above is the Fourier law of heat conduction in simple one-dimensional

case. For a more general case, it is expressed as:
r v
( )
q r , t = k T r , t ( ) (5.28)
r
In which r = position vector : ( x, y, z ) in Caartesian coordinate system

z
qz
q(r,t) q( x, y , z, t ) = q2x + q2y + q2z (5.29)

qx T ( x, y , z, t )
where qx = k x (5.30a)
qy x
T ( x, y , z, t )
x qy = k y (5.30b)
y
y Position vector:
T ( x, y , z, t )
r: (x,y,z) qz = k z (5.30c)
z
The Heat Conduction Equation
r
v Q 1 T (r , t ) (5.31)
2T ( r , t ) + =
k t
where the Laplacian is defined as:

2 2 2
= + +
2
in Cartesian coordinate system, and
x2 y 2 z 2

2 1 1 2 2 in cylindrical polar coordinate system

=
2
+ + +
r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2

In the heat conduction equation , Eq. (5.31), the term Q = Q(r,t) is the heat
generated by the solid material.
 In MEMS and microsystems, electric resistance heating is commonplace.
In such case, this amount of heat generation is equal to:

2
Power P Current, I Resistance, R
watts (W)
= amperes (A) Ohms ()

The power in the above expression has a unit of watt, which is equivalent to
1 Joule/sec. It is also equivalent to 1 N-m/sec in the SI units.

The constant in Eq. (5-38) is called thermal diffusivity of the material with a unit
of m2/sec. It has an important physical meaning of being a measure of how fast
heat can conduct in solids (thermal inertia). Mathematically, it is equal to:
k
= (5.32)
C
in which and C are the respective mass density and specific heat of the solid.
The units for is g/cm3, and the unit for C is J/g-oC.

Refer to Table 7.3 for the thermal physical properties of some common MEMS materials
 Newtons Cooling Law For heat flow in fluids

Heat flow from Point A to Point B is expressed as

Ta q Tb
q-the heat flux (w/m2 or J/m2-s) in the expression:
A
Fluid B
Ta > Tb Fluid
q = h (Ta Tb) (5.33)

where h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-oC

The magnitude of h depends on the properties of the fluid, but the dominating
parameter is the velocity of the fluid in motion (forced convection).

Heat convection also occur in fluid under no influence of external force, ie

natural (free) convection. The h-value in forced convection is greater than
that in natural convection.
Numerical values of h are determined by the values of the Nusselt number (Nu)
from dimensional analyses in the following forms. The Nusselt number has an
expression of Nu = hL/k, in which L = characteristic length and k = thermal
conductivity of the fluid.
For forced convection:
Nu = (Re)(Pr)
For Natural convection:

Nu = (Re)(Pr) (Gr)
where , , and are constants determined by dimensional analyses with experiments.
LV
Reynolds number: Re = (5.3)

Cp (5.34a)
Prandtl number Pr =
k
L g
3 2
Grashoff number Gr = 2 (5.34b)
( t )
in which Cp is the specific of heat of fluids under constant pressure, is the
volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion, t is the duration, and g is the
gravitational acceleration.
 Solid-Fluid Interaction
Modes of heat transfer:

Conduction in solids governed by Fourier law in Eq. (5.28)

Convection in fluids governed by Newtons cooling law in Eq. (5.33)

There are MEMS structures, e.g. thermally actuated beams with their surfaces
being in contact with surrounding fluids.

At these interfaces the two modes of heat transfer take place with either:
conduction to convection, or convection to conduction.

The situation is further complicated with the building of a boundary layer at

the interface on the fluid side. Such boundary layer adds resistance to heat flow.
Consequently, the temperature of the solid at the interface is not equal to that
of the contacting fluids.

Because of both heat conduction and convection take place at the interface of
the solid structure and the surrounding fluid, the thermal boundary condition
at the interface needs to be specifically defined.
Boundary condition at solid-fluid interface

Boundary
Layer FLUID:
SOLID: Tf
T(r,t)
Boundary layer film
qs resistance, 1/h
qf

Normal line to
Boundary surface the surface, n
position: rs

r
T (r , t )
k
r
rs = h[T (rr s , t ) T f ] (5.35)
n

The thickness of the boundary layer relates to the velocity of the surrounding fluid.
Thicker layers are produced with slow moving fluid, with extreme values in
natural convection cases, which is common in microsystems.
 Example 5.8

Show the differential equation and the appropriate initial and boundary conditions
for a thermally actuated micro beam as illustrated below. A thin copper film is
attached to the top surface of the silicon beam used as a resistant heater. The
actuator is initially at 20oC. Consider two cases for the contacting air at the bottom
surface of the beam: (a) still air, (b) the air has a bulk temperature of 20oC but has
a heat transfer coefficient of 10-4 W/m2-oC.

1200 m
1000 m 100 m
Cu film 40 m
Si beam

Support
 Solution

We may consider the induced temperature field in the beam that will predominantly
vary in the thickness of the beam. It is thus reasonable to assume a temperature
function, T(x,t) in the beam with x being the coordinate in the thickness direction
as shown below.
The governing differential equation from the
Depth of general form in Eq. (5-38) for the present
Still air the beam case is:
H e a t f l u x i n p u t, q

h=0 2T ( x, t ) 1 T ( x, t )
Length = (5.39)
or x 2
t
1000 m

T(x,t) Moving air at The initial condition is:

Tf = 20oC and T ( x, t ) t =0 = 20 o C
h = 10-4 W/m2-oC The boundary condition at the top of the
beam, i.e. x = 0 is:
T ( x, t ) q
x x
=
k
x =0
Top face Bottom face where the heat flux, q = I2R/A, with I = the
x= 0 x = 40 m current passing the thin copper film and
R = the electric resistance of the copper film.
 The boundary conditions at the bottom surface of the beam:

Depth of (a) With still surrounding air with h 0:

the beam From Eq. (5.42), we have
Still air (a)
T ( x, t )
H e a t f l u x i n p u t,q

h=0 =0
or
Length x x = 40 x106 m
1000 m

T(x,t) Moving air at (b) With moving surrounding air with

(b) Tf = 20oC and h = 10-4W/m2-oC:
Tf = 20oC and
We may derive the following boundary
h = 10-4 W/m2-oC condition from Eq. (5.38).

x ( x, t )
+ T (x, t ) x = 40106 = T f
h h
Top face Bottom face x x = 40106 k k
x= 0 x = 40 m
in which k = thermal conductivity of
the silicon beam
Heat Conduction in Multilayered Thin Films

Many MEMS devices are made of layers of dissimilar materials. Heat flow through
these layers of dissimilar materials require special formulations.
The governing DE for a multi-layer solid is:
Boundary conditions
2Ti ( x, t ) 1 Ti ( x, t )
T1(x,t): K1, 1 X = X1 = (5.40)
T2(x,t): K2, 2
X = X2 x 2
i t
X = X3
in which the layer designation, i = 1,2,3,.
with xi x xi +1 and t > 0, satisfying the
following conditions:

Prescribed initial conditions in xi x xi +1

at t = 0, and
Prescribed boundary conditions
at x = 0 and x = xi+1 for t > 0.
These conditions are:
X = Xi
Ti(x,t): Ki, i Ti(xi+1,t) = Ti+1(xi+1,t) for i = 1,2,3,. , and
X = Xi+1
Boundary conditions
T i ( xi +1 , t ) T i +1 ( xi +1 , t )
ki = k i +1 for i = 1,2,3,.
x x
x
 Example 5.9
The structure of a thermal actuator is made of a compound beam involving silicon
and SiO2 as illustrated below. A thin copper film is deposited on the top of the SiO2
layer as the resistant heater.

This heater will provide a maximum temperature of 50oC at the top surface of the
SiO2 layer. Determine the time required for the entire silicon beam to reach the
input temperature surface temperature 50oC.
1400 m
1000 m
50 m
Cu film heater
Material 1
Silicon dioxide 2 m
Material 2 Silicon

40 m
Support

Given material properties are:

Thermal conductivities: k1 = 1.4 w/m-oC for SiO2 and k2 = 157 w/m-oC for silicon.
Thermal diffusivities: 1 = 0.62x10-6 m2/sec for SiO2 and 2 = 97.52x10-6 m2/sec for silicon.
 Solution:
Since heat will predominantly flow through the thickness of the compound beam
due to the short distance of the passage, a one-dimensional heat conduction analysis
along the thickness direction is justified.
Let T1(x,t) = temperature in SiO2
SiO2 T2(x,t) = temperature in Si
Si
From Eq. (5.47), we have the following DEs:

Thermally insulated boundary,

Surface temperature, Ts = 50oC

T1(x,t) 2 T 1 ( x, t ) 1 T 1 ( x, t ) 0 xa
For SiO2 = (5.41a)
Heat Flow x 2
1 t
q=0
T 2 ( x, t ) 1 T 2 ( x, t )
T2(x,t) 2
For Si = a xb (5.41b)
x 2
2 t
The initial conditions:
x
T 2 ( x, t ) t =0 = F 2 ( x) = 20 C
o
T 1 ( x, t ) t =0 = F 1 ( x) = 20 C
o
X = a = 2 m X = b = 42 m
The boundary conditions:
X=0 T 2 ( x, t )
T 1 ( x, t ) x =0 = 50 C =0
o
x x =b = 42 m
The compatibility conditions:
T 1 ( x, t ) ( x, t )
T 1 ( x , t ) x = a = 2 m = T 2 ( x , t ) x = a = 2 m k1 = k2 T 2
x x = a = 2 m x x = a = 2 m
The solution of this set of DEs and the associated conditions was carried out
by using MathCad, a commercial software package, with graphical output:

t = 600 s
50
Temperature, oC

40 t = 100 s
t = 50 s
30
t = 1 s
20 Time, t = 0
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 30
SiO2 Si Depth of the Beam, x (m)

The temperature variations in both layers at selected instances are plotted as shown
in the graph above, from which we determined the time required for the silicon layer
to reach the input temperature of 50oC is 600 micro seconds. This information will
enable the design engineer to assess the sensitivity of the thermally actuated device.
 SUMMARY
Thermofluids engineering principles are used in the design of MEMS
microsystems such as micro valves and micro fluididcs. Many of these
devices and systems are thermally actuated.
Another major application of thermofluid engineering principle is in
microfabrication such as chemical vapor deposition of thin films.
Fluid-induced forces must be accounted for in the design of micro
valves and pumps. Fluids also affect thermal behavior of matters.
Thermal analysis in MEMS and microsystems involve conduction and
convection heat transfer.
Fourier law governs heat conduction in solids, whereas Newtons cooling
law is used in convective heat transfer.
Heat conduction equation, with or without convective boundary conditions,
is used to determine the temperature field (distribution) in the MEMS
structure. This temperature field is used to assess the induced thermal
stresses, strains and displacements. These thermally induced mechanical
behavior is critical in the design of MEMS and microsystems.
Thermofluids engineering principles for sub-mcrometer scale are radically
different from those in macro-scale. Significant modifications of these
principles and formulations are necessary.
 End of
Chapter 5