Laminar Flo"" and

Convective Transport
Processes
Scaling Principles and
Asymptotic Analysis

L. Gary Leal
Department of Chemical and Nuclear Engineering
University of California
Santa Barbara

BuHerworth-Heinemann
Boston London Oxford Singapore Sydney Toronto Wellington
 Creeping Flows 149

between P and Q for an

is
IV41/1=0, I (4-94)

which is the familiar biharmonic equation in two dimensions.

We shall discuss the solution of (4-93) and (4-94) shortly. First, however, it is
worth noting the form of the full Navier-Stokes equations when expressed in terms of
1/1. For this purpose, it is convenient first to take the curl of the equations to eliminate
the pressure. In the two-dimensional and axisymmetric flows cases considered here,
this gives

(4-95)

Now,
(4-96)
according to the definitions of"' and u (in terms of 1/1). Thus substituting into (4-95),

(4-92)
(4-97)
P, respectively.
two-dimensional prob- Again, for the two-dimensional case, this reduces to
definitions (4-85) and
lnmnr"'''"ihiP fluid

the other conditions of (4-98)

a coupled pair of equa-
Clearly, in the limit Re -+ 0, these equations reduced to the limiting forms (4-93)
the scalar function 1/1. In
and (4-94).
directly from (4-84).

D. Solutions via Eigenfunction Expansions for

(4-93) Two-Dimensional Creeping Flows
We saw, in the previous section, that problems of creeping motion in two dimen-
sions can be reduced to the solution of the biharmonic equation (4-94), subject to ap-
a:JJ.V2( a VV), which
propriate boundary conditions. In order to actually obtain a solution, it is convenient
to express (4-94) as a coupled pair of second-order partial differential equations,
V21/l = - "' (4-99)
(4-100)

The solution of these equations via standard eigenfunction expansions can be carried
out for any curvilinear, orthogonal coordinate system for which the Laplacian operator
V2 is separable. Of course, the most appropriate coordinate system for a particular
application will depend on the boundary geometry. In this section we briefly consider
the most common cases for two-dimensional flows of Cartesian and circular cylindrical
coordinates.
150 LAMINAR FLOW AND CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES

General Eigenfunction Expansions in Cartesian

and Cylindrical Coordinates
For Cartesian coordinates, a solution of (4-100) exists in the separable form where An is an arbitra
(4-101) two independent solu
w=X(x)Y(y).
Substituting into (4-1 00), we obtain
X" Y" For An= 0, on the ot
-=--=+m2 (4-102)
X y - '
where m is an arbitrary complex number. Hence, Hence, the most gene
X"m 2X=O, Y"m2 Y=0, (4-103)
w = (ao + bo8)(
and from this we deduce that
I w=emxeimy I (4-104)

for arbitrary complex m. Now, to obtain a general solution for 1/;, we must solve (4-99) To determine 1/;, we r
with the right-hand side evaluated using (4-104). Hence, w. The general solutic
(4-105) (4-113), plus a partie
sponding to the sumr
where 'Y m is an arbitrary constant. The solution of (4-105) is the sum of a homo-
geneous solution of the form (4-104) plus a particular solution to reproduce the right-
hand side. After some manipulation, we find Substitution into the
(4-106)

Hence, the most general solution for 1/; expressed in Cartesian coordinates is Thus, comparing (4-

11/; = ~1/Jm I (4-107)

except for An = 1. In
with arbitrary complex values of m. ular solution form (4
Starting with (4-99) and (4-1 00), we can also obtain a general solution for 1/; in in this case, the corr'
terms of a circular cylindrical coordinate system, and this solution is more immediately
applicable to real problems. The governing equations in polar cylindrical coordinates
are Finally, for An= 0, t
(4-108)

Thus, the general sol

and
(4-109) 1/;=(co+d0 lnr+
+(c 1 r+d 1r-
We seek a solution of (4-108) and (4-109) in the separable form 00

(4-110)
+ E [c)..r).
\ ro = R(r)F(8) and t/1 = S(r)H(8).\ n=2

Substitution for w in (4-1 09) yields

 Creeping Flows 151

in the separable form where An is an arbitrary constant, either real or complex. Hence, for An* 0 there are
(4-101) two independent solutions for each of the functions R and F, namely,
(4-111)

For An = 0, on the other hand,

(4-102)
F=a 0 ,0 and R=c 0 , lnr. (4-112)
Hence, the most general solution for w in the separable form of Equation (4-110) is
(4-103) 00

w= (ao +boO)( co+ dolnr) + E (anCOSAnO + bnsinAnO)(cnr>-n + dnr->-n).

n=l
(4-104)
(4-113)
1/;, we must solve (4-99) To determine 1/;, we must solve (4-108) with the general form (4-113) substituted for
w. The general solution for 1/; consists of a homogeneous solution of the same form as
(4-105) (4-113), plus a particular solution. To obtain terms of the particular solution corre-
sponding to the summation in (4-113), we try
is the sum of a homo-
to reproduce the right- 1/lp = rssinAnO, rscoSAnO. (4-114)
Substitution into the left-hand side of (4-108) yields
(4-106)
(s 2 - A~)rs- 2 sinAn0, (s 2 - A~)rs- 2 cosAn0. (4-115)
Thus, comparing (4-115) and (4-113), we see
(4-107) (4-116)
except for An= l. In this case, the second of the values for s is s = 1, and the partic-
ular solution form (4-114) reduces to a solution of the homogeneous equation. Thus,
solution for 1/1 in
in this case, the corresponding particular solutions take the form
is more immediately
cylindrical coordinates r 3 sin0, r 3 cos0, rOsinO, and rOcosO. (4-117)
Finally, for An = 0, the particular solution is
(4-108) [<aoO +b 0 )(c 0 r 2 +d0 r 2 (lnr-1)]. (4-118)

Thus, the general solution for 1/1 is

(4-109) 1/; = (c 0 + d 0 lnr + c 0 r 2 + d 0 r 2 (lnr- 1))(ao0 + bo)

+(c. r +dl r- 1 + cl r 3 )(a. sinO+ bl cosO)+ J. r(a.OsinO + E.ocosO)
form 00

+ l""
i.l
[c>.n r>-n + d>.n r->-n + c>.n r>-n+ 2 + J>.n r 2 ->-n] (a>.n sin AnO+ b>-n cosAnO).
(4-110) n=2
(4-119)
152 LAMINAR FLOW AND CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES

Application to Two-Dimensional Flow Near Corners

The general solution (4-119) can be applied to examine two-dimensional flows
in the region between two plane boundaries that intersect at a sharp comer. This class
of creeping motion problems was considered in a classic paper by Moffatt (1964), 9

and our discussion is similar to that given by Moffatt. A typical configuration is shown
in Figure 4-7 for the case in which one boundary at () = 0 is moving with constant 0.1
velocity U in its own plane and the other at () =a is stationary.
A noteworthy feature of this configuration is that it lacks a definite physical
length scale. One rationalization of this fact is that the comer is generally a localized
part of some more complicated global geometry. In any case, an obvious question is
o.
the range of validity of the creeping motion approximation for this situation in which
a fixed characteristic length scale (and thus a fixed Reynolds number) does not exist.
To answer this question, we need to obtain an estimate for the magnitudes of the inertial
and viscous terms in the equations of motion. A starting point is the magnitude of the
velocity, corresponding to the form (4-119) for the streamfunction, namely,
lui =O(Ar~- 1 ), (4-120)
where ~ is the real part of "A and A is a constant with dimension of velocity /(length)~.
Then, the magnitudes of the inertia and viscous terms in the equations of motion can
be estimated as
Figure 4-7 Twc
surface (at 0 = 0)
and from Equation (4-
of 0.02.

Hence, the ratio of inertia to viscous terms is

(4-121)

and we see that the creeping motion approximation is valid provided where the r and
definitions
Ar~
R=-1, (4-122)
p

where R is effectively a Reynolds number based upon the distance from the comer.
Hence, for ~ > 0, inertia is negligible for sufficiently small values of r, whereas for In view of (4-12
~ < 0, neglect of inertia requires r to be sufficiently large. We shall focus here on prob-
be satisfied by tt
lems where~> 0. Because the resulting solution in this case is a local approximation,
certain features of the flow will generally remain indeterminate. In reality, they are
determined by the features of the flow at a large distance from the comer where the
creeping flow approximation breaks down. Referring to the
The simplest problem of the type considered here is the one sketched in Figure
4-7, which was originally solved by Taylor (1960). 10 The problem may be considered
to be a local approximation for the action of a wiper blade on a solid surface that is where A 1, B 1, C
completely covered by liquid. The boundary conditions in this case are to this solution,
 Creeping Flows 153

O=a

(4-120)
lnJUA.UY I \~u..,~J~ 8=0
u
Figure 4-7 Two-dimensional flow in a sharp comer, caused by motion of the bottom
surface (at 8 = 0) with the velocity U. The plot shows streamlines, ~ = 1/;/U, calculated
from Equation (4-127) for a= 1fl3. Contour values range from 0 at the walls in increments
of 0.02.

Ur = U, u 8 = 0 at () = 0,
(4-121) (4-123)

where the r and () components of velocity are related to the streamfunction via the
definitions
(4-122)
(4-124)

In view of (4-124), it is clear that the requirement ur = U (constant) at()= 0 can only
be satisfied by the solution form

t/; = rF(8).
Referring to the general solution (4-119), the terms that are linear in rare
t/; = r(A 1sin()+ B 1cos()+ C 1 ()sin()+ D 18cos8), (4-125)

where AI> Bl> Cl> and D 1 are constants. Applying the boundary conditions (4-123)
to this solution, we find that
154 LAMINAR FLOW AND CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES

U=A 1 +D~o
0 =(A 1 +D 1)cosa+(C1 -B 1)sina+C1acosa-D 1asina,
0 =B~o

0 =A 1sina +B 1cosa + C 1asina +D 1acosa.

Thus, solving for A 1 , B~o C~o and D~o we have
B 1 =0, interf

C _ U(a- sinacosa)
1
- sin 2a-a 2 '

(4-126)

and Figure 4-8 Two-dir

into a fluid through a f1
Ur 2 Equation (4-130) for a
t/; =- ( . 2 2 [a sin8 + (sinacosa- a)8sin8- (sin2a)8cos8].
sm a-a) The solution in this
(4-127)
11/;=U
The streamlines corresponding to (4-127) are shown in Figure 4-7. Although the
velocity components ur and u6 are perfectly well behaved, the shear stress Trois singu- In this case, it is of
lar in the limit r-+0. Indeed, if we calculate Trolo=O we find that
2Up. 1 .
Trolo=o = - (sm
. 2a-a 2) -(smacosa- a). (4-128)
r The term in brackets
Clearly, the solution breaks down in the limit r-+0. In fact, according to (4-128), an surface is constant bu
infinite force is necessary to maintain the plane 8 = 0 in motion at a finite velocity U, particle that travels 1
and this prediction is clearly unrealistic. Presumably, one of the assumptions of the reaches the plate and
theory breaks down, although a definitive resolution of the difficulty does not exist at This infinite accelera
the present time. In our view, the most plausible explanation is that the no-slip bound- the plate in the limit
ary condition is inadequate in regions of extremely high shear stress, but we shall not limit r-+0.
attempt to carry the discussion of this point further at this time. A third interest
Closely related to the Taylor problem is the situation sketched in Figure 4-8, two hinged plates. A
when a flat plate is drawn into a viscous fluid through a free surface (that is, an inter- angular velocities -c
face). In reality, or course, the interface will tend to deform as a result of the motion
of the plate, but we assume here that the interface remains flat. Then the problem is
identical to the previous Taylor problem except for the boundary conditions, which and
now become
ur= U, u6 =0 at 8= -a, Since u6 =-at/; tar, i

Tro=-;1 (a"r)
To =0, u6 =0 at 8=0. (4-129)
conditions (4-132) th
 Creeping Flows 155

8=-a
-0.

(4-126)

Figure 4-8 Two-dimensional flow in a sharp corner created when a flat plate is drawn
into a fluid through a flat fluid interface. The plot shows streamlines, .J; = 1/;/U, calculated from
Equation (4-130) for a= 1rl6. Contour values range from 0 at the walls in increments of0.0105.
The solution in this case is
(4-127)
1/; = Ur(sinacosa- a)- 1[sina(8cos8)- (acosa)sin8]. (4-130)
4-7. Although the
In this case, it is of interest to calculate the tangential velocity on the free surface,

u, IIJ=o = _ u[ 1 _(a- si~a)( +cos a+ 1)].

-smacosa+a
(4_ 131 )
(4-128)
The term in brackets is positive and independent of r. Hence, the velocity on the free
surface is constant but smaller than the velocity of the solid plate. The speed of a fluid
particle that travels along the interface must therefore increase discontinuously as it
reaches the plate and turns the corner-that is, it must undergo an infinite acceleration.
This infinite acceleration is produced by an infinite stress and pressure, O(r -I), on
the plate in the limit r-+ 0. Again, we conclude that the solution breaks down in the
limit r-+0.
A third interesting example of a flow in the vicinity of a corner is the motion of
~t:ILI,;m;;u
in Figure 4-8, two hinged plates. As sketched in Figure 4-9, we assume that the plates rotate with
(that is, an inter- angular velocities -w and +w, respectively. Thus, the boundary conditions are
a result of the motion
u,=O, u9 = -wr at 8 =+a,
Then the problem is
conditions, which and

u,=O, u 9 =wr at 8= -a. (4-132)

Since u 0 =-a!/; tar, it is evident from the general solution (4-119) and the boundary
conditions (4-132) that A=2, so that
(4-129)
1/; = r 2(A2 + B28 + C 2 sin28 + D 2 cos28). (4-133)
156 LAMINAR FLOW AND CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES

Figure 4-1 0 A s~
by an arbitrary "stil'l
(b) symmetric.

where

O=-a The boundary CO})

Figure 4-9 Two-dimensional flow in the vicinity of the sharp corner between two hinged,
plane walls that are rotating toward one another with angular velocity w( -w). The plot
We focus only on 1
shows streamlines, ~ = 1/llw, calculated from Equation (4-134) for ex= '11"144. Contour values
term with the larg
range from 0 at 0 = 0 in increments of 0.2105.

It is convenient to use the conditions (4-132) at 8 =ex and the symmetry conditions Thus, applying th1
Ue = ou,!o8 = 0 at 8 = 0 to determine the constants A2, B2, c2, and D2. After some
manipulation, we find that the solution
(4-134)
1/1 = wr 2 ~(sin2a- 2acos2a)- 1 (sin28- 28cos2a). Hence, in order t1

In this case, both the velocity components and the stress are bounded in the limit
r --+ 0, but the pressure exhibits a O(log r) singularity.
Finally, it is of interest to consider the nature of the flow near a sharp comer The resulting vall
that is induced by an arbitrary "stirring" flow at large distances from the comer. In responding functi'
general, there are two fundamental types of flow patterns that can be induced near the sponding to (4-1~
comer: an antisymmetric flow, as sketched in Figure 4-10a, and a symmetrical flow,
as sketched in Figure 4-10b. The actual flow near a comer will generally be a mixture
of antisymmetrical and symmetrical flow types, but it is permissible in the linear Stokes
approximation to consider them separately (the more general flow can then be con- so that
structed as a superposition of the simpler fundamental flows). Here we consider only
the antisymmetric case, which is the more interesting of the two. Thus, we consider 1/1=
the general antisymmetric form for 1/1, namely, The coefficient },
00
(4-135) matching the loca
1/1 = E r>-.f>-..(8), express (4-140) i
n=l

between two hinged,
w( -w). The plot
T/44. Contour values
(4-134)
near a sharp corner
from the corner. In
be induced near the
a symmetrical flow,
tl!i"'l'"'''""' be a mixture
in the linear Stokes
can then be con-
(4-135)
Creeping Flows 157
9=a
~
~-
-a 9=-a
a b
Figure 4-1 0 A sketch of the two-dimensional flow near a sharp comer that is induced
by an arbitrary "stirring" flow at large distances from the comer: (a) antisymmetric,
(b) symmetric.
where
If>.n(8) =AnCOSAn8 + CnCOS(An- 2)8. I (4-136)
The boundary conditions at the walls require
f(a) =/'(a) =0. (4-137)
We focus only on the dominant term in the expansion (4-135) for small r, that is, the
term with the largest real part of An,
1/; - r>-.f>-. 1(8). (4-138)
Thus, applying the boundary conditions (4-137) to (4-138), we find that
AI COSAJ a+ cl COS(A(- 2)a = 0,
(4-139)
Hence, in order to obtain a nontrivial solution, A1 must satisfy the condition
d t I cosA 1a cos(A 1 - 2)a I=
e A1 sinA 1 a (A 1 - 2)sin(A 1 - 2)a 0 (4-140)
The resulting value of A1 is known as the eigenvalue for this problem, and the cor-
responding function f>-. 1(8) is the eigenfunction. The coefficients A 1 and C 1 corre-
sponding to (4-139) are
A 1 =Kcos(A 1 -2)a,
C1 = -KcoSAJa,
so that
(4-141)
The coefficient K cannot be determined from the local analysis alone but only by
matching the local solution to the stirring flow far from the comer. To obtain AI> we
express (4-140) in the form
158 LAMINAR FLOW AND CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES

(A 1 - 2)sin(A 1 - 2)acosA 1a= A1 sinA 1 acos(A 1 - 2)a

or, upon rearrangement,
(4-142)
r
- (A 1 - 1)sin2a =sin [2(A 1 - 1)a].
This equation has a real solution for A1 when 2 a > 146 o but no real solutions for "
0::5 2a < 146. In this range, A1 is complex.
Let us consider this latter case. If we denote (A- 1) asp+ iq, then (4-142) can
be expressed in the form
sin~cosh71 =- k~,
(4-143) Figure 4-12
cos~ sinh,.,=- k71,
(adapted from 1

where~= 2ap, 71 = 2aq, and k is the positive parameter k = sin2a/2a. Any solution
of these equations must satisfy the condition Todem

~n < (2n -~)11",

is an infinite 1
(2n -1)11" < of r. If we intl
in the symbol
where sin~n and cos~n are both negative. The corresponding eigenvalue is
An= 1 + (2a)- 1 (~n +i71n). (4-144)
As demonstra
The eigenvalue with the least positive real part, which dominates near the corner r approaches
(r< 1), obviously occurs for n=l. Numerical values of ~ 1 and 71 1 for 2a< 146
were tabulated by Moffatt (1964). The specific values are not significant for present
purposes. What is significant is the fact that A1 is complex. This feature of the solu-
tion implies the existence, for small r, of an infinite sequence of closed streamline Hence, antisy
eddies in the corner, the first two of which are sketched in Figure 4-11. acute angle le
small (and w1
In this!
corner betwec
be driven by !
have, in fact,
occur locally
Wakiya, O'N
on a solid, pl
is found in d
wall when the
is the two-dill
along the line
sequence of e
these and ret
Figure 4-11 The infinite sequence of closed eddies in a sharp comer with an acute angle
Later,
2a < 146 . This sequence of closed streamline flows is commonly known as Moffatt eddies after problem of c
the mathematician H.K. Moffatt (1964), 9 who first discovered their existence. Contours shown fluid that un'
here are 1/; = 0, -0.005, and 10, and we see the first two eddies in the sequence. The next eddy, moment, hoVI
closer to the comer, is too small to see with this resolution. flow problerr