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MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
b b 2 4ac
x=
2a
5 25 24 5 1
= =
2 2
6 4
x = or
2 2
x = 3 or x = 2
Exercise 1.1:
Solve for x comparing with the standard equation
1. x2 9x + 14 = 0
2. 2x2 + 5x 12 = 0
3. 3x2 + 8x + 5 = 0
4. 4x2 4ax + (a2 b2) = 0
n(n 1) 2 n(n 2) 3
According to this theorem, (1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x + x + .......
2! 3!
-1-
Where | x \ < 1, n is any negative integer or any fraction (positive or negative)
The total number of terms = n + 1 i.e. one more than the index of the power of the Binomial.
2! = 2 x 1, 3! = 3 x 2 x 1 and n! = n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3)..........1
If |x| < <1, then the terms containing higher power of x can be neglected.
Therefore (1+x)n = 1 + nx.
= 1 2 x + 3 x 2 4 x 3 + .....
1/2
1
37 = (36 + 1)1/2 = (36)1/ 2 1 + = 5(1 + 0.028)1/ 2
Solution: 36
1 1 1 1 3
1
= 5 1 + (0.028) +
2 2
(0.028) 2 +
2 2 2
(0.028)3 + ......
2 2! 3!
37 = 6 [1 + 0.014]
= 6 [1 + 0.014] = 6 [1.014]
= 6.084
Exercise:
1. The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at a height h above the surface of earth is
gR 2 1 - 2h
g = If h<<R, then prove that g = g
( R + h) 2
R
-2-
2
2
gR h
Hint: g = = g 1+
2 h 2 R
R 1 +
R
III. Logarithms
If ax = m, then x is called the logarithm of m to the base a and is written as loga m Thus, if ax = m, then
loga m = x
For example (i) If 24 = 16 log2 16=4 (ii) 33 = 27 log3 27=3
(iii)loga 1=0 (iv) loga a = 1.
Standard Formulae of logarithms
m
1. loge mn = loge m + loge n 2. loge = loge m - logen 3. loge mn = n loge m
n
logarithm.
2. Common Logarithm. Logarithm of a number to the base 10 is called common logarithm. In all
2.303 log10 N
Example:
V2
Work done during an isothermal process is W = RT log e
V1
V2 V
This can be written as W = 2.3026 RT log10 2.0303 RT log10 2
V1 V1
-3-
Example: Expand the following using logarithm formulae
1 T
(i) f =
2l m
Solution:
1/2
1 T
f =
2l m
1 1 1
= log T log m (log 2 + log l ) = (log T log m) log 2 log l.
2 2 2
Exercise
Pr 4 2T l
(i) PV = K (ii) V = (iii) h = (iv) T = 2
8l rpg g
IV. Trigonometry
Angle: Consider a fixed straight line OX. Let another straight line OA (called revolving line) be
coinciding with OX rotate anticlockwise and takes the position OA, The angle is measured by the
amount of revolution that the revolving line OA undergoes in passing from its initial position to final
position.
From Figure given below, angle covered by revolving line OA is
= AOX.
A
0 X
An angle AOX is +ve, if it is traced out in anticlockwise direction and AOX is ve, if it is
traced out in clockwise direction
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System of Measurement of an Angle
1right. Angle = radians.
2
Let a particle moves from initial position A to the final position B along a circle of radius r as shown in
figure.
B
Lenght of arc AB
Then, Angle, =
Radius of circle (r )
If length of arc AB = radius of the circle (r) A
Then = 1 radian
Radian: An angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to the
radius of the circle is called one radian.
Relation between Radian and Degree
When a body or a particle completes one rotation, then = 360 and distance travelled
(circumference of a circle).
2r
=
r
Or 360O = 2 radian
360 180
= 7
Or 1 rad = 2 22
= 57.27O
-5-
Trigonometric Ratios
Consider triangle ONM in the four quadrants as shown below.
Consider two straight lines X'OX and Y'OY meeting at right angles in O. These two lines
divide the plane into four equal parts called quadrants (figure given below).
Now XOY, YOX', X'OY' and Y'OX are called I, II, III, and IV quadrants respectively. ON is +ve if
drawn to the right side of O and ve if drawn to the left side of O. MN is +ve if drawn above X'OX and
ve if drawn below X'OX,
Trigonometric Ratios of an Angle
MN ON
1. = sin (i.e. sine of ) 2. = cos (i.e. cosine of )
OM OM
MN OM
3. = tan (i.e. tangent of ) 4. = cosec (i.e. cosecant of )
ON MN
OM OM
5. = sec (i.e. secant of ) 6. = cos (i.e. cotangent of )
ON MN
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Important relations:
1 1 1
1. cosec = 2. sec = 3. cot =
sin cos tan
The signs of various trigonometric ratios can be remembered from the above figure.
The trigonometric ratios of standard angles are given in the following table:
Angle
0O 30O 45O 60O 90O 120O 180O
trig-ratio
sin 0 1 1 3 1 3 0
2 2 2 2
cos 1 3 1 1 0 1 1
2 2 2 2
tan 0 1 1 3 3 0
3
-7-
Trigonometrical Ratios of Allied Angles
(i) sin 270O (ii) sin 120O (iii) sin 120O (iv) tan (-30O)
Solution:
1
(ii) cos 120O = cos (90O + 30O) = sin 30O =
2
3
(iii) sin 120O = sin (90O + 30O) = cos 30O =
2
1
(iv) tan (30O) = tan 30O =
3
1. sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B 2. cos (A+B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
3. sin (AB) = sin A cos B cos A sin B 4. cos (AB) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
7. cos (A+B) cos (AB) = cos2 A sin2 B 8. tan (A+B) =
1 tan A tan B
A+ B A B A+ B A B
9. sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos 10. sin Asin B=2 cos sin
2 2 2 2
A+ B A B A+ B A B
11. cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos 12. cos A-cos B=2 sin sin
2 2 2 2
-8-
2 tan A
13. cos 2 A = 1 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A 1 14. tan 2 A =
1 tan 2 A
V. Differentiation
Function: If the value of a quantity y (say) depends on the value of another quantity x, then y is
the function of x i.e. y = f(x).
The quantity y is called dependent variable and the quantity x is called independent variable.
For example, y = 2x2 + 4x + 7 is a function of x
(i) When x = 1, y = 2(1)2 + 4x1+7 = 13
(ii) When x = 2, y = 2(2)2 +4x2+7 = 23
As the value of y depends on the value of x, y is the function of x.
Differential coefficient or derivative of a function
Let y = f(x) . (1)
That is, the value of y depends upon the value of x.
Let x be a small increment in x, so that y is the corresponding small increment in y, then
y + y = f(x+x) . (2)
Subtract (1) from (2), we get y = f(x+x) f(x)
y f ( x + x) f ( x)
=
x x
y
Where is called average rate of change of y w.r.t. x.
x
dy f ( x + x ) f ( x )
= Lt
dx x 0 x
Theorems of Differentiations
dy
1. If y = C, when C is constant =0
dx
dy
2. If y = xn, where n is an integer = nx n 1
dx
-9-
dy du
3. If y = Cu, where u is the function of x and C is constant =C
dx dx
4. If y = u v , where u, v and are the function of x
dy d d d
= (u ) (v ) ( ) .......
dx dx dx dx
dy dv du
5. If y = u v, where u and v are the function of x, then =u +
dx dx dx
dv du
u v
v dy dx dx
6. If y = , where u and v are the function of x, then = 2
u dx u
dy du
7. If y = un, where u is the function of x then = nu n 1
dx dx
Exercise 1.2
1, Find derivative of the functions w.r.t x
x5 5 1 1
(i) 4x3+7x2+6x+9 (ii) 2 (iii) (iv)
2 x x x+4
d d d (u )
1. (sin x) = cos x; and (sin u) = cos u , u is the function of x
dx dx dx
d d d
2. (cos x) = six x ; (cos u) = sin u (u )
dx dx dx
d d d
3. (tan x) = sec2 x ; (tan u) = sec2 u (u)
dx dx dx
d
4. (cot x) = cosec2 x
dx
d
5. (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
d
6. (cosec x) = cosec x cot x.
dx
Example:
Solution:
dy d d d
= ( x sin x) = x (sin x) + sin x ( x) = x cos x + sin x.1
dx dx dx dx
dy
= x cos x + sin x
dx
Exercise 1.3
(i) sin 3x (ii) cos 3x
(iii) tan 4x (iv) sin (ax + b)
(v) cos (ax + b)
Differential Coefficients of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
d 1 1 d 1 d
1. (log e x) = log e e = ( (Q log e e = 1) 2. (log e u ) = (u )
dx x x dx u dx
d u d d x
3. (e ) = eu (u ) 4. (e ) = e x log e e = e x
dx dx dx
d u d
5. (e ) = eu (u )
dx dx
Example:
Solution:
dy d d 1 2
= (log x) 2 = 2 log x (log x) = 2 log x. = log x
dx dx dx x x
dy d 1 d a
= log(ax + b) = (ax + b) =
dx dx (ax + b) dx ax + b
Example 3: If S = 2t 3 3t 2 + 2, find the position, velocity and acceleration of a particle at the end of
S = 2t 3 3t 2 + 2,
When t = 2s, S = 2 8 3 4 + 2 = 6 m
dS d
Now, velocity v = = (2t 3 3t 2 + 2) = 6t 2 6t
dt dt
dv d
Now, acceleration, a = = (6r 2 6t ) = 12t 6
dt dt
Exercise 1.4
t
1. The area of a blot of ink is growing such that after t second A = 3r 2 + + 7 Calculate the rate of
5
t2 t
3. A particle starts rotating from rest and its angular displacement is given by = + Calculate
40 5
VI. Integration
Integration is an inverse process of differentiation.
Suppose F(x) is the derivative of the function f(x) w.r.t.x. Then we can write
d
f ( x) = F ( x)
dx
Now, if we are given the derivative F(x) and we have to find the function f(x) then this can be
done with the help of Integral Calculus.
The process of finding the function whose derivative is given is called integration.
Definition: If the derivative of a function f(x) is F(x) then f(x) is called the integral of F(x) with respect
to x. The integration of a function can be written as F ( x) dx = f ( x)
The function F(x) whose integral is f(x) is called Integrand.
- 12 -
Fundamental Formulae of Integration
d x n +1
dx = x Q dx (x) = 1 x dx = provided n 1.
n
1. 2.
n +1
1
x dx = 4. e x dx = e x
1
3. dx = log e x
x
e ax e ax ax
5. e ax dx = = a dx =
x
6.
d a log e a
( ax )
dx
cos ax cos ax
7. sin xdx = cos x 7a. sin axdx = =
d a
( ax)
dx
sin ax
8. cos xdx = sin x 8a. cos axdx = a
11. sec x tan x dx = sec x 12. cos ecx cot x dx = cos ecx
sin x sin x
13. tan x dx = cos x dx = cos x
dx = log e cos x
cos x dx
14. cot x dx = = log e sin x
sin x
dx dx
15. 1 x 2
= sin 1 x; | x |< 1 16. x x 1
2
= sec 1 | x |; | x | > 1
dx
17. 1+ x 2
= tan 1 x
Theorems of Integration
First Theorem: The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product
Second Theorem: The integral of the sum or difference of a number of functions is given by
(u v ........) dx = ud x v d x d x .........
- 13 -
Exercise 1.5
Integrate the following functions w.r.t .x,
2
1 1 1
(i) x3 (ii) x 2 + (iii) e3x (iv) x (v) (vi) 4e5x
x x x
Definite integral
If
F ( x)dx = f ( x) + c
b
Then F ( x)dx = f (b) f (a)
a
Exercise 1.6
Solve the following:
x=R /2 2
GMm
(i) dx (ii) cos x dx (iii) x
3
dx
x = x2 0 1
v /2
(iv) m v d v (v) sin x d x
u / 2
Exercise 1.7
Solve the following:
/2 Q
q
(i)
cos x dx
/2
(ii) C dq, where C is a constant
0
d
(iii)
( 0 )'
where, 0 is a constant
1
- 14 -
MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
Answers
Exercise 1.1:
3 5 a +b a b
1. (2, 7); 2. , 4 ; (3) 1, ; (4) , ;
2 3 2 2
Exercise 1.2
1 1
(i) 12x2 + 14x + 6 (ii) (5/2) x4 5/ 2x3 (iii) (iv)
2x 3/2 ( x + 4) 2
Exercise 1.3
Exercise 1.4
Exercise 1.5
Answers.
x4 x3 e3 x
(i) (ii) + log e x (iii)
4 3 3
x3 1 4
(iv) 2x (v) 2 x (vi) e5 x
3 x 5
Exercise 1.6
Solution:
R
R
GMm
R
1
R
x 1
x2 2
2
(i) dx = GMm dx = GMm x dx = GMm
x 1
R
1 1 1
= GMm = GMm
x R
GMm 1
= because = 0
R
- 15 -
/2
(ii) 0
cos x dx = [sin x]0 /.2 = sin sin 0 = 1 0
2
2
2
x4 (2) 4 (1) 4 16 1
= = =
3
x dx
(iii) 1 4 1 4 4 4 4
15
=
4
v
v v
v2 v2 u 2
u m v d v = m u v d v = m
2
= m
2 2
(iv) u
m
= (v 2 u 2 )
2
/2
sin x dx = [cos x]
/2
(v) /2 = cos cos( / 2) = 0
/2 2
Exercise 1.7
Q2 2 0
(i) 2 (ii) (iii) log
2C 1 0
- 16 -