Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1.Explain the significance of Equilibrium equations. Derive the force equilibrium conditions for
2D state of stress. Write equilibrium equations for 3D.
2.Write down (do not derive) the equations of equilibrium in differential form in terms of stresses
and body forces for a three dimensional element volume with the help of a neat sketch
3.Explain principal stress, maximum stress and Von Mises stress and bring out the importance of
these in the stress analysis.
4.The stress components at a point in a body are given by x=3xy2z+2x ,y=5xyz+2y
,z=3xy2z+2x ,xy=0, yz=xz=3xy 2 z+2xy. Determine whether these components of stress
satisfy the equilibrium equations or not at the point (1,-1,2).If not then determine the suitable
body force vector required at this point so that these stress components are in equilibrium.
5.Write strain displacement relations for 2D and for 3D in Cartesian coordinates .
6.Strain in a rod of length L fixed at one end and subjected to axial loading is given by
x=1+2x .Find the tip displacement .
2
10. The state of strain at a point is given by x=0.0015, y=-0.0025, z = yz= xz = 0, xy=
-0.004.Determine the stress tensor at the point . E =208 Gpa. and =0.28.
11. Determine the strain tensor for the stress tensor at a point given by
210 140 00
[] = 140 -240 00 where E=208 GPa and =0.3
00 00 00
12. Explain Axi-symmetric problems. Give examples and write stiffness and compliance matrices.
13. Explain with examples of bar and beam ,essential and Non essential boundary conditions
14. Explain boundary value problems and Initial value problems with example.
15. Write admissible functions for
i. Axial bar fixed at one end ii. Axial bar fixed at both ends
iii.Cantilever beam , iv Simply supported beam(Polynomial and trigonometric)
iv. Beam fixed at both ends
v. Propped cantilever beam
16. Using matrix notation, develop an expression for the total potential energy functional for a 3D
elastic solid subjected to body forces, surface forces and point loads.
17. State principle of Minimum Potential Energy.
18. Obtain displacements of the nodes in the spring system problems below using PMPE
19. Explain Rayleigh-Ritz method applied to continuum. What are its disadvantages
20. Obtain expression for displacement for uniform bar fixed at one end and loaded by a point
load at free end in tension using Rayleigh Ritz method .
21. Obtain expression for displacement for uniform bar fixed at one end and loaded by a point
load at free end in compression using Rayleigh Ritz method .
22. Obtain expression for displacement for uniform bar under uniformly distributed axial load
of intensity q=C .where C is a constant using Rayleigh Ritz method .Use second order
polynomial
23. Use Rayleigh Ritz method to find displacement of any point of the rod shown.Also
determine the displacement of the midpoint.
24. Use Rayleigh Ritz method to find displacement of any point of the rod shown above when
the bottom is not fixed. Also determine the displacement of the free end .
25. Demonstrate the importance of convergence using first order and second order polynomial
in Rayleigh Ritz method to obtain expressions for displacement and stress for uniform bar fixed
at one end x=0 and subjected to linearly varying distributed axial load of intensity q = Cx, where
C is a constant.
26. Obtain an expression for deflection in a Simply supported beam with UDL (p) by
Rayleigh Ritz method.Use two term trigonometric series for admissible function. 10
27. Obtain an expression for deflection in a Simply supported beam with central load P by
Rayleigh Ritz method.Use two term trigonometric series for admissible function.
14
28. Determine the deflection of cantilever beam of length l and loaded with a end load P at
the free end by Rayleigh Ritz method. Use trigonometric admissible function 10
29. Determine the deflection of cantilever beam of length l and loaded with a UDL p by
Rayleigh Ritz method
30. Compare the finite element method with the continuum method, clearly bringing out
the differences, advantages and disadvantages .08
31. Explain the continuum method of analysis bringing out the disadvantages in
comparison of Finite element method. 08
32. Explain Plane stress ,Plane strain and axisymetric problems with examples.write
stiffness matrix for the same
33. Explain steps involved in linear static finite element analysis.
34. Explain preprocessor,solver/processor and post processor applied to commercial finite
element package.
24 Use Galerkin method to obtain an approximate solution of the differential equation given
below with the boundary conditions y(0)=0, y(10) = 0.Use trial function y=a1x(10-x)
d2y
100 0; (0 x 100)
dx 2
1 dx
(
1
(1 2r 3r 2 4r 3 )dr 2 3 )dd
2
i. 11. iii.
1 1 x 11
10. Using Gaussian Quadrature formula, evaluate the problems when integration limits are
not -1 to +1 like
3
(1 2r 3r 2 4r 3 )dr
0
1. Theory of Elasticity
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Theory of elasticity deals with the stress and displacements in elastic solids generated by
external forces. Theory of elasticity is concerned with evaluation of 15 Unknowns: 6
Stresses,6 Strain and 3 displacements and for this one needs to understand the relevant 15
equations i.e Equilibrium equations (3),Strain-displacement equations (6) and
Constitutive equations (6)
1.2 Assumptions
Continuum: The body is continuous, so displacements, Strains and stresses, can be
expressed by continuous functions in space.
Homogeneous: The body is homogeneous, i.e., the elastic properties are the same
throughout the body. Elastic constants will be independent of the location in the body.
Isotropic: The body is isotropic so that the elastic properties are the same in all
directions. Thus the elastic constants will be independent of the orientation of coordinate
axes.
The two independent elastic constants are
E Youngs modulus E
G
G Shear modulus 2(1 )
D(
D(
)
fx
1.BodyForce
f 3x1 fy fz T Body Forces
Acts on the volume(mass) of the body.
Dimension is Force/Volume ,
Examples :gravitational force ,Inertia
forces (in motion), Magnetic force.
Component of in X, Y, Z directions are
Cantilever Beam Under Self-Weight Loading
2. Surface force T3 x 1
Surface force(often termed surface Traction) : Acts on the surface of the body.
Dimension is force/Area, e.x., N/m2
Example:Contact forces ,Aerodynamic
pressures,friction hydrostatic pressure. T
T T T
Component of T in X, Y, Z directions are T x z
3 x1
y
Point load (often termed Concentrated Load ) : Idealised as acting at a point on the body.
Dimension is force, e.x., N.
T
Component of P in X, Y, Z directions are Pi 3 x1 Px Py Pz
F
Stress at a point: definition R lim
A0 A
Fn
Normal stress (normal component) nn lim
A0 A
Fs
Shear stress (parallel component) lim 2 R 2 nn 2
A0 A
1.5 Positive Stress system
xx Directio
n
Plane(normal)
xy xy 12 x-plane, y-direction
xx xy xz
ij
yx yy yz
zx zy zz
Push or Pull
Moment equilibrium: M x 0, M y 0 M z 0
xy x
yx
y
1.6.2 Equilibrium Equations 3D
Consider A Three dimensional Body Occupying Volume V ,having surface S
Constrained on some region (Displacement B.C) and with Traction B.C
And subjected to Body forces
Equilibrium equations
Consider the equilibrium of an element volume to obtain the 3 force equilibrium
equations of elasticity
yx zx
Fx 0, x fx 0
x y z
xy y zy
Fy 0, fy 0
x y z
yz z
FZ 0, xz fz 0
x y z
Moment Equilibriu m
M x 0 , yz zy , M y 0, xz zx , M z 0 , xy yx
Stress tensor is symmetric
1.7 Displacement:
Pattern of Deformation
Displacement vector
Displacement of a material point P
inside a body, before and after the
deformation
The position of the point after the deformation is therefore given by the coordinates x + u,
y + v, z + w.
If the material is continuous before and after the deformation, the functions u(x, y, x),
v(x, y, z), w(x, y, z) are continuous functions of the position coordinates of the body
before the deformation, x, y, z.
2. Deformation
1.
1
1
Biaxial stretch 1.
Infinitesimal Strain (Small Strains)
1.The Engineering Normal Strain
Expressed as the change in length L per unit of the original length Lo of the line element
or fibers.
If Lo is the original length and L is the final length ,then
L Lo L
Lo Lo
Measures of strain are often expressed in parts per million or microstrains.
2. Shear Strain ()
Shear strain measures changes in angles in terms of radians with respect to two specific
directions initially perpendicular to each other.
Longitudinal Strain x
A1B1 AB
x , A1B1 AB (1 x ) dx(1 x )
AB
u
Horizontal projection of A1 B1 dx dx
x
v
Vertical projection = B11 B1 dx
x
A B dx(1 )
1 1 2
x
2
u v
2 2
dx dx dx
x x
u u v
2 2
(1 2 x ) 1 2
2
x x x
x
Assuming small deformations and strains and neglecting product of Smaller
quantities
u
x
x
Shear Strain
Shear strain measures changes in angles in terms of radians with respect to two specific
directions initially perpendicular to each other.
xy B11 A1 B1 D11 A1 D1
1 2
v u
dx dx
x y
xy
dx
v u
xy
x y
u v v u
x , y xy
x y x y
Note that the stiffness matrix is traditionally represented by the symbol C OR D, while S
is reserved for the compliance matrix!
The generalized Hookes law is an assumption, which is reasonably accurate for many
material subjected to small strain, for a given temperature, time.
The 36 coefficients C11 to C66 are called elastic coefficients
1.10 : 2 D Problems
By virtue of Geometry, Loading and Material Property ,certain class of problems can be
reduced in dimension from 3D to 2 D and sometimes 1 D without much loss of accuracy.
This saves considerable memory space and computational time.
Two vs Three Dimensional Problems(Sadd)
2D elastic problems
PLANE STRESS
PLANE STRAIN
The basic theories of plane strain and plane stress represent the fundamental plane
problem in elasticity.
Plane Stress Problems
Consider a 2 D member
whose in plane dimensions(x,y)
are very large compared to
Out of plane dimension(z)
The domain is bounded two stress free planes z
= h,
Since the plate is thin in the z-direction, there can be little variation in the stress
components through the thickness.
Thus they will be approximately zero throughout the entire domain. z xz yz 0
Under these assumptions, the stress field can be taken as
x x ( x, y), y y ( x, y), xy xy ( x, y)
z xz yz 0, Also, xz yz 0, z 0
xy y
xy
x
Rotating disc/Flywheel
Plane Stress D
x
1 0 x
y
E
1
0 y z y
1
x
1 1
2
xy 0 0 xy
2
If the body forces and tractions on lateral boundaries are independent of the z-coordinate
and have no z-component, then the deformation field can be taken in the reduced form
u u ( x, y ) , v v ( x, y ) , w 0
z xz yz 0
Plane Strain D
x
E
1
0 x
z x y
y 1 0 y
1 1 2 0 1 2
xy xy
2
0
[D] Matrix for the plane strain case is
1 0
D3 x3
E
1 0
1 1 2 1 2
0 0
2
Axisymmetric Analysis
Problems involving three- dimensional axisymmetric solids or solids of revolution,
subjected to axisymmetric loading, reduce to simple two dimensional problems. Because
of total symmetry about the Y axis, as seen in the fig. all deformations and stresses are
independent of the rotational angle . Thus the problem needs to be looked at as a two
dimensional problem in XY, define on the revolving area. Examples: Pressurized
cylinders, cooling towers and revolving bodies like Disk type Flywheel, Shafts.
Because of symmetry about the z axis, the stresses are independent of the coordinate.
Therefore, all derivatives with respect to vanish, and the displacement component v
(tangent to the direction), the shear strains r and z and the shear stresses r and z
are all zero.
Boundary conditions
1. Displacement boundary conditions: Displacements are specified on portion Su of the
boundary.The components of displacement ui u, v, w are prescribed on some part of the
S
boundary , u ,i.e.
u u
vv
w w ui ui
on
Su
, or on
Su
S
where u , v , w are the known function of x, y, z on u .
Example: beam
u v w 0
u 0
v 0
w 0
for x=0
Example:
h
y
On the top surface ( 2 ), l 0, m 1, n 0, X Y Z 0
xy 0
yy 0
0
yz
b
z
On the front surface ( 2 ), l 0, m 0, n 1, X Y Z 0
xz 0
yz 0
0
zz
On the surface of x l , l 1, m 0, n 0 , X p, Y 0, Z 0
xx p
xy 0
0
xz
Remarks:
1.The displacement boundary condition and traction boundary condition are mutually exclusive.
Either displacement or traction is specified on the boundary. They can not specified
simultaneously.
2.On some part of the boundary of different direction, displacement boundary conditions in some
directions are given whereas the traction boundary conditions in remaining directions are
specified.
2.1 Boundary Value Problems
The objective of most analyses is to determine functions, called dependent variable.
They are governed by a set of Differential equation posed in a domain and satisfy some
boundary conditions on the boundary
Governing differential equations plus boundary conditions are set to state a problem in
Strong Form.
Whatever functions that define these field variables have to be differentiable up to the
order of the partial differential equations that exist in the strong form of the system
equations.
Obtaining the exact solution for a strong form of the system equation is usually very
difficult for practical engineering problems.
A weak form of the system equations is usually created using one of the following widely
used methods:
Energy principles (see, e.g. Reddy, 1984)
Weighted residual methods (see, e.g. Ziekiewicz and Taylor, 2000)
A integral expression such as Functional that implicitly contains the differential equations
is called the weak form.
The energy principle can be categorized as a special form of the variational principle
which is particularly suited for problems of the mechanics of solids and structures.
The Strong form states conditions that must be met at every material Point, wheras the
weak form states the condition in an average sense
Both are valid statements of the problem.
In Functional approach, the Functional is extremised.
This satisfies 1.Differential equation and
2. Certain boundary conditions called Natural/Nonessential B.C
A functional, such as Potential energy contains integrals that span the entire domain.
du du
( x ) E ( x ) E , x
dx dx
du
Internal Axial force p A EA
dx
q : Distribute d force
P : Prescribed external load
Primary Variable: Quantities which has to be Continuous in the domain . Secondary variables
need not be Continuous
For Bar problem, The primary variable is displacement u which has to be continuous.
Otherwise, there will be opening or overlap. The secondary variable is strain i.e du/dx.It can be
discontinuous. In the stepped bar shown, stress is discontinuous at change of cross section and
hence strain also.
Essential boundary conditions are associated with Primary Variable and Natural/Non-essential
boundary conditions are associated with Secondary Variable.
Thus for Bar, essential boundary are associated with u and natural boundary
conditions are associated with du/dx.
In the fig. shown Essential B.C is u=0 @x=0(Prescribed displacement)
Non essential B.C is du/dx=P/(AE) @x=L (prescribed force/derivative of
displacement
Beams are slender members used for supporting transverse loading Loads could be concentrated
loads, distributed loads and moments.I: Moment of Inertia about N.A. , v : Transverse
displacement,E: Youngs Modulus, EI : Flexural Rigidity
v : Transverse Displaceme nt
dv
: Slope or rotation about z axis
dx
d2v d2v M
Bending moment M EI
dx 2 dx 2 EI
dM d3v d3v V
Shear Force V EI
dx dx 3 dx 3 EI
d 2v d 2v M
Bending moment M EI 2
2
dx dx EI
3 3
dM d v d v V
Shear Force V EI
dx dx 3 dx 3 EI
Thus for Beam,
d2v M d2v
as Bending moment M EI 2
dx 2 EI dx
d3v V dM d3v
3
as Shear Force V EI 3
dx EI dx dx
For the Cantilever shown In the figure Essential boundary are At X=0, v=0 and Slope
dv/dx=0
d2v M
Natural boundary conditions are at x=L
2
0
dx EI
d3v P
dx 3 EI
In Solid/Structural mechanics,
BAR Beam
d du d4v
Differential equation EA ( x ) q( x ) 0 q( x ) 0
dx dx dx 4
Order of D.E 2m=2 2m=4,m=2
2m m=1
B.C m-1 =0
SEP , U
0 F
F
k 2
as Stiffness k
F
2 2 2
Work Potential F
Potential Energy U
k 2
F
2
2.3b Potential Energy of an Elastic Body
Consider a linear elastic three dimensional body occupying
volume v, with body forces and having surface s subjected to
traction
SEP U
dU
1
xx xx yy yy zz zz xy xy yz yz zx zx dV
2
1
1Tx 6 6 x1 dV
2
1
SEP U 1 x 6 6 x1 dV
T
Total (1A)
V2
Work potential d f .u f .v f .w dw uT f 3 x1 dv
x
BF y z 1x 3
Total Work potential due to BF
uT f 3 x1 dv (1B )
BF 1x 3
V
Work Potential due to Traction
Let Traction force vector acting on elemental surface ds be T 3 X 1 T x Ty Tz T
beu3 X 1 u v w
T
and the correspond ing displaceme ntvector
Work potential d T T x .u T y .v Tz .w ds u1 x 3 T 3 x1 ds
T
U BF T PL
1
1 x 6 6 x1 dV u1 x 3 f 3 x1 dv u1 x 3 T 3 x1 ds ui 1 x 3 Pi 3 x1
T T T T
V2 i
V S
= (, , , " )
= ( )
= (, , , " )
= ( ) @= ( )
@=
For Conservative system ,off all the kinematically admissible displacement fields,those
corresponding to equilibrium extremize the total potential energy.
k 112 k 2 22 k 3 23
SEP , U
2 2 2
1 Q1 0, 2 Q 2 Q1 , 3 Q 3 Q 2
Work potential
F2 Q 2 F3Q 3
Potential Energy U
k 1Q12 k 2 Q 2 Q1 2 k 3 Q 3 Q 2 2
2 2 2
F2Q 2 F3Q 3
From PMPE 0, i 1,2,3
Q i
Equilibriu m equations
Q
3. PMPE
F
In the matrix form
Solving
= 0 (, , ) + (, , )
=1
= 0 (, , ) + (, , )
=1
= 0 (, , ) + (, , )
=1
The displacements must by kinematically admissible, that is they must satisfy essential
boundary conditions and internal compatibility.
Where, , , (for i=1,2n) are known as independent functions or trial
functions defined over entire domain
Usually taken as either as polynomials or trigonometric series.
Coefficients , , are unknown Rayleigh-Ritz parameters to be determined
The total potential energy is expressed in terms of Rayleigh-Ritz parameters.
= (1, 2 , . . , 1 , 2 , . , 1 , 2 , . )
Using RR principle, is extremised with respect to RR parameters.
This results in linear algebraic equations, solving which RR parameters can be obtained.
Thus solution can be obtained
1
, =
2
= = , = =
1 2
, = ( )
2
0
WP due to distributed load =
=
0
=
0
Step2.Potential Energy
1 2
2 0 ( ) @=1
Substituting (2)
1
2 0 (1 )2 1
1
2 1 2 1
Step3.By RR Method = , = ()
Step4 .Solving for Ritz Parameter = ()
Step6. Stress = = = ()
Problem 2..Bar fixed at one end and Loaded by linearly varying distributed load q=Cx.
Step2.Potential Energy
1 2
= 2 0 ( ) 0 Substituting (2)
1 2
= 2 0 ( ) 0 =
1
= 2 (1 )2 0 1 2
1 1 3
= 1 2
2 3
Step3.By RR Method
3
= 0, 1 = 0 (3)
1 3
2
Step4 .Solving for Ritz Parameter1 = 3 (4)
2
= (5)
3
2
Step6. Stress = = = (6)
3
Step2.Potential Energy
1 2
= ( )
2
0 0
From (2), = + ( ) = + and =
1
= (1 + 22 )2 (1 + 2 2 )
2
0 0
= (1 2 + 41 2 + 42 2 2 ) (1 2 + 2 3 )
2
0 0
4 3 2 4
=
2
0 [12 + 21 2 2 + 3 22 3 ] [1 3
+
4
] (3)
Step3.By RR Method
= 0, [21 + 22 2 ] 3 = 0 (3)
1 2 3
8
= 0, [21 2 + 2 2 ] 4 = 0 (3)
2 2 3 3
2 4 2
3 1 + 2 = 3 (3) 3 1 + 3 2 = 4 (3)
Step6 Stress
72 2
= = = (6) Stress:Linear
12 2
Convergence
Admissible = 1 = 1 + 2 2
Function(u)
Displacement(u) 2 72 2
=
3 12 4
Stress(x) 2 72
=
3 12 2
(Constant) (Linear)
Convergence:Observations
2
Yield Exact solutions1 = 2 , 2 = 0, 3 = 6
Problem 4.
Step1:Admissible Function
Based on the Rayleigh-Ritz
method, let us assume axial displacement at any point as = 0 + 1 + 2 2 (1)
Where a0, a1 and a2 are Rayleigh-Ritz constants, which are to be determined.
The assumed displacement = 0 + 1 + 2 2 should satisfy the following essential
conditions At x=0 and L, u=0
u=0 at x=0,0 = 0
: = 2, = 0 0 = 1 (2) + 2 (2)2 1 = 22
Admissible function is
= 2 ( 2 2)(2), Admissible function
Step 2 P.E
2
1
= ( ) @=1
2
0
From (2), = 2 ( 2 2) ( ) = 22 ( ) and @= = 2 2
2
= 3 2 2 2 2 (3)
3
Step3.By RR Method
4
= 0, 3 2 + 2 = 0 (3)
2 3
3
At mid Point, x=L,@= = 4
3
Step6:Stress = = = 2 ( ) (6)
Comparison
From RR Method
= ( )Quadratic
= = ( ) Linear
Beam Equations
v : Transverse Displacement
dv
: Slope or rotation about z axis
dx
d 2v d 2v M
Bending moment M EI 2 2
dx dx EI
3 3
dM d v d v V
Shear Force V EI 3 3
dx dx dx EI
4
dV d v d 4v
Rate of Loading q EI 4 EI 4 q 0
dx dx dx
Governing Differenti al equation
d 4v
q( x) 0 0 x L,
dx 4
q (or p ) is the rate of loading
The primary variables( which has to be Continuous) are Transverse displacement v and
rotation dv/dx .
The secondary Variables (Which can be discontinuous) are
d 2v d 2v M
Bending moment M EI 2
2
dx dx EI
3 3
dM d v d v V
Shear Force V EI 3 3
dx dx dx EI
d 2v M d 2v
as Bending moment M EI
dx 2 EI dx 2
d 3v V dM d 3v
as Shear Force V EI
dx 3 EI dx dx 3
d 2v M
2
0
dx EI
d 3v P
3
dx EI
E: Youngs Modulus
L: Length of Beam
Select Second order Polynomial. The Minimum requirement is that essential B.C has to
be satisfied for function to be admissible
= 0 + 1 ()+2 2
: = 0, = 0 0 = 00 + 1 (0)+2 02 0 = 0
: = 0, = 1 +22 1 = 0
Substituting in (1a)
= 2 2 (1)Admissible Function
2
2
Step 2:Potential Energy = ( ) -0 @=
2 0 2
() (2a)
@=
2
2 2
= 2 2 , = 22 , = 22, ( 2 ) = 422
2
In 2a, = 2
0 422 0 ()2 2
()2 2 22
= 422 2 2
2
0 0
+2 2 22
2 3
= 22 + 2 + 2 2 2 2 (2)
3
2 3
= 22 + 2 + 2 2 2 2
3
3
42 + + 2 2 = 0 (3)
3
4 3 2 2
= [12 + 4 ] 2 (4a)
2
At x=L
4 3 2
= [ + ] (4)
12 4 2
4 3 2
: = [8 + 3 ] (4)
2
L- Length of Beam.
Use Two Term Trigonometric function as
Admissible Function
3
= 1 sin + 2 sin
Step1:Admissible Function
3
Assume = 1 sin + 2 sin (1)
At = 0, = 0; b) = , = 0
2
2 sin
2
2 Cos
= 0 = 2
3 3
= 1 ( ) cos + 2 ( ) cos
2 2 3 2 3
= [1 ( ) sin + 2 ( ) sin ]
2
2
2 4 3 4 3
( 2 ) = 1 2 ( ) sin2 + 2 2 ( ) sin2 ( )
4 3
+181 2 ( ) sin . sin
In (2)
4 3 4 3
= 2
0 [1 2 ( ) sin2
+ 2 2 ( ) sin2 (
)]
4 3
+ 0 181 2 ( ) sin . sin
2
3
0 0 (1 sin + 2 sin ) (3a)
2 4
= [sin sin ] = 0
2 4
1
0 sin = cos
| = [cos cos 0]
0
2
=
3 1
3 2
sin = cos | = [cos 3 cos 0] =
3 3
0 0
4 3 4
1 2 ( ) 2 + 2 2 81 ( ) 2
Substituting in 3a = 2 [ ]
4
+181 2 ( ) 0
2 2
0 [1 + 2 ]
3
4
=( ) ( ) [1 2 + 812 2 ]
2 2 3
2 2
0 [1 + ] (2)
3
Step 3:Minimising with respect to RitzParameter
= 0; =0
1 2
4 2
= ( ) ( 3 ) (21 ) 0 = 0
1 2
4 20
3
1 = 0 (3)
2
4 2 1
= ( ) ( 3 ) [0 + 1622 ] 0 (0 + ) = 0
2 4 3
81 4 20
2 = 0 (3)
23 3
Step 4 :Solving for RR parameters (from 3a and 3b)
40 4 4 4
1 = and 2 = 2430 5 (4)
5
STEP 5:Final solution :Substituting the values into Eq.(1), we get displacement at any
point is given by
4 4 4 4 3
v= [ 50 ] + (2430 5 )
40 4 40 4 3
= [ 5 ] +( 5
) (5)
243
0 0 5 4 4
From SOM = 384 = 76.8
Youngs modulus,
moment of inertia
L- Length of Beam.
3 3
= 1 ( ) cos + 2 ( ) cos
2 2 3 2 3
= [1 ( ) sin + 2 ( ) sin ]
2
2
2 4 3 4 3
( 2 ) = 1 2 ( ) sin2 + 2 2 ( ) sin2 ( )
4 3
+181 2 ( ) sin . sin
In (2a)
4 3 4 3
= 2
0 [1 2 ( ) sin2
+ 2 2 ( ) sin2 (
)]
4 3
+ 0 181 2 ( ) sin . sin
2
-P(1 2) (2b)
3
Since @=/2 = 1 sin 2 + 2 sin 2
=(1 2)
2 4
= [sin sin ] = 0
2 4
1
0 sin = cos
| = [cos cos 0]
0
2
=
3 1
3 2
sin = cos | = [cos 3 cos 0] =
3 3
0 0
4 3 4
1 2 ( ) 2 + 2 2 81 ( ) 2
Substituting in 2b = 2 [ ]
4
+181 2 ( ) 0
[1 2 ]
4
=( ) ( ) [1 2 + 812 2 ]
2 2 3
[1 2 ] (2)
21 4
= [ + 0] (1 0) = 0
1 2 23
4
1 = 0 (3a)
23
81 4
= [0 + 22 + 0] (0 1) = 0
1 2 23
81 4
2 + =0 (3b)
23
STEP 5:Final solution :Substituting the values into Eq.(1), we get displacement at any
point is given by
23 23 3
v= [4 ] 814
23 23 3
v= [4 ] 814 (5)
= @=/2 = (1 2 )
2 3 2 3 3
= + =
4 81 4 48.18
3
From SOM = 48
The maximum deflection practically coincides with the exact value from SOM
2
= 2 ,from (5) ,At center = 4.44
4 2 2)
20 2
= (1 + 81 2 (1 + ) (1 2 )
43 3
3. = 0 =0
1 2
4 20
1 =0
23
81 4 20
2 + =0
23 3
23 20 23 20
4.1 = 4 (
+ ) 2 = 814 ( 3
)
Thus the maximum deflection at the centre of the beam is,
= 1 2
3 0 4
= 48.11 + 76.82
Step1:Admissible Function
(4 essential B.C)
= 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4 (1a)
Also, = 1 + 22 + 33 2 + 44 3 (1b) At = 0; =
0 1 = 0
Also = 0, and = 0; at = ;
But 0 = 0 and 1 = 0 2 = (3 + 4 2 )
And for = , = 0 Eq.(1b) becomes
0 = 1 + 22 + 33 2 + 44 3
Substituting the values of 1 and 2 , we have
0 = 0 + 2(3 4 2 ) + 33 2 + 44 3
0 = 22 3 23 4 + 33 2 + 44 3
3 = 24
2 = 4 2
= 4 ( 4 2 3 + 2 2 ) (1)
= 4 ( 4 2 3 + 2 2 )
Also = 4 (4 3 6 2 + 22 )
2
= 4 (12 2 12 + 22 )
2
4 4
And is maximum at = 2 , = 16
Subsituting in 2a
4 4
= 2
0 [4 (12 2 12 + 22 )]2 ( 16
)
=
5 3 4 2 3 4
42 [144 + 44 + 1442 288 483 + 482 3 ] ( 16 ) 4
2 5 3 4 2
1920 4
= 42 (3456 + 480 + 5760 8640 2880 + ) 5 ( 16 ) 4
2 120
485 4
=( ) 42 ( 16 ) 4 (2)
120
485 4
= 4 ( 16 ) = 0 (3)
2 60
STEP 5:Final solution :Substituting (4) into Eq.(1), we get displacement at any point
given by
5 5 3
= (64) ( 4 + 2 2 2 3 ) = @=/2 = (1024)
3
The exact value is (192)
2. Beam
Differential equation
of equilibrium for
the beam
4
(1)
4
Boundary condition
Cantilever
@ = 0; = 0and =0
2 3
@ = ; 2 = 0 and 3 = 0
Boundary condition
SSB
FLUID FLOW THROUGH A POROUS MEDIUM (e.g., flow of water through a dam)
0 at x 0 Known Head
d
k h at x L Known Velocity
dx
Want to minimize the residual by multiplying with a weight () and Integrate over the
Domain
The method of weighted residuals requires that the unknown parameters 1 to be
evaluated such that
() () = 0 = 1,2, . (4)
Where, () represents arbitrary weighting function
In Galerkin weighted residual method, the weighting functions are chosen to be same as
the trial function, i.e
() = () = 1,2, . (5)
Thus, unknown parameters are determined by () () = () () =
0 = 1,2, . (6)
This results in algebraic equation from which unknown parameters can be Obtained
1. Determine the displacement in a bar subjected to a concentrated load P acting at free end
using Galerkin method. No Body force 0
Step 1: The governing differential equation of a bar subjected to a concentrated load P acting at
2 2
free end is given by 2 + 0 = 0i. e 2 = 0 (1)
Substituting the value for 0 and 1 into equation (2b), we get () = +
( 2 2)2 (2d)
Step 3:Residue
2
Substituting equation (2d) into equation (1),The residual is given by = 2
2
= 2 + [ + ( 2 2)2 ]
= 22 (3)
Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 2 therefore, only one weight function is required to find
2 .
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as
2 = 2 2 (4a )
For minimum residual 0 2 = 0 (4b)
Problem 2
Using Galerkin method, to find the expression for displacement of bar that subjected to
distributed axial load 0 per unit length as shown in fig.
+ 22 ) =0
(1
1 = 22 (2c)
Substituting the value for 0 and 1 into equation (2b), we get () = ( 2 2)2
(2d)
Step 3:Residue
2
Substituting equation (2d) into equation (1),The residual is given by = 2 + 0
2
= (2 2)2 , = 22
2
= 2(22 ) + 0 (3)
Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 2 therefore, only one weight function is required to find
2 .
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as
2 = 2 2 (4a )
For minimum residual 0 2 = 0 (4b)
Beam
Beams are slender members used for supporting transverse loading
Loads could be concentrated loads, distributed loads and moments
Beam Equations
4
0 =0 Differential equation
4
v :
:
2 2
= 2 2 =
3 3
= = 3 3 =
Examples
Differential equation
of equilibrium for
the beam
4
=0 (1)
4
Boundary condition
Cantilever
@ = 0; = 0and =0
2 3
@ = ; 2 = 0 and 3 = 0
Boundary condition
SSB
1. Find the expression for the displacement of a cantilever beam subjected to UDL 0 acting
along its length using the Galerkin method.
Step 1: The governing differential equation of a Beam subjected to UDL 0 acting along its
length is given by
4
0 = 0 (1)
4
Step 2 : Trial function :Corresponding boundary conditions are
At = 0, = 0; and = 0; (2a)
2 3
At = , = 0; d) at = , =0 (2b)
2 3
Assuming approximation solution as polynomial = 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4 (2c)
Using first in (2a) i.e., at = 0; = 0
From Eq.(2c) we get 0 = 0 (2d)
Using second in (2a) i.e., at = 0; =0
From (2c) = 1 + 22 + 33 2 + 44 3
1 = 0 (2e)
2
Using first in (2b) i.e., = ; 2 = 0
2
= 22 + 63 + 124 2 (2f)
2
0 = 22 + 63 + 124 2 (2g)
3
Using first in (2b) i.e., = , =0
3
3
From (2f ) 3 = 63 + 244
0 = 63 + 244 3 = 44 (2h)
Substituting value of 3 into Eq.(2g), we get
22 + 6(44 ) + 124 2 = 0
2 = 6 2 4 (2i)
0 = 1 = 0; 2 = 6 2 4 ; 3 = 44
Substituting these values into Eq.(2c)
= 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4
= 0 + 0 + (6 2 4 ) 2 + (44 ) 3 + 94 4
Thus, displacement function,
= 4 ( 4 4 3 + 6 2 2 ) (2)
Step 3:Residue :Substituting equation (2) into equation (1),The residual is given by =
4
4 0
But = ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 )4
= (4 3 12 2 + 122 )4
2
= (12 3 24 + 122 )4
2
3 4
(24 24)4 , = 244
3 4
= 244 0 (3)
Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 4 therefore, only one weight function is required to find.
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as (coefficient of
4 in (2))
4 = ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 ) (4a )
For minimum residual 0 4 = 0 (4b)
Substituting value for 4 and into Equation 4b we get 0 ( 4 4 3 +
62 2 )(244 0 ) = 0
5 4 3
(244 0 ) ( 4. . + 62 ) =0
5 4 3 0
5 5 5
(244 0 ) ( + 2 ) = 0
5
5 +55
(244 0 ) ( )=0 (4)
5
0
Step 5 :Simplification of above equation, yields 4 = 24 (5)
Step 6 : Substituting value of 4 into equation (2), we get 0
= 24 ( 4 4 3 +
62 2 ) (6)
The displacement at tip, can be obtained by putting
0 4
= in equation (6), we get () = = 8
Problem 2. Find the expression for the displacement of a cantilever beam subjected to tip load P
using the Galerkin method.
Step 1: The governing differential equation of a Beam subjected to tip load P is given by (0 =0)
4 4
0 = 0, =0 (1)
4 4
Using second in (2a) i.e., at = 0; =0
From (2c) = 1 + 22 + 33 2 + 44 3
1 = 0 (2e)
2
Using first in (2b) i.e., = ; 2 = 0
2
= 22 + 63 + 124 2 (2f)
2
2
0 = 22 + 63 + 124 (2g)
3
Using first in (2b) i.e., = , =
3
3
From (2f ) 3 = 63 + 124
63 + 244 = , 3 = 6 44 (2h)
Substituting value of 3 into Eq.(2g), we get
3 = 3 (6 44 ) 62 4
= 2 + 22 4 62 4 2 = 2 + 62 4 (2i)
0 = 1 = 0; 2 = 2 + 62 4 ;
3 = 6 44
Substituting these values into Eq.(2c)
= 0 + 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4
= 0 + 0 + (2 + 62 4 ) 2 (6 + 4 4 ) 3 + 4 4
Thus, displacement function,
3
= 2 ( 2 ) + 4 ( 4 4 3 + 2 2 ) (2)
3
Step 3:Residue :Substituting equation (2) into equation (1),The residual is given by =
4
4
3
= 2 ( 2 ) + 4 ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 )
3
4
= 244 from equation (4)
4
= 244 (3)
Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 4 therefore, only one weight function is required to find.
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as (coefficient of
4 in (2))
3
= ( 2 ) +)4 ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 )
2 3
4 = ( 4 4 3 + 62 2 ) (4a )
For minimum residual 0 4 = 0 (4b)
Substituting value for 4 and into Equation 4b we get 0 ( 4 4 3 +
62 2 )(244 ) = 0
4 = 0 = 0 (4)
Step 5 : 4 = 0 (5)
3
Step 6 : Substituting value of 4 into equation (2), we get v= 2 ( 2 )
3
(6)
The displacement at tip, can be obtained by putting
3
= in equation (6), we get () = = 3
2 2
= 1 sin , = 1 ( 4 ) cos = [1 ( ) sin ]
2
Satisfies all the boundary conditions.
2
At = 0 & , = 0; and 2 = = 0;
= 1 (2)
Step 3:Residue :Substituting equation (2) into equation (1),The residual is given by =
4
0
4
= 1 sin , = 1 (4 ) cos
2 2 3 3
= [1 ( ) sin ], 3 = [1 ( ) cos ]
2
4 4
= [1 ( ) sin ]
4
4
= 1 ( ) sin 0 (3)
Step 4.
Above equation has a unknown 1 therefore, only one weight function is required to find.
Based on the Galerkin method, we obtain the value of weight function as (coefficient of
1 in (2))
= 1 , 1 = 1 = sin (4a )
For minimum residual 0 1 = 0 (4b)
4
Substituting value for 1 and into Equation 4b we get0 sin [1 ( ) sin
0 ] = 0
4
1 ( ) 0 sin2 0 0 sin = 0
2
1 1
0 sin2 = 0 2 (1 cos 2
) = 2 [ sin
2 ] =2
0
1
2
0 sin = cos
| = [cos cos 0] =
0
4 2
1 ( ) (2) 0 . =0 (4)
Numerical method in
Continuum mechanics
Computer simulation allows multiple what-if scenarios to be tested quickly and effectively.
FEM TO DESIGNERS:
Easily Applied to complex, irregular shaped objects composed of several different materials
and having complex boundary conditions.
Applied to steady state time dependent, Eigen Value problems.
Applicable to linear and non-linear problems.
Number of general-purpose Fem packages are available.
FEM can be coupled to CAD programs to facilitate Solid modeling and mesh generations.
Many Fem software packages feature GUI interfaces, automeshers and sophisticated post
processors and graphics to speed the analysis and makes Pre and post processing more user
friendly.
FEM TO DESIGN ORGANISATION:
Reduced Testing and Redesign costs thereby shortening of product development cycle.
Identify issues in designs before tooling is committed.
Refine components before dependencies to other components prohibit change.
Optimize performance before prototyping.
Discovers design problems before litigations.
Allows more time for designers to use engineering judgment and less time for further thinking.
A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific problem. A general closed form
solution, which would permit one to examine system response to changes in various parameters.
The FEM is applied to an approximation of the mathematical model of a system (The source
of so called inherited errors.)
Experience and judgment are needed in order to construct a good finite element model.
Numerical Problems
Computers only carry a finite number of significant digits.
Round off and error accumulation
Can help the situation by not attaching stiff (small) elements to flexible (large)
elements
Susceptible to user introduced modeling errors
Poor choice of element types
Distorted elements
Geometry not adequately modeled
Certain effects not automatically included
Buckling,Large deflections and rotations,Material nonlinearties
FEM ERRORS:
1. The systematic generality of Finite Element Procedure makes it a powerful and versatile tool
for a wide range of problems. Thus, flexible, general-purpose computer programs can be
developed and can be applied to various problems with little or no modification.
2. FEM can be easily interpreted in physical terms. As well it has a strong mathematical base.
Hence, FEM can be easily applied to any problem with a proper knowledge of the physical
system under consideration, and can be solved to a great accuracy by the application of
proper mathematical tool.
3. Non-homogeneous continuum can also be dealt with, by merely assigning different
properties to different elements. It is even possible to vary the properties within an element
according to the approximating polynomial applied. Handling of non-homogeneous
continuum is most difficult in any other numerical technique other than FEM.
4. FEM accommodates complex geometry with ease and it is capable of handling non linear and
time dependent systems also.
5. In FEM, since the boundary conditions are introduced in the assembled equations, it requires
only to specify the geometric boundary conditions without regarding its effects on interior
elements.
6. since boundary conditions do not enter into the individual finite elements equations, the field
variable models need not be changed, when the boundary conditions change.
7. FEM considers the multidimensional continuity of the body. Hence it does not require
separate interpolation process to extend the approximate solution to every point within the
continuum. It does not also require the trial solution which must all apply to the entire
multidimensional continuum. This is an added merit of FEM when compared to other
numerical methods.
1. FEM has developed to a very high solution technique. However, the solution
obtained from FEM can be realistic if and only if the material parameters which describe the
phenomena are precisely known. Since the characteristic matrix is derived based on the
governing equation of the system is required to be known in advance.
Hence, FEM can not provide reliable solutions, unless governing equations (or constitutive
laws) of the system under consideration are completely developed.
2. The major drawback of FEM is the sensitivity of solution on the geometry of the elements
such as type, size, number, shape and orientation of elements used. For known type of
problems, above parameters can be optimized using several trial runs. However,new type of
problems are to be treated carefully.
3. The computer programs of FEM require relatively a large computer memory and time. But
this drawback of FEM is being remedied with new developments in computer technology.
Now a days a desk top computer is capable of handling a complicated FEM code efficiently.
4. FEM programs yield a large amount of numerical data as a results. Sometimes it very
difficult to separate out the required data from the pile of numbers. These numbers become
useless, unless they are properly examined for the correctness. It is always advisable to check
the final result at a few locations of the body/region using approximate governing equations.
Alternatively, the results may be expressed in graphical mode. So that the variation of
required parameter (such as displacement, strain, temperature) etc., across the body/region
can be visualized.
From the assumed displacement model, the stiffness matrix [ K e ] and the load vector F e , of
element e are to be derived by using equilibrium conditions or a suitable variational principle
F is the vector of nodal forces for the complete structure. Since the summation of stiffness is
~
carried out only on elements sharing a particular node, the overall stiffness matrix will be
sparsely populated The assembled stiffness matrix is singular.
The process of finding the appropriate location for the individual element matrix in the Global
matrix is called Direct Stiffness Method.
Step 6 Imposition of the Boundary conditions.
These can take the form of prescribed displacement, sliding against a rigid surface,
attached spring, prescribed forces/ stresses or pressures. More complex boundary conditions
occur in contact problems.The constraints can be single point constraint or multipoint
constraint.These constraint can be handled by Elimination or Penalty approach.
Step 7 Solution for the unknown nodal displacements
After the incorporationof the boundary conditions, the equilbrium equations can be expressed as
K Q F .
The modified stiffness matrix is non-singular.For linear problems, the vector Q can be solved
very easily using techniques such as Gauss Elimination method . But for nonlinear problems, the
solution has to be obtained in a sequence of steps, each step involving the modification of the
stiffness matrix [K] and /or the load vector F .
Step 8 Computation of element strains and stress
From the known nodal displacements Q , if required, the element strains and stresses can be
computed by using the neccesary equations of solid or structural mechanics. Also the reactions
can be computed.
The terminology used in the above steps has to be modified if we want to extend
the concept to other fields. For example, we have to use the term continuum or domain
in the place of structure, field variable in place of displacement, characteristic matrix in
place of stiffness matrix, and element resultants in place of element strains.
1.Direct approach:
In this method, the variables are defined based on the direct physical reasoning. This method is
applicable only to simple type of elements. However, practice of this method gives a good
insight of physical concept of mathematical equations used in forming the characteristic matrix.
2. Variational approach
The conception of variational method has contributed significantaly to the convenience in
formulating the method The major merit of this method is that,it permits us to treat complicated
boundary coditions as natural or free boundary codition.however,this method has a major
drawback that every engineering application problem may not be possible to express in
variational form.
In this method, the governing differential equations are directly used to derive element matrices
and vectors. Hence this method does not require volitional statement of the given problem. This
method can be worked with different procedures such as Galerkin and least square method. The
method of weighed residual approach can be applied to almost all practical problems of science
and engineering.
1. Pre processor
2. Processor/Solver
3. Post processor.
PRE-PROCESSOR
PROCESSOR/SOLVER
1. Computer parameters for memory/file managemant
2. Computer elements matrices and vectors
3. From global matrices and vectors
4. Enforce SPC, MPC boundary conditions.
5. Solve governing matrix equations and compute the unknown values of
primary variables.
6. Compute additional derived variables such as reaction forces, element
strains, stresses and heat flow etc.
POST PROCESSOR
1. Print/plot deformed mesh over undeformed mesh
2. Print/plot contours of displacements
3. Print/plot contours of stresses
4. Display locations of max./min. stress
5. Print/plot contours of failure index
6. Animate dynamic model behaviour.
7. Sort element stresses in order of magnitude.
8. Produce color-coded temperature plots.
In general, a finite element solution may be broken into the following three stages. This is a
general guideline that can be used for setting up any finite element analysis.
1. Preprocessing: defining the problem; the major steps in preprocessing are given below:
o Define keypoints/lines/areas/volumes (Or Building a solid model)
o Define element type and material/geometric properties
o Mesh lines/areas/volumes as required
The amount of detail required will depend on the dimensionality of the analysis (i.e.
1D, 2D, axi-symmetric, 3D).
2. Solution: assigning loads, constraints and solving; here we specify the loads (point or
pressure), constraints (translational and rotational) and finally solve the resulting set of
equations.
3. Postprocessing: further processing and viewing of the results; in this stage one may wish
to see:
o Lists of nodal displacements
o Element forces and moments
o Deflection plots
o Stress contour diagrams
The objective of this chapter is outline a general analysis procedure to be used to solve a
simulation. Regardless of the physics of the problem, the same general procedure can be
followed.
Preprocessing
Solution
Define Material
Apply loads
Solve
Postprocessing
Review results
The analysis procedures employed in structural engineering can be divided into two categories.
a) Force method
b) Displacement method
In the Force method, the forces are unknowns. Examples of Force method are :
Examples are:
1. Kani;s method
2. Slope-deflection method
3. Matrix stiffness method
4. Moment distribution method
5. Finite element method
6. Principle of total potential energy or virtual displacements.
Force method employs separate procedures for analyzing determinate and indeterminate
structures where as the displacement method uses the same approach for determinate and
indeterminate structure.
CONTINUUM FEM
Trial functions sweep the entire domain. It Shape functions are used to approximate
is difficult and some-times almost field variable over the element.
impossible to obtain trial function.