Chapter 2 : The Structure of the Atom

A Matter

1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter exists in three states solid, liquid
and gas.

2. Matter is made up of tiny and discrete particles.

3. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction.

4. An ion is a positively-charged or negatively-charged particle.

5. Particles in matter are in motion.

6. Diffusion occurs when particles of a substance move in between the particles of another subtance.

7. Diffusion of matter occurs most rapidly in gases, slower in liquids and slowest in solids, due to the
different arrangement and movement of particles in the three states of matter.

The kinetic theory of matter.

(diagram)

i) The change in heat changes the state of matter.

ii) When a substance is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy and move faster.
iii) When a substance is cooled, the particles loss their kinetic energy and move slower.

State of Matter Solid liquid gas

Characteristic
Arrangement of particles
Forces of attraction
Movement of particles
Shape / volume
compressibility
are packed closely are packed closely Very far apart and in a
together in an orderly together but not in random motion
manner orderly manner
Strong forces Strong forces but Weak forces
weaker than the forces
in a solid
Particles vibrate and Particles vibrate, Particles vibrate,
rotate about their rotate and move rotate and move
fixed positon throughout the liquid. freely. The rate of
They collide against collision is greater
each other than in liquid
- has a fixed volume - has a fixed volume Does not have a fixed
and shape and follows the shape shape of volume
of the container
Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed Can be compressed
easily easily
Do it yourself 2.1

1.Figure 1 below shows the heating curve of a pure substance at room temperature and pressure.

Temperature/oC U

S T

119 Q R

Time / minute

Figure 1

(a)Describe the movement of the particles of the pure substance at stage PQ of the curve?

(b)Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of particles of the substance at stage QR in the box below.

(c)Explain why the pure substance is not water?

(d)Samples of the pure substance at stage RS and TU are taken. Compare the movement of the particles
of the substance at these two stages.

(e)After heating at 500oC, the substance is cooled. Draw and label the cooling curve.
2. P Q
Ice water Salt solution

Apply heat Saturate it then Boil it, then cool

Apply heat cool the solution S
U T R the vapour

salt water
water steam

(a)Name the process in

P: Q:

R: S:

T: U:

(b)What will occur if matter undergoes a change of state ?.

(c)Compare the intermolecular distance and the packing of particles in the solid state and the liquid state.
 B The Atomic Structure

The historical development of atomic models.

Scientist Atomic Models

1. John Dalton
Matter consists of solid particles called atoms and
imagined the atom as a small indivisible ball similar to a very
tiny ball

2.J.J. Thomson
He discovers the electron. He suggested that an atom is positive
charged sphere/cloud with electron embedded in it .

3. Ernest Rutherford
He discovers the proton. He suggested that protons are
concentrated in the centre of the atom called the nucleus,
with a cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus and
electrons move in a space that is larger than the space
occupied by the nucleus

4.Neils Bohr

He suggested that the electrons are moved in definite

orbits surrounding the nucleus

5.James Chadwick
He discovered the neutron. He suggested that nucleus
consists of protons and neutrons, with the nucleus
surrounded by electron shells.
Neutrons contribute approximately to half the mass of
an atom.
 Subatomic Symbol Relative Charg Location
particle mass e
Proton p 1 +1 In the nucleus
In orbits around
Electron e 1/1840 -1 Protons,
the nucleus
neutrons and electrons are
Neutron n 1 0 In the nucleus
subatomic particles of
an atom.

i) Atoms are electrically neutral.

ii) The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
iii) The proton number of an element is the number of protons in its atom.
iv) The nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in its atom.
Therefore,

Nucleon number = proton number + number of neutrons

v) Each element has its own proton number.
vi) Each element is given a name and a symbol

Proton Element symbol Proton Element symbol

numbe number
r
1 Hydrogen H 11 Sodium Na
2 Helium He 12 Magnesium Mg
3 Lithium Li 13 Aluminium Al
4 Beryllium Be 14 Silicon Si
5 Boron B 15 Phosphorus P
6 Carbon C 16 Sulphur S
7 Nitrogen N 17 Chlorine Cl
8 Oxygen O 18 Argon Ar
9 Flourine F 19 Potassium K
10 Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca

An atom of an element can be written as A

X
Z

Where A is the nucleon number,

X is the symbol of an element,
 Z is the proton number.

Do it yourself 2.2

Complete the table below.

27 19 23
Symbol of atom Al F Na
13 7 11
Proton number

Nucleon number

Number of protons

Number of electrons

Number of neutrons

Complete the table below

Elemen number of Number of Symbol of

t protons neutrons atoms
(symbol
)
Lithium
(Li)
Neon
(Ne)
Zinc
(Zn)
2.3 Isotopes and Their Importance

1. The isotopes of an element are the atoms of that element which contain a same
number of protons, but a different number of neutrons.

2. Isotopes of some element

Element Isotopes
Hydrogen 1 2 3
1H 1H 1H

1 proton 1 proton 1 proton

0 neutron 1 neutron 2 neutrons
Carbon 12 13 14
6C 6C 6C

6 protons 6 protons 6 protons

6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons
Oxygen 16 17 18
8O 8O 8O

8 protons 8 protons 8 protons

8 neutrons 9 neutrons 10 neutrons
Sulphur 32 34
16 S 16 S

16 protons 16 protons -
16 neutrons 18 neutrons
Bromine 79 81
35 Br 35 Br

35 protons 35 protons -
44neutrons 46 neutrons

3. The uses of isotopes in daily life

4. The electron arrangement of elements with proton number 1 to 20.
( must know how to memorize)

2.4 Electron Arrangements / Electron Structures

Field Isotopes applications

Medical Gamma rays from cobalt- 60 are used to kill
cancer cell without surgery in patient. This
treatment is known as radiotherapy.
Medical instrument are sterilized using gamma
rays.
Radioactive materials such as iodide-131 are
injected into patients to detect malfunction of
thyroid glands.
Archeology Radioisotope carbon -14 is used to study the
age of ancient artifacts.
Carbon -14 is used to study the passage of
Agricultural carbon in photosynthesis of green plants.

Industrial Isotope sodium-24 is used to detect leakage of

underground pipes.

First shell: 2 electrons

Second shell: 8 electrons

Third shell: 8 electrons

Last electron/s in the last outermost shell, we called as valence electron

Nucleus ( contains protons and nucleus)

Element Number of Number of Number of Number of Electron Number of

neutrons protons electrons nucleon arrangement valence
 electrons
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium