Instrumentation

Fundamentals
ECE132 Instrumentation & Control
Instrumentation
Instrumentation is the science of automated
measurement and control
Instrument is a device that transform a physical
variable of interest (measurand) into a form that is
suitable for recording (measurement)
Instrumentation
Instrumentation is the science and technology of
complete measurement systems with which physical
quantities are measured so as to obtain data which
can be transmitted to recording and display devices
Industrial Instrumentation is the application of
instruments to a process for monitoring or measuring
its activity to direct or control it
Measurement and Its Aim
Measurement is an essential part of the interaction
between humanity and the physical world
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an
act of the result of comparison between the quantity
and predefined standard which is expressed in
numerical value
Measurement is the process by which one can convert
physical parameters to meaningful number
Instrument or Scale or Meter or Analyzer a device
designed to facilitate measurement
Applications of Measurement Systems
Monitoring of Process & Operation: indicate the value
or condition parameter under study and their
readings do not serve any control functions
(Voltmeter, Energy Meter)
Control of Process & Operation: automatic control
systems and it has been very strong association
between measurement and control (Temperature,
Pressure, etc.)
Applications of Measurement Systems
Experimental Engineering Analysis: Experimental and
theoretical methods are available:
Testing the validity of theoretical predictions
Determination of system parameters, variables, and
performances
Solutions of mathematical relationship with the help
of analogies
3 Basic Functions of Instrument
Indicating: It is obtained as a deflection of a pointer
of a measuring instrument (Speedometer, Pressure
Gauge)
Recording: It makes a written record, usually on
paper, on the value of quantity under measurement
against time or some other variable
Controlling: Used in the field of industrial control
process wherein the system is to control the original
measured quantity
Classification of Instruments
Analog
Digital
Simple Instrument Model

Sensor

Instrument Model with Amplifier, A/D
Converter & Computer Output

Physical Analog Signal
Analog Signal Digital Signal
Measurement Variable
Variable Variable
Variable (Amplified)

A/D Computer
Sensor Amplifier
Converter Memory

Basic Measurands
Mechanical Quantities
Thermal Quantities
Magnetic Quantities
Electrical Quantities
Optical Quantities
Molecular Quantities
Typical Physical Variable (Measurand) in
Industrial Process
Fluid pressure Machine position, motion,
Fluid flow rate or acceleration
The temperature of an Physical dimension(s) of
object an object
Fluid volume stored in a Count (inventory) of
vessel objects
Chemical concentration Electrical voltage, current,
or resistance
General Instrumentation Principle
A Variable, which is to be measured, in some way
affects a property of the instrument causing a
change in state
This change in state must be detectable by one of
the 5 senses
Measurement is dependent on the relationship of
these interactions, .i.e., the physics of the
system
Some Properties that Change in State
Change in Position Change in Inductance
Change in Shape Change in Capacitance
Change in Volume Change in Potential
Change in Change in Frequency
Concentration
Change in Resistance
Change in Conductance
Generalized Functional Elements of an Instrument

Measured Primary Variable Variable

Measurand Sensing Conversion Manipulation
Quantity
Element Element Element

Presented Data Data

Presentation Transmission
Data
Element Element
Observer

Generalized Functional Elements of an Instrument
Primary Sensing Element
receives energy from the measured medium and
produces an output depending in some way on the value
of the measured quantity
the quantity under measurement makes it first contact
with the primary sensing element of a measurement
system
element of quantity is sensed converted to analogous
form, this output is converted into electrical signal by
transducer
Generalized Functional Elements of an Instrument
Variable Conversion Element
converts the output signal of the primary sensing
element into a more suitable variable
many instruments do not need any variable conversion
element
Generalized Functional Elements of an Instrument
Variable Manipulation Element
manipulates the signal represented by some physical
variable, to perform the intended task of an instrument
manipulates the signal presented to it preserving
the nature of the signal
only change in the numerical value of the signal
(Electronics Amplifier)
Generalized Functional Elements of an Instrument
Data Transmission Element:
sends the data from one element to the other
(ex. Shaft and bearing assembly)
when the elements of an instrument are actually
physically separated, it becomes necessary to transmit
data from one to another (Radio signals: Telemetry)
Generalized Functional Elements of an Instrument
Data Presentation Element
performs the translation, such as the simple indication
of a pointer moving over a scale or the recording over a
chart
the information about the quantity to be conveyed
to the system for monitoring, control, or analysis
purposes
Generalized Functional Elements of an Instrument
Data Presentation Element
if the data is to be monitored, visual display
devices are needed
devices may be analog or digital
if the data is to be recorded, magnetic tapes,
storage type CRT, Analog and Digital CPU,
microprocessor are used
for control and analysis, microprocessor or CPU
may be used (Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge)
Example of an Instrument: Filled System Thermometer

S K Singh (2009), Industrial Instrumentation and Control, 3rd Edition, India, Tata McGraw-Hill Education
Example of an Instrument: Filled System Thermometer

S K Singh (2009), Industrial Instrumentation and Control, 3rd Edition, India, Tata McGraw-Hill Education
 Instrumentation System

Physical
Display
Parameter: Signal
Oscilloscope
Temperature Bridge Converter
Sensor/ Meter
Pressure Amplifier ADC
Transducer Plotter
Velocity Filter DAC
Computer
Force etc.
etc.
etc.
Two Basic Characteristics of an Instrument
Static Characteristics generally for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying process
condition
Dynamic Characteristics
speed of response
fidelity
lag
dynamic error
Static Characteristics
Accuracy the degree of exactness (closeness) of a
measurement compared to the expected (desired)
value
Precision a measure of consistency or repeatability
of measurements, i.e. successive readings do not
differ or the consistency of the instrument output
for a given value of the input
Static Characteristics
Sensitivity the ratio of the change in output
(response) of the instrument to a change of input or
measured variable
Resolution the smallest change in a measured
variable to which instruments will respond
Dead Zone the largest range of values of a
measured variable to which the instrument does not
respond (aka dead spot & hysteresis)
Static Characteristics
Backlash (or mechanical hysteresis) the lost motion
or free play which is inherent in mechanical
elements, such as gears, linkages, or other
mechanical transmission devices that are not
rigidly connected
True Value the error free value of the measured
variable
=
 Error in Measurement
Error: the difference between the true value
(expected value) of the measurand and the measured
value indicated by the instrument
Error may be expressed either as absolute error (E) or
as a percentage error (%E)
Absolute Error (E): =

Where: expected value, measurand value

Error in Measurement
Percentage Error, %E

% = 100%

% = 100%

Where: expected value, measurand value

Accuracy (A) Calculations
Relative Accuracy, A

=1

Percentage Relative Accuracy, %A

% = 100%

% = 100% %
Example:
The expected value of the voltage across a resistor
is 90 V. However, the measurement gives a value of
89 V. Calculate:
Absolute Error
Percentage Error
Relative Accuracy
Percentage of Accuracy
1 V, 1.111%, 0.9889, 98.889%
Types of Error
Gross Error the fault of the person using
instruments and are due to incorrect reading of
instruments, incorrect recording of data, or incorrect
use of instrument
Systematic Errors
sometimes referred to as bias, these types of errors
influenced all measurements of a quantity alike
the constant uniform deviation of the operating point
of an instrument
Types of Error: Systematic Errors
1. Instrument Errors
errors inherent in measuring instruments because of
their mechanical structure, such as friction in bearings
of various moving components, irregular spring tension,
stretching of a spring, or reduction in tension due to
improper handling or overloading of the instrument
can be avoided by:
a. Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement application
b. Applying correction factors after determining the amount
of instrumental error
c. Calibrating the instrument against a standard
Types of Error: Systematic Errors
2. Environmental Errors
errors due to conditions external to the measuring
device, including conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument, such as the effects of change in
temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or
magnetic or electrostatic fields
can be avoided by:
a. Providing air conditioning
b. Hermitically sealing certain components in the instrument
c. Use of magnetic shields
Types of Error
Observational Errors
errors introduced by observer
parallax error introduced in reading a meter scale
error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a
scale meter
Random Errors
the accumulation of a large number of small affects
and may be of real concern only in measurements
requiring a high degree of accuracy
may be treated mathematically according to the laws of
probability
Sources of Errors
Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and
design conditions
Poor design
Change in process parameter, irregularities, etc.
Poor maintenance
Errors caused by people who operate instrument
Certain design limitations
Measuring Instrument Considerations
Specification of the instrument characteristic
Environmental Conditions
Cost
Durability, Maintainability and constancy of
performance
Measuring Instrument Considerations
Instrument choice is a compromise between
performance characteristics, ruggedness and durability,
maintenance requirements and purchase cost
Instrument engineer must have a wide knowledge of the
range of instruments available for measuring particular
physical quantities, and he/she must also have a deep
understanding of how instrument characteristics are
affected by particular measurement situations and
operating conditions
End
Instrumentation Fundamentals