Strings and 1D wave equation

Important Concepts/Assumptions:
(1) Taylor expansion

Accurcy function + #terms

smoothness What it is:
An approximation for the
function f at a given value (
Expansion f(a+h)
a+h) from function f(a). For
y to first order
f(x) example, see the left fig for
expansions up to second
term.
f(a)
f(a) f(a)=f/h
h*f(a)=f
f(a) f
h h
Linear Approximation

a a+h x
(2) Continuum: continuous distribution of material in space.
(3) Lagrangian description: follows a particle and feel the
action, perfect for seismic instrument that senses particle 1
motion!
 Shear Wave

Compressional Wave

Particle motion of shear wave

2
 Simple Proof of Wave Equation :
An idealized mathematical string extends in the x
direction, initially straight with tension force
along it.
Initial condition: u(x, t=0) =0 in y direction, where
u= displacement. Now plucking the string.
Problem: Describe the displacement u(x, t)

Solution: y

Condition: u is vertical
displacement, dx is small u(x+dx, t)
2
Vertical tension along y:
sin 2 sin 1 du
u(x, t)
Newton II:
1 dx
2u
F = ma = dx 2
t
2 u x
sin 2 sin 1 = dx 2
t
Taylor expansion about 0:
sin()=-3/3!+5/5!-~ (coef = 0 1 0 -1 )
tan()= +3/3+25/15 ~
Hence sin=tan= Another way to derive sin(x)=tan(x)
sin x cos x
limx 0 = limx 0 = 1 (used LHopitals rule)
x 1 2 2 3
tan x sec x 1/cos x
limx o = limx 0 = limx o =1
x 1 1

 Tension along y = sin 2 2 sin 1

u
----> (tan 2 tan 1 ) = dx 2
t
u(x + dx,t) u(x,t) 2 u(x,t)
( ) = dx
x x t 2
Taylor expand u(x+dx, t) with respect to x, remove higher
terms,
order u(x,t) u 2 (x,t)
u(x + dx,t) = u(x,t) + dx + dx 2 + ...
x 2x 2
u(x,t)
u(x,t) + dx
x
u(x,t) 2u(x,t) u(x,t) 2u(x,t)
( + 2
dx ) = dx
x x x t 2
2 2
u(x,t) u(x,t)
2
dx = dx
x t 2
remove dx terms, reorganize,
2 u(x,t) 1 2 u(x,t) 1 2 u(x,t)
where
2
= 2
= 2 v = /
x ( / ) 2
t v t 2

or commonly written as a homogeneous solution,
2 1 2
u 2 tu = 0 Wave equation!
v
Note
v = / ----> tension increases, v increases (in x)
density increases, velocity decreases
To verify the formula, can work out units, 4
v = (force/density) = [(density*m*m/s )/density] =m/s
1/2 2 1/2
 Rays and Body Waves
Wave equation: A second-order differential equation that
describes a how a wave propagates in a medium with
velocity v. In 1D, lets assume u is the displacement of a
particle at a given time. 2 1 2
u 2
tu = 0
v
Note: this is a relationship between 2nd time derivative
of displacement/potential with 2nd spatial derivative.
time u and v do not have to be in the same direction,
Solutions:

Any function of the type u(x,t) = f (x vt)
2 u(x,t) '' 2
u(x,t) 2 ''
2
= f (x vt) and 2
= v f (x vt)
x 2 2
t
u(x,t) 1 u(x,t)
2
= 2
x v t 2
Example: f(x, t) = 2(x-vt)3
u 2 (x,t)

u(x,t)
= 6(x vt) 2 = 12(x vt)
x x 2
u(x,t) = 6v(x vt) 2 u 2 (x,t)
2
= 12v 2 (x vt)
t t
In fact, - shows a pulse moving in the positive x direction.
u(x,t) = f (x vt)
T=0
T=1
T=2 5
T=3
Distance x
 A particularly useful class of solutions:
u(x,t) = Ae i(t kx ) = A[cos(t kx) + isin(t kx)]
A is amplitude, real part of the exponent is phase that
describes the current state within its cycle, i.e., if a cycle
is 360 degrees, the current angle.
Now differentiate:
2 1 2u 2 i(t kx )
u 2 i(t kx ) and =A 2 e
2
= Ak e v 2
t 2
v
x
2 2
Equate them, k = 2 k=
v v
k = wave number, v= speed, =angular frequency
To be physical, we usually use
u(x,t)= Acos(t kx) = real[Ae i(tkx ) ]
(since displacement is real, - is harmonic wave
moving in positive x direction)
Displacement field (1D)
A cut through time A cut through space

Assume constant values

of w and k, u will look
like ----->

Note: the vertical cut in x or t 6

will yield a periodic function

 Periodicity

T = 2 /
= 2 / k
v = /k = /T

Note: going from one medium to another, T is almost

constant, wavelength (which depends on k) will change!

Body waves

SH waves: transverse particle motion, normal to P

-SV plane
SV waves: normal to wave propagation direction, within
the P-SV (blackboard) plane 7

P waves: parallel to wave propagation direction

 Components and Particle Motion
Imagine a seismometer needle:

Needle
Suppose there is 3 cm displacement in east-west component,
what does that really mean?
Answer: That means a particle positioned at the needle tip
moves by 3 cm, i.e., particles on the ground/rock moves
by 3 cm due to seismic wave. Seismometer is a
Lagrangian motion recorder (meaning observing motion
by sitting on a particle that moves).
Map view 2 (rotated)
Map view 1
Radial (R)
N-S
E-W V
V
Transverse (T)
Projection of ray, say P
Projection of ray, say P
on Earths surface
on Earths surface
Cross-sectional view V Extension of
after rotation K wave vector
Kv
P-SV plane
8
v1, 1 Kr R
Typical Observations: E-W, N-S, Vertical ground motions
(not a natural description of particle motions)
(1)
Azimuth vs. Back-azimuth N
station
N
Energy
from

earthquake
Energy to
----> earthquake azimuth
----> station azimuth
(Back-azimuth)
So does + = 360 ?? NO.
(2) Rotate by back-azimuth to natural particle
motion coordinates
N
L(radial)

E
Energy
from
S
9

Rays Generally follow Great-Circle Paths

 Recording: 3 component displacement/velocity:
North-South
East-west
Vertical

Rotation around vertical

uR cos sin uEW W E
V
=
uT sin cos uNS
S
Seismometer
in your basement
New coordinate: Radial (SV)
Longitudinal (Radial) (SV)
Transverse (SH)
Vertical (P) 180-
V
Transverse
earthquake (SH)

South Pole 10
Seismic Observations Rotated, a rough view
Body wave Surface wave
Sep 26, 2000
(0:17:17.01 GMT time,
TUC tangential lat=-17.5, lon = -178.0)

TUC radial

TUC vertical

11
 Polarization/particle motion
What is it: Plotting the two recorded components of a given
seismic phase, say P, or SS, etc.
Why useful:
(1) V-R (vertical-radial) plot give first motion + arrival angle +
strength of vertical vs. radial components.
(2) R-T (radial vs. transverse) plot gives presence of anisotropy
(3) E-N (eastwest vs. northsouth) gives back-azimuth!

V-R R-T

12
 (1) Notational confusion:
P wave, S wave --- related to particle
motions
PcP, ScS --- these are called Seismic
phases or seismic arrivals, they
belong to either P or S types of
particle motions
(2) Many S-type seismic phases come in preferred
polarizations,
S --- Strong on both Radial and
Transverse
SS --- Strong on Transverse
ScS --- Strong on Transverse
SP, PKP, or anything with P or K or I in
name --> SV type --> Radial
(3) P waves travel faster than S waves because

+ 2
Vp = Vs =

Where and are Lame parameters, is related to bulk
modulus of materials (coefficient on how easily a piece of
material can compressed) and is shear modulus that tells how
easily something can be torn or sheared.

> 0 and > 0 -----> Vp > Vs for most materials
(4) Most Earth materials can be
approximated by what is called a
3
Poisson Solid where ~ -------> Vp ~ Vs 13
 Distance Calculations in Global Earth Problems
Known:
Radius of Earth = 6371 km

Distance conversion to
degrees:

2*3.141593*6371 km/(360 deg)

= 111.195 km/deg
A seismic arrival that travels an epicentral distance (projection of
raypath on the surface, same as surface wave distance) of 100 deg ~
11119.5 km
Local distance: <10 deg, Regional distance < 30 deg, Teleseismic
distance: > 30 deg

Question: How to compute distance for a random

source and a given station? Rotate to Equator,
Procedure: read off distance,
then rotate back.

14
 Advantage: Suppose we want to find the
perpendicular distance from the Smiley to the line,
by rotating to the Equatorial system, the latitude of
the rotated Smiley in the new Equatorial framework
IS the perpendicular distance we want.

Difficulty: Rotation (need Euler angles & poles)

gimbal
Euler angles -
The xyz
(fixed)
system is
shown in
blue, the
XYZ
(rotated)
15
system is
shown in red.
 Dissecting Seismic Waves
When people say: seismic waves are
solutions to the wave equation, what
they really refer to is seismic
potentials. This is different from
Strings (except for SH component)!
P-SV displacement
u(x,t) = (x,t) + (x,t)
Derived Seismic Wave Eqn from Newtons II:
2
2 1 (x,t)
( ) = 2 2
(P waves)
v t
p
2
2 1
= 2 2 (SV wave, not SH)
v s t
Get harmonic solutions in plane waves:

i(t kx ) i(t kx xky ykz z)

(x,t) = Ae = Ae
i(tkx ) i(tkx xky ykz z)
(x,t) = Ae = Ae 16
Assume a scalar field (x) Understand Potentials
Physically

= x 1 + x 2 + x 3
x1 x 2 x 3
Gradient of scalar field,
which makes sense to be
related to P.
P direction = wave
direction, compression
For comparison, divergence of a vector field ,
represents flux of vector field through a unit
volume:
1 2 3
= + + = i,i
x1 x 2 x 3

Curl of a vector field ,

represents rate of rotation (in
this case, it makes sense that
shear waves are rotated
and perpendicular to
direction of P.
in the case of SV waves, u =