Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
1
Lecture 2&3
2
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Types of Sources
3
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Source Encoding
4
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F.T. of Sampled Signal
6
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F.T. of Sampled Signal
7
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F.T. of Sampled Signal
8
-B 0 B f
... ...
-fs 0 fs f
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Recovering the Analog Signal
9
... ...
fs fs f
-fs 0 fs
2 2
-B 0 B f
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Undersampling and Aliasing
10
The signal at the output of the DAC will be different than the original
analog signal:
Due to undersampling
Appear in the frequency band between ( f s f m ) and f m
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Nyquist Sampling Rate
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Nyquist Sampling Rate & Aliasing
13
Nyquist Theorem:
We can digitally represent only frequencies up to half the
sampling rate.
Example:
CD: fsamp=44,100 Hz
Nyquist Frequency = fsamp/2 = 22,050 Hz
Example:
FM:fsamp=22,050 Hz
Nyquist Frequency = fsamp/2 = 11,025 Hz
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Nyquist Sampling Rate & Aliasing
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Nyquist Sampling Rate & Aliasing
15
f' = |f - fsamp|
Example:
fsamp = 20,000 Hz
Nyquist Frequency = 10,000 Hz
f = 12,000 Hz --> f' = 8,000 Hz
f = 18,000 Hz --> f' = 2,000 Hz
f = 20,000 Hz --> f' = 0 Hz
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Nyquist Sampling Rate & Aliasing
16
Original (blue) sine wave is @ 5000Hz
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Nyquist Sampling Rate & Aliasing
17
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Example
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Example
19
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Example Problem
20
a. What is the bit rate produced for the speech signal if 12 bits are used per
sample?
b. Perform the same for the music signal when 16 bits per sample are used.
c. How many mega bytes of storage do you need for 30 minutes of
stereophonic music ?
Answer:
a. Speech signal must be sampled at 8 kHz. Therefore its bit rate = 12 * 8 = 96
kbps
b. Music signal must be sampled at 36 kHz. Therefore its bit rate = 16 * 36 = 576
kbps
c. 30 minute of mono music requires 30*60*576K = 1036 Mbits = 130 Mbytes
For stereophonic music, space required = 130*2 = 260 Mbytes
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Conclusion Sampling Theorem
21
It should be noted that the sampling theorem (and hence the ability to faithfully
recover a continuous signal from a set a samples) assumes that the samples (although
quantised in time) are not quantised in amplitude. Hence for the reconstructed signal
to be as close as possible to the original, the quantisation must have sufficient levels
so as to cause only a minimum of error. The level of error introduced by quantisation
is discussed next.
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Quantisation
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Quantisation
23
Quantization is:
An irreversible process.
A source of information loss.
A critical stage in image and video compression.
It has significant impact on:
The distortion of reconstructed image and video
The bit rate of the encoder .
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Quantisation: Decisions
24
Resolution
How many bits should we use ?
Step Size
How to spread the resulting quantization levels
Quantization noise
How efficient can this process be ?
How much noise we insert to the quantized signal ?
SNR, MSE ....
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Rate Distortion Theory
25
Ratedistortion theory is a major branch of information theory which
provides the theoretical foundations for lossy data compression.
Rate:
It is the number of bits per data sample to be stored
or transmitted.
Distortion:
It is defined as the variance of the difference
between input and output.
Measured by:
Hamming distance
Squared error
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Rate Distortion Theory
27
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Distortion Measure
28
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Example
Mouse: Original 29Picture
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Connecting rate-distortion theory to
channel capacity
31
Suppose we want to transmit information about a source to the user with a
distortion not exceeding D:
o Ratedistortion theory tells us that at least R(D) bits/symbol of
information from the source must reach the user.
o We also know from Shannon's channel coding theorem that if the source
entropy is H bits/symbol, and the channel capacity is RC; thus RC < H
o Therefore, H RC bits/symbol will be not used when transmitting this
information over the given channel.
o For the user to have any hope of reconstructing with a maximum
distortion D, we must impose the requirement that the information lost
in transmission does not exceed the maximum tolerable loss of H R(D)
bits/symbol.
o This means that the channel capacity must be at least as large as R(D).
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Designing the quantiser
32
Dec region #4
1. Decide how many Upper Boundary #4
quantization levels, i.e.,
resolution of quantizer 10 11
Lower Boundary
2. Assign codewords to each #4
level Dec region #3 Upper Boundary
#3
(Gray code yields lower bit 11 10 Lower Boundary
error rates) #3
3. Define decision regions Upper Boundary
01 01 #2
with their boundaries
Dec region #2 Lower Boundary
midway between #2
quantization levels (for Upper Boundary
extremities, the boundaries 00 00 #1
are infinity)
Gray Binary Dec region #1
Lower Boundary
#1
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Uniform Scalar Quantization
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Uniform Scalar Quantization
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Uniform Scalar Quantisation
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Midtread quantiser
Has zero as one of its output values
Has an odd number of output values
Midrise quantiser
Has a partition interval that brackets zero
Has an even number of output values
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Uniform Scalar Quantisation
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Uniform Scalar Quantisation
37
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Using the Quantiser
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Example: Uniform Scalar Quantisation
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Uniform vs. Nonuniform Quantisers
40
A quantizer can be completely specified by a list of
quantization levels.
~
X {~
x1 , ~
x2 , , ~
xL }
This means the boundaries (endpoints) of the quantization
regions do not need to be separately specified.
Why?
-6
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Companding : u-law
43
Quantisation Noise
Pulse Code Modulation
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Quantisation Error
1 X max
S 2 M 2 2
N q rms e2 12
M2 3 2Xmax=M
2 2
Pulse Code Modulation
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Pulse Code Modulation
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Example
x(t) is a sum of 3 sinusoids whereby each takes the form an sin(2tfn) where n=1,2, and
3. The parameters of the three sinusoids have values:
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Example
Design a 3-bit uniform quantiser for x(t), whereby the ADC has knowledge of the
amplitudes an of the waveform. State clearly the maximum and minimum voltages, the
decision regions, the output voltage of the quantiser and the boundaries of the quantiser.
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