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This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference held in Manama, Bahrain, 2528 September 2011.
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Abstract
Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock, the branch of mechanics concerned
with the response of rock to the force fields of its physical environment. In hydraulic fracturing, rock mechanics is important
in the determination of mechanical properties and the in-situ stress state of reservoir rock, the calculation of deformation and
failure behavior of the rock mass caused by the treatment, and the determination of the fractures final geometry
Knowledge of mechanical properties variation is of great importance for Petroleum Engneering .mechanical properties is often
measured in the laboratory from cores. Lab measurements is expensive and time consuming .Many correlations and models
were used have been proposed to estimate mechanical properties using some lab measurements data. Different artifacial
intelegence techniques were implemented in several studies. This work describes the use of Alternating Conditional
Expectation Algorithm technique to estimate Poissons Ratio and Youngs Modulus as a function of Depth with lab porosity
Overburden Stresses Pore Pressure ,Minimum Horizontal Stress measurements and Bulk Density (RHOB),DT Compressional
and DT Shear from logs data In this study, 602 data points of lab measurements and log data were used The proposed models
evolved estimates Poissons Ratio and Youngs Modulus with good accuracy with correlation coefficient ( R2) of 0.994 and
0.974
Introduction
Mechanical properties usually, of concern for treatment design and analysis, are (Clark,1977) elastic properties, such as
Youngs modulus (or shear modulus) and Poissons ratio; (Gidley et al ,1989) strength properties, such as fracture toughness
and tensile and compressive strength; (Bharucha,2004) poroelastic parameters describing the compressibility of the rock
matrix compared with the compressibility of the bulk rock under specific fluid flow (or migration) conditions. Stress not only
controls or influences most aspects of fracture behavior, but also influences the values of both reservoir properties and
mechanical properties of the rock. For example, increased confining stress will generally result in increased strength
decreased permeability and porosity , and mixed results for Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio (Gidley et al ,1989).
Rock mechanics is the science dealing with the theoretical and applied behavior of rock due to either external natural or man
made stresses. Rock mechanics are widely used by civil as well as mining engineers long time ago. Recently rock mechanics
has been applied to solve problems in many aspects of petroleum engineering such as drilling, reservoir and production
engineering In the following sections, light will be shed on the involvement of rock mechanics on solving the many problems
that may encountered during the various petroleum engineering activities such as drilling, reservoir, and production
engineering
Various rock properties are required as an input in any attempt to solve various engineering problems. It is obvious that rock
mechanical testing of cores must be designed according to the purpose of the investigation. If the objective is to predict
borehole instability, then the testing procedures may not be the same as for example in reservoir compaction.
These outlined testing procedures was set to minimize human errors. Rock mechanical data are obtained either by testing
representative rock samples in laboratory or by analyzing field records. Triaxial testing of rock samples provides important
data such as failure criteria, frictional properties apparent cohesion and angle of internal friction), arid elastic properties
2 SPE 138841
(Youngs modulus, bulk modulus, Poissons ratio, etc.). Many other properties can be measured based on rock testing such as,
pore and bulk compressibility, permeability stress sensitivity, crushing resistance, P & S velocities, swelling, etc. (Al-Awad,
2001).
Details of these tests can be found in any professional rock mechanics Field data may provide us with formation lithology,
continuous record of formation porosity (as in indication of the rock strength), formation fluids analysis, reservoir geology,
etc. Table (1). Well logs provide continuous data versus depth, but do not measure directly the parameters that are needed for
a rock mechanical analysis. Rock mechanics have been used to investigate and solve several problems in the oil industry.
Table (2) summarizes these problems management techniques and data required.
Table1 Type of rock mechanical tests [Al-Awad, 2001].
Table 2 Implementation of rock mechanics in solving petroleum engineering problems [After Al-Awad ,1998].
-reservoir description.
The two main elastic constants which are usually used in most rock failure models are Poissons ratio and Youngs modulus.
Youngs modulus is the measure of the stiffness of the rock material, i.e. the sample resistance against the compressive stress
(load). Poissons ratio is a measure of the simultaneous change in elongation and in cross-sectional area within the elastic
range during a tensile or compressive test (Al-Awad, 2001). Elastic constants are evaluated from the stress versus lateral and
axial strains measured in conjunction with the triaxial compressive testing. Elastic constants can be estimated from using the
following equations [1 and 2]:
z 2
E = z1 (1)
z1 z 2
x1 x 2
= ( 2)
z1 z 2
In addition to the in-situ or minimum horizontal stress, other rock mechanical properties are important when designing a
hydraulic fracture. Poissons ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral expansion to longitudinal contraction for a rock under a
uniaxial stress condition (Howard, G. C., and Fast, C.,1970). The value of Poissons ratio is used to convert the effective
vertical stress component into an effective horizontal stress component. The effective stress is defined as the total stress minus
the pore pressure (Alkhathami,2007)
The theory used to compute fracture dimensions is based upon linear elasticity. To apply this theory, the modulus of the
formation is an important parameter. Youngs modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain for uniaxial stress (Howard,
and Fast, 1970). The modulus of a material is a measure of the stiffness of the material. If the modulus is large, the material is
stiff. In hydraulic fracturing, a stiff rock will result in more narrow fractures. If the modulus is low, the fractures will be wider.
The modulus of a rock will be a function of the lithology, porosity, fluid type, and other variables. Table 3 and 4 illustrates
typical ranges for Youngs Modulus and Poisson's ratio as a function of lithology.
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Table 3 : Ranges of Youngs Modulus for Various Lithologies (After Howard ,1970)
Limestone 8-12106
Coal 0.1-1106
Shale 1-10106
Table 4 : Ranges of Poisson's ratio for Various Lithologies [After Bowles, 1996].
This work systematically uses a technique that reveals the underlying statistical relationships among variables corrupted by
random error. The method of alternating conditional expectations (ACE) developed by Breiman and Friedman (1985) is
intended to alleviate the main drawback of parametric regression. In nonparametric regression a priori knowledge of the
functional relationship between the dependent variable and independent variables is not required. In fact, one of the main
results of non-parametric regression is the determination of the actual form of this relationship.
A model predicting the value of y from the values of x1, x2,. . . xn is written in the following form:
y f z
where,
z z and, z f x
The functions f1(.), f2(.),. . . fn(.) are called variable transformations yielding the transformed independent variables z1, z2,. . .
zn. The function f(.) is the transformation for the dependent variable. In fact the main interest is its inverse: f -1(.), yielding the
dependent variable y from the transformed dependent variable z.
Given N observation points, the best transformation functions f1(.), f2(.),. . ., fn(.)and f -1 (.) are found not as algebraic
expressions, but as relationships defined point-wise. The method of alternating conditional expectations constructs and
modifies the individual transformations to achieve maximum correlation in the transformed space. Graphically this means that
the plot of z f x against , should be as close to the 45o straight line as possible. The resulting
individual transformations are given in the form of a point-by-point plot and/or table, thus in any subsequent application
(graphical or algebraic) interpolation needed to obtain the transformed variables and to apply the inverse transformation to
predict "y". Obviously, the smoother the transformation, the more justified and straightforward the interpolation is. Therefore,
some kind of restriction on smoothness is built into the ACE algorithm. In other words, based on the concept of conditional
expectation, the correlation in transformed space is maximized by iteratively adjusting the individual transformations subject
to a smoothness condition.
SPE 138841 5
The particular realization of the algorithm, GRACE (Xue et al., 1997), used here consists of two parts. The first part provides
the transformations in the form of tables and the second part allows the user to construct the final algebraic approximations
using curve fitting in a commercial spreadsheet program. Fortunately, many physically sound problems have rather simple
shapes of the individual transformations, and can be well approximated by low order polynomials. GRACE also has an option
to reconcile the observed data set to the gleaned-out underlying statistical dependency. The option provides reconciled
values for all the observations by suggesting slight changes in the observed values. The adjustment is done such that in
transformed space the reconciled observations follow the 45o straight line perfectly, while the overall change in each observed
value is kept to a minimum (Xue et al., 1997). The plot of adjusted versus observed variable offers a deeper insight into the
effect of measurement noise and/or the possibility of a hidden variable.
Where,
Where,
The correlations was blindly tested to estimate the Poissons Ratio and Youngs Modulus using the rest of the data (202 data
points) not implemented in the model building. Figure 1 and 2 are a cross plot of the models indicating the performance of the
ACE model proposed Average absolute error (ARE) characterizing the accuracy and average absolute relative error (AARE)
indicating the precision of the proposed and tested models were calculated and listed in Table 6. The two numbers indicate the
accuracy of the proposed model for the data used in this work.
6 SPE 138841
Conclusions
An attempt has been made in this work to develop an ACE for elastic parameters prediction with a non-linear relationship and
mapping between the petrophysical and geomechanical data and elastic modals. It has been shown a good performance in term
of accuracy.
The performance of the model as carried out by the test data set shows better prediction of Youngs modulus and Poissons
ratio . It was shown that using this method, engineers can easily predict geomechanical rock properties with accuracies similar
to real drilling core measurements (static module) where rock samples are not available.
Nomenclature
E= Youngs modulus.
= Poissons ratio.
z1 = Stress at axial point z1.
z 2 = Stress at axial point z2.
z1 = Strain at axial point z1.
z 2 = Strain at axial point z2.
x1 = Strain at lateral point z1.
x 2 = Strain at lateral point z2.
D = Depth
= Porosity
BD = Bulk Density (RHOB)
DTC = DT Compressional
DTS = DT Shear.
OS = Overburden Stresses
PP = Pore Pressure.
MHS = Minimum Horizontal Stress.
ARE = average relative error
/ /
| / | /
SPE 138841 7
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8 SPE 138841
ARE, % AARE, % R2
Poisson's Ratio 2.491 2.489 0.994
Young's Modulus 1.817 0.410 0.974
R2 = 0.9949
0.4
Poisson's Ratio Predicted
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Poisson's Ratio Measured
2
R = 0.9741
1.E+07