BIO 211

Chapter 19 Assignment

Introduction

A. The heart is amazing. Pick one statistic in the introduction that

you didnt know previously and write it below.

19.1 The heart is located in the mediastinum and has a muscular

wall covered by pericardium.

A. Location of the heart

1. The heart is approximately the size of a closed fist. Give

the dimensions of length, width and thickness. 12cm
long(5 in), 9cm(3.5 in) wide, and 6 cm(2.5 in) thick

2. The heart is located in the mediastinum. Define this region.

An anatomical region between the lungs that extends from
the sternum to the vertebral column, and between the
lungs.

3. About 2/3 of the hearts mass lies on which side of the

bodys midline?
Left

4. Where is the apex located?

The apex is directed anteriorly, inferiorly, and to the left.

5. Where is the base located?

Opposite the apex

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B. Pericardium

1. Define Pericardium the membrane that surounds the

heart

a. Describe Fibrous Pericardium the superficial layer

of the heart that is composed of tough, dense irregular
connective tissue.

b. Describe Serous Pericardium the deeper layer of

the heart is thinner, more delicate membrane that forms a
double layer around the heart.

1. Describe the Parietal Layer the outer layer of

the serous pericardium is fused to the fibous
pericardium

2. Describe the Visceral Layer (Epicardium) one

layer of the heart wall that adheres tightly to
the surface of the heart.

2. Where is the Pericardial Cavity located?

Between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous
pericardium.
3. What is the function of Pericardial Fluid?
Reduces friction between the serous pericardial
membranes as the heart moves.

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 C. Layers of the heart wall

There are 3 layers of the heart wall, describe each including type
of tissue and function:

1. Epicardium (external layer) thin transparent outer layer

of the heart wall is composed of mesothelium and connecive
tissue that imparts a smooth, slippery texture to the outermost
surface of the heart.

2. Myocarium (middle layer) makes up approximately 95%

of the heart wall. It is composed of cardiac tissue that is
responsible for the hearts pumping action.

3. Endocardium (inner layer) a thin layer of endothilium and

connective tissue that provide a smooth lining chamber for the
hearts chambers and covers the heart valves.

19.2 The heart has four chambers, two upper atria and two lower
ventricles.

What is the function of the two atria?

To receive blood from the veins, returning blood to the heart.
What is the function of the two ventricles?
Ejects the blood from the heart into blood vessels called arteries,
Where are the auricles located and what is their purpose? On the
anterior surface of each atrium. Each auricle slightly increases the capacity
of an atrium, so that it can hold a greater volume of blood.

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 Where are sulci located and what is their purpose? A series of grooves
that contain coronary blood vessels and a variable amount of fat. Each sulcus
marks the externalboundary between two chambers of the heart.

A. Right atrium

1. The right atrium receives blood from which three veins?

Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus
2. What are the Pectinate Muscles?
Projecting muscles bundles of the anterior atrial walls and
the lining of the auricles.
3. Where is the Interatrial Septum located?
Between the right and left atrium is a thin partition
4. Blood passes from the right atrium into the right ventricle
through which valve?
Tricuspid valve

B. Right ventricle

1. What are Trabeculae Carneae?

A series of ridges formed by raised bundles of cardiac
muscle fibers
2. Define Chordae Tendineae Connectects the tricuspid
valve and the papillary muscles.
3. Define Papillary Muscles cone-shaped trabeculaen that
connects to the chordae tendineae.

4. Where is the Interventricular Septum located?this partition

separates the right and left ventricle.
5. Blood passes from the right ventricle into the pulmonary
trunk through which valve? Pulmonary valve

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 6. Where does blood travel after the pulmonary trunk?
To the lungs.
7. Remember, arteries carry blood away from the heart. You
can remember this as Arteries Away (AA).

C. Left atrium

1. The left atrium received oxygenated blood from the lungs

through which veins? Pulmonary veins

2. Blood passes from the left atrium into the left ventricle
through which valve? Bicuspid valve

D. Left ventricle

1. The left ventricle is the thickest chamber and forms the

hearts apex. What structures are similar in the right and
left ventricle?
A smooth poserior wall.

2. Blood passes from the left ventricle into the ascending

aorta through which valve? Aortic valve

3. What is the largest artery in the body?

Ascending aorta

4. From the ascending aorta, blood flows into the coronary

arteries, arch of the aorta, and descending aorta. Where
does blood flow from each of these? Carries the blood
throughout the body.

5. What is the Ligamentum Arteriosum and where is it

located?
A ductus that normally closes shortly after birth, that
connects the arch of the aorta and pulmonary trunk.

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 E. Myocardial thickness and function

1. How does the thickness of the walls of the atria compare to

the walls of the ventricles and why? Because the aria only
need enough cardiac muscle to deliver blood to the
ventricles.

2. How does the thickness of the walls of the left ventricle

compare to the walls of the right ventricle and why?
Because the right only have to push blood to the lungs
while the left has to push blood to the rest of the body.

19.3 Heart valves ensure one-way flow of blood.

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 A. Complete this sentence. Blood flows through the heart from
areas of ___high______ blood pressure to areas of ____low_______
blood pressure.

B. What is the purpose of the four heart valves?

The four valves help to ensure the one way flow of blood by opening to let
blood through and the closing to prevent its backflow.

C. Operation of the atrioventricular valves

1. What are the two AV valves?

a. Bicuspid valve

b. Tricuspid valve

2. Describe what happens to the papillary muscles, chordae

tendineae, and blood flow when the ventricles are relaxed.
The papillary muscles are relaxed, the chordae tendineae
are slack, and blood flows from high pressure in the atria to
a low pressure in the ventricles through open AV valves.

3. Describe what happens to the papillary muscles, chordae

tendineae,
and blood flow when the ventricles contract. The papillary
muscles contract, which pulls on the chordae tendineae,
and the pressure of the ventricular blood drives the cusps
upward until their edges meet and close the valve
openings.

D. Operation of the semilunar valves

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 1. What are the two SL valves?

a. Aortic valve

b. Pulmonary valve

2. Describe what happens to blood flow when the ventricles

contract.
The blood pressure in the ventricles exceeds the pressure in the
arteries and forces the SL valves to open.

3. Describe what happens to blood flow when the ventricles

relax.
Blood starts to flow back towards the heart

4. There are no valves between the venae cavae/right atrium

or between the pulmonary veins/left atrium.

a. Is there backflow of blood? Yes

b. How is backflow minimized? Contracting artria

compress and nearly collapse the openings from the vein.

5. Clinical Connection: Heart valve disorders

a. Define Stenosis A narrowing of a heart valve

opening that restricts blood flow.

b. What is Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)?

There is backflow of blood from left ventricle into left
atrium.

19.4 The heart pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation, then
pumps oxygen-rich blood throughout the body.

A. Systemic and pulmonary circulations

1. Pulmonary Circulation carries blood where?

Carries blood to the air sacs(aveoli) of the lungs.

2. Systemic Circulation carries blood where?

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 Carries blood to the rest of the body.

3. Use the figures below to learn in detail the pathway of

blood flow.

B. Coronary circulation

1. Define Coronary (Cardiac) Circulation the flow of blood

through the many vessels that pierce the myocardium.

2. Know the following: left coronary artery, anterior

interventricular branch, right coronary artery, posterior
interventricular branch, coronary sinus, great cardiac vein
(use the picture below).

3. Define Anastomoses Arteries where two or more body

regions receive blood, they are usually connected.

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 4. Clinical Connection: Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction

a. Define Myocardial Ischemia Partial obstruction of

blood flow in the coronary arteries.

b. Define Angina Pectoris severe pain that usually

accompanies myocardial ischemia.

c. Define Myocardial Infarction (heart attack) death of

an area of tissue because of interrupted blood supply.

d. How is myocardial infarction treated? An injection of

thrombolytic agent such as streptokinase or t-PA,plus
heparin( anticoagulant), or performing coronary angioplasty or
coronary artery bypass grafting.

19.5 The cardiac conduction system coordinates heart contractions

for effective pumping.

A. Cardiac muscle tissue

1. Define Intercalated Discs the ends of cardiac muscle

fibers connect to neiboring fibers by irregular transverse
thicknings of the sarcolema.

2. What are the functions of desmosomes and gap junctions?

Desmosomes hold fibers together while gap junctions muscle
action potentials to conduct from one cardiac muscle fiber to
another.

3. Compare and contrast cardiac v. skeletal muscle by

completing the table below:

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 Properties Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle
Length of muscle Equal length Equal length
fibers

Arrangement of thin Same arrangement Same arrangement

and thick filaments
Mitochondria Not as large and not Larger and more
so meny
Sarcoplasmic Somewhat larger Somewhat smaller
reticulum

Intracellular reserve Larger intracellular Smaller intracellular

of calcium reserve of Ca2+ reserve of Ca2+

B. Autorhythmic fibers: the cardiac conduction system

1. What are the autorhythmic fibers and what do they do?

The source of the hearts electrical activity because they are self-
excitable; thet repeatedly and rythmically generate action
potintials that trigger heart contraction.
2. What are the contractile fibers and what do they do?
The remaining WORKING MYOCARDIAL FIBERS THAT PROVIDE
THE POWERFUL CONTRACTIONS THAT PROPEL BLOOD.
3. There are two important functions of the autorhythmic
fibers. Describe each:

a. Pacemaker setting the rhythm of electical

excitation that causes contractions in the heart.
b. Cardiac conduction system which provides a path
for each cycle of cardiac ecxitation to progress through the heart.

4. Describe each step of the cardiac conduction system using

the figure below:

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(1)Sinoatrial Node-cardiac excitability normally begins here, in
the right atrial wall just inferior to the opening of the superior
vena cava. SA node cells do not have a stable resting potential.
Rather, they repeatedly depolarize to threshold spontaneously.

(2)Atrioventricular Node-by propagating along the atrial fibers,

the action potential reaches the AV node, located in the
interatrial septum, just aterior to the opening of the coronary
sinus.

(3)Atrioventricular Bundle-FromAV nod to AV bundle also known

as the bundle of His. This bundle is the only site where action
potential can conduct from the atria to the ventricles.

(4)Right and Left Bundle Branches-after propagating along the

AV bundle, action potential enters the right+left bundle branches
that course through the interventricular septum towards the
apex of the heart.

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 (5)Purkinje Fibers-conduct the action potential from the apex of
the heart upward to the rest of the ventricular myocardium. Then
the ventricles contract superiorly to the apex, pushing blood
upward toward the semilunar valve.

C. Contraction of contractile fibers

Action potentials in a contractile fiber occur by the following:

1. Depolarization

a. What causes depolarization? When a contractile fiber

is brought to threshold by an action potential from neihboring fibers, its
Na+ channels open.

2. Plateau

a. What is plateau? A period of maintained

depolarization.

b. What causes plateau? It is due in part to the opening

of Ca+ channels in the sarcolemma. The increased Ca+ concentration
in the cystol ultimately triggers contraction.

3. Repolarization

a. What causes repolarization? As K+ channels open

the resulting outflow of K+ lowers the contractile fibers membrane
potential to the resting membrane potenrial.

What effect does epinephrine have on contraction force and

why? Increases contraction force by enhancing Ca+ flow into the cystol.

What is the refractory period? How long does it last and why? the
time interval during which a second contraction cannot be triggeredThe
refractory period of a cardiac musle fiber last longer than the contraction
itself.

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 D. ATP production in cardiac muscle

1. How does cardiac muscle produce most of the ATP it

needs? aerobic cellular respiration

2. What is another way that cardiac muscle can produce

some of the ATP
it needs? lactic acid

3. What is creatine kinase? Why is its presence in blood one

sign that a
myocardial infarction has occurred? The enzyme that
catalyses transfer of a phosphate group from creatinine phosphate
toADP to ADT.

19.6 The electrocardiogram is a record of electrical activity

associated with each heartbeat.

A. Electrocardiogram

1. Define Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) The electical

changes that accompany the heartbeat.

2. Label the ECG below and include the following: P wave,

QRS complex
and T wave.

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 3. What do the following represent?

a. P wave atrial depolarization

b. QRS complex ventricle depolarization

c. T wave ventricular repolarization

4. Describe what the following ECG patterns suggest:

a. Larger P waves enlargement of the atrium

b. Enlarged Q wave myocardial infarction

c. Enlarged R wave enlarged ventricles

d. Flatter than normal T wave receiving insufficient

oxygen

e. Elevated T wave coronary artery disease

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 f. Lengthened time span between P wave and
beginning of QRS
complex When the action potential is forced to
detour around scar tissue caused by disorders such as coronary artery
disease or rheumatic fever.

B. Correlation of ECG waves with heart activity

1. Define Systole refers to the fase of contraction

2. Define Diastole refers to the phase of relaxation

3. Use the following figure to describe each step:

(1) A cardiac action potential arises in the SA node. It propagates

throughout the arial muscle and down to the AV node. As the atrial
contractile fibers depolarize, the P wave appears in the ECG.

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 (2) Contraction of atrial contractile fibers( atrial systole ) begins
after the P wave appears.

(3) The action potential enters the AV bundle, where it is

propogated through the bundle branches, Purkinje fibers, and the entire
ventricular myocardium. Depolarization progresses down the interventricular
septum, the upward and outwards from the apex, producing the QRS
complex. At the same time, atrial repolarization is occuring, but is not usually
evident in the EKG because the larger QRS complex masks it. As the atria
repolarizes, they relax ( atrial diastole).

(4) Contraction of ventricular contractile fibers (ventricular

systole) begins after the QRS complex appears. As contraction proceeds from
the apex toward the base of the heart, blood is squeezed upward toward the
semilunar valve.

(5) Repolarization of ventricular contractile fibers begins at

the apex and spreads throughout the ventricular myocardium. This produces
the T wave in the EKG.

(6) After the T wave begins, the ventricles relax( ventricular

diastole).

19.7 The cardiac cycle represents all of the events associated with
one heartbeat.

A. Define Cardiac Cycle all of the events associated with a single

heart beat.

B. Heart sounds during the cardiac cycle

1. Define Auscultation the act of listening to the sounds in

the body

2. What causes the sound of the heartbeat? from turbulance

in blood flow created by the closure of the heart valves.

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 3. There are 4 heart sounds during each cardiac cycle. Which
ones are loud enough to be heard through a stethoscope in
a normal heart? the first and second heart sound

4. The first sound (S1), lubb, is caused by what? closure of

the AV valves as the ventricles contract

5. The second sound (S2), dupp, is caused by what? due to

closure of the semilunar valves as the ventricles relax

6. What causes S3? due to the ventricles filling with blood

7. What causes S4? due to blood turbulance during atrial

systole

C. Clinical Connection: heart murmurs

1. Define Heart Murmur an abnormal sound consisting of a

clicking, rushing, or gurgling noise that is heard before, between, orafter
normal heart sounds, ormay mask the normal heart sounds.

2. What does an adult murmur often indicate? a valve

disorder

D. Pressure and volume changes during the cardiac cycle

1. Atrial systole

a. What is happening at the same time as atrial systole

(atria
contracting)? the ventricle are relaxing

b. Use the figure below to describe the following steps:

(1) An action potential from the SA node results in atrial

depolarization, marked by the P wave.

(2) Atrial depolarization produces atrial systole. As the aria

contract, they exert pressure on the blood which forces the blood
through the open AV valves into the ventricles.

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 (3) Because the SL valves are still closed, the ventricles fill
with blood. Atrial systole contributes a final 25 mL volumes of
blood toalready in each ventricle. The end of atrial systole is also
the end of ventricular diastole.

2. Ventricular systole

a. What is happening at the same time as ventricular

systole
(ventricles contracting)? atrial diastole

b. Use the figure below to describe the following steps:

(4) the QRS complex in the EKG complex marks the onset
of ventricular depolarization.

(5) Ventricular depolarization leads to ventricular systole.

As ventricular systole begins, pressure rises inside the ventricles
and pushes blood up against AV valves forcing them shut.As the
AV valves slams shut resulting blood turbulance the first audiable
heart sound.

(6) As the ventricles continue to contract, pressure inside

the closed chambers rises sharply. When ventricular pressure
rises above the pressure in the aorta and pulmonary trunk, both
SL valves are forced open and blood is ejected from the heart.

(7) In the resting body, the volume of blood ejected from

each ventricle during ventricular systole.

3. Atrial and ventricular diastole

a. Use the figure below to describe the following steps:

(8) The T wave in the EKG marks the onset of ventricular

repolarization.

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 (9) As ventricle relaxes, pressure within the
chambers falls, and blood in the aorta and pulmonary trunk begins to flow
backwards towards the regions of lower pressure in the ventricles.

(10) As the ventricles continue to relax,

ventricular pressure falls quickly. When ventricular pressure drops below
atrial pressure, the AV valves are forced open, and ventricular filling begins.

19.8 Cardiac output is the blood volume ejected by a ventricle each

minute

A. Define Cardiac Output (CO) the volume of blood ejected by a

ventricule each minute into the aorta or pulmonary trunk

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 Define Stroke Volument (SV) the volume of blood ejected during
each contraction

Define Heart Rate (HR)

Be sure you know the following formula and are able to solve
problems with it: the number of heartbeats per minute

CO (mL/min) = SV (mL/beat) X HR (beats/min)

B. Regulation of stroke volume

1. Note the following:

a. Some blood is always left in the ventricles at the

end of their contraction.

b. The more blood that returns to the heart during

diastole, the more blood that is ejected during the
next systole.

c. Left and right ventricles pump equal volumes of

blood.

2. Three factors regulate stroke volume.

a. Preload

1. Define Preload - the degree to which the heart

is stretched before it contracts

2. Describe the Frank-Starling law of the heart.

The more the heart is stretched as it fills during diastole,
the greater is the force of contraction during systole

b. Contractility

1. Define Contractility the strength of contraction

of individual ventricular muscle fibers

2. Which factors increase the force of contraction

of cardiac muscle fibers? epinephrine and
noepinephrine

3. Which factors decrease the strength of the

heartbeat? anesthetics and inkreased K+ levels

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 c. Afterload

1. Define Afterload-the amount of pressure the

contracting ventricles must produce to force
open the SL valves

2. Which conditions increase afterload?

hypertension and atherosclerosis

C. Regulation of heart rate

1. Autonomic regulation of heart rate

a. Where is the cardiovascular center located? in the

medulla oblongata

b. Use the figure below to answer the following

questions:

Which higher brain centers provide input to the

cardiovascular center? cerebral cortex, limbic
system, and hypothalamus

Which sensory receptors provide input to the

cardiovascular
center? proprioceptors, chemoreceptors,
baroreceptors

Sympathetic neurons extend from the cardiovascular

center to the heart in which nerves? cardiac
accelerator nerves

What does the release of norepinephrine cause?

speeds up spontaneous depolarization at SA and AV nodes,
so that these pacemakers fire impulses more rapidly and
heart rate increases

Parasympathetic neurons reach the heart via which

nerves? vagus nerve

What does the release of acetylcholine cause?

decreases heart rate by slowing the rate ofof spontaneous
depolarization in autorythmic fibers

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2. Chemical regulation of heart rate

a. Hormones

1. What are the effects of epinephrine and

norepinephrine? increases heart rate and
contractility

2. What are the effects of thyroid hormones?

enhance cardiac contractility

3. Define Tachycardia - elevated festing heart

rate

b. Cations

1. What do elevated blood levels of sodium

cause? blocks Ca2+ inflow into cardiac muscle
fibers

2. What does excess potassium in the blood

cause? decreases heart rate by blocking
generations of action potentials.

3. What does a moderate increase in interstitial

calcium cause? heart rate and contracting
force

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 3. Other factors in heart rate regulation

a. What happens to heart rate with increased age? it

declines

b. Do males or females often have a higher resting

heart rate?
Adult females
c. What is the impact of exercise on heart
rate? bring resting heart rate down

d Define Bradycardia-a resting heart rate

under 50 beats/min.

e. What is the impact of increased body temperature on

heart
rate? causes the SA node to discharge impulses more
quickly thereby increasing heart rate.

CONCEPT QUESTIONS (page 673 in textbook)

1. Why must ventricular pressure be greater than arterial pressure during

ventricular ejection? Because the ventricles must push the blood a
greater distance.

2. Will stroke volume increase or decrease in each of the following

situations? Explain each of your answers.

a. Your blood pressure rises when youre angry. Increase because

blood will be pushing more forvefully in the veins making it more likely
for clotting.

b. An anesthetic decreases the strength of contraction of your

ventricles. Anesthetics decrease the heart rate.

c. When you are exercising, contraction of skeletal muscles returns

more blood to the heart. Decreases, because heart rate goes down
after a regulare routine of excersising.

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