DEVELOPMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL TEST OF AN ANALYTICAL MODEL OF THE ORIFICE

PULSE TUBE REFRIGERATOR*

Peter J. Storch and Ray Radebaugh

Chemical Engineering Science Division

National Bureau of Standards
Boulder, Colorado

ABSTRACT

The promise of high reliability and high refrigeration capacity is

responsible for a recent surge of interest in pulse tube refrigeration.
This work involves the development of an analytical model describing
behavior of the orifice pulse tube to gain a better understanding of the
refrigeration process. Due to oscillating gas flow, the system is de-
scribed in terms of average enthalpy flow with such simplifying assump-
tions as an ideal gas and sinusoidal pressure variation. Phasor analy-
sis is used to represent the temperature, pressure, and mass flow rate
waves in vector form. Also discussed in this paper is the verification
of the model in which analytical predictions are compared to experi-
mental measurements. The results confirm predictions by the model that
refrigeration power is proportional to the average pressure, the pulse
frequency, the mass flow ratio, and the square of the dynamic pressure
ratio. Also, a temperature probe was devised to measure the average
temperature profile and dynamic temperature in the tube. As a result of
simplifying assumptions, magnitudes of refrigeration power from the
model are between 3 and 5 times greater than experimental values.
INTRODUCTION
The need for reliable cryocoolers is a well known fact today, par-
ticularly in space applications. The pulse tube refrigerator has poten-
tial for high reliability because it only has one moving part, the com-
pressor, and operates at low pressures and pressure ratios. High refrig
eration capacity and good intrinsic efficiency are other advantages
which make the pulse tube a desirable alternative to other cryocoolers.
At the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), a low temperature of 60 K has
been reached using a single stage pulse tube with an orifice. 1 This
system produced 12 W of refrigeration power with an efficiency of 40% of
Carnot at 80 K and a frequency of 6 Hz.

The pulse tube refrigerator consists of a compressor at room temper-

ature, the pulse tube with a heat exchanger at each end, and a regener-
*Research funded by NASA Ames Research Center under contract no.
A-34964C(RCW). Contribution of the National Bureau of Standards, not
subject to copyright.

851
ator between the compressor and the cold end of the tube. These compo-
nents make up a system called the basic pulse tube, which was studied
extensively by Gifford and coworkers. 2 In 1984 Mikulin inserted an ori-
fice at the closed end of the tube which allowed gas to flow into and
out of a large reservoir volume. 3 Figure 1 shows the NBS version of
this new pulse tube and is referred to as the orifice pulse tube. The
refrigeration cycle begins as the piston moves forward and the gas is
cooled to the cold end temperature as it flows through the regenerator
and into the tube. The gas in the tube is compressed adiabatically and
is heated as it travels toward the closed end. During this high pres-
sure period, heat is rejected from the system in the hot end heat ex-
changer. In the basic pulse tube, gas in the tube is cooled by transfer-
ring heat with the tube wall, while in the orifice pulse tube the gas is
cooled by adiabatic expansion due to flow through the orifice. The pis-
ton then moves back and gas flows out of the tube and back through the
regenerator. Gas in the tube is then cooled due to adiabatic expansion
and gas flowing through the cold end heat exchanger absorbs heat from
the refrigeration load. The cycle ends with a low pressure period dur-
ing which gas in the tube is heated in the basic pulse tube by heat
transfer from the tube wall. In the orifice pulse tube, gas in the tube
is heated by adiabatic compression due to flow through the orifice. The
cycle results in an average enthalpy flow from the cold end to the hot
end which establishes a constant temperature gradient in the tube and
provides a continuous refrigeration effect.
Previous experimental work indicates that the orifice creates a
much greater enthalpy flow in the tube than heat transfer to the tube
wall. 1 Therefore, the subject of this study is the orifice pulse tube
and the purpose is to develop an analytical model of the refrigeration
power. Such a model will identify the various parameters which
influence performance and will be useful in optimization and design.

servoir
Volume

Piston

Pulse Tube

Figure 1. Schematic of the orifice pulse tube refrigerator.

852
 Pulse Tube

Figure 2. Energy balance system showing time averaged

heat and enthalpy flows.

ENTHALPY FLOW ANALYSIS

The system to be analyzed for enthalpy flow is shown in figure 2

and consists of the working fluid in the tube. Due to the oscillating
gas flow, enthalpy flows are time-averaged over one cycle. Applying the
first law of thermodynamics to the cold end of the tube gives the follow-
ing expression for the heat absorbed by the system

Q = <Ih - <H > (1)

c r '
where <H> is the average enthalpy flow in the tube and <Hr> is the aver-
age enthalpy flow from the regenerator. Since flow through the orifice
is isothermal for an ideal gas, the first law at the hot end says that
the heat rejected from the system is equal to the enthalpy flow in the
tube,

<!h. (2)

The energy balances reveal two interesting points about the pulse tube
refrigerator. First, unlike other refrigerators both the net
refrigeration, Qc, and the gross refrigeration, Qh, can be measured.
Second, since there is no addition of heat at any point along the tube,
the enthalpy flow must be constant in this region.

The average enthalpy flow over one cycle assuming an ideal gas is
given by

<H> = (C /t) lt ~Td dt (3)

P Jo
where t is the period of the cycle, Cp is the heat capacity, m is the
mass flow rate, and Td is the dynamic temperature.

PHASOR ANALYSIS

In order to easily describe the oscillations in the tube, the pres-

sure and mass flow rate waves are assumed to be sinusoidal. This assump-
tion is good for small pressure ratios and greatly simplifies the mathe-
matics involved in the analysis. The sine waves are then represented in
the frequency domain by stationary vectors or phasors. The magnitude
and the angle of a phasor are equal to the amplitude and phase of the
sinusoid respectively. Phasors are represented here by underlined
capital letters. For further details on the phasor analysis and any
other aspect of the model, see reference 4.

853
 The total mass flow rate is written in terms of the phasors for
flow at the cold end (x=O) d~e to the compressor <~c) and flow at the
hot end due to the orifice (~0 ),

-M = {1-X(x)}M
-c + X(x)M,
-o
(4)

where X(x) is the ratio of mass in the tube up to point x to the total
mass. The term X(x) satisfies the conditions X(O) = 0 and X(1) = 1 and
is a function of the temperature profile in the pulse tube. The phasor
diagram in figure 3a demonstrates how ~0 lags ~c by the phase angle e.

The pressure wave in the tube consists of a static and ~ dynamic

component and is assumed to be only a function of time. The dynamic
pressure is written as the sum of two phasors: the pressure due to flow
from the compressor (fc) and the pressure due to flow through the ori-
fice (f0 ),

fct =fa + ~ (5)

Figure 3b shows the pressure phasor diagram and in general, pressure

will lag mass flow rate by 90 degrees as shown with fc a~d ~c In the
case of fo there is an additi~nal 180 degree lag since ~0 is decreasing
the pressure in the tube when ~c is increasing the pressur~. Flow
through the orifice is assumed to be laminar, which means ~0 is propor-
tional to the total pressure and fd has the same phase angle e as ~0
The dynamic temperature is derived from the following energy
balance on an element of gas in the tube assuming no heat transfer
between the gas and the tube wall

d(pAgu)/dt + d(mh)/dx = o, (6)

where p is the gas density, Ag is the cross-sectional area of the tube,

u is the specific internal energy, and h is the specific enthalpy.
Using the continuity equation, the definition of internal energy, and
the definition of enthalpy for an ideal gas, a differential equation in
terms of temperature and pressure is obtained,

(7)

-sin -sin

-cos cos

sin sin

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Phasor diagram for (a) mass flow rate and (b) dynamic pressure.

854
 -sin

Figure 4. Phasor diagram for

sin dynamic temperature.

where R is the gas constant. For small pressure ratios, 6P/P and 6T/T
are small and T and P are equal to the average values Ta and Pa
Equation (7) is then easily integrated over time to arrive at the phasor
representation of the dynamic temperature in terms of Pd and M, the mass
moved past point x, - -

Td = (RT /C P ) P~ - (RT /A P )(aT /ax)M. (8)

- apa--u aga a-
Figure 4 shows the phasor diagram for the dynamic temperature.

ENTHALPY FLOW EQUATIONS

The average enthalpy flow in the tube is found according to equa-

tion (3) by integrating the product of m(x,t) and Td(x,t) over one cycle
in the time domain,

(9)
An expression for cos6 is written in terms of the mass flow ratio using
figure 3b where Tcp is the compressor temperature and Tc is the cold end
temperature,

cos6 = P /P ( 10)
0 c
Then using the following equation for the mass flow rate at the cold end
where Vcp is the fixed swept (total) volume of the compressor and vis
the frequency,
.
m (P V /RT hv, ( 11)
c a cp cp
the enthalpy flow is put in the dimensionless form

<H>/P V v = (u/2)(Pd/P )(m /m )(T IT ) [(1-X)(T IT ) + X]. (12)

a cp a o c a cp cp c
The product of the terms involving Ta and X in equation (12) cancel and
the model is independent of position,

<H>IP v v = (u/2)(Pd/P )(m ;ffi ). ( 1 3)

a cp a o c
Therefore the model is consistent with the first law which requires a
constant enthalpy flow in the tube.

855
 The following equation is applied for a reversible, adiabatic pro-
cess with a small pressure ratio and zero dead volume between the com-
pressor and the tube,

(Pd/Pa) = 1/2 Y(Vcp/Vt) ( 1 4)

where Vt is the pulse tube volume and Y is the ratio of heat capacities.
Two dimensionless forms for a fixed Vt in terms of the pressure ratio
and the volume ratio are

<H>IPa vt v ~(1/Y)(Pd/P )2
a
(mo/mc ), ( 15)

<H>IPa vt v (~/4)Y(V
cp
/Vt)2 (mo /mc ), (16)

The average enthalpy flow given in equations (13), (15), and (16) repre-
sent the analytical model for the gross refrigeration power produced by
the orifice pulse tube.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

In order to verify the model, various parameters in the model were

investigated experimentally to determine their affect on refrigeration
power. The test apparatus consisted of a pulse tube of length 130 mm
and diameter 19.1 mm with an adjustable orifice. Temperature and mass
flow rate were measured at the cold end of the tube while pressure and
temperature were measured at the hot end. Equation (15) says that for a
constant pulse tube volume the refrigeration power will be proportional
to the average pressure Pa, the frequency v, the mass flow ratio m0 /mc,
and the square of the dynamic pressure ratio Pd/Pa Experimental
results presented in figures 5 and 6 show that the model is successful
in predicting the dependence of performance on the important parameters.
Also, a comparison of measurements with nitrogen and helium show that

40 40
Dependence of Refrigeration Power
Dependence of Refrigeration on Pressure Ratio
Power on Average Pressure
3: 3:
ri 30 Tc= 200 K ri 30 1c = 200 K
w w
v =6Hz 3: v =6Hz
3:
0 ~I~= 0.29 0 P8 = 1.0 MPa
Q. Q.
ril0 /rflc = 0.28 z rilofrilc = 0.26
z
0 20 0 20
1- i=
<( <(
a: a:
w w
(!) (!)

a: a:
u. 10 u. 10
w w
a: a:

AVERAGE PRESSURE, MPa

(a) (b)

Figure 5. Experimental measurements of refrigeration power as a

function of a) average pressure and b) dynamic pressure
ratio.

856
 60

Dependence of Refrigeration Power 60

on Mass Flow Ratio
50
3: Dependence of Refrigeration Power
Tc = 188 K 3: 50 on Frequency
ri
w u =6Hz
ri.
3: 40 f!t
= 1.0 MPa w Tc=150K
0 3: 40
0.. ~/P8 = 0.40 0
Pa = 1.0 MPa
z 0.. P.t 'Pa =0.39
0 30 z rilolrilc = 0.32
i= 0 30
< i=
a: <
w a:
~ 20 w 20
a:
u..
!
a:
w u..
w
a: 10 a: 10

1.0 10 12
rilofrhc FREQUENCY, Hz

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Experimental measurements of refrigeration power as a

function of a) mass flow ratio and b) frequency.

equation (15) is correct in predicting that for a fixed volume ratio

VcpiVt, helium with a larger heat capacity ratio is the best working
fluid.
The temperature wave was measured at various positions along the
tube with a thin foil thermocouple for a fast response. Figure 7
displays the average temperature profiles which have a steep slope with
linear behavior in the middle of the tube. The model was found to be
thermodynamically consistent by predicting constant enthalpy flow along
the tube. However, theoretical values for the refrigeration power were
between 3 and 5 times greater than the experimental measurements. This
result is attributed to the assumptions of sinusoidal behavior and no
end effects. Figure 8 shows the deviation of the actual temperature
wave from sinusoidal behavior and that the experimental Td is much
smaller at the two ends than predicted by the sine wave. The model also
does not account for dead volume in the system which will decrease the
temperature change produced by flow through the orifice. The ratio of
theoretical refrigeration power to the experimental value as a function
of cold end temperature is shown in figure 9 which can be used to
correct for the ideal assumptions in the model.

CONCLUSIONS
The analytical model presented here for the orifice pulse tube
refrigerator results in a simple expression for the gross refrigeration
power which agrees with experiments regarding the dependence on all the
parameters. The magnitude predicted by the model is 3-5 times higher
than experiment and is presumably due to the simplifying assumptions
used in the model.

857
 4001 ~--~----~--~----~--~

Temperature Profiles
in Pulse Tube

::.::
300
w
a:
::l
1-
<(
a:
w
Q. Figure 7. Average gas
::2 temperature as a
w
1- function of
position in the
orifice pulse
tube for differ-
ent cold end
temperatures.
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

RELATIVE POSITION

Figure 8. Comparison of
experimental
temperature wave
with theoretical
sine wave at the
cold and hot ends.

TIME,ms

Figure 9. Ratio of theoreti-

cal to experimental
refrigeration power
as a function of
cold end tempera-
TEMPERATURE ,K ture.

858
REFERENCES

1. S. Herrmann and R. Radebaugh, Measurements of the Efficiency and

Refrigeration Power of Pulse-Tube Refrigeration, National
Bureau of Standards Tech. Note 1301, Sept. (1986).

2. W.E. Gifford and R.C. Longsworth, Pulse Tube Refrigeration, Trans.

of the ASME, 63:264 (1964),

3. E.I. Mikulin, A.A. Tarasov, and M.P. Shkrebyonock, Low Temperature

Expansion Pulse Tubes, "Advances in Cryogenic Engineering,"
Plenum Press, New York Vol. 29 (1984) p. 629.
4. P.J. Storch and R. Radebaugh, Analytical Model of Refrigeration
Power of the Orifice Pulse Tube Refrigerator, NBS Technical
Note, to be published.

859