in tr: res

Bin tr: pot-hg

Quang tr: ldr
T phn cc: radial
T khng phn cc: cap
i-t: diode
Cu i-t: bridge
Thch anh: crystal
Nt nhn: button
Ngun AC: vsin
Ngun DC: battery
R le : animated relay model
Led 7 on : 7SEG
Bng n: lamp.
Hng ro(header): Conn-silxx (xx l s chn)
Lu : Cc linh kin thuc th vin Active th c th thay i v hot ng trong m phng
c, cn cc linh kin khc ch c th thay i thng s khi cha m phng

The Geiger counter

Dr Jonathan Hare, Physics Dept., Sussex University

Introduction
The Geiger counter is a scientific instrument that can detect ionising radiation such as
alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. It's capable of detecting a single particle and
although relatively simple is thus exquisitely sensitive [1].

Sources of radiation
Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. Radioactive materials produce
three different types of radiation: alpha () and beta () particles and gamma () rays. The
soil and rocks beneath our feet contain all sorts of radioactive elements which contribute
to what is called the background radiation. It has been estimated that the top hundred
yards of the earth's crust contains an average of 12,000 tons of uranium and thorium per
square mile [2].

There are also radiation contributions from ionising particles produced by solar radiation
hitting the upper atmosphere and also from cosmic rays, the origin of which is still partly
a mystery, from our galaxy or even further out. So with this simple Geiger counter you
can not only get a sense of the invisible radiation's around you from the Earth but also
rather incredibly from distant galaxies and processes going on far out in the Cosmos!

How the Geiger counter works

The heart of the Geiger counter is the Geiger-Muller (GM) tube. This is usually a metal
cylinder or jacket within which there is a metal wire or fine tube. Inside the tube is a gas
at low pressure. In most cases one end is encapsulated with plastic while the other end
has a fine mica window. The window maintains an air tight seal while providing a
relatively easy access for highly ionising radiation such as alpha particles that would not
easily pass through the dense metal of the jacket [3].

A high voltage (ca. 300 - 400V DC) is applied between the outer tube (-ve) and inner
wire (+ve). As the outer jacket has a larger diameter than the inner wire or tube the
electric field within the device is greater nearer the inner connection which makes it more
sensitive towards the central part of the GM tube. The voltage is low enough however
that the gas remains insulating (the plateau region of the GM tube charecteristics [3])
until an ionising radiation enters the device. A single particle entering the GM tube causes
a cascade of ionisation's leading to the device creating a current pulse. The gas also
contains a quenching chemical to stop the avalanche from being maintained indefinitely,
allowing another particle to be detected shortly afterward. There is of course an upper
limit to the number of ionisation events a particular type / design of GM tube can respond
to [3].

Exquisite sensitivity
Imagine a single beta particle enters the tube and creates a click in the Geiger counter
speaker. The beta particle might be a single electron. A click might be a 1mA pulse of
1/1000 second duration. This click will thus be equivalent to ca. 1/(1.6 x 10-19) x 1/1000 x
1/1000 i.e. about 1012 electrons moving. So in this case one electron has been transformed
into a pulse of 1012 electrons. That's an effective 'gain' of 1,000,000,000,000 - quite
impressive for such a simple device!

Geiger counter (GM) tubes come in all shapes and sizes. The long thin one at the top
is about 20cm long, the small one bottom left is the ZP1401 (see text below).
GM tubes
GM tubes come in all shapes and sizes for many different applications. Centronics
produce a range of general purpose GM tubes for example the ZP1401 [4] is small and
will work well with this circuit.

Fig. 1a. The basic Geiger counter circuit.

Fig. 1b. This is an alternative HT supply for the geiger circuit (built Nov 2012). It
takes less current than Fig. 1a and seems to provide a better current o/p. Adjust the
200R for ca. 450V between point x and c. (basic idea taken from Encyclopedia of
Electronic Circuits, R. F, Graf, vol. 1, p. 537)
A basic Geiger counter
This basic design described here uses a simple 9V 555 oscillator circuit to provide pulses
to a step-up transformer to create ca. 50-100V. A diode ladder circuit [5] then multiplies
this up to about 300V suitable to drive the GM tube (for this circuit I found that I got ca.
280V for a 9V supply and ca. 385V for 12V). The voltage is applied via a large current
limiting resistor (ca. 2-5M ohm) to the tube. The positive goes to the inner wire while the
outer jacket goes via a smaller resistor (ca. 10 k to 100k) to ground. If a pair of high
impedance headphones or a crystal ear piece is wired across the small earthing resistor
each ionising radiation can be heard as a 'classic' Geiger counter 'click'. Thus you have
the basis of a very simple Geiger counter.

RV1 sets the frequency of the 555 oscillator and one simply sets this till the voltage is
correct for the GM tube. The exact frequency will probably vary from one transformer to
another but it probably worth starting with a high value (low frequency which you may
just hear in the earpiece) and increasing until you hear the clicks starting to come out of
the earpiece. The diode ladder circuit may take a few seconds to settle down after each
adjustment so do this adjustment slowly waiting to note the change in small steps of RV1.

NOTE: The voltage on the ladder circuit is quite high and potentially dangerous. The
voltage to the GM tube is via a large resistor and so this should not present any hazard
but the capacitors will be charged up, and maintain their charge, for quite some time after
the circuit has been turned off. So please take care not to pick up the circuit board in the
palm of your hand even if you have disconnected the supply. I have shocked myself many
times this way and you then have to spend time looking for the board you inadvertently
threw (because of the shock) somewhere in your workshop!
 Fig. 2. Pulse shaper and modifier used to convert the very sharp Geiger counter
pulses to drive a counter, LED and speaker.

More advanced detection

The basic circuit in Fig. 1 is fine for clicking an earpiece but will not drive a speaker or
be able to operate a digital counter for example. The second circuit, Fig. 2, consists of a
simple amplifier and timer (the left hand side 555) that boosts the GM pulse and creates a
uniform pulse of constant period. This can be used to drive a pulse counter or speaker.
The pulse is quite short (ca. 1ms) - long enough to provide a reliable signal for a counter
but not too long that it would limit the detectable counting rate. A speaker can be
connected via a 100R resistor to pin 3 of the 555 timer.

As this pulse is still quite short I have built in a second timer (right hand side 555) which
then produces longer ca. 50ms pulses. You can use this to drive an LED. An LED wired
to the first timer flashes too fast for the eye to see while the o/p of the second timer
produces a clear flash for every click. Because the timing pulses are longer on the second
timer this o/p will be limited in its maximum count rate.

Rough Science radioactivity

Hermione Cockburn was the Geologist in the Colorado series of Rough Science [6]. She
travelled to Telluride (Colorado, USA, famous for its Uranium mines) to look for
radioactive Rocks. She then built a cloud chamber to 'see' the ionising tracks the particles
create [6]. It was great to get to know her on the series and so when I got back home I
built her the Geiger counter described here as a 'thank you' present.

Everyday radioactivity
You can order small pieces of pitchblende (an ore of Uranium) from e-bay which will
produce a nice response from the GM counter. Smoke detectors contain an isotope of
Americium (Am-241) which is an alpha emitter. In the past thorium mantles were used
for the material for camping lights (they give a very intense bright light) which are also
slightly radioactive as are some faces of old luminous watches (ca. WWII).

Typical measurements
My GM tube (ca. 20mm diameter and 70 mm long) detects about 50-60 counts per
minute where I live in Brighton which is built on the chalk Downland of Southern
England (Sussex, UK) at sea level. A smaller volume tube like one used here [4] will
interact with less background radiation and so produce proportionally less counts / min.
Higher counts would be expected in areas where there are large amounts of radioactive
granite for example such as in Cornwall and parts of Scotland. While filming the Rough
Science Series in Silverton (Colorado 3000m asl) I took my Geiger counter along
thinking that the readings would be very much increased but to my surprises I found
similar results to those measured at home; ca. 50-60 counts / min.

My first scientific instrument

At school it was a dream of mine to make a Geiger counter. The Physics teacher and I
even submitted designs for one for a national school competition one year. On the last
day of school he gave me an old GM tube saying "I don't think this works but you might
like to experiment with it" - this was very, very kind.

In my first year of the Worthing Sixth Form College walking to-and-fro between my
home I started planning in my mind exactly what I was going to do with the tube, the
circuit design and even the constructional layout. One afternoon I suddenly stopped
procrastinating and had the thought "why don't I make it right now? What's stopping me
making it right now? . Nothing!" Over the next hour I got down to making the device
and my dream literally became reality - it was really wonderful and quite magical to see it
appear.

In my walking, slightly day-dreaming plans I had thought through many of the possible
problems that might come up, how to test each stage and how to best layout the design.
With all this preparation when I finally made the effort to make the Geiger counter it
almost felt like it built itself. My first circuit was similar to that shown in the basic design
(Fig. 1) except that it was made mostly from scrap parts cobbled together. I used an old
plastic army battery box for the case. It's still working 25 years or so later ....
 Fig. 3. The authors' first scientific instrument - a Geiger counter ca. 1984-1985.
The blue cap on the GM tube protects the delicate mica window but can be removed
for measurements.

Travels with my Geiger counter

I gave a talk on my homemade Geiger counter while studying for my Physics degree at
Surrey University. That weekend I went home on the train and had to change at Gatwick
and having a long wait I decided to wander around the airport to fill in time. I must have
looked suspicious as I was eventually stopped by two Police men who questioned me.
They asked me what was in my bag and being rather annoyed at all their questions I
barked back "a Geiger counter of course!" at which point they took me into a room and
asked me lots and lots and lots of questions. I missed many trains home. Of course I DID
have a Geiger counter in my bag and a homemade one at that. It took a while to sort that
one out ... and that was in 1988, God knows what would happen now .....

Recent changes / modifications

I noticed that the 555 on the HT generator for the GM tube runs a little hot. I added a 15R
resistor between the 555 output and the LT700 transformer to limit the pulse current into
the transformer. Now the 555 runs cool.

I have added Fig. 1b in November 2012. I built this alternative high voltage supply to test
the tube responce with a different supply as I was slightly worried that Fig.1a o/p was
varying. Fig.1b is simplier than the 555 circuit, takes less current and seems to provide a
higher current o/p at 450V. I think its a better circuit overall.

June 2013: After making several of the Geiger counter high voltage generator circuits I
have noticed a few problems. The audio transformer used to generate the HV seem to
vary in spec from device to device. The result is that the voltage developed by the circuit
is sometimes rather low ca. 200V (9V supply) to run a Geiger tube. To get a higher
voltage (ca. 400V) the resonant frequency capacitor (across the transformer) and the
feedback capacitor can be varied to peak the circuit. The original circuit had C1 = C2 =
47nf but I found that the changing the transformer cap to 22nf and the feedback cap to
10nf was more effective. The drive resistor to the base of 10k can also be reduced to say
4k7. I usually power the circuit from a 9V supply and then derive the 5V for the logic
boards from this.

References and links

[1] For a short movie about the Geiger counter see: Vega minimovies
[2] See page 448 of Isaac Asimov's New Guide to Science, Penguin, 1984. ISBN 0 14
007621 2
[3] See wiki GM tube page: Wiki Geiger page
[4] GM tube type ZP1401 cost ca. 57-00 + vat (ca. June 2010) new and are available
from Centronics, see:
Centronics web site
Alrad web site (uk distributor of Centronics GM tubes)
[5] For diode ladder multiplier circuits see: diode multipliers
[6] The sixth BBC / OU Rough Science TV series set in Silverton, Colorado, USA,
see: RS six

.........................
JPH, June 2010
Geiger Counters Not So Hard To
Build
T.K. HAREENDRAN
Although theyve been on the shelves of many online retailers for quite a few years now, Geiger-
Tubes have been conspicuously absent from hobby electronics magazines/websites. It has to be
said that building Geiger Counter circuits, especially if we set ourselves a certain level of choice,
is far from simple or rather, was far from simple, until these recently available Geiger Tubes
came along to help us out!

Overview
Geiger counter, also known as GeigerMller (G-M) counter, detects ionizing radiation such as
alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays using the ionization effect produced in a Geiger-
Tube. The Geiger-Tube (GMT or GT) is filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon, or argon at
low pressure, to which a high voltage is applied.
The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when a particle or photon of incident radiation makes
the gas conductive by ionization. The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the
Townsend Discharge effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to the
processing and display segments. This large pulse from the tube makes design of the Geiger-
Counter relatively easy, as the subsequent process is greatly simplified.

Figure 1: Bench type GeigerMller counter with end window detector (courtesy: wikipedia)

Geiger-Tubes
Thanks to the new Geiger-Tubes marketed by many prominent vendors. Its now possible not
just to build a Geiger Counter, but also to give it a level of performance that would make most
commercial products green with envy. Intended to gradually supersede earlier Geiger-Tubes,
these new devices enable a leap forward in terms of quality and performance. In figure 2, you
can see the historic GeigerMller tube made in 1932 by Hans Geiger for laboratory use (left),
and todays compact Geiger-Mller tube type
SBM-20
available for makers and hobbyists (right).

Figure 2: (courtesy: wikipedia)

SBM-20
is a low-priced, quintessential Russian tube, more sensitive to beta and gamma than most. Other
similar/near-similar Geiger-Mller tubes in this class are SI-3BG, SI-1G, and LND-712. The
type LND-712 is infact an End Window-Alpha-Beta-Gamma Detector from LND, INC.

Figure 3: The LND-712 tube (courtesy: lnd, inc)

Geiger Counters
A Geiger counter circuit offers an excellent option for obtaining concrete values for the radiation
load. In principle, it uses the ionizing properties of nuclear radiation, from which it generates a
measurement of the radiation load. As described above, Geiger counter detects nuclear radiation
by means of a metal counter tube, which is at the same time a cathode, and inside the tube is a
wire that functions as the anode. The counter tube is filled with argon or xenon, noble gases that
cannot form anions.
When ionizing radiation strikes a noble gas atom, an electron is knocked out of its orbit and
immediately moves toward the anode. In the process, it is able to knock additional electrons out
from the noble gas atoms, and the noble gas atom ions ultimately move toward the cathode,
where they take up electrons. As a result of this impact ionization, which essentially serves as
amplification, a little, measurable current arises in the Geiger counter that is proportional to the
strength of the radiation. The larger the voltage difference between the cathode and the anode,
the greater the energy in the electron, and the number of impact ionizations increases.
 Figure 4: Working principle of a Geiger counter

Now we know that a GM tube provides pulses that correspond to events in the tube that occur
from its interaction with ionizing radiation gamma rays, beta, and alpha particles (for some
tubes). The events are counted by the Geiger Counter over a time period and eventually result in
counts per minute (CPM). If we know what the CPM are for normal background with our tube,
the difference measured will give us a good sense of the radiation intensity. However, different
models of GM tubes vary greatly in their detection sensitivity. Note that, correct amount of the
high-voltage (HV) supply, and right value of the anode resistor is crucial for all GM tubes.
The suggested values are usually given in the datasheet for the tube. For example, 4.7M resistor
seems good for
SBM-20
and 10M resistor for LND-712 as anode resistor. Similarly, recommended operating voltage
(HV) for LND-712 is 500 volts; in 450-650 range, and about 400 volts for
SBM-20
.

Figure 5 Basic wiring of a GM tube

Usually the datasheet indicates maximum anode current of the tube in uA. This would make the
load resistor (anode resistor) calculation much easier. For example, the specified anode current
of
SBM-20
is 18.2 uA at 400V. Although this has been translated to a resistance value of 22M, the original
circuit diagram in the datasheet shows a 4.7M resistor which is more reasonable according to the
manufacturer.
Home-Made?
Yes, its not too hard to build a Geiger-Counter. A Geiger-Counter obviously consists of two
distinct circuit sections: The high-voltage (HV) generator, and the GeigerMller (GM) tube
interface. First of all, select the right GM tube, and then gear up appropriate circuits using
electronic components.

Figure 6 Inside view of a simple Geiger-Counter

Figure 7 Basic system diagram of a full-fledged Geiger-Counter

Schematics around GM tubes are mainly related to the precision high voltage generation. Beside
the generation of the high voltage, a computing and display circuit for processing tube-clicks and
displaying the final data is needed. Fortunately, great examples are widely spread in the internet.
Figure 7 shows the basic system diagram of a full-fledged Geiger-Counter. Some kit builders
have advertised about laymans do-it-yourself Geiger-Counter kits to expedite the process from
concept to completion. Construction is extremely simple, easily within the capacities of any
amateur who know how to hold a soldering iron (by the right end)!
Do-it-yourself Geiger Counter kits are usually powered by a dc supply in the 3v-5v range,
catered by common dry cells, Ni-Cd, Ni-MH, or Li-Ion cells. The high-voltage generator
converts this low voltage dc input to a high-voltage dc output using traditional voltage booster
(dc-dc boost converter) circuits. This HV output is fed to the anode of the GM tube through the
anode resistor. Click signals generated by this high-voltage section (during a detection process) is
fed to the rest of the system through a buffer circuitry for further processing by the associated
microcontroller.
Finally, a readout is available through the display unit. Figure 8 is an open-hardware design of a
diy Geiger Counter kit introduced by MightyOhm (http://mightyohm.com). Note that, only front-
end of the entire circuit is reproduced here. Remaining portion holds an Attiny 2313
microcontroller-based beeper unit. Pulse output from the pulse detector section is routed to one
Interrupt input (INT0) of this AVR microcontroller.

Figure 8 Front-end circuit of a diy Geiger Counter kit

 Figure 9 DIY Geiger Counter kit

Regarding conversion and calibration, this is a little messy. The main point is that the datasheets
for most GM tubes define the CPM (or CPS) that are equivalent to some dose unit (usually
mR/hr). Since GM tubes also have varying sensitivity to different isotopes, there may be several
values listed, so have a keen look at a part of the datasheet to learn how to process the raw data
(cpm/cps). When it comes to calibration, there are variations within the same model of GM tube,
based on factors like the age of the tube, and the bias voltage used. Moreover, to truly calibrate
your counter you must use a standardized check source of the isotope you want to calibrate to
and use procedures which include such things as distance from the source, tube geometry, etc. to
fine tune your ratio of CPM to the dose unit you want to use.

And Finally
If you are an electronics hobbyist never used a Geiger Counter before, or have already been
disappointed by certain commercial models, I have not the slightest hesitation in recommending
a diy project which makes no compromises in terms of performance. Given the cost of the
Geiger-Tube, however, its wise to carry out a few simple checks before powering up your
finished project!
Reference Courtesy: wikipedia.com, mightyohm.com, gstube.com, lndinc.com, geigercounter.org
Disclaimer: The included circuit (fig. 8) is one that I have not tested/used myself. Its only for
information, and Im not suggesting or recommending any particular circuit/component/diy
kit/source!
IC2 is a 555 timer set in astable mode. The signal from IC2 is presented to three gates on the 4049 IC1.
The 4049 inverts the signal to give an optimum pulse width that switches Q1 on and off. The
MOSFETQ1,in turn,switches the current to a step-up transformerT1. The stepped-up voltage from T1
first passes through a voltage doubler; the output voltage from this section is approxtmatety 600 to 700 V .
Three zener diodesD3,D4,and D5are placed across the output of the voltage doubler to regulate the
voltage to 500 V. This voltage is connected to the anode on the GM tube through a 10-M resistor. When the
GM tube detects a particle,a voltage pulse from the 100-k resistor is amplified and clamped to VCC, Via
Q2,an NPN Darlington transistor. The signal from Q2 is inverted by IC1,where it acts as a trigger signal to
IC3. IC3 is another 555 timer. The output of IC3 Via pin 3 flashes on LED and provides a click into either the
speaker or the headphones . The circuit is powered by a 9-V alkaline battery and draws about 28 mA when
not detecting.

Geiger Counter Circuit

This project, a geiger counter circuit from 1986,

This project,a geiger counter circuit, from 1986 shows how to construct a counter out of 4000 series
chips. It is designed to be simple and easy to make.

Of course you could replace the 4000 series ICs with a microcontroller and keep the analogue high
voltage part making for a very compact project.

Warning: This geiger counter circuit generates high voltages (~400V) which are extremely dangerous
so do not attempt to create it unless you are competent in high voltage and know how to handle it.
Executive Summary of the Geiger Counter Circuit

Apparatus for the continuous monitoring of levels of ionizing radiation in premises for human
occupation is provided, including an enclosure for location in premises to be monitored, an ionizing
radiation transducer within the enclosure and producing counts in response to radiation incidents, a
power supply continuously providing an an operating potential to said radiation transducer, a time
base defining monitoring intervals of at least about 5 seconds, a counter for accumulating counts
during successive monitoring intervals, and alarm means responsive to the accumulated count during
a monitoring interval exceeding a predetermined threshold representing a level of ionizing radiation
which if continued over an extended period would expose a human being to a cumulative dosage
exceeding a level deemed acceptable.

Background of the Geiger Counter Circuit

This design relates to monitoring devices for nuclear radiation and more particularly to devices for
monitoring exposure of persons to and particles and radiation.

Nuclear radiation detection instruments have long been known, and fall into two principal categories,
utilizing ionization and scintillation transducers. Ionization transducers in turn may depend upon
incident radiation causing ionization of gases or solids, particularly in semiconductors. The best known
ionization detector is the Geiger-Muller tube or Geiger counter which is a modified form of proportional
counter (a gas containing ionization chamber constructed so that gas amplification of the ionization
caused by incident radiation results in an avalanche effect) in which the avalanche conduction caused
by incident radiation is rapidly quenched by the presence of a quenching vapour.

An incident ionizing particle or an ionizing event related to radiation will thus cause the tube to
conduct briefly, producing a current pulse or count. The rate of production of such counts, which
typically last a few microseconds, can be measured to provide an indication of the intensity of
radiation.

Such a counter can be sensitive to the entire spectrum of ionizing nuclear radiation, whether
particulate or electromagnetic, and provided that a radiation event causes production of an ion pair,
the output produced is independent of the type and energy of radiation event producing ionization.

Moreover, such a tube is inoperative for a `dead` period following a radiation event, which period is
much longer than the pulse produced by the event. These properties limit the maximum level of
radiation which can be measured by such a device, and the accuracy of measurement, since as the
radiation intensity increases, an increasing number of events will be missed, and the device will
eventually saturate.

Moreover the absence of any assessment of the energy or type of radiation limits the usefulness of the
device in many applications. Since ionization chambers and scintillation counters capable of providing
much more accurate characterization of incident radiation have become available, the conventional
Geiger counter has tended to fall into disfavour other than as a fairly crude portable detector for
sources of elevated levels of radiation.

A further disadvantage of the Geiger-Mueller tube is that it requires a fairly well regulated high voltage
source for its operation, and whilst such sources can fairly readily be designed to be battery powered
for portable operation, the current drain on the battery by such sources is significant.

Radiation detectors have commonly been utilized in applications in which a relatively expensive and
sophisticated instrument is both necessary and acceptable, but there has long been a need for a
means for detecting elevated radiation levels in domestic and commercial environments in which the
presence of radioactivity at anything above normal background levels is highly undesirable.

There has been increasing awareness for a number of years that there are various ways in which such
elevated levels may occur without the awareness of persons living or working in a particular
environment. For example, naturally occurring radon gas can accumulate in inadequately ventilated
basements and other structures below grade level, or other radioactive material may be in the
environment due to poor waste disposal practices, naturally occuring minerals, or airborne fallout from
remote nuclear events.

There is a need therefore for a device, analogous in function and comparable in price range and
functionality to a domestic or commercial smoke detector, which can be permanently installed in
domestic or business premises to provide warning of abnormally elevated radiation levels whose
maintenance might constitute a health hazard to persons using the premises for extended periods.

Currently available radiation detecting devices are not really suitable for this purpose. Available
instruments are too expensive and sophisticated to be utilized as a permanent monitor for what would
hopefully be a remote eventuality, and such instruments, together with conventional geiger counters
would, if self powered, have wholly inadequate battery life for practical usage in such a manner.

Various radiation dosimeters for personal use are known, but these, although frequently simple in
themselves, merely monitor cumulative dosage over an extended interval and in most cases require
periodic replacement and special processing of the used units to recover useful information. They will
not provide any direct indication of elevated radiation levels in a particular location.

Surprisingly, I have found that apparatus which is very effective in such an application can be based
on the use of a Geiger-Mueller tube, and that what were thought to be disadvantages of that
technology can be rendered either unimportant or become positive advantages. Since the primary
objective of the instrument is to detect radiation levels only moderately elevated above normal
background levels, the problems due to the `dead` period after a count are unimportant, whilst the
ability of the tube to detect all types of ionizing radiation indiscriminately is a positive advantage
where the parameter being monitored is fitness for human habitation, and the purpose of the
instrument is to warn of a potentially dangerous condition rather than carry out accurate
measurements.

Consistency and stability of response are more important in such conditions than absolute accuracy,
particularly since current radiation exposure limits are based on estimates at best.

Summary of the Geiger Counter Circuit

According to the design, there is provided apparatus for the continuous monitoring of levels of ionizing
radiation in premises for human occupation, comprising an enclosure for location in premises to be
monitored, an ionizing radiation transducer within the enclosure and producing counts in response to
radiation incidents, a power supply continuously providing an operating potential to said radiation
transducer, a time base counting monitoring intervals of at least about 5 seconds, a counter for
accumulating counts during successive monitoring intervals, and alarm means responsive to the
accumulated count during a monitoring interval exceeding a predetermined threshold representing a
level of ionizing radiation which, if continued over an extended period would expose a human being to
a cumulative dosage exceeding a level deemed acceptable.

Preferably the ionizing radiation transducer is a Geiger-Mueller tube, means such as a digital readout
is provided for indicating the level of incident radiation during the most recent monitoring interval, and
the monitoring interval is about 30 seconds. An efficient power supply for the Geiger-Mueller tube is
provided by peak rectification of the output of a step up transformer fed by a squegging oscillator.

Figure 3 : Physical implementation: a diagrammatic sectional view through the monitor for
the geiger counter circuit

Description of the Geiger Counter Circuit

Referring to FIG. 3 a circuit board 2 carrying the components shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 is mounted in a
small box 4 to be mounted by fasteners 5 in a location to be monitored, the box having a window 6 for
a multi digit seven segment display 8.
 Figure 1 : Analogue circuits for the geiger counter circuit

View larger image here.

 Figure 2 : Logic circuits for the geiger counter circuit

View larger image here.

The heart of the system is a Geiger-Mueller tube GM (see FIG. 2), to one electrode 10 of which is
applied a 400 volt potential derived from the power supply shown in FIG. 1. The other electrode is
connected to ground through a potential divider formed by resistors R4 and R5. This potential divider
limits the current flowing in tube GM when an avalanche conduction occurs therein due to gas
multiplication following formation of an ion pair by a radiation event, and also causes this current to
develop a sufficient voltage in R5 to trigger the clock input of a multistage counter Ul.

The counter Ul may be an integrated circuit fabricated in CMOS technology, typically the industry
standard 4020. Other integrated circuits utilized in the circuit of FIG. 2 are also 4000 series CMOS
units. It will be understood that alternative parts providing equivalent functionality can be used,
although the low power consumption, cheapness and ready availability of CMOS logic is advantageous.

Two further similar counter circuits U6 and U8 are cascaded to form a time base generating various
timing signals from a clock formed by a crystal X1 in conjunction with a gate U5a and two low value
capacitors C7 and C8. Gates U7a, U2b and U7b are located between outputs of counter U6 and a clock
input of counter U8 so as to provide an appropriate division ratio by resetting counter U6.

In the example shown, in which the resonant frequency of crystal X1 is 3.2768 MHz, the output Q14 of
counter U8 goes high about once every half minute, generating a latch enable and reset signals. The
reset signal not only resets the counter U8, but also a three decade counter U3 so as to reset the
display 8.

The latter receives a clock signal from counter Ul for each 32 counts sensed by the latter from tube
GM, and drives the digits DG1, DG2 and DG3 of the display 8 both through transistors Q3, Q3 and Q5
connected to common cathodes of the digit segments, and through a BCD to seven segment decoder
U4 connected to the segment anodes through appropriate load resistor provided by a resistor array
RAl.

The latch enable signal generated by gate U5b is timed to precede the reset signal generated by gate
U7c sufficiently to enable the count from counter U3 to be transferred to the display just prior to
resetting of the counters U3 and U8. Consequently, the display 8 displays a figure related to the
number of counts by tube GM during a predetermined period.

This form of display updating is commonly employed in digital meters, and any arrangement of
equivalent functionality could be substituted. In particular, the use of a liquid crystal display may be
preferred to light emitting diode displays because of their low power consumption, and these require
somewhat different drive circuitry.

Selection of the update interval, which is also, as described below, a monitoring interval, is of some
importance. Too short an interval is undesirable, since successive counts will then be subject to erratic
variation due to the somewhat random nature of background radiation, and there is a possibility of
short term radiation incidents giving rise to occasional high readings which might trigger false alarms.

I believe that the monitoring interval should be at least about 5 seconds, and a longer interval is
desirable. On the other hand, too long an interval is undesirable since one of the purposes of the
instrument is to provide reassurance, and a long interval both makes it extremely difficult to
demonstrate the instrument to prospective buyers, and may provide an impression that the device is
not doing anything.

A thirty second interval is short enough both for demonstration purposes, and for normal background
radiation fluctuations to provide variations in the reading which will provide reassurance that the
instrument is operating. Intervals of much over a minute provide what is seen by users to be
excessively slow reaction to the presence of a radiation hazard.

The reset signal from gate U7c is also applied to reset the counter Ul and a flip-flop U9a. An AND gate
U2a is used to detect attainment of a specific count state of the counter U1 and in response to
attainment of such a count to apply a signal to set the flip-flop U9c. In the set state the flip-flop
produces an output at terminal Q which is ANDed in gate U5c with a signal from counter U8 to render
it intermittent.

This intermittent signal is amplified by PNP transistor Q6 so as to drive a light emitting diode LED 1
having a series resistor R6, so as to provide a flashing warning signal, and is applied via gate U10a
and U10b to an oscillator formed by gate U10c and a ceramic resonator X2 so as to provide an audible
warning, the audible warning being further modulated by an additional signal derived from counter U8
and applied to the gate U10b.

The power supply for the tute GM is shown in FIG. 1. Typically, high voltage power supplies for battery
operated equipment make use of a blocking oscillator circuit utilizing a ferrite core transformer, the
high voltage being obtained by rectifying the output of a secondary winding on the transformer.

Because of the small size of the ferrite core transformer, and the large turns ratio required, only a few
primary turns can be used. This gives rise to a high-Q, low inductance winding which rings when
excited. When the current draw on the secondary is low, the high Q of the primary causes the
oscillator to ring continuously generating a sine wave which absorbs much more power than the
output delivers, resulting in inefficient operation.

To overcome this, I achieve a similar effect to that of a blocking oscillator, by applying controlled
feedback to cause the oscillator to squeg at a controlled rate, with an on time just long enough to
maintain a high voltage storage capacitor at a required voltage. This control is achieved with selective
feedback.

The collector load of transistor Q2 is half of the primary winding of the transformer TX, having a turns
ratio of about 1:50. At switch on, a small amount of base current flows to transistor Q2 through
resistor R3. This causes the transistor to switch on and the collector potential to move towards
ground.
The other end of the primary winding being in antiphase to the collector, with feedback to the base of
Q2 through capacitor C4 and resistor R2, the primary winding is set in oscillation. The frequency of
oscillation is the natural frequency of the primary, altered by the reflected capacitance from the
secondary circuit and the effect of capacitor C4, which blocks direct current in the feedback circuit,
whilst resistor R2 limits the feedback current to a level which conserves energy and restricts the rate
of build up of oscillator amplitude.

The oscillation at the collector of Q2 is coupled to a D.C. restorer/peak detector circuit formed by
diodes D2 and D3. During negative half cycles capacitor C3 is charged to the negative peak through
D3. During positive half cycles the charge on capacitor C3 boosts the positive half cycle so as to
charge capacitor C2 to the peak to peak value via diode D2.

Whilst capacitor C2 is charging to peak value, capacitor C4 is also charging to the average value of the
signal developed across the feedback coil, which in the example shown using a 6 volt supply, settles
above the 6V. input level. In the meantime the charge on capacitor C2 builds up until the voltage
across it exceeds the zener voltage of a zener diode D1.

As soon as this voltage is reached, the zener diode conducts, causing current to flow to the base of a
transistor Q1, which conducts and thus disables Q2.

The charge on capacitor C4 drives the base of transistor Q2 negative, holding it off until this charge
decays via resistors R2 and R3 to a point at which transistor Q2 can again conduct, causing a further
cycle to commence. Resistor R1 causes capacitor C2 to discharge below the zener voltage of D1 until
the base current is removed from transistor Q1 thus switching it off and allowing current to flow back
into the base of transistor Q2 via R2 and R3.

Capacitor C1 allows a smooth transition. The feedback circuit maintains the peak to peak value
amplitude of the oscillator constant with the zener diode acting as a reference. The zener diode carries
only the base current of transistor Q1, thus keeping low the total power consumption of the circuit.

In the secondary circuit, capacitors C5 and C6 and diodes D4 and D5 form a voltage doubler circuit
which generates the required D.C. potential, 400 volts in this example. The value of C5 is chosen as a
compromise between high voltage and good regulation. The smaller the value of capacitor C5 the
higher the output voltage and vice versa, whereas the larger the value of capacitor C6, the higher the
output voltage and the greater the power loss in the circuit.

In use, the instrument is provided with a power source; typically batteries will be utilized, with
conventional provision for a plug in mains adaptor pS for use with a domestic power supply to avoid
battery drain when a mains supply is available. The power supply will start up and generate a potential
of about 400 volts across C6, which potential is applied to tube GM.

The tube responds to radiation incidents occurring within its envelope by applying pulses to the
counter U1 which in turn provides scaled pulses to the counter U3, and signals attainment of a
predetermined count to the set input of the flip-flop U9a which is reset by the reset signal from gate
U7c.

Normally, the flip-flop and the counter U1 will be reset before the predetermined count is attained, the
flip-flop U9a will not attain the set condition, and thus the light emitting diode LED 1 and the buzzer
X2 will not be activated. When the mean incidence of ionizing radiation upon the tube GM during a
monitoring period rises above a level equivalent to an annual dosage equivalent of 5 Rem per annum,
the apparatus is set up so that counter U1 will reach the count required to set flip-flop U9A before the
latter is reset by the reset signal.

In the intervening period, the diode LED1 will flash and the buzzer X2 will beep, with the period of
flashing and beeping becoming longer as the radiation level increases. Assuming the monitoring period
to be 30 seconds, then for the tube utilized (APTEC (Trade Mark) EWH10), the count over a period of
30 seconds equivalent to an annual exposure of 5 Rem is 1856, and with the arrangement shown, the
display 8 will show the dosage rate in millirems/hour, 0.57 millirems/hour being equivalent to 5
Rems/year.

Although the circuit described makes use of discrete components, it will be understood that all of the
function other than the immediate drivers for the display and alarm indications could readily be
implemented by an appropriately programmed microcomputer chip. Further functions could be
implemented such as dosage totalization over prolonged periods such as months or years, whilst the
presence of a time base and display means that a clock indication could readily be implemented; in
fact the apparatus could be built into a wall clock.

As the instrument stands, it is neither strictly comparable to conventional instruments measuring

instantaneous levels of radiation, nor dosimeters which measure cumulative radiation exposure of a
subject: rather it provides a warning of the existence of radiation levels which, if sustained, could
result in an excessive cumulative dose being absorbed by persons occupying premises being
monitored.

By the addition of a cumulative counter, the device can be turned into an instrument measuring
cumulative exposure, over a prolonged period of persons in continuous occupation, or in a portable
version it could be utilized as a personal dosimeter.

High Voltage Generator for Geiger Tubes

The following two circuits are an improvement over the older circuits
below. The circuits are shown generating 500 volts but they may be
modified to supply a couple of hundred to nearly 1000 volts by changing
the zener diodes.
The difference is subtle; the feedback signal increases the voltage on the
base of the 2N4403 to stop the oscillator instead of stealing current from the
capacitor on the emitter. The result is much lower power dissipation when
there is little or no load on the high voltage. The new circuit draws less than
1/2 mA when operating at 9 volts without a load using a 1:1 600 ohm audio
isolation transformer. The 3 volt circuit may be modified in the same way but
make sure to switch to a MPSA18 (or a similar very high gain transistor). The
120 volt zeners are also an improvement over trying to grade ordinary diodes;
grading is just too much trouble! A 1N5273A is a typical type to try. Remember,
this circuit can only supply a few microamperes so an ordinary 10 megohm
voltmeter will load the output too much. (500 volts/10 megohms = 50 uA.)
 500 Volt Geiger Counter Power Supply
Note: With some transformers and zeners, the circuit will work better if the 10 megohm resistor
is moved up to be in series with the diodes (see next schematic). It is a good idea to add a
resistor in series with the diodes anyway, perhaps 100 k, to prevent damage when probing
around. When operating properly, the current should drop down to below 1/2 mA with no load.
The series 10 megohm resistor will make gas discharge devices work well in place of the
zeners, too (neon bulbs, for example). Also try a .1 uF capacitor from base to emitter of the
MPSA18. This capacitor modification combined with the series 10 megohm allowed a single
Lumex gas discharge tube to regulate the output voltage of the circuit at 600 volts while drawing
only 300 uA, unloaded.
The transformer in the prototype is a small isolation transformer with opposite
ends of the primary and secondary connected together to boost the output
voltage. Other transformers will also work, including tiny audio interstage
transformers, as long as the impedance is relatively high on both windings. If
you don't get a high voltage, try reversing one of the winding connections. If
the current doesn't cut back with no load, try the techniques mentioned in the
note above. The circuit will work without the secondary connection simply by
connecting the collector of the MPSA42 directly to the first .02 uF cap. and
diode and leaving the secondary winding disconnected. Using the two winding
voltage boost is recommended when attempting to run the circuit on a lower
supply voltage.

Here is my favorite 9 volt version using only a molded choke (the ones I have
in quantity):

Other combinations of zener diodes and gas tubes may be used to get the
desired output voltage but the upper limit is about 1000 volts.

The 0.1uF capacitor on the base of the MPSA18 will reduce the current
consumption when using Lumex or some other types of gas tubes and some
zeners. It is unnecessary in most cases but the right value or no cap at all can
push the no-load current really low, depending on the characteristics of the
selected breakdown devices. This circuit will operate on lower supply voltages
but, at some point, it will not "cut back" and will draw several mA all the time.
The transformer version can more easily generate higher voltages when
operating from lower battery voltage. Keep in mind that the current
consumption of this circuit is very low when operating properly and a 9 volt
rectangular battery will last a long time, giving perhaps a month of continuous
duty.

The output voltage can vary by up to 20 volts from no load to a light load due
to the measurement of the voltage before the voltage doubler. The regulation
is much better once a little current is flowing. For much more precise
regulation, connect the zeners or gas tubes and resistor from the base of the
MPSA18 directly to the output. You will need twice the breakdown voltage,
however. I connected four neon lamps, type WL-1MH (similar to NE-38), in
series with the 10 megohm from output to base and the resulting voltage was
540 volts and only changed 7 volts when loaded by 300 meghoms. Switching
over to 4, 120 volt zeners gave an output voltage of 520 volts that changed
less than a volt when loaded! The current drain seemed to improve in both
cases, dropping to 200 uA with no load. If you don't mind using twice the
number of zeners, this is a nice modification. For fun, I replaced one of the
high voltage zeners with several lower voltage zeners until I hit exactly 500
volts. It took 6 zeners to do the job and I suspect it's overkill for most projects.
But if you want a precise voltage and have a sufficient pile of parts, why not!

Below is the older design but it works fine, too. It draws a little more current
when unloaded, typically 1 mA. A choke should work in place of the
transformer, too, with similar limitations. Ground unused gate inputs. The
'4093 may be a '4069 hex inverter.

Here is a 700 volt or less power supply for powering a small Geiger tube or
other very low current device. The circuit is very efficient when no current is
being consumed which is typically the case in a Geiger counter. Geiger tubes
draw about 100 uA when they pulse but the pulses are very short and
relatively far apart (hopefully). The current drain from the 9 volt battery is less
than 1 mA with no load. The circuit will supply a bit more current when
operated from 12 volts. The output voltage is set by the string of devices that
includes the neon bulbs. Select a combination of neon lamps, varistors,
zeners, etc to achieve the desired voltage. Good results may be had by
selecting one or two ordinary small-signal silicon diodes with the desired
breakdown voltage. The current in the diode will be quite low and no damage
will result.

The circuit shows the power supply in a typical Geiger counter circuit but it
may be desirable to use a larger resistor from the high voltage to the tube -
see the manufacturer's recommendations. A 10 megohm is a safe value for
most tubes.

Note: This generator cannot supply much current. An ordinary 10 megohm

voltmeter will pull the output voltage quite low; a very high impedance
voltmeter is needed to directly measure the output voltage. A 1000 megohm
resistor in series with a 10 megohm voltmeter will give a 100 to 1 voltage
reduction and will not overload the circuit. Large Geiger tubes may also draw
too much current in moderate x-ray fields so a more robust generator may be
needed. (See the 3V version below.)
The other two gates in the '4093 may be used to construct a beeper that will
drive an ordinary piezo speaker:

The 1N914 (or any similar diode) connects to the output of the last gate
above. When a pulse triggers the first gates, the diode becomes reverse
biased and the oscillator is allowed to operate for a split second. A '4069 hex
inverter will also work but ground the unused inputs.

Here is another version that will supply more current for a larger Geiger tube
and runs on two cells (3 volts).

Geiger Counter
The above circuit was used to construct a home-made Geiger counter
employing a 10 inch Geiger tube (LND 78014). The pulses from the tube were
converted into 3 volt, fixed-width ( a few hundred microseconds) pulses
suitable for averaging using the following circuit (updated 5/5/04):
The pulses may be counted with a digital circuit or may simply be averaged to
apply to an analog meter:
The indicated switch is a two-pole, six-position switch. The resistor values in
the meter circuit were selected to give the proper reading on one of the two
pre-existing meter scales which differ by a factor of two. The older meter
required 60 uA to reach full scale even though it was originally a 50 uA
movement. In the actual prototype, an additional position and pole were
included. The third pole switches in a 1 meg to ground at the input of the op-
amp to reduce the signal by two for one more range. the same 19.6k resistor
is used for both positions. In a new design, the op-amp and meter circuit
would be modified for the chosen meter and desired scales. The op-amp must
be one that operates on 3 volts or less and must have a very high input
impedance.

The Geiger counter prototype was built into a homemade wooden box:

The tube is mounted with cable clamps over a hole in the bottom of the box
covered by a perforated aluminum shield. The holes in the perforated
aluminum directly below the tube were drilled to a larger diameter to block
less radiation.
The voltage multiplier is mounted on the underside of a Plexiglas subchassis:

The other circuitry is mounted on two pieces of laminate on the top side of the
subchassis:

The front panel holds the meter, switches, resistors, speaker and 4.7uF
capacitor.
The wiring gets a little messy when the end of the project is in sight! It was
discovered that the connection from the capacitor to the op-amp must be well
insulated. Bend the op-amp positive input lead up into the air and directly
solder the wire. Add an additional low leakage small value film capacitor (0.1
uF is fine) to ground at the op amp plus input since the 4.7uF is some
distance away.

The front panel is also made from lexan painted on the outside with metallic
hammertone paint.

The performance of this detector is quite good. The background radiation near
0.016 mR/hour give a 2/3 full-scale reading making slight changes in the
background easy to see. The extra-long averaging time (44 megohm) gives a
very steady reading, albeit slow to respond. This is a sensitive counter and is
easily "pegged" with an ordinary test radiation source or even a Coleman
lantern mantle.

Dave Mouat's Version

Techlib reader Dave Mouat modified the circuit as shown below:
In the diagram I've put the transistor numbers as the ones I've used, although
you can use standard 2n3904's etc in these positions without problems as
they're similar spec. The transformer used is a normal audio output
transformer, such as an LT700, and the transistor driving it in this case is a
Darlington pair device, number BD675 (not sure of any equivalents here, but I
imagine its not critical)

The BAT43 diode is just a Scohttky device, and was used simply because of
the low forward bias voltage drop. You'll notice another diode and transistor
across the main drive transistor, this simply derives a voltage high enough to
fire the clicker and LED, in practice its about 12-16volts, quite a useful value if
we decide to run anything else from this supply at a later date. The clicker
(drawn as a speaker) is one of those low impedance devices you see in
cordless phones or kids toys for a ringer, works very well in this position, a
nice loud click.

The shutdown transistor (connected to the string of zeners) I've found needs
to be something with a reasonable gain, although the one I used seems to
work fine, regulation would probably be better with one of the MPSA devices
you've used and a higher value load resistor. This is a great way to reduce
power consumption, as in this situation the circuit is firing when (output
voltage/2) falls below the threshold, a better way would be to try and measure
the main output voltage directly, although I've had no luck with this method.
The capacitor which drives the base of the main drive transistor (BD675) is
quite critical, it will work down to 1uF, but don't go above 3.3uF, as the power
consumption went through the roof when I tried this, the LT700 was obviously
becoming saturated.

The badly drawn GM tube that I used was a SBM21, a tiny little tube only
21mm long (can be seen in the top left of the photograph of the unit), i got
mine from a Russian guy on eBay, unfortunately they're not very sensitive at
all, background counts on this tube are about 4-8 clicks per minute, whereas
my CD-V700 and DRSB-01 both disagree and give something closer to 2-4
times that value. Still not bad for such a tiny counter.
At one point I tried a small transformer from one of those cheap disposable
camera's, this worked and gave reasonable efficiency but whined like crazy, i
prefer the off-the-shelf LT700 audio transformer. Also, because I built mine on
Vero-board i found that I had to put a 470k-ohm resistor from the base of the
first detector transistor down to ground, as the board was conducting and
turning it on. I expect there are probably many modifications that could
improve the circuit, so you can post it on the site if you like and maybe it will
help someone else.
 Geiger Tube Simulator

This little gadget will simulate a 500 volt or less Geiger tube when driven by a
signal generator of sufficient amplitude, typically 5 volts p-p or greater. The
purpose is to generate a steady, precise number of counts per minute so that
the Geiger counter's meter may be calibrated.

The circuit rectifies the signal generator's output to provide power for the
circuit so no battery or power supply is needed. The generator's frequency is
divided by 100 so that low counts per minute may be simulated with ordinary
bench generators that typically only go down to 10 Hz (600 CPM).
The two input diodes may be just about any schottky type or even older
germanium diodes. The generator should be able to supply over 5 volts peak-
to-peak. Higher amplitude is fine and will stretch the pulse width slightly. I vary
the amplitude to modulate the pulse width when experimenting. The pulse
width is also set by the 2.2 nF; increasing the value will increase the pulse
width. The width is about 200 uS with the values shown in a typical Geiger
counter circuit operating at 400 volts. The 2N3440 was chosen for high
breakdown voltage with a 22k resistor connected from base to emitter. The
prototype's transistor breaks down at about 600 volts, making this device
useful for simulating tubes operating at up to 500 volts. The breakdown
voltage was tested at a low current. Since the divider is wired to divide by 100,
the counts per minute is equal to the frequency of the generator multiplied by
0.6. Setting the generator to 100 Hz will give 60 counts per minute. To
simulate a higher voltage tube, a higher breakdown transistor will be
necessary. Make sure to test the transistor's breakdown voltage with the 22k
from base to emitter. The breakdown will be higher than with the base open
but lower than with the base connected to the emitter directly.
Construction technique isn't critical. The prototype is built into a plastic box
with a BNC for the signal generator connection and miniature binding posts for
the simulated Geiger tube output. Please don't notice the typo on the label!
('CMP' instead of 'CPM') Note that this circuit is for Geiger counters that
ground one end of the Geiger tube (most do). It might work with other types if
the Geiger counter case is floating relative to ground.
 World's Smallest Geiger Counter

It probably isn't the smallest and it isn't really a Geiger counter (no Geiger
tube and it doesn't count) but this really small radiation detector flashes the
LED every time a particle of sufficient energy strikes the tiny PIN photodiode.
The small detector gives about 1 pulse per second with a 2 mR source (using
an old fallout shelter Geiger counter and test source as the reference). This
sensitivity is enough to determine if a lantern mantle is radioactive or a
mineral sample is uranium. Most importantly, its small size makes it
inconspicuous! A typical thorium lantern mantle gives about one flash every
two seconds. Thoriated welding rods give a blink about every 10 seconds and
weak Vaseline glass marble gives only one count every 45 seconds so the
detector becomes impractical for the weaker sources. A larger PIN diode is
the simplest way to improve the sensitivity.

The circuit is designed to consume virtually no power so that the detector can
operate for long periods without a power switch. The total current drain when
the LED is not flashing is only 3 uA, giving an operating battery lifetime for the
wimpy type 10A (30mA-Hour) of over a year. The random flashing of the LED
due to background radiation might shorten that lifetime. A regular 9 volt
rectangular battery would be hardly affected.

When particles hit the PIN diode, tiny positive pulses appear on the gate of
the 2N4417. These pulses are amplified by the 2N4117 and the MPSA18 and
applied to a two-transistor monostable lamp flasher. The 2N4117 is biased by
selection of the 1 megohm resistor in the source such that the drain is at least
a couple of volts above the source. The drain is DC-coupled to the MPSA18
and it should have a couple of volts from collector to emitter, too. The actual
values aren't particularly critical as long as there is a little voltage across the
first two transistors; the pulses are pretty small. The 2N4401 is biased by two,
62 megohm resistors connected in series and a 3 meghom to ground so that
the flasher circuit is on the verge of flashing. If the 3 megohm is too large, the
LED will flash constantly and if the 3 megohm is too small, the circuit will not
be sensitive. Other high value resistors may be used but the values should be
well above 1 megohm and the ratio should be chosen such that the flasher is
easily triggered by the amplified pulses. The flasher doesn't draw significant
current when it isn't lighting the LED so the quiescent current is due to the first
two amplifier stages and is only about 3 uA.
This "Geiger" counter flashes the LED just like a Geiger tube detector and a
crystal earphone connected across the LED and resistor will give clicks just
like a Geiger counter but the detection mechanism is significantly different.
The main difference of interest is that the PIN diode usually converts the entire
particle's energy into a pulse so the pulse height may be used to determine
the original energy in the particle. (I should mention that high-energy Gamma
rays will plow right through the PIN diode without losing all their energy. The
pulse will be big but not necessarily representative of the real energy. Gamma
ray detectors often employ large blocks of material to capture the whole
particle.) Sophisticated detectors sort the pulses by amplitude and can
determine what element produced them but this simple detector simply looks
for pulses above a certain level.

Certain precautions must be observed to make a working unit. First of all, the
PIN diode is extremely sensitive to light and it must be kept in total darkness. I
even had a problem with light coming in through the body of the LED even
though it was mounted in a separate compartment! I eventually painted the
back of the PIN diode with black "liquid tape" and added an internal light
shield. The circuitry is also ridiculously sensitive to electric fields and the
circuitry must be shielded. I decided that an old Minox spy camera film box
was the container to use for a variety of reasons having nothing to do with
good engineering! It is light tight but it provides no electrical shielding. The first
step was to glue the PIN diode to one end of the case and to add internal
shielding in the form of thin copper circuit board material. Solderable metal foil
would also work.
The construction technique could be called the "ship in a bottle" method. No
kidding; the construction of this gadget required a lot of dexterity! The battery
holder was constructed first, using part of a spring from an AA cell battery
holder and a piece of PCB material for the other end. The PCB material forms
the positive connection and was made by etching a pad in the middle of the
board with an abrasive cut-off wheel and drilling a hole in the middle of the
isolated land for the red wire. The solder holding the red wire forms the
positive terminal for the battery. Once the battery cavity was made, it
appeared that the flasher portion of the circuit might fit in the small cavity
directly above. And it did, just barely. This location seemed good since light
can come in via the LED body. The PIN photodiode is to the left in the photo
above and the FET and MPSA18 are in the same cavity. Not shown is the
black "liquid tape" that I dripped on the photo diode and the two wires coming
through from the flasher section to block more light. Also, an electric shield
was added to completely shield the electronics by adding a metal plate above
the electronics with a wire connecting it to ground. This shield is held in place
when the lid is installed. The amplifier is so sensitive that the tiny exposed part
of the PIN diode picks up electric fields. The unit will not operate properly near
large electric fields from TVs, computers, etc.

The circuit illustrates how one can use a PIN diode to get Geiger counter like
pulses and a more practical package arrangement will make construction
easier. I plan to take this covert detector to Wall-Mart and other stores in
search of radioactive lantern mantles, minerals, etc.