Using Numerical Models to Teach Sequence Stratigraphic
Principles and the Nature of the Stratigraphic Record
Achim D. Herrmann Barrett Honors College, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1612;
achim.herrmann@asu.edu
ABSTRACT
Sequence stratigraphy has become a central topic for
sedimentology and stratigraphy. While outcrop studies
are an important part of introducing sequence
stratigraphic concepts to students, computer models go
beyond the mostly descriptive approach in that they can
be used to evaluate the importance of different factors
leading to stratigraphic change (e.g., changes in sea level,
sedimentation rates, etc). Students can use a combination
of a stratigraphic simulation package (STRATA) and an
evolutionary random branching model (BIOSTRAT) to
simulate stratigraphic sequences and their bounding
unconformities across a basin and the stratigraphic
distribution of species within these sequences. Students
can explore processes responsible for forming
stratigraphic sequences, assess the relative importance of
global sea-level fluctuations in unconformity generation,
and investigate the underlying causes for the
stratigraphic distribution of different species.
Furthermore, students can use the simulated data set to
perform graphic correlation in order to study how
stratigraphic correlation is impacted by correlations
across facies changes and important sequence
stratigraphic surfaces (i.e., flooding surfaces,
unconformities, etc).
INTRODUCTION
Numerical models have been developed for simulating
depositional sequences and the distribution of fossil
within these deposits. The correct correlation is already
known with models, and thus they can be used to
illustrate the influence of different environmental factors
(e.g., sea level changes, sedimentation rates, etc) on the
spatial and temporal distribution of organisms in
stratigraphic sequences. Holland (1995) developed a
model for simulating the distribution of fossils that is
based on the facies control of marine organisms
(BIOSTRAT). In this model, every species is assigned a
preferred water depth, a depth tolerance, and a peak
abundance that leads to a Gaussian-type probability of
collection. BIOSTRAT, coupled to the stratigraphic
modeling package STRATA (Flemings and Grotzinger,
1996; Schlager, 2005 (his appendix B)), has been used to
investigate the effects of sequence-stratigraphic
architecture on the stratigraphic distribution of fossils
(e.g., Holland and Patzkowsky, 1998; 1999; 2002) and to
evaluate the widely used graphic correlation technique
(Herrmann et al., 1999).
BIOSTRAT output is text-only and hard to interpret.
Herrmann et al. (2003) described a computer program
(BioModule) that combines BIOSTRAT and STRATA
output files and facilitates the interpretation of model
simulation results. It is the purpose of this paper to
describe how this modeling approach can be used as an
effective tool to teach sequence stratigraphic principles
and potential biases in the stratigraphic record (e.g.,
along unconformities and flooding surfaces). In
22 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 55, n. 1, January, 2007, p. 22-27
addition, using a numerical model exposes students to
quantitative methods in the geosciences.
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Sequence stratigraphy (Payton, 1977; Wilgus et al., 1988)
is now a central topic in many stratigraphy and
sedimentology classes and several textbooks are
dedicated to this topic (e.g., Coe et al., 2003; Emery and
Myers, 1996). The stratigraphic modeling package
STRATA (Flemings and Grotzinger, 1996) was
specifically designed to model the stratigraphy of a basin
in response to user-defined sea level curves, subsidence
rates, sedimentation characteristics (e.g., siliciclastic and
carbonate deposition rates), and tectonic setting (e.g.,
foreland basin, passive margin).
In sequence stratigraphy, depositional sequences are
defined as relatively conformable successions of
genetically related strata bounded by unconformities or
their correlative conformities (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
Students can investigate the timing and spatial
distributions of these surfaces and understand them in
the context of depositional and erosional processes
related to sea level changes. This is done by using
defined sea-level curves, subsidence rates, and
sedimentation rates to explore the impact on
accommodation space across the basin through time.
Figure 1 shows a simulation of a passive margin
dominated by siliciclastic sediment influx.
Sequence stratigraphy is based on the premise that
during different stages of the sea level curve, distinctive
stratigraphic packages are deposited. It is therefore
essential that students have a firm understanding of the
importance of the different stratigraphic processes
relative to each other, and to examine their influence on
the stacking pattern of stratigraphic packages during
different stages of the sea-level curve. Students can
perform sensitivity simulations by varying only one of
the available parameters (e.g., rate of sea level change or
sedimentation rate) while keeping other parameters
constant. Students can then appraise the relative
importance of different influences on creating
unconformities and distinct stratigraphic patterns based
on the stratigraphic simulations. Furthermore, students
can plot Wheeler diagrams (Wheeler, 1958), which is an
effective way to illustrate the distribution and timing of
unconformities in stratigraphic sections and their
correlative surfaces in relation to the sea level curve
(Figure 1b). In addition to interpreting 2-D plots of the
simulated stratigraphy, STRATA also has a utility to
make small video clips that show sedimentation through
time. This gives students the opportunity to watch the
stratigraphic evolution of 'their' basin through time.
A fair criticism of modeling is that even the best
model cannot replace fieldwork. However, numerical
modeling allows students to study the complex interplay
of environmental parameters that lead to distinctive
stratigraphic architectures and depositional patterns.
STRATA is well suited to investigate the nature of
stratigraphic deposits as seen in the field (Flemings and
Figure 1. A) This figure shows an 8 m.y. simulation of a continental shelf, with siliciclastic input from the left.
Deposition was influenced by superimposed sea level changes of 50 m (2e6 years) and 10 m (at 1e5 years).
Greyscale shows water depth at time of deposition. Each black solid line represents a timeline of 320 ky.
Many parameters can be varied in STRATA. This leads to a wide range of possible stratal patterns. B) The
wheeler diagram of the simulation shows extend and timing of unconformities on the landward side and
continuous sedimentation in the deeper part of the basin. STRATA also plots the sea-level curve (on the right)
along the time axis. Students can use the sea-level curve to evaluate the impact of sea-level changes on the
evolution of accommodation space and the development of unconformities.

Herrmann - Using Numerical Models to Teach Sequence Stratigraphic Principles 23

Figure 2. Simulation of the Kenilworth Member in Utah. A) Kenilworth Member exposed in Helper, UT. B)
Simulation of the Kenilworth Member.

Figure 3. A) Screenshot of the BIOSTRAT interface for setting the parameters for simulation the origination
and extinction of species as well as ecological parameters. B) By varying the values of preferred water depth,
depth tolerance, and peak abundance for each species (above), a wide range of species ecologies with
different Gaussian distributions can be simulated (below). See Holland (1995) for details.

Grotzinger, 1996) and can thus be used to supplement
field work and field observations (e.g., Schlager, 2005).
The Book Cliffs in Utah are one of the best-exposed
siliciclastic deposits and are often visited with fieldtrips
and described in many textbooks and field guides (e.g.,
Coe et al., 2003; Rigby et al., 1987). Figure 2 shows a
possible simulation of the Kenilworth Member in the
Book Cliffs area. With STRATA, students can
interactively study the effect of different parameters
important in sequence stratigraphy on the architecture of
stratigraphic packages, the location of unconformities,
and depositional centers through time.

24 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 55, n. 1, January, 2007, p. 22-27

Figure 4. Occurrence horizons of species 31 superimposed on a sequence stratigraphic cross-section from
STRATA. The distribution of the occurrence horizons demonstrates clearly the faunal tracking whereby the
occurrence of the species is confined to intervals that were within the species preferred water depth and
depth tolerance. Note how the last appearance of this species becomes increasingly younger towards the shelf
break. Solid black lines are time horizons. Greyscale shows water depth at time of deposition.

extinction per millions of years. Students can either

DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES IN A
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC
FRAMEWORK
Biostratigraphy is the only practical way of dating and
correlating most sedimentary rocks. However, ecological
factors limit the geographic and stratigraphic
distribution of species. Facies changes can cause species
to appear or disappear from a stratigraphic column
when they follow their preferred habitat. So-called
faunal tracking can therefore lead to time-transgressive
correlations because first and last appearances of species
in different stratigraphic sections that do not coincide. In
addition, other biases in the stratigraphic record (e.g.,
sampling, preservation, erosion), complicate outcrop
studies. Therefore, identifying underlying causes for the
spatial and temporal distribution patterns of different
species is not an easy task. In order to explain such
patterns, several models have discussed the potential
impact of sea-level changes on biotic events (e.g., Brett,
1995, 1998; Schaaf, 1996). Using numerical models,
students can study the influence of sea-level changes and
sequence stratigraphic architecture on the fossil record.
The results can then be compared to the conceptual
models.
BIOSTRAT simulates the stratigraphic ranges and
environmental characteristics of species (water depth,
preferred water depth, and peak abundances) (Figure 3).
Based on these environmental characteristics,
BIOSTRAT calculates the statistical possibility of finding
a certain species at a certain horizon in the STRATA
water depth history files. Students can use BIOSTRAT
output files to investigate the distribution of fossils in the
simulated stratigraphic interval in response to 1)
depositional history of the basin, 2) species
characteristics, and 3) sampling densities. Using
BIOSTRAT in laboratory exercises is a excellent way to
get students involved in discussing different aspects of
paleoecology, stratigraphy, and paleobiology. For
instance, students have to decide on probabilities of
choose average extinction rates for the Phanerozoic (e.g.,
Newman and Eble, 1999; Schopf, 1984) or perform
BIOSTRAT simulations where most species are
short-lived and have high chances of occurrence ("index
fossils"). Similarly, students can discuss the applicability
and validity of the Gaussian distribution (Figure 3) for
simulating the ecology of each species.
The ecological characteristics of a species determine
its distribution within a certain stratigraphic interval.
With BioModule, the faunal tracking of the species for a
pre-established run (which is part of the distribution
package) can be investigated. Students choose a species
with specific environmental characteristics (e.g., an
abundant species that has a shallow life habitat and a
narrow depth tolerance). The stratigraphic horizons in
which the species occurs will be highlighted on the
sequence stratigraphic cross-section from STRATA
(Figure 4). This plot is based on the BIOSTRAT
occurrence files for that species for each section in the
basin. These plots help visualize the effect of moving
facies belts through the basin in response to changes in
sea level and sediment supply. As the depositional
environments move across the depositional shelf, so do
the occurrence horizons of the species (Figure 4). This
illustrates the time-transgressive nature of first and last
appearances of species in response to sea-level changes.
GRAPHIC CORRELATION
Graphic correlation, first described by Shaw (1964), is a
widely used biostratigraphic technique (Mann and Lane,
1995). This correlation technique is based on plotting the
first and last appearances (FADs and LADs) of species
from different sections against each other in a simle X-Y
plot. This establishes time equivalence between those
stratigraphic sections (Edwards, 1984; Mann and Lane,
1995; Shaw, 1964). Applying sequence stratigraphic
models to graphic correlation have been used in
hydrocarbon exploration (e.g., Carney and Pierce, 1995;
Cooper et al., 2001; Neal et al., 1995; Scott et al., 1994).

Herrmann - Using Numerical Models to Teach Sequence Stratigraphic Principles 25

Figure 5. A) Water depth history plot of an outcrop that is located close to the depositional shelfbreak
line. B) First and last appearances (bullets and crosses respectively) of species in one section plotted
against the first and last appearances of the species within the entire basin (origination and extinction
levels from the stratigraphic range chart; True Composite Standard). Note that gaps in the line of
correlation in the graphic correlation plots are due to sea-level changes. Sequence stratigraphic
interpretation on is shown on the right.

With BioModule (Herrmann et al., 2003), students can paleontology. During the semester, we discussed
either make simple X-Y plots of the FADs and LADs traditional biostratigraphic zonation as well as graphic
(Figure 5), or export the data so it can be used in the correlation in lectures and lab exercises. I followed the
advanced graphic correlation packages Conop9 (Kemple lecture outlines of Mann (1999) and also used slightly
et al., 1995) and GraphCor (Hood, 1995). Students can use modified versions of his laboratory exercises for my labs.
the model data to study how graphic correlation deals The students need a firm understanding of sequence
with the impact of sequence architecture and whether stratigraphic principles in order to understand the
graphic correlation is able to overcome biases in the fossil interplay between relative sea level changes and the
record (Martin et al., 1993). In addition, students can distribution of species in the model simulations. I
compare traditional graphic correlation methods based therefore spent an additional lecture period on
on several rounds of plotting (Hood, 1995; Shaw, 1964) reviewing basic sequence stratigraphic principles. I
with modern methods like constrained optimization focused on the model that has been proposed by Neal et
(Kemple et al., 1995; MacLeod and Sadler, 1995). al. (1995) that integrates sequence stratigraphy and
Students can import the water depth history files graphic correlation. After these lectures, I assigned the
into BioModule for each section of the STRATA 'graphic correlation with simulated data' lab. The lab
simulation (Figure 5a). Each water depth history plot consisted of an already simulated sequence stratigraphic
displays the water depth for each time step of the framework and the distribution of species within it. In
STRATA simulation at a particular section in the basin. more advanced or specialized classes, the simulation of
Since the relative water depth curve is related to changes the basin and species characters themselves can also be
in accommodation space at that section in the basin, the part of the exercise. My lab assignment focused on 1) the
water depth history plots can be used to interpret the spatial and temporal occurrence of first and last
shape of the graphic correlation plots of the BIOSTRAT occurrences of species within the sequence stratigraphic
results (Figure 5b). framework in different sections and the underlying
Students can plot the FADs and LADs of all sections factors causing the observed distributional patterns, 2)
from the STRATA/BIOSTRAT simulation against each the effect of sea level changes and sediment supply on
other (Figure 5b). Since the true line of correlation the shape of the true line of correlation, and 3) the
between the two section is known from the numerical relationship between FADs and LADs and the true line
modeling results, the shape of these plots can be used to of correlation.
investigate the effect of sequence stratigraphic
architecture across the whole basin on the distribution MODEL INFORMATION AND SYSTEM
and clustering of FADs and LADs (Figure 5). For REQUIREMENTS
example, gaps in the distribution of FADs and LADs are
normally due to erosional surfaces when sea level dropsSTRATA - STRATA can be run on any unix-based
and parts of the basin become subaerially exposed. These
operating system, including the widely used Macintosh
results can be compared to published graphic correlation
OS X (10.3 and higher). The original STRATA program
studies in a sequence stratigraphic framework. was modified by Steve Holland (University of Georgia)
to write out water depth history files for each time step of
MY APPROACH the stratigraphic simulation across the basin and is
available free of cost. A manual is available for STRATA
I have used the described modeling approach toward the and the reader is referred to this for further information
end of upper-level undergraduate classes in

26 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 55, n. 1, January, 2007, p. 22-27

on how to use STRATA (http://hydro.geosc. Holland, S.M., 2002, Stratigraphic variation in the timing
psu.edu/Sed_html/strata_front_page.html). of first and last occurrences, Palaios, v. 17, p. 134-146.
Hood, K. C., 1995, Graphcor - Interactive Graphic
BIOSTRAT - BIOSTRAT comes with instructions and the Correlation Software.
reader is referred to this for further information on how Kemple, W. G., Sadler, P. M., and Strauss, D. J., 1995,
to use BIOSTRAT (http://www.uga.edu/strata/soft- Extending graphic correlation to many dimensions:
ware/index.html). BIOSTRAT can be run on the widely Stratigraphic correlation as constrained
used Macintosh OS X (as well as in classic mode) and is optimization, in Mann, K. O., and Lane, H. R., eds.,
free of cost. Graphic Correlation, Special Publications SEPM, p.
65-82.
BioModule - BioModule and sample files free download MacLeod, N., and Sadler, P., 1995, Estimating the line of
site. ftp://ftp.iamg.org/VOL29/v29-01-09.zip correlation, in Mann, K. O., and Lane, H. R., eds.,
Graphic Correlation, Special Publications SEPM, p.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 51-64.
Mann, K. O., 1999, Teaching Biostratigraphy, Journal of
The manuscript was improved by reviews from Steve Geoscience Education.
Good and Dennis Terry, Jr.. Mann, K. O., and Lane, H. R., 1995, Graphic Correlation,
Special Publication - SEPM, 263 p.
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Herrmann - Using Numerical Models to Teach Sequence Stratigraphic Principles 27