Relative Atomic Mass, Ar Relative Molecular Mass, Mr

The average mass of an atom of an The average mass of a molecule

element on a scale where Carbon-12 is 12 on a scale where Carbon-12 is 12
 First Ionisation energy Relative Isotopic Mass

Energy required to remove 1 mole of

electrons from 1 mole of a gaseous The mass of an atom of an isotope
atom to form 1 mole of gaseous on a scale where Carbon-12 is 12
+1 ions in standard conditions
 Accuracy Isotope

Same number of protons, different

How close the results are to the true value number of neutrons, same chemical
properties, different physical properties
 Atom economy Reliability

How efficient the reaction is -

Molar mass of desired product / How replicable the results are
molar mass of all products x 100
 and addition reactions
Percentage yield
Atom Economy of substitution

Addition = 100% as there is only one

product, however substitution = lower
Tells you how wasteful the
atom economy as some atoms from
process is (how much product is
one reactant are swapped with atoms
lost) = Actual / Theoretical x 100
from another reactant - results in at least
2 products (desired and by-product)
 Exothermic Enthalpy Change

The heat energy transferred in a

Give out energy. -ve
reaction at constand pressure. Kjmol-1
 Preparing a salt Endothermic

Mix, leave to evaporate, filter, wash

Absord energy. +ve
with distilled water and then dry
Standard enthalpy change of formation Standard enthalpy change of reaction

Enthalpy change when the reaction

The enthalpy change when one mole
occurs in the molar quantities
of a compound is formed from it's
shown in the chemical equation,
elements under standard conditions
under standard conditions
Standard enthalpy change of neutralisation Standard enthalpy change of combustion

Enthalpy change when 1 mole of water

Enthalpy change when 1 mole of a
is formed from the neautralisation
substance is completely burned in
of hydrogen ions by hydroxide
oxygen under standard conditions
ions under standard conditions
How to calculate enthalpy change Standard enthalpy change of atomisation

Enthalpy change when 1 mole of

E(j) = m c /\T gaseous atoms is formed from
the element in it's standard state
 occur in an experiment?
Hess's Law
What kind of errors can

SYSTEMATIC- repeated every time

experiment is carried out & always
affects your results in the same way
The total enthalpy change is
- due to experimental set-up, or
independent of the route taken
limitations of the equipment. RANDOM
ERRORS - no pattern to them, but they
always happen! Reduced by repetition
 Down Up
What way do the arrows face in a What way do the arrows face in a
combustion Hess cycle? up or down? formation Hess cycle? up or down?
 Mean bond enthalpy Bond dissociation enthalpy (bond enthalpy)

The energy needed to break 1 mole of

bonds in the gas phase, averaged over Amount of energy needed per mole to
many different compounds. Always positive break bond. The smaller the bond enthalpy,
as bond breaking is endothermic. Add bond the faster the reaction will be at room temp
values and divide by the number of values
What is Mass Spectrometry used for? The stages in Mass Spectrometry

Carbon dating, pharmacautical

industry identifies compounds in 1.Vapourisation 2.Ionisation
possible drugs, testing athlete's urine 3.Acceleration (electric field)
for banned substances (steroids), 4.Deflection (magnetic field) 5.Detection
probes to Mars to check for signs of life
electrons can each sub-shell hold?
d sub-shell have? And how many What shapes are the s and p orbitals?
How many orbitals do the s, p and

No. of orbitals: s has 1, p has 3

s orbitals are spherical and p
and d has 5. No. of electrons: s
orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.
holds 2, p holds 6 and d holds 10.
First Ionisation Energy trends Factors affecting ionisation energy

1.Nuclear charge-the more protons

there are in the nucleaus, the sronger
the attraction. 2.Distance from
Decreases down the group but
nucleus-attraction lowers rapidly
increases across the period
with distance. 3.Shielding- As no. of
electrons between nucleus and outer
electrons increases = less attraction
 Successive Ionisation Energies Second Ionisation Energy

Increases because electrons are

removed from an increasingly positive
charge - less repulsion and held Energy needed to remove 1 mole of
more strongly by nucleus. Big jump electrons from 1 mole of gaseous 1+
in ionisation energy happens when a ions to form 1 mole of gaseous +2 ions
shell is broken into - electron being
removed from a shell closer to nucleus
 and simple molecular substances
Atomic radius trends
Trends in melting point - metals

Metals - melting point increases across

period because metal-metal bonds get
stronger. Simple molecular substances -
melting point depends on strength of london
forces between (weak & easily overcome)
so these elements have low melting points
Decreases across a period - As no.
of protons increases, +ve charge of
nucleus increases so electrons pulled
closer so atomic radius decreases.
 what are the 2 main types?
What is ionic bonding?
What are compounds? And

Atoms of different elements

Then ions are stuck together
bonded together. Two main
by electrostatic attraction.
types: ionic and covalent.
 anodes and cathodes?
Ionic crystals
What are anions, cations,

are Giant Lattices of ions - lattice is just a

Anion = -ve ion. Cation = +ve ion. Anode
regualr structure and it's 'giant' because it's
= +ve electrode. Cathode = -ve electrode.
made up of the same repeated basic unit
 for metals and non-metals? from physical properties
Ions and atoms; which is bigger Evidence of ionic bonding

High melting points = stronge attraction.

Metals - ion smaller than atom. Non-
metals - atom is smaller than ion
Soluble in water but not in non-
polar solvents = particles are charged
(pulled apart by polar molecules).
Don't conduct electricity when solid =
fixed in position by strong ionic bonds
 Born-Haber cycles Evidence for existances of ions

Show enthalpy changes when a solid

1. Migration of ions on wet filter
ionic compound is formed from it's
paper. 2. Electron density maps
elements in their standard states.
 Lattice Energies
What are standard states?
How to work out theoretical

Based on the ionic model - Assume all

ions are spherical and have their charge
evenly distributed around them - purely
298K, 100 kPa (1atm), 1.00 mol
ionic lattice. Then work out how strongly
the ions are attracted to one another based
on their charges & distance between them
How to work out charge density Why are small cations very polarising?

Small cations + large charge = high

charge density- positive charge is
Charge / volume = how polarising concentrated in ion so cation can pull
a cation is (charge density) electrons towards itself. Large anions =
polarised more easily than small anions
because electrons are further from nucleus
 maps give evidence for?
What are molecules?
What do Electron density

Groups of atoms bonded together - Atoms

can be the same or different. Molecules are
Covalent bonding - Area of high
held together by covalent bonds which are
electron density between 2 atoms
strong - 2 atoms share electrons so both
which shows they're sharing electrons.
have a full outer shell. +ve nuclei attracted
electrostatically to shared electrons
Dative covalent bonding (coordinate) Sigma and Pi bonds

2 s orbitals overlap in a straight line to form

Where both electrons come from
one atom (ammonium ion, NH4+)
a sigma bond (single covalent bond) Pi
bond is formed when 2 p orbitals overalp
- one above and below nuclear axis =
less tightly bound so they're weaker than
sigma bonds. pi bonds = more reactive
 bonding come from giant structures?
Metallic bonding
How does evidence for covalent

All insoluble in polar solvents (water) =

Outermost shell of electrons is delocalised
don't contain ions. Form hard crystals
(free to move) - leaves +ve metal ion which
with high melting points = very stronge
is attracted to delocalised -ve electrons
covalent bonds. Don't conduct electricity
- Form a lattice of closely packed +ve
= bonding electrons used to form covalent
ions in a sea of delocalised electrons
bonds and contain no charged particles
 explain properties of metals?
General formula
How does metallic bonding

Delocalised electrons can pass kinetic

energy = good thermal conductor.
Electrons can carry current = good
An algebraic formula that can describe
electrical conductors. Insoluble =
any member of a family of compounds
strength of metallic bonds. No bonds
holding ions together - slide over
each other = malleable and ductile
 Molecular formula Empirical formula

Actual number of atoms of each Simplest ratio of atoms of each

element in a molecule, with element in a compound (cancel
any functional group indicated numbers down if possible)
 Displayed formula Structural formula

Shows how all atoms are arranged, Shows atoms carbon by carbon, with the
and all bonds between them attached hydrogens and functional groups
 Nomenclature Skeletal formula

Shows bonds of carbon skeleton

Naming organic compounds only, with any functional group.
H and C atoms aren't shown.
alkanes, alkenes, halogenalkanes, alcohols
Homologous compounds
Prefix or Suffix of alkanes, branched

Same general formulas - same

Alkanes = -ane. Branced alkanes =
functional group but differs by -CH2-
alkyl-. Alkenes = -ene. Halogenalkanes
in it's carbon chain. E.g Methanol,
= chloro-/bromo-/iodo-. Alcohols = -ol.
Ethanol, Propanol, Butanol...etc.
 Structural isomers Alkanes

Different arrangements of the same

Saturated hydrocarbons. CnH2n+2. Every
atoms - atoms connected in different
carbon has 4 single bonds. Cycloalkanes
ways. Same molecular formula. Chain
- a ring of carbon atoms with 2 H
isomers: some are straight and some are
attached to each - CnH2n = still saturated
branched chains = diff carbon skeleton
 + Halogens --> halogenalkanes
Burning alkanes
Free-radical substituion - Alkanes

H atom is substituted by chlorine Burn completely in oxygen - Give

or bromine in photochemical Carbon Dioxide and Water. Combustion
reaction (started by UV radiation). happens between gases so liquid alkanes
Free-radical substitution reaction. vapourised first - burn more easily.
 Fractional distillation
Separates crude oil into more useful
fractions. Crude oil vaporised - into
fractionating column and rises up
through trays (largest hydrocarbons don't
vaporise at all). Vapour gets cooler and
condenses at diff temps (diff chain lengths).
3 stages in free-radical substitution
1. Initiation - free radicals produced.
2.Propogation - Free radicals used up and
created in chain reaction. 3.Termination
- Free radicals mopped up (got rid of)
 Thermal Cracking Cracking

Light fractions are in demand so heavier

High temp & high pressure. Produces a fractions can be 'cracked' (breaking
lot of alkenes which are used to make long-chain alkanes into smaller
valuable products such as poly(ethene) hydrocarbons - involves breaking c-c
bond). Two types: thermal and catalytic
 Uses of alkanes
Methane used in central heating & cooking
in homes, alkanes with 5-12 carbon
atoms used in petrol, kerosene used in
jet fuel and Diesel is made of a mixture
of alkanes with 15-19 carbon atoms
Catalytic Cracking
Makes mostly motor fuels and aromatic
hydrocarbons. Uses a zeolite catalyst at a
slight pressure and high temp - cuts costs
because lower temp and pressure. Catalyst
also speeds reaction up = time is money
 buring fossil fuels cause?
Greenhouse gases
What harmful emissions does

Keep planet warm enough to support sulfur oxides from power stations,
life by absorbing infra-red radiation carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon
and then re-emitting some of it towards particles from incomplete combustion
Earth. e.g CO2, water vapour, methane. and nitrogen oxides from vehicle engines
 Alkenes Global warming and climate change

Too much greenhouse effect = global

warming. CO2 from burning fossil fuels
Unsaturated hydrocarbons, CnH2n,
which enhances greenhouse effect
all have at least 1 C=C bond. More
causing earth to warm up = polar ice
reactive than alkanes due to Pi bond
caps melt, sea levels rise, floods and
food shortages due to climate change
 Alkenes - electrophilic addition Alkene + hydrogen --> Alkane

Double bond opens up and another

atom is added to each carbon. Double
bond has plenty of electrons so is
Ethene reacts with H to produce ethane
attacked by electrophiles and double
- needs nickel catalyst and 150 temp
bond is nucleophilic so attracted to
places with not enough electrons.e.g
alkene + bromine --> dibromoalkane
 Risk Assessment Electrophiles

Help to make lab work safer. Looks

electron-pair acceptors - attracted to
at hazards of all reactants, products
areas with lots of electrons. E.g positively
and procedures& consider how to
charged ions and polar molecules
makes risks as small as possible
 Risk Hazard

The chance that what you're

Anything that could cause harm
doing will cause harm
 What oxidises alkenes? Using bromine water

Acidified potassium manganate (VII).

Tests for double C=C bonds.
Purple --> decolourised (makes a
Orange --> colourless.
diol) = another test for a double bond
 E-isomer/Trans What causes E/Z isomerism?

When the same groups are across the The restricted rotation
double bond, above and below the carbons around the C=C double bond
When alkenes join up, what do they form? Z-isomer/Cis

Addition polymers - Double bonds in

On Z same side - When the
alkenes open and join together to make
same groups are both above
long chains (polymers) - unreactive (lost
or both below the double bond
double bond). small alkanes are monomers
 Problems with a landfill site Burying of plastics

Amount of waste we generate is becoming

Not biodegradable - bury it = landfill
more and more of a problem -need to
site, compact it and then bury it.
reduce landfill as much as possible
 Burning of plastics Recycling of plastics

Plastics burnt to be used to generate Plastics made from finite resourse

electricity - carefully controlled to reduce (crude oil) - have to be sorted into
toxic gases - waste gases passed different types first - some plastics
through scrubbers (neutralise gases) can be melted and remoulded, some
to allow them to react with a base can be cracked into monomers
 renewable raw meterials
Biodegradable polymers
Advantages of using

Decompose quickly in right conditions

Raw materials aren't going to run
- organisms can digest them -
out like oil will. CO2 is produced
made from materials such as starch
when polymers biodegrad. Some
- produced from renewable raw
plant-based polymers save energy
materials or from oil fractions.